Gender,Branding,andtheModernMusicIndustry
Gender, Branding, and the Modern Music Industry combines interview data with music industry professionals with theoretical frameworks from sociology, mass communication, and marketing to explain and explore the genderdifferencesfemaleartistsexperience
This book provides a rare lens on the rigid packaging process that transforms female artists of various genres into female pop stars Stars and the industry power brokers who make their fortunes have learned to prioritize sexual attractiveness over talent as they fight a crowded field for movie deals, magazine covers, andfashionlines,letalonerecorddeals.Thisfocusonthefemalepopstar’sbodyashercoreassethasresigned many women to being “short term brands,” positioned to earn as much money as possible before burning out or aging ungracefully This book, which includes interview data from music industry insiders, explores the sociological forces that drive women into these tired representations, and the ramifications for the greater socialworld.
Kristin J Lieb is an associate professor of marketing communication at Emerson College, where she also teaches courses in the school’s Women’s, Gender & Sexuality Studies minor She writes about branding in various industries, and has worked as a freelance writer for Billboard and Rolling Stone, a researcher for Harvard Business School, and a marketing and business development executive for several music-related companies
Gender,Branding,andtheModernMusicIndustry
TheSocialConstructionofFemalePopularMusicStars
2ndEdition
KristinJ.Lieb
Secondeditionpublished2018 byRoutledge
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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Lieb,Kristin,author
Title:Gender,branding,andthemodernmusicindustry:thesocialconstructionoffemalepopularmusicstars/KristinJ Lieb
Description:Secondedition |NewYork,NY:Routledge,2018 |Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex
Identifiers:LCCN2017039819(print)|LCCN2017042436(ebook)|ISBN9781315160580(ebook)|ISBN9781138064157(hardback:alk paper)|ISBN9781138064164(pbk :alk paper)
Subjects:LCSH:Womenmusicians |Womeninmusic |Musictrade–Socialaspects |Popularmusic–Socialaspects
Classification:LCCML82(ebook)|LCCML82 L542018(print)|DDC78164082–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccnlocgov/2017039819
ISBN:978-1-138-06415-7(hbk)
ISBN:978-1-138-06416-4(pbk)
ISBN:978-1-315-16058-0(ebk)
TypesetinAdobeCaslon byOutofHousePublishing
Thisbookisdedicatedtogirlsandwomenwhopersist andROCK!
Acknowledgments
ListofFiguresandTables
Preface
CastofCharactersInterviewedforthisBook
Chapter1 CriticalFrameworksforConsideringPopStars
Chapter2 FemalePopularMusicStarsasBrands
Chapter3 TheModernMusicIndustry
Chapter4 TheLifecycleforFemalePopularMusicStars
Chapter5 TheLifecycleModelPartII
Chapter6 TheLifecycleModelPartIII
Chapter7 TheoreticalFoundationsfortheLifecycleModel
Chapter8 Intersectionality,CulturalAppropriation,andGender-BasedHarassmentandViolence
Index
Acknowledgments
Theacknowledgmentsofferedheresupplementthoseofferedinthefirstedition,astherewouldbenosecond edition without the first For this edition, I would first like to thank my participants for making the time to talk with me again this work simply wouldn’t be possible or anywhere near as colorful without you! I would also like to acknowledge Eileen Glanton Loftus, a dear friend and trusted editor who started editing me at our college newspaper in 1989 and mercifully reprised her role as I readied the first edition, and now this second edition, for publication; Erica Schatle, whose reference ingenuity helped me go boldly across disciplines while remaining reasonably organized, efficient, and sane throughout the research process; Parker Simon, who has helped me immeasurably in creating compelling visual representations of my work over the past five years; Mirena Chavdarova for creating the excellent illustrations included in this book; Nicholas Levesque, for being the best draft-reader, commenter, and “angel in Kiss boots” I could imagine for the final stretch of this project; Amy Wicks, my amazing graduate assistant for the first edition of the book; Jane Caputi, Jordan McClain, Jessica Roubadeaux, Tulasi Srinivas, and Bob Thompson five of my favorite, brilliant, chronically overextended people for making time to talk about various parts of this work at various stages of development; Brandon Fox for being my honorary “li’l bro,” and for getting it done, always; Jay McMahon for his formatting and design expertise; Brenda Wrigley and Lu Ann Reeb for their ongoing supportinmyacademicdepartment;andmyawesomedad,forbeingmyawesomedad
I’d also like to thank Samantha Barbaro, my editor/publisher at Routledge, and Erik Zimmerman, her editorial assistant, for being a pleasure to work with throughout this process I’d like to thank the project reviewers, as well, for their insightful and helpful feedback on this second edition: Angela Cooke-Jackson (California State University), Deli Yang (Trinity College), Paula Hearsum (Brighton College), Jane Stokes (University of East London), and Helen Reddington (University of East London) Ruth-Anne Hurst of Out of House Publishing and copy-editor Hester Higton also deserve thanks for working the book through the productionprocessseamlesslyandefficiently.
Several Emerson colleagues Peter Flynn, Erika Williams, Benoit Denizet-Lewis, Sylvia Spears, and Miranda Banks deserve thanks for their generosity in helping me in various, important ways after my first edition was published; as do the faculty and administrators of Emerson College, who supported my multidisciplinaryworkwithbothencouragementandafacultyadvancementfundgrant
I’d also like to thank my undergraduate and graduate students at Emerson College, the ladies of Ladies RockCampBoston,andthegirlsofGirlsRockCampaignBoston,formakingthismaterialthrillingtoteach.
Dr Carol M Liebler, my dissertation advisor and friend, and Dr Carla V Lloyd, the generous professor who first helped me to explore the ideas that led to my Lifecycle Model, deserve special thanks for being the earliestchampionsofthiswork.JeanKilbournealsodeservesspecialrecognitionforcreatingKillingUsSoftly, thedocumentaryseriesthatrockedmyworldandchangedmyacademictrajectory.
Last, but not least, many thanks to my all-time favorite female artists, who don’t often get the credit they deserve for making great music: Annie Holland, Justine Frischmann, and Donna Matthews (Elastica); Carol Van Dyk (Bettie Serveert); Courtney Love (solo and with Hole); Exene Cervenka (X); Fiona Apple; Jenny Lewis(RiloKiley);JoanJett(soloandwithTheRunawaysandTheBlackhearts);KimDeal(withThePixies andTheBreeders);KimGordon(SonicYouth);LizPhair;LucindaWilliams;NekoCase(soloandwithThe NewPornographers);PJHarvey;andTanyaDonnelly(solo,withBelly,andwithThrowingMuses).
Andtosomanyothers,forprovidingthesongsandalbumsthatturnedintothesoundtrackofmuchofmy life: Adele; Aimee Mann; Alanis Morissette; Alison Mosshart (The Dead Weather and The Kills); Amanda Palmer; Amy Winehouse; Annie Lennox; Aretha Franklin; Kate Pierson and Cindy Wilson (The B-52s); Babes in Toyland; Belinda Carlisle, Charlotte Caffey, Gina Schock, Jane Wiedlin, and Kathy Valentine (The Go-Go’s); Beth Ditto (Gossip); Beyoncé; Bonnie Raitt; Bridget Cross (Unrest and Velocity Girl); Brittany Howard(AlabamaShakes);CarlaThomas;CarlySimon;CarrieBrownstein,CorrinTucker,andJanetWeiss (Sleater-Kinney); Cheryl “Salt” James, DJ Spinderella, and Sandra “Pepa” Denton (Salt-N-Pepa); Chrissie
Hynde (The Pretenders); Correne Spero, Julie “Hesta Prynn” Potash, and Robyn “Sprout” Goodmark (Northern State); Cyndi Lauper; Deborah Harry (Blondie); Diana Ross (solo and with The Supremes); DionneWarwick;DominiqueDurand(Ivy);DustySpringfield;EttaJames;FlorenceWelch(Florence+The Machine); Hilken Mancini and Chris Toppin (Fuzzy); Gillian Welch; Jenn Wasner (Wye Oak); Jill Cunniff and Vivian Trimble (Kostars and Luscious Jackson); Jo Stanli Walston and Cherilyn diMond (The Meat Purveyors); Jone Stebbins and Lynn Truell (Imperial Teen); Juliana Hatfield (solo and with Blake Babies); Kathleen Edwards; Kay Hanley (solo and with Letters to Cleo); kd lang; Kelly Clarkson; Kelly Willis; Kristin Hersh (solo and with Throwing Muses); Kori Gardner (Mates of State); Lady Gaga; Lora Logic and Poly Styrene (X-Ray Spex); Lauryn Hill (solo and with The Fugees); Leslie Day, Lori Yorkman, and Tina Cannellas (The Prissteens); Lily Allen; Linda Ronstadt; Lisa “Left Eye” Lopes, Rozonda “Chilli” Thomas, and Tionne “T-Boz” Watkins (TLC); Macy Gray; Madonna; Manda Rin (Bis); Mary Gauthier; Meg White (The White Stripes); Melissa Etheridge; Norah Jones; Peaches; Regina Spektor; Roberta Flack; Sade; Sheryl Crow; Shirley Manson (Garbage); Sia; Sinead O’Connor; Stevie Nicks (solo and with Fleetwood Mac); Susanna Hoffs (with The Bangles and with Matthew Sweet); Tina Turner; Tina Weymouth (Talking Heads);ToniBraxton;TracyBonham;andWhitneyHouston
ListofFiguresandTables
Figures
1.1 TheCulturalDiamond
3.1 Faninfluencesandmusicdiscoverymechanisms
32 Indiestarinfluencesandconsiderations
33 Popstarinfluencesandconsiderations
41 LifecycleModelforfemalepopularmusicstars
Tables
2.1
Best-sellingfemalepopstars(historical,includessalesandstreams)
2.2 Best-sellingfemalepopstars(current,includessalesandstreams)
Preface
This text focuses on issues of gender, sexuality, race, branding, and the music industry from a wide range of disciplinary perspectives in the hope of offering a more comprehensive look at a profound gender problem in the music industry than has ever been offered elsewhere The music industry is as rooted in gender, sexuality, and race norms and scripts as it is driven by bottom-line profit motivation, and to omit either side of that equationistodistortone’sanalysisofthatindustry
The domain of this text is high-profile female popular music stars who rose to top-level prominence between 1981, the year that MTV debuted, and 2018, when this second edition was published. More than any other cultural force, MTV made beauty and sexuality a primary factor in a musician’s career The advent of MTV in the early 1980s famously “killed the radio star,” inverting the way in which fans, musicians, and executives experienced their favorite popular music. Prior to MTV, listeners heard music on the radio, and then saw the artist when they purchased an album, watched a television appearance, or attended a live show. MTV allowed audiences to see artists as they heard their music, forever linking the artist’s image with her sound. Once audiences could see performers before buying their recordings, they began to have expectations about how their pop stars should look. For female artists, this presented a new conundrum, and a dual effect on their career potential For some, such as Madonna and Tina Turner, these new rules created quick ascents andubiquitousreaches,allowingthemtocross-capitalizetheirsuccessacrossvariousmediaplatforms Butfor dominant female artists of the 1970s who didn’t have telegenic looks and charisma, new rules ensured their immediaterepackaging(Heart)1 ormarginalizationasbehind-the-scenesplayers(CarlySimon) Talentedbut “unattractive” artists still existed, of course, but often at the margins of the industry if they did not succeed in repackaging themselves. New artists who were not camera-ready manufactured striking (and sometimes bizarre) looks or images for themselves or in their videos in hope of winning attention and exposure (Cyndi Lauper,Cher).
The video for Bonnie Tyler’s “Total Eclipse of the Heart,” a platinum single from 1983, provides a stellar example of an artist who didn’t fit MTV’s definition of having the right look The video’s director responded by overcompensating with bizarre visuals and obfuscation techniques (eg, shadows, back-lighting, longdistance shots, and short close-ups of the artist obstructed by seemingly random objects). This video is parodiedaspartoftheLiteralVideoseriesontheFunnyorDie web site 2 Set in the context of Rod Stewart’s “HotLegs”video,3 inwhichheandhisbandmatesareshotalmostexclusivelythroughtheframeofawoman’s legs, and Pat Benatar’s “You Better Run” video,4 in which the camera can’t take its eyes off of her, Tyler’s videooffersastarkrepresentationalcontrast.
While MTV changed the terms of success for many types of artists, including older men and black men, women, who already had a history of being objectified in popular culture, were arguably the group most affected by these changing expectations of what a performer should look like Despite this, the 1990s became a time of great optimism for women in the music industry. In 1996, for example, female solo artists outperformed male artists on Billboard’ s Top 20 sales charts Women also won the Record of the Year and Album of the Year Grammy Awards six out of ten times that decade, dominating the two most prestigious categories. Music industry books and trade articles announced a new feminist revolution. And with Shania Twain, Mariah Carey, Toni Braxton, Sheryl Crow, Alanis Morissette, Janet Jackson, and Madonna dominating the sales side of the popular music charts, the rise of the female pop star became a full-blown trendbytheendofthedecade.
But some feminist critics had their doubts about the long-term viability of this trend As Susan McClary (McClary,2000,p1283)wrote:
despite the increasing prominence of women in contemporary popular music, periodicals such as Rolling Stone still tend to write about them in ‘ gee whiz!’ articles that marvel at the sheer existence of such
creatures,ratherliketheproverbialdancingdog
Others,suchasJamesDickerson(1998,p29),positedthatthesewomenhadfinallynailedtheperfectformula for ongoing success: rebellious music that was visually directed at men and “expressed male fantasies about women, ” yet carried lyrical messages that resonated with women. (Beyoncé, Fergie, and Nicki Minaj are particularlyadeptatexecutingthisstrategy)
Manyofthefemaleartistswhohavesincesucceededatthehighestlevelsoftheindustryhaveadaptedthis formula to reflect contemporary cultural norms. While Beyoncé and Fergie excel in delivering lyrics that complicate and contradict their visuals, Nicki Minaj prefers a more integrated visual approach In “Anaconda,”5 she both engages the male gaze and challenges it, making for a confusing spectacle that different fans may enjoy for nearly opposite reasons. For the men, she objectifies herself and her dancers, showingofftheirbootiesandimplyinggroupsex Onceshe’sconfidentshehasenoughmaleattention,Minaj looks directly at the camera and slices a banana This is a direct threat to the malegaze, and, with this threat, sheappealstoherfemaleaudience,withaboldstatementthatshe’snobody’sfoolorobject.
Female artists at the top of the industry continue to sell and stream record-breaking numbers of units in the United States, with newer artists standing out for their streaming and singles sales, and more established artistsstandingoutfortheirdominanceinalbumsales.Forexample,Rihannahassold119.5millioncertified singles an industry record and 135 million albums (RIAA, 2017a, 2017b) Meanwhile, Madonna, who startedreleasingfull-lengthCDsin1983,hassold19millionsinglesand645millionalbums(RIAA,2017a, 2017b). These figures are even more striking when you consider that Madonna’s tally doesn’t include sales from her first four hit albums Madonna, Like A Virgin, True Blue, and Like A Prayer because they were released prior to the introduction of Nielsen’s Soundscan, a method of tracking music sales at the point of purchase, in 1991. For these bona fide superstars, possibilities abound, with concert tickets, clothing lines, fragrances,televisionandfilmopportunities,andmagazinecoversaddingtotheirreachandsuccess
But precious few artists achieve such heights, and those who do increasingly rely on sex appeal Music is a tertiary concern, behind the body and the star’s ability to use it to maximum effect in videos, on magazine covers, in endorsement deals, and on stage while on tour Media, in the form of cable channels, celebrity magazines,blogs,andotherwebsites,haveproliferatedsomuchthatthesestarsareondisplay24hoursaday, and female artists who stay the “ same ” in the post-MTV era grow stale quickly and disappear from the limelight,ifnottheindustry.
TheMTVagealsoboostedthepowerofbrands Advertiserscompetedtowinthebuyingpowerofyoung, trend-savvyviewers,andtheydidsobymeetingviewerswheretheywere whethertheywerehomewatching MTV, in concert venues seeing bands, or, in more recent years, in popular online spaces. Those working behind the scenes to bring celebrity brands to life proliferated and became more influential, given the growth of distribution options, the promise of matching supply and demand more effectively through micromarketing efforts, and the increased perception of artist accessibility (because you could see, hear, and read about them virtually everywhere) Yet, these new gatekeepers are underrepresented in our academic literature abouttheproductionofpopularculture
Pop artists have been studied through many lenses, but I have only found two contemporary studies Gamson’sClaimstoFame (1994) and Ahlkvist and Faulkner’s “Will this Record Work for Us?” (2002) that usedextensivedatafrominterviewswithindustrygatekeeperstoframeandexplaintheirfindings Thelimited number of data-driven studies about gatekeepers, while unfortunate, represents an access problem: Industry executives are busy and therefore unlikely to spend time helping with unpaid academic projects They might also be reluctant to let outsiders see what’s behind the curtain of pop star production for reasons that will become obvious later in the book. Given my prior experience in the music industry as a journalist and a marketing and business development executive, I had a unique opportunity to gain access to such people and learn about how female artists are branded and managed throughout their career lifecycles For the first edition, I interviewed 21 industry professionals 15 named and 6 unnamed who had worked in the music industry or with music industry companies for 10 to 25 years, and who worked in some capacity with goldandplatinum-sellingfemaleartists Iconductedin-depthinterviewsof45to120minuteswith21respondents in 2006 and 2007, and then numerous follow-up interviews of varying lengths with many of the same respondents and several new ones from 2008 to 2012. These conversations served as the basis for my Lifecycle
Model,foundinChapters4–6.Toupdateandrecastcontentforthesecondedition,Ispokewithall15ofthe named participants from the first edition in phone interviews6 ranging from 15 minutes7 to 185 minutes (I alsoconductedshorterfollow-upphoneinterviewswith12ofthenamedparticipants.)
Interviewsourcesincludedthosewho:
• managedfemalepopstars;
• promotedormarketedfemalepopstars;
• researchedandwroteaboutfemalepopstarsforindustrypublications;
• weremajorlabelartiststhemselves;
• touredwithfemalepopstars;
• servedaspersonalassistantstofemalepopstars;
• wroteandexecutedmarketingplanstohelpextendfemalepopstarbrands
A list of those interviewed can be found in “Cast of Characters Interviewed for This Book” (ppxxv–xxvii) I have only included the names of those people who were willing to go on the record with their comments, thoughIhaveincludedsomeoftheunnamedsources’commentarythroughoutthebook
This book uses popular music something many students naturally enjoy, consume, and follow to teach dimensions of sociology/women’s studies/popular culture studies, mass communication/media studies, and marketing/branding in a relevant, contemporary way that resonates in their real lives Offering students critical thinking frames through which to view the music industry and the artists/brands it produces allows new dynamics to emerge: the complex interplay between those who produce culture, those who consume it, theculturalobjectsthatarisefromculturalproduction,andthesocialworldthatsetsthecontextforallofthis negotiationandrepresentation
Throughout the book, I refer to these top-selling female artists as “ pop stars.” For the purposes of this book, a “ pop star” is a female artist who has sold or streamed gold (500,000 units) or platinum (1 million units) across at least several releases and who has the capacity to extend her brand successfully into other entertainment verticals (TV, film, clothing, etc) Women garnering this level of attention in the music industry are invariably positioned as “ pop stars,” whatever their genre of origin. For example, we do not typically see platinum-selling female rock stars, and, in the rare cases where we do (Melissa Etheridge8), they are often made over as pop stars once they achieve “ crossover ” levels of sales. Feminist music scholar Norma Coates(1997,pp52–53)explainswhy,evenifwomensoundlikerockartists,theyareultimatelypositionedas popartists:
In this schema, rock is metonymic with “authenticity” while “ pop ” is metonymic with artifice Sliding evenfurtherdownthemetonymicslope,authenticbecomesmasculine,whileartificialbecomesfeminine. Rock, therefore, is “masculine,” pop is “feminine,” and the two are set up in a binary relation to each other,withthemasculine,ofcourse,ontop Thecommon-sensemeaningofrockbecomes“male,”while “ pop”isnaturalisedas“female.”Realmenaren’tpop,andwomen,realorotherwise,don’trock.
Gender still constrains the types of musical roles available to contemporary female artists, further compromising their meanings and the narratives they may express directly The gender constraints imposed upon female pop stars by society, industry handlers, audiences, and even female pop stars themselves will be consideredindepththroughoutthebodyofthebook.
This second edition expands upon the interviews, theoretical frameworks, and examples provided in the firstedition Themostsignificantchangesinclude:Aradicallyrewrittenchapteraboutindustrydynamicsthat reflects modern-day realities; the addition of a third Lifecycle Model chapter to accommodate expanded discussionsoftheexotic,hotmess,self-imposedexile, and gayicon phases and the development of a new Lifecycle category(survivor);newinterviewswithmy15namedoriginalparticipants;andabrandnewfinalchapterthat includes timely discussions about intersectionality, cultural appropriation, and gender-based harassment and assault ideas that have garnered far more media attention in the last five years than they had prior to the release of the first edition These issues all inform the way in which female popular music stars are positioned by handlers, framed by media professionals, and received by fans, and all are important to consider when we attempttomakesenseofthepersistentgenderproblempresentinthemusicindustry
Notes
1 InIWantMyMTV(MarksandTannenbaum,2011,p302),AnnWilsonreportedthathersisterNancywasobjectifiedrelentlessly,while sheherselfwasdismissedanddownplayedvisuallybecauseshe“didn’tlooklikeapornstar”
2 SeetheLiteralvideoparodyofBonnieTyler’ssmashhit/MTVvideo:“TotalEclipseoftheHeart”here: wwwfunnyordiecom/videos/f03d464867/total-eclipse-of-the-heart-literal-video-version-original
3 SeeRodStewart’s“HotLegs”videohere:wwwyoutubecom/watch?v=AHcjjxYbgNM
4 SeePatBenatar’s“YouBetterRun,”thesecondvideoeverairedonMTVhere:wwwyoutubecom/watch?v=IvSbQB6-UdY/
5 SeeNickiMinaj’s“Anaconda”videohere:https://youtube/LDZX4ooRsWs
6 Oneoftheseinterviewswasconductedinperson
7 Thisparticipantwasonadeadline,anddidnothaveasmanyquotestoreviewastheothers,sowejustconfirmedtheirexistingquotes.
8 ThisisaparticularlyinterestingcasebecauseMelissaEtheridge’smarketskewsmorefemalethanmale
References
Ahlkvist,J A andFaulkner,R (2002)“‘WillThisRecordWorkforUs?’:ManagingMusicFormatsinCommercialRadio,”Qualitative Sociology,25(2),pp189–215 Coates,N (1997)“(R)evolutionNow?RockandthePoliticalPotentialofGender,”inS Whiteley(ed),SexingtheGroove:PopularMusicand Gender(pp50–64),London:Routledge
Dickerson,J (1998)WomenonTop:TheQuietRevolutionThat’sRockingtheAmericanMusicIndustry,NewYork,NY:BillboardBooks Gamson,J (1994)ClaimstoFame:CelebrityinContemporaryAmerica,Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress Marks,C andTannenbaum,R (2011)IWantMyMTV:TheUncensoredStoryoftheMusicTelevisionRevolution,NewYork,NY:Dutton (Penguin)
McClary,S (2000)“WomenandMusicontheVergeofaNewMillennium,”Signs,25(4),pp1283–1286 RIAA(RecordingIndustryAssociationofAmerica)(2017a)“RIAATopTallies:WomenArtists(Albums)” wwwriaacom/gold-platinum, accessedJuly25,2017
RIAA(2017b)“RIAATopTallies:WomenArtists(Singles)” wwwriaacom/gold-platinum,accessedJuly25,2017
PeterAdams is a professional musician who has toured with Josh Groban, Rickie Lee Jones, Tracy Bonham, JulianaHatfield,TheCatherineWheel,andnumerousotherartistsandbands
Janet Billig-Rich is a veteran artist manager and former Atlantic Records executive who has managed Nirvana,CourtneyLove,andLisaLoeb,amongothers In2011,Billboardnominatedherasoneofthetop40 “Women in Music” She currently runs Manage This Media, a consultancy which focuses on artist management,andmusicsupervisionforadvertising,television,film,andlivetheaterprojects.
AnthonyColombo is a senior analyst of reference data for Nielsen Entertainment Prior to joining Nielsen, heworkedforBillboardinvariouscapacitiesfor22years.
SimonGlickmanisVP/ManagingEditorofHits,amusicindustrytradepublication.
Kay Hanley has worked in the music industry as a frontwoman for Letters to Cleo, a backup singer and dancerforMileyCyrus,andanartistmanager.Shehasalsoworkedbehindthescenes,writingandproducing songsanddoingvoiceoverworkfortelevisionandfilmprojects,andistheco-founderofSongwritersofNorth America(SONA),asongwriter-rightsorganization
JulianaHatfield signed to Atlantic Records during the 1990s and performed with the first Lilith Fair tour in 1997 Once her deal ended, she continued releasing her music through a variety of independent labels as a soloartist;withherband,TheBlakeBabies;andwithMatthewCawsofNadaSurf(asMinorAlps).
Jorge Hinojosa has managed Ice-T for nearly three decades, successfully extending the Ice-T brand from music to documentary and feature film, reality television, fiction and non-fiction publishing, and gaming. In 2012,hemadehisdirectorialdebutwithIcebergSlim:PortraitofaPimp
ElizabethLang is currently Director of Public Relations and Promotion for Drum Workshops Incorporated, wheresheoverseesallthebrandpromotion,publicrelations,andcharitablegivingforthecompany’sfamilyof musical instrument brands. She is CEO and president of Muso Entertainment, a Los Angeles-based music marketing firm. Prior to launching Muso, Lang worked with LeAnn Rimes, Woodstock 1999, and Rock the Vote
LisaLewisranMusicandLifestyleMarketingforPumafortwoyears,developinglicensingandendorsement deals and branded events with major rap artists Prior to joining Puma, she worked in a similar capacity for Converse on its Chuck Taylor line and for Reebok as a global marketing manager for lifestyle and entertainment. She now builds marketing campaigns and strategic music partnerships for Sonos, a company promisingto“reinventhomeaudioforthedigitalage”
Doug Melville is chief diversity officer for TBWA, a Top 10 global advertising agency. In his previous executive-level marketing and advertising positions, he worked extensively with top celebrity brands in music, film,andsports Pastclientsincludemulti-platinum-sellingfemalepopstars
JamieMorris worked as a web marketer and database manager for a prominent independent music retailer (Newbury Comics), a record label (Atomic Pop), and a film studio (Paramount Pictures) before accepting his currentroleasseniortechnologymanagerforFox.
LarsMurray is Senior Vice President of Strategic Partnerships for Pandora Prior to joining Pandora, he was Vice President of Digital for Sony Music and held earlier executive-level multi-media marketing positions withVirginandRykodisc
Tim Riley is an author, music historian, and National Public Radio (NPR) critic who has written several
biographies about prominent popular music stars, including Madonna, John Lennon, and Bob Dylan. He is currentlyanassociateprofessorofjournalismatEmersonCollegeinBoston,Massachusetts
StephenThompson is a staff writer for NPR Music and panelist for its Pop Culture Happy Hour Prior to joiningNPR,hewastheOnion’sAVclubeditorforadecade
HollyWilliamson is Vice President of Music at Ignition Creative, which produces trailers for major motion picture companies, including Warner Brothers and Lion’s Gate Films She is also the owner and CEO of MOON&SUN,anewlylaunchedproductionmusiclibraryandmusicsupervisioncompany.
For the first edition, I also interviewed six other publicists, journalists, photographers, event marketers, artist assistants,andlabelexecutives.Theyagreedtospeakcandidlywithme,butundertheconditionofanonymity, as in some cases they are contractually prohibited from making statements using their professional titles, and in others, participants simply felt vulnerable speaking so honestly about the workings of the industry For the secondedition,Ireconnectedbrieflywithtwooftheseparticipants.
Lady Gaga exploded onto the popular music charts in 2008, selling millions of CDs, cycling through hundreds of dramatic and provocative costumes, and achieving a level of cultural resonance that made her ubiquitouswithinayear.Ifyousomehowmissedherthroaty“Gagaohlala”ontheradio,there’slittlechance youalsomissedthemediacoverageofhermeatensemble,hereggenclosure,orherKermittheFrogdress
OneofGaga’ssignaturerallyingcriesis“I’mafreebitch!”Butheractionsindicatehowfarfrom“free”she is. In theory, she can play the music business game however she wants; but if only one path a path that emphasizessexandshockvalueovermusicaltalent leadstostardomforfemaleartists,so-calledartistagency scarcely matters “Bad Romance,” which won MTV’s Best Video Award in 2009, features Gaga changing clothes 15 times, and then being pawed by a group of women while men watch from a nearby couch 1 As Gagacrawlstowardtheaudience,shesings, “Iwantyour love,”andthendancesinher braandpanties before ending up scorched in her bed by the video’s end. If that’s not an allegory for life as a contemporary female popularmusicstar,itprobablyshouldbe 2
Just prior to releasing ARTPOP in November 2013, Gaga fired her manager, Troy Carter, whom she had worked with on The Fame, The Fame Monster, and Born This Way. The split, widely attributed to creative differences, found Gaga untethered and seemingly desperate In mid-November, she appeared on Saturday Night Live with accused pedophile and notorious creep R Kelly3 to duet on a song called “Do What U Want,”duringwhichhedidsimulatedsexpushupsonher 4 Then, in March 2014, in her live performance at South by Southwest, Gaga went performance-arty, forsaking pop music for a different kind of expression, which involved presenting herself as a pig on a spit, telling the audience she hadn’t showered in a week, and encouragingherfriend,Mille,tovomitneongreenliquidalloverher 5
Meanwhile,asARTPOPtanked,Beyoncéhadadifferentkindofsurpriseinstoreforpopmusic,dropping Beyoncé with no warning. Fans scrambled to gain access to it, publicizing the release far and wide in their frantic pursuit Even though it was released in mid-December, it quickly became the eighth best-selling album of 2013 Beyoncé went on to use all of the alter-ego characters employed on the album to thrill audienceswithherawkwardly-named-but-brilliantly-executedMrs.CarterShowWorldTour.
Like Gaga before her, critics and fans have called Beyoncé a true game-changer for women in popular music From a branding standpoint she is: Her ability to tap into universal narratives and cultural tensions simultaneously makes her powerful, resonant, and rare. But if you look carefully at Beyoncé’s strategically selected props, elaborate choreography, family dynamics, and surprise releases, what she really sells is a modern adaptation of the sexual fantasy offered by many of her peers differentiated by a dash of goddess imagery/maritalkink,aheapofvulnerability,andaseriesofexcitingartinstallations.Beyoncéwouldgoonto have parallel “Bad Romance” and “I’m a free bitch” moments declarations of empowerment tempered, strategically,bytime-honored,industry-mandated,sexualpandering
Take, for example, the song “Partition.” In the chorus Beyoncé implores her lover to “take all of me. I just wanttobethegirlyoulike.Thekindofgirlyoulike.”ThisisnotBeyoncédemandingtoberespectedforthe complexnuancesofheridentity ItisBeyoncésayingshewantstobewhateverittakestofulfillsomeoneelse’s desire Theselyricsprovideafittingmeta-narrativeforherlifeasafemalepopstar
Similarly, at the MTV Video Music Awards in 2014, Beyoncé was praised far and wide for standing in frontofa10-foot-tallsignthatsaid“Feminist”Butthatmomentonlylasted5or6secondsinaperformance thatexceeded14minutes,inwhichBeyoncéalsoappearedinfrontofasignthatread“Cherry,”asin“turnthe cherryout,”anddancedonastripperpole movesmorecommonincontemporaryfemalepopperformances 6 The use of feminism was encouraging, yet fleeting, leaving attentive audience members to wonder whether it wasastatementofpurposeormerelyanotherpropinBeyoncé’sperformance.
Having encoded the norms of the industry expertly, Beyoncé and her handlers knew how far to push, and
how much to conform As foreshadowed in Gaga’s “Bad Romance,” Beyoncé had her way with the industry, andithaditswaywithher Bothemergedfromtherelationshipwealthier,butarguablyalittlescorched Beyoncé knows that in the end her “best revenge ” is her “ paper, ” or the money she can generate through her brand. So on her 2016 follow-up release, Lemonade, she clarified her brand platform, making it more political,distinctive,andmeaningfullydifferentiated,bothpersonallyandsocially
TheCulturalDiamond
Beyoncé’s appeal reaches well beyond her music. Her success stems in large part from her ability to represent andempowerlargegroupsofpeoplewhohavehistoricallyfeltleftoutofpopculturalnarrativesandwindfalls Additionally, her pride in her body, her inconsistencies, and her brand empire provide an aspirational model for those struggling with dimensions of their appearance or identity or economic circumstances. Wendy Griswold’s Cultural Diamond (2012) supplies a useful framework for considering the sociological forces that influence the construction and reception of female pop stars such as Beyoncé and their related product offerings. Griswold sets up four points of interaction: the socialworld, cultural object, creator, and receivers (see Figure 11) These four points are critical for understanding any sociological process, as they are inextricably linkedandmutuallyreinforcing
The social world covers all social interaction, including institutions such as families, schools, or governments, and less organized social relationships. It represents all parts of our constructed social reality, includingtheaforementionedinstitutions,thosewhocreatesymbolsandmessages,thosewhoreceivesymbols andmessages,andthesymbolsandmessagesthemselves TheculturalobjectpointontheCulturalDiamond is, for the purposes of this book, the female pop star. (It could also be a specific single or performance, but the artist serves as the dominant unit of inquiry throughout the text for consistency) The creator point of the Cultural Diamond represents the people who create and distribute the messages and symbols that circulate throughout society. In the music industry, these roles are inhabited by publicists, artist managers, bloggers, photographers, radio programmers, and retailers basically anyone involved in assembling pop star symbols, images, messages, and narratives One could also argue that modern artists such as Beyoncé are creators as much as they are cultural objects, as long as we acknowledge that any pop star at or near Beyoncé’s level has legions of people working on her behalf to fastidiously create, maintain, and update her brand Finally, the receiver point on the Cultural Diamond corresponds with music and pop culture audiences fans of Beyoncé who follow her for her music, her performances, her narratives, her relationships, her fashion choices, her socialagenda,oranycombinationofthesethings.
If we accept the relatively stable, mutually reinforcing societal forces presented in the Cultural Diamond, and acknowledge that there are constantly changing social dynamics among the individuals living within them, it makes sense to look for integrated explanations about individual behavior. This search has led scholars from numerous fields to study how symbols, negotiated reality, and the social construction of society
Figure1.1 TheCulturalDiamond(WendyGriswold/PineForgePress)
aidourgeneralunderstandingoftherolesthatpeopleplayinsocietyandthereasonsfortheirrolechoices.
Sociologicalapproachestoculturalproduction
For our purposes, the CulturalDiamond should be viewed as an umbrella or a container for the other theories presented throughout the book. Griswold notes that it is intended as a framework for all social interaction, and encourages the supplemental use of theories and models to explain more about the nature of the relationshipsbetweenthepointsonthediamond
Two schools of thought from the field of sociology prove useful in explaining the construction, maintenance,andreceptionoffemalepopularmusicstars:criticaltheoryandsymbolicinteractionism Critical theory is a macro-level perspective that argues that popular culture arises from a top-down approach in which profit-motivated media companies sell the masses mindless entertainment to uphold dominant ideologies, thus controlling and profiting from audiences (Grazian, 2010) Those subscribing to the critical theory approachregardthemediaindustriesasableto“manufacturedesires,perpetuatestereotypes,andmoldhuman minds” (Grazian, 2010, p46) and to “reproduce social inequality by reinforcing degrading stereotypes of women ” (Grazian, 2010, p57) This approach may sound somewhat anachronistic in that it often assumes a helpless audience unwilling or unable to resist the dominant messages of the culture industries But progressivescholarswithinthistraditionbelieveinthenotionofpolysemy,ortheideathatasinglesign(e.g., word, image, or, for our purposes here, pop star) can have multiple reasonable meanings or interpretations Nevertheless,thesewords,images,andsymbolsexistinabroaderproductioncontext,whichhelpstoshapeat least some of these meanings. Grazian (2010, p61) explained the process by which meanings can become powerful myths that act as cultural shorthand for those receiving them: “cultural hegemony operates at the levelofcommonsense;itisasoftpowerthatquietlyengineersconsensusaroundasetofmythswehavecome totakeforgranted.”Intheworldoffemalepopstars,thesemythscenteraroundyouth,beauty,andsexuality, discussedingreaterdetaillaterinthebook.
Whilethecriticalperspectiveprovidesausefulwayofunderstandingtheproductionofpopularculture,we must dig deeper into symbolic interactionism and selected theories from sociology/women’s studies/popular culture studies, communication/media studies, and marketing/branding to assemble all the parts necessary to study the way in which female pop stars are created, managed, and received by the various players on the CulturalDiamond
Symbolic interactionism is a micro-level theory that suggests that neither the audience nor the media system singularly produces popular culture; rather, popular culture arises from the interactions between the various players and positions on the Cultural Diamond In other words, audiences can resist dominant messages sent by producers, but they can also be influenced by them, as well as by other micro-level influences,suchasfriendsandthoughtleadersintheirgivenculturalcircles
Symbolic interactionism, named by Herbert Blumer in 1969, developed out of resistance to behaviorism, which held that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, typically through reinforcement or punishment(Watson,1913;Blumer,1986) Butthefoundationsofthistypeofinteractionism,whichinforms contemporary thinking in communication and sociology, began as far back as 1902, when sociologist Charles Horton Cooley offered the concept of a “looking glass self,” where a person ’ s view of herself is a reflection of her expectation or imagination of other people’s evaluations of her In other words, we internalize how we think other people view us into our own self-image “The imaginations people have of one another,” Cooley (1902,pp26–27)wrote,“arethesolidfactsofsociety.”PhilosopherGeorgeHerbertMead(1934,1982)7 used baseball as a way of showing how people learn to play various roles in society, offering that people don’t learn from simple mimicry, but rather from interaction with and reinforcement from one another (Mimicry wouldn’t work in baseball, as we need pitchers, catchers, first basemen, and all of the other positions, and playersneedtoadapttheirbehaviorfortherole/positiontheyplay)
Sociologist and social psychologist Erving Goffman (1959) suggested that the roles people play are essentially scripted for various audiences and that, as people act out such roles, they view themselves through thelensoftheirperceivedaudience ReturningtoBeyoncé,wecanseethathowsheactsorevolvesis(atleast in part) based on her interpretation of how she will likely be received by the music industry, fans, and other artists alike. Goffman (1959) would likely classify Beyoncé as a master of “impression management” because,
while most people attempt to regulate their self-image to some extent, female pop stars arguably do so consciously and continuously, as their “self” is often a branded commodity How these various audiences interpretorreceiveBeyoncé’sactions,music,ornarrativesdependsuponthemeaningstheyascribetoher,and this is a function of the ever-changing factors discussed above. Audiences also respond to Beyoncé based on their expectations of normative feminine behavior in contemporary society For example, her decision to release “Formation” challenged the idea in pop stardom, and in American culture, that a woman ’ s power derives mainly from her attractiveness or sexuality. The messaging in this video provided a different and excitingdemonstrationoffemalepower,whileBeyoncémaintainedheraspirationalimagethroughout
Mead (1982) posited that human beings do not react directly to events, but rather to the interpreted meanings associated with those events. And given that these interpreted meanings are always in flux, so too arepeople’sreactionstoevents Wecanseethisideainactionwhenwelookattherangeofinterpretationsof Beyoncé’s “Formation” video and her Super Bowl performance of it (eg, she’s celebrating her culture; she’s being political for a good cause; she’s using her platform to raise awareness for social inequalities; she’s a militant black feminist; she’s calling for the murder of cops; she’ll do anything for attention; she’s a visionary; she’s challenging gender norms by being so brash; she’s fighting back against decades of oppression; she’s a culturalopportunist,etc.).
Consumer researcher Michael Solomon (1983) summarized Mead’s work, arguing that cultural symbols are learned through interaction and then mediate subsequent interactions in other words, once a person learns a culture (e.g., the music industry), she should be able to predict the behaviors of others in it. A female pop star learns how to play her assumed “role” from her peers, her bosses, her audience, and their combined responses to her Her definition of self comes from these evaluations, so it is a social process, not a personal one. Some pop stars create alternate identities (e.g., Beyoncé’s “Sasha Fierce,” Lady Gaga, P!nk, and Nicki Minaj’s various alter egos), presumably to separate the personal self from the public self Berger and Luckmann (1966, p23) discussed the “ongoing correspondence between my meanings and their meanings in the world,” acknowledging that there is a common social world between them, but it is highly subjective becauseitissociallyconstructed 8
Asnotedintheopeninganecdote,it’snoteasybeingafemalepopstarincontemporarytimes Thepaceof communication, accelerated by 24-hour television news cycles and the 24-hour social cycle offered by the Internet and widely adopted social media platforms, has compelled celebrities to strategize continuously to remain culturally relevant The celebrities have become dynamic brands that maintain overarching themes while adapting the specific communication of these themes through music, a mere subset of their larger, ongoingcableandonlinepersonalities Meanwhile,audiences(receivers)scrambletomaketheirownmeanings astheyreacttoculturalobjects Thenewpaceoflifehaseffectivelyamplifiedtheinextricablelinksbetweenand amongtheforcesexplainedbytheCulturalDiamond.
Ontheonehand,wehavetheorythatsupportsreceivers(audiences)ashavingagency thatis,theabilityto make their own discriminating choices based on the information they receive On the other, we have stable socialforcesinoursocialworldthateffectivelyconstrainthosechoices.TheplayersrepresentedontheCultural Diamond can do numerous things that they rarely do in actuality. For example, record labels could sign more artistslikeAdele,KellyClarkson,orBethDitto(asoloartistwhousedtofrontGossip) powerfulmusic-first singers who resonate deeply with their audiences, but aren’t as heteronormatively hyper-sexualized as most contemporary female popular music stars. But based on the limits of our social system, our modern music industry, our country’s gender norms and expectations, and our capitalist business ideals, executives don’t oftenmakethisgamble,optinginsteadtoprioritizepackagingovertalent.9
In 2011, Gaga appeared in drag at the MTV Video Music Awards, dubbing herself “Jo Calderone”10 Critics scratched their heads, audiences smelled desperation, and many dismissed the act as derivative of femaleartistsfrompreviousdecades.Butforthosewatchingclosely,therewassomethingironicandshocking at play here Had Lady Gaga burned through so many provocative female poses in so little time that all she had left to do was turn herself into a man? At one point, Jo, commenting on Gaga’s artifice, pleaded, “I want her to be real!” Then, as if rehearsing for the “real,” and with no elaborate outfits to upstage her music, Gaga sat down and sang her heart out on “You & I,” demanding that audiences really listen to her for a change These moves, more than any others, demonstrated Gaga’s sophistication with respect to gender norms in the musicindustry.
As this book will demonstrate, female pop stars are held to rigid standards of appearance and beauty that boxthemintoasmallnumberofhighlypatternedtypes Formost,thesetypesringsyntheticbutunavoidable Gaga played that game expertly, but her transformation into “Jo Calderone” read as an acknowledgment that this gender act had grown tiresome, and that sometimes it might be easier to perform as a man than as a woman in the music industry There are more artist types and positions available to men, and most of them prioritize music over their bodies and costumes While performing as a man, Gaga wore a baggy t-shirt and jeans,whichfocusedthecamera’sattentiononherfiercevocalandmusicalperformance arefreshingchange. PerhapsGagafoundherreal“freebitch”whilewearingmen’sclothes
Gagathrilledacademicsandthosewhoviewthemselvesoutsideofthehetero-normativegenderdichotomy by“fail[ing]todogenderappropriately”(West&Zimmerman,1987,p146)andbyofferinga(reverse)gender display (Goffman, 1967) through eschewing a conventional, idealized dramatization of how women are supposedtoappear,infavorofdisplayingdressandbehaviormorecommonlyassociatedwithmen
AsGaga’sJoCalderoneexperimentunfolded,onecouldseetheaudiencemembersmakingtheirownsense of the spectacle (Katy Perry giggling, Russell Brand staring blankly, and Britney Spears watching openmouthed, all visible in the link in this chapter’s note 10) Gaga counts on these negotiated and oppositional readings (Hall, 1980) of her performance to keep her image fresh and provocative. The more people talk about what she means, the more she is talked about, and the more she ultimately means Of course, figuring out what she means may be too exhausting for some, so they just enjoy her various spectacles at face value, as entertainment.
If this situation were framed in Cultural Diamond terms, Gaga and her creators (producers) offered a counter-normativeorreversegenderdisplay,andGagaacteditoutinherroleasaculturalobject Gaga shocked and delighted her audience (receivers), who had different ideas about what her act meant and how effective it was,andtalkoftheeventsentrippleeffectsthroughoutthegreatersocialworld
As noted previously, Gaga’s reinvention on ARTPOP wasn’t as well received she was no longer ahead of the cultural moment, and had fallen, embarrassingly, behind it. But another star was waiting in the wings to replace Gaga as top provocateur. Beyoncé was in sync with the cultural moment, and when she dropped Beyoncé in December 2013, it resonated deeply and instantaneously with audiences searching for something new the idea that a woman could and should contain multitudes. Beyoncé’s next release, 2016’s Lemonade, also brilliantly captured and extended its cultural moment, with its painful explorations of marital infidelity, black womanhood, and the search for justice in a culture governed by outdated and unfair power dynamics (husband/wife;white/black;police/civilian)
Communicationtheoryandpopstarbrands
Beyoncé and her handlers appear to understand that artists and audiences simultaneously send and receive messages, complicating old-school ideas about message creation, delivery, and reception offered by communication scholars. The communication process (Shannon & Weaver, 1949; Berlo, 1960) is usually characterized as having a handful of distinct phases or parts Although they have been refined in various ways to reflect cultural changes, they typically include a source or a sender, who encodes a message with intended meanings and then sends it through a distribution channel or channels to a receiver or a target, who decodes the message and derives meaning from it While these models account for a good part of the communication process,theyarelessadeptatexplainingwhathappenswhen“noise”orcompetitioninterruptsthemessageas it is sent or received. Noise can be due to distribution issues literal static or distribution errors or due to a receiver’s rejection of, resistance to, or misunderstanding of a message or an intended part of it. If the sender and receiver don’t interpret the words and symbols used at all points in the process in exactly the same way, theyareunlikelytoendupinthesameplaceattheendofit.
Human agency to deconstruct, resist, or negotiate the meaning of encoded messages was not given much consideration in early communication models, which focused mainly on the transmission of messages The “ mass society” communication models of the 1930s and 1940s claimed that the media had direct, immediate, and powerful effects on the audience. The magic bullet theory (also known as the hypodermic needle theory) arguedthatthepubliccouldbeshot(orinjected)withideas,andwerethusunabletoresistthem Butastime went on, scholars such as Paul Lazarsfeld challenged these notions, suggesting that sometimes other people
interruptorinterveneinthecommunicationprocess(ascitedinBaran&Davis,2003)
The two-step flow theory (Katz, Lazarsfeld, & Roper, 1955), for example, posited that mass media efforts affected opinion leaders, who, in turn, influenced the thoughts and opinions of the audience. This theoretical development constructed opinion leaders as powerful in determining how audiences would process messages, soitwasnolongeragiventhatmessageswouldbepassivelyreceivedbyaudiencesashopedorplannedbythe big media companies Today, we might reasonably argue that Rachel Maddow, Samantha Bee, and Beyoncé wieldmoreinfluenceovercollege-agedvotersthan,say,officialgovernmentsources.
In contemporary times, alternate readings of and reactions to media messages are expected, especially as media literacy efforts proliferate.11 So, at the end of the communication process, the source or sender often doesn’tknowwhetherthemessagehasbeenreceivedasintended,duetoavarietyofcomplicatedfactors(such as family background, life experience, which opinion leaders one follows, profession, gender, class, race, or age). One’s choice of opinion leaders is critical to one ’ s understanding of a message: Just think, for example, about how Full Frontal with Samantha Bee, Fox News, and PBS might handle the same story about genderneutralbathrooms
Ratherthancommunicationbeingstrictlyaboutinformationtransmissionordissemination,itisnowmore comprehensively concerned with information-sharing, negotiation, and reciprocity (meaning the receiver can provide feedback or come away from an experience with negotiated meanings that sit somewhere between what was intended and what was received) Opinion leaders, particularly in the highly fragmented world of new media, help audiences to contextualize information or to frame it (Entman, 1993) in ways that make it easy for people to understand from their given social locations Framing acts as cultural shorthand, emphasizing certain ideas while minimizing or ignoring others (Entman, 1993)This, in turn, privileges certain types of frames or stories, while ignoring others. In the world of female pop stars, this means that it is easiertomarketsomeonewholooksandsoundslikeapaststarbecausethere’salreadyapre-existingframefor it
Beginning with Berlo (1960), communication models allowed for the same person to simultaneously inhabit sender (creator/producer) and receiver (audience) roles This is evidenced repeatedly in social media exchanges, such as on Facebook, where people post and receive posts on their respective walls With new media, in particular, individuals are now seen as creators/producers and receivers/consumers, and opinion leaders andopinionfollowerssimultaneously Thewayinwhichpeopleprocessmessagesismuchmorecomplexthan originallythought:Itchangeswithnewtechnology,andcommunicationtheorycontinuestoevolvewiththese inevitablechanges.
More recent mass communication models, such as the Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Petty & Wegener, 1999) also contributed useful ideas about how consumers (in our case, music audiences)processmarketingmessages,indicatingthatsomemessagesareprocessedcentrally,usinglogicand problem solving, while others are processed peripherally, using auto-pilot and emotion. Processing also depends upon the individual’s orientation to or feelings about the product or idea being pitched Those impressions made while in the central mode are longer lasting; but those made peripherally can have strong short-term effects, especially if the same type of message is received repeatedly. This means that people may reject repetitively sexist marketing if it registers as such, or accept it passively if they are only half-alert or tuned in This is where the aforementioned media literacy efforts come into play If people have learned to critically consume media messages, they are more likely to know what to look and listen for as they read, watch, or hear such messages In relation to this theory and its relevance to the CulturalDiamond, this means thatbetter-informedaudiences/receiverswilllikelyspendmoretimeinthecentralprocessingmode,wherethey canquestionthemessagestheyreceive.
Uses and gratifications theory (Blumler, 1979; Ruggiero, 2000) is also important to consider as we look at howandwhyaudiencesconsumeselectedmedia(eg,entertainment,distraction,comfort,emotionalsupport, reflection of self, inspiration, help navigating social situations, etc.). If you think about why you and your classmates are consuming this textbook, you will likely come up with different reasons, even in a small seminar You might be reading it to learn, while someone else might be reading it so they won’t be embarrassed if they are cold-called in class, while another person might read in the hope of earning a good scoreonarelatedassignment Similarly,onepersonmightwatchMTVtolearnsongsordancemovesforthe club that weekend, while another might watch it to be able to make ironic comments about Catfish or Teen
Mom2 at a party, while still another might watch to be mindlessly entertained or to make a significant other or roommate happy A central idea behind uses and gratifications is that nobody can make anyone consume anything. People make consumption choices based on numerous personal and social factors, relevant cultural influences,andthechoicestheyhaveattheirdisposal.
Popularculturestudies
Emerging work in popular culture studies especially the sociology of celebrity also proves useful in understanding the content of this book. In her interdisciplinary literature review of celebrity research, Kerry Ferris (2007) determined that such research commonly focused on the “commodification” and “pathology” of celebrity construction and reception without considering how the cultural producers and the audience make their own meanings for and from celebrities. She argues that “meaning-making occurs on both sides of the celebrity-audiencedivide”(Ferris,2007,p381)andthatunderstandingtheconstructionandreceptionofsuch meanings is “ a necessary part of the full development and maturity of the field” (p380) In other words, celebrities are commodities, the audience is commodified, and celebrity culture likely has a range of negative effects on celebrities and audiences alike; but leaving the discussion at that level is overly simplistic, as stars andaudiencesarearguablybothpowerfulandreactionary
The New Republic editor Andrew Sullivan (1989, pp39–40) supported the notion that consumers aren’t victims,orpawns,justconsumers,statingthat:
Even within the captivity of consumerism, the consumer still has some room to maneuver: that she can choose this fantasy over another, this product over another; that she can outwit by mockery, humor or simplyboredom theschemesofanindustryasmuchatwarwithitselfasitisintentoncapturingher.
These realities of modern celebrity lead marketers to pursue relevant strategies Rein et al, authors of High Visibility, write: “The ultimate selling strategy is to foster audience identification Product marketers understand the process well: Measure consumers ’ self-images, demographics, and psychological needs, then provide them with products that embody characteristics which match and meet them” (Rein et al, 1997, p117)
So, in some sense, our celebrities help us to bridge the gap between who we are and who we want to be. Savvy marketers figure out the identity needs of various target markets and offer them solutions in the forms ofphysicalproducts,services,andcelebrities
By linking ideas, models, and frameworks from sociology/women’s studies/popular culture studies, mass communication/media studies, and marketing/branding, we get a sense of the context in which the modern music industry and the gender norms within it operate to produce branded female pop stars Brand theory whichnecessarilydrawsonalloftheaforementionedliteraturebasestoexplainhowpeopleprocessandderive meaning from messages, consume products for their functional and symbolic value, and use brands in their daily lives to enhance their identities and project them to others completes our framework for studying the socialconstructionoffemalepopularmusicstars
Thebrandingprocess
Pop stars are, indeed, brands, as familiar and aspirational as Coca-Cola or Oprah Winfrey The construction of these brands may begin with a middle-aged music executive, or with a young teenager’s dream, or with a magazine editor in search of a blockbuster cover A pop star brand is built to capitalize on earnings potential, but also to resonate with the audience This text argues how important parts of the music industry operate as gendered spaces, and how youth, beauty, and sex still anchor most female pop stars’ careers. As Kotarba et al (2009, p100) noted: “Despite the fact that there are multiple scripts available for performing one ’ s gender, it seemsthatpopularentertainmentmedia(bothintheirmagazineandtelevisionforms)aremostintriguedwith veryfewparticularwaysofdoingfemininity”Theauthorsdubbedoneofthema“postmodernPrimaDonna” and described it as “mix of ‘diva’ and ‘girl next door,’ of princess and pauper, of cosmopolitan jet setter and wholesome small town girl, of hypersexualized seductress and virgin” (Kotarba et al, 2009, p100) Similarly, Connell(1987)speaksofemphasizedfemininity,orawayofdoinggender that privileges the way in which men
reacttoandrewardsuch“feminine”performances.
InCulturalDiamond terms, brands are culturalobjectsproducedbycreators, with inputs from both the social worldandtheaudiencethatultimatelyreceivesthem.Suchbrandsthriveorwitherbasedonhowstronglythey resonate with audiences. Increasingly, this means brands succeed or fail based on the effectiveness of their market narratives And, as noted in the Preface, limited roles available for female musicians lead to limited meanings and, thus, redundant narratives Brands take much of their strength from the stories they tell about themselves, leveraging important meanings into resonant narratives. Thus, limiting the role types of female popstarslimitsthescopeofmanyfemalepopstarbrands
Brands rich in meaning have greater opportunities to be dynamic and to last as long as they have an overarchingthemetokeepthem“onbrand,”meaningconsistentinideasandideologyexpressed.Havingthis overarching brand theme is critical so that audiences know what the brand stands for and so brand authors don’t stray too far afield of their strategic intentions as opportunities present themselves Audiences get bored quickly,buttheirchosenbrandsstillneedtopossessmemorable,meaningfulstrategicanchors.Theseanchors ensurethat,despitethemultipleentrypointsandcontinuouslychangingarticulationsofthebrandrequiredto keepaudiencesengaged,themainideaofthebrandwillnotbeconfusedordiluted
A star’s signature narratives, personas, and looks may operate, strategically, within the context of her overarching brand theme to keep her brand stable at a meta level, while also allowing her the operational flexibility and fluidity to change with the times throughout her lifecycle Writing more broadly about branding, David Aaker and Jennifer Aaker (2016) suggest that companies may use a portfolio of signature storiestoenhanceorclarifyabrand’smeaningortopursuemultipleaudienceswithdifferentneeds,values,or priorities simultaneously (As dynamic person brands, stars’ looks and personas arguably work with, and within,theirbundleofnarrativestodiversifyandamplifysucheffects.)
Beyoncé is a powerful vocalist, a champion strategist, and a master of delivering pitch-perfect brand narrativesaboutself-acceptancethatresonatefarandwide Butsheisbynomeansplayinganewgame,noris she playing the old game much differently than her predecessors. Beyoncé rarely receives comparisons to Madonna,whogeneratedheadlineswithshockingcostumesandprovocative,rapid-cyclingpersonalitiesthree decades ago, but, with all of her stylistic and genre changes on Beyoncé and Lemonade, perhaps she should We’llreturntoadiscussionoftheseartistsinChapters4to7,butforthemeantimewecanthinkofBeyoncé’s overarching brand theme as “dynamic and aspirational black everywoman ” and Madonna’s as “sexually playful provocateur” But what underpins both brands is the stars’ mogul status, their ability to maintain relevance through changing cultural times by provoking audiences sexually and politically, and the fact that they are essentiallyempiresuntothemselves.
Artistbrands
Thistrendofartistsandmusicindustryhandlersthinkingabouthowtobrandartistshasintensifiedovertime, such that the idea of an artist as a brand is beginning to work its way into academic discussions of branding. Social psychologist Jonathan Schroeder (2005, p1) argues that successful artists have embraced branding, no longerviewingitasantitheticaltoartisticintegrityorauthenticity:
Artists offer exemplary instances of image creation in the service of building a recognizable look, name, and style a brand, in other words. Successful artists can be thought of as brand managers, actively engaged in developing, nurturing, and promoting themselves as recognizable “products” in the competitiveculturalsphere
In Schroeder’s (2005, p2) conceptualization, the artist plays a role in composing her public image, but indicates that, however she may wish to be perceived, “neither managers nor consumers completely control branding processes cultural codes contribute to, and constrain, how brands work to produce meaning” These codes, of course, are imposed by music industry norms, societal norms, and fan norms, which correspondtothecreator(producer),socialworld,andreceiver(audience)pointsontheCulturalDiamond Indeed, Schroeder (2005, p3) identifies the “critical interaction” that occurs “between consumption and identity.” This critical interaction reflects the remaining point on the Cultural Diamond: the cultural object. Such objects are created in the social world by creators for receivers, who then consume the resulting cultural
object in the form of the artists When audience members engage with a brand, they try to determine its meanings by absorbing the messages that brand authors put into circulation and by adding their own creative interpretations. When the brands that audiences choose to engage with are people, the process can be even morecomplicated,giventhatpeoplearemoredynamicthannon-livingproducts.
Personbrands
Person brands differ from more traditional product brands because they have people, not static products, at theircore.Thismakesthemmoredifficulttomanage,giventheirdynamicnatureandtheirself-within-a-self construction Female popular music stars are also tricky to manage because they are person brands who are typically short term in nature, as will be discussed in depth in this and the nextchapter Shorter careers make female pop star brands more susceptible to cultural trends than their male counterparts. Therefore, they need to achieve cultural resonance quickly and deeply or risk fading into oblivion, thereby constraining their lifecycleandpotentialupsideevenfurther
Given the heavy emphasis on their clothes, bodies, and representations, female pop stars must be expert at developing cultural trends or adapting to reflect cultural trends subtly but quickly This has ramifications for the brand-building process; the market requires them to constantly make minute changes to their brands Female popular music stars generally have a short window for success, and are increasingly constructed to be cross-capitalized empires who can generate vast amounts of revenue in a variety of entertainment verticals Musicappearstobeatertiaryconcernintheconstructionofsuchbrands,behindthecoreassetoftheirbodies and their secondary ability to succeed in multiple revenue-generating capacities, such as fashion and cosmetics. I am not suggesting that their music is not important it is; but it often fails to reach the public unless the artist appears to satisfy the other conditions first There are numerous explanations for this, includingchangingbusinessmodelsinthemusicindustryandtheknowledgethatmostfemalemusicianshave short careers and should thus capture all revenue possible before their window closes. As veteran music industry journalist Simon Glickman explained, these women are expected to be “all-purpose beautiful young things” They are constructed as such and positioned for the market by myriad experts in music, fashion, dance,filmandtelevision,andmarketing,amongotherthings.
Brandstrengthandbrandequity
Pop stars need to stand for something resonant and meaningful in the eyes of their target markets in order to become strong brands that audiences can easily identify and recall Traditional brand theorists say that brand strength relies on capturing desirable and distinctive images and associations in the minds of consumers and then carefully reinforcing them over time through marketing efforts, such as advertising and social media campaigns This consistent approach is meant to establish brand strength, which is an indicator of how attachedconsumersaretoabrand(Aaker,1991,1995)
In turn, brand strength is thought to be a predictor of brand equity, which arises from brand awareness, perceived quality, brand associations, and brand loyalty (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2012) and captures the “differential effect that knowing the brand’s name has on consumer response to the product or its marketing” (Kotler&Armstrong,2016) JustascustomerspaymoreforCoca-Colathanforastoresodabrandbecauseof itsgoodname,customerswillpaymoretoseeknownartistbrandsinconcert.Brandvalue basically quantifies brandequity,indicatingthefinancialvalueofthebrand
Some brand scholars, such as Susan Fournier, argue that brand meaning creates brand strength and resonance,which,inturn,enablesfirmstocapturevaluefromconsumers.
According to Cravens and Guilding (1999), brand value can be calculated four ways, from a cost-based approach (which measures the costs associated with building a brand), to a market-based approach (which bases its estimation of value on how much a buyer would pay for it on the open market), to an income-based approach (which uses future revenue potential directly attributable to a brand), to a more comprehensive formulary approach (which takes the weighted average profit of a brand over three years and multiplies it by sevendimensionsofbrandstrength to get an estimate of a brand’s financial worth). No academic work to date has established the best way to value a celebrity brand, presumably because there are so many variables to considerindoingsocomprehensivelyandeffectively
In other fields, scholars tend to rely on the market-based calculation, as a market price is a literal indicator of value, and the formulary approach because it was created by Interbrand, which ranks the world’s most valuablebrandsandisviewedasthemostcomprehensivemeasureofbrandvalue(Cravens&Guilding,1999).
Brandmeaning
Increasingly, the more progressive brand scholars, known as consumer culture theorists (CCTs), argue that brand meaning drives brand strength and creates resonance with customers Susan Fournier (1998) contends that brand-meaning resonance may be the most important measure of all in assessing customer attachment, which, in turn, leads to more reliable calculations of brand equity (Entertainers and executives care deeply about this because it’s this brand attachment that keeps customers interested in artists and coming back for more.) CCTs argue that brands must continuously change over time to remain relevant and absorb relevant cultural changes (Holt, 2003, 2004; Wipperfurth, 2005) This approach would argue that artists should modify their brands regularly in hope of setting, or at least closely following, cultural trends That’s not to say that every album release should signal a complete makeover. An artist should adhere to her overarching theme, but remain flexible in her interpretations of that theme Let’s return to Beyoncé’s theme of dynamic black everywoman With Destiny’s Child, in 1999, Beyoncé played the role of a self-sufficient working girl (“Bills, Bills, Bills”); on her first solo effort, in 2003’s Dangerously in Love, she was “Crazy in Love”; on her next two albums, B’Day (2006) and I Am Sasha Fierce (2008), she played a heartbroken-but-empowered, independent, survivor (“Irreplaceable” and “All The Single Ladies (Put A Ring On It)”) On 2011’s 4, Beyoncé declared female dominance (“Run The World (Girls)”),12 before splitting into several Beyoncés on 2013’sBeyoncé(“Haunted”evokesMadonna’sSexperiod;“Partition”playslikeaRihannasong;and“Flawless” invites comparisons to Nicki Minaj) Lemonade, released in 2016, finds a more directly political Beyoncé, going broad with her feminist call to action in “Formation,” and personal in her spouse-threatening “Don’t HurtYourself”
So, who establishes this overarching theme, or, put differently, who determines what a brand means to fans? Traditional brand theorists might say the brand managers, but CCTs explain that everyone who interactswiththebrandcontributessomethingtoitsmeanings Currentculturalbrands,suchaspopstars,are really co-created by consumers, professional handlers, and the cultural intermediaries who sit between them, such as journalists, bloggers, and critics. For that reason, the brand’s meaning its images, associations, narratives, personality, and what they collectively communicate to audiences can be as diverse as those consuming it For some brand managers, this is an unsettling thought, as the brand is always at least somewhat out of their control. In The New Marketing Manifesto, John Grant (2001) argues that the key to contemporary marketing is redesigning brands so that customers do more of the work and the company does less “It’saparadoxofNewMarketingeconomicsthatthelessyoudo,themoretheyparticipate,themoreyou areworth”(Grant,2001,p134) Inessence,brandshavebecomeasmuchwhatconsumersmakethemaswhat companies intend them to be. (For example, consider the impact and power of Beyoncé’s Beyhive, which helpsherbuildhernarrativesandspreadhergospelfarandwide)
Brandmeaningandresonance
Fournier et al (2008, p39) posit that brand meanings resonate when they reverberate “within the contexts of the organization, the broader culture and the person ’ s life It is the echoing, playback, and refiguring of meanings that render them significant and relevant for purposes of communication, categorization and understanding” Beyoncé identified cultural shifts and voiced them to achieve meaning and authority among her ranks She employed social media outlets extensively to meet her intended markets where she knew they would naturally be hanging out, and offered them something she suspected would be of interest to them. She embodied ideals that resonated deeply with mass audiences and underserved segments alike. She told them they were special and important exactly as they were, that all individual differences should be celebrated Beyoncé fans responded, echoing and extending her brand’s meanings, thereby extending her reach and power.
In Beyoncé’s acceptance speech for Best Contemporary Urban Album for Lemonade at the Grammys in
2016, she reinforced the idea of inclusion and representation as cultural power, explaining the importance of mediaimagesandnarrativestothoselookingtothemforhope,recognition,andvalidation
Myintentionforthefilmandalbumwastocreateabodyofworkthatwouldgiveavoicetoourpain,our struggles,ourdarknessandourhistory.Toconfrontissuesthatmakeusuncomfortable.It’simportantto me to show images to my children that reflect their beauty, so they can grow up in a world where they look in the mirror, first through their own families as well as the news, the Super Bowl, the Olympics, the White House and the Grammys and see themselves, and have no doubt that they’re beautiful, intelligentandcapable ThisissomethingIwantforeverychildofeveryrace AndIfeelit’svitalthatwe learn from the past and recognize our tendencies to repeat our mistakes Thank you again for honoring Lemonade.
(Russonello,2017)
This messaging, combined with her accessible feminist anthems, aspirational style, and artfully repurposed queen and goddess symbolism, make Beyoncé a powerful brand embodying the values of the millennial generation and many outside of it who never felt they fit into society for their own reasons. By July 24, 2017, Beyoncé had 15,004,533 Twitter followers, 64,381,438 likes on Facebook, and 104,878,800 followers on Instagram,staggeringfiguresforeachvenue
As Holt (2003, 2004) observes repeatedly in his work, dominant cultures are created, and most people do not actually fit into them Many do not even want to So, by interrupting staid narratives about what young people should want in this country, and replacing them with narratives about understanding, acceptance, and freedom, Beyoncé addressed two major cultural tensions the unequal treatment of women and people of color in a country espousing ideals of equality and earned millions of eager followers who wanted to hear moreaboutthattroublinginconsistency
Brands can make claims about themselves, but the marketplace will ultimately decide what feels credible and true CCTs believe in an active, meaning-making consumer, whereas the traditionalists’ view assumes a more passive consumer more likely to take cues from brand managers The Cultural Diamond supports the CCT paradigm, indicating that, however producers might encode their products for reception, there are numerous opportunities for interruption and negotiation by consumers, and the greater social world they inhabit ThisthreadwillbepickedupagaininChapter5
Sometimes, brand stewards learn that their brands carry meanings that were never intended for the product Forexample,SusanFournier’s(1998)phenomenologicalstudyofwomenandtheirbrandsfoundthat brand meanings are sometimes not present in products or even in the marketing of them Rather, such meanings reside within the individual consumer at the intersection of identity themes, a theme carried on by Schroeder(2005)inhisstudyofartistsasbrands.Theseidentitythemesmightincludefeelingsofinadequacy (whichmightleadonetobuysomethingbest-in-class)oraneedforcomfort(whichmightleadonetobuythe brand that a loved one uses). In these cases, it’s the customer, not the company, doing the positioning and figuringouttheintegrationofthebrand(Fournier,1998).Thisworkisconsistentwiththeideaspresentedin Chapter6, in which media scholars (Fiske, 1992, 1994, 1997/1989; Hall, 1980) argue that the audience plays an active role in accepting, negotiating, or opposing the intended/dominant meanings of cultural products, suchasartists,songs,andvideos.
Productsymbolismandself-concept
Consumer researchers, such as Michael Solomon (1983), and brand theorists, such as Douglas Holt (2003, 2004)havearguedthatconsumptionbehaviorissocialbehavior,andthatpeopleconsumeproductsmainlyfor their symbolic value This symbolism is created at the level of the social world, but is consumed at the individuallevel,aspeopletrytofigureouthowtobridgethegapbetweenwhotheyareandwhotheywantto look like or be. In this way, Solomon (1983) argues that products can actually be antecedents to related behaviors, as people purchase products because of how they and others will likely respond to their new appearanceorrole Symbolicallyrichproductsareparticularlyimportantforthoseinthemidstoftransition forexample,a12-year-oldgirltransitioningintoherteenageyears.Shehasnoexperienceofbeingateenager, only the impressions she has from watching and hearing the routinized scripts of others. So she cobbles
together her new identity using a combination of representative products, well-worn scripts she’s heard aspirational others use, and behaviors she associates with this new identity She then tests how she has done basedonhowsheandothersreacttohernewlookandattitude,andrefinesherprocessfromthere.
Boys and men engage in the same processes, of course, as they buy branded clothes (e.g., sports or band tshirts) to declare who they are to their peers In both cases, the consumers are establishing that they like something, that they want to emulate something, or that they are a viable part of some group to which they desireaffiliation,association,ormembership.
Female pop stars do this, too, borrowing wardrobe, accessory, and hairstyle choices from stars who went before them to position themselves among past successes in the minds of consumers Especially on her selftitledrelease,Beyoncétriesontheposesandstylingsofhercontemporaries,suchasRihanna(“Partition”)and Nicki Minaj (“Flawless”) to indicate that she possesses their competencies, too She has since been toggling betweenhermaternalside,hersexuallyadventurousside,andherpoliticalsideinrapidsuccession,makingfor adynamic,multivocal,andsometimesconfusingbrand.
Culturalresonance
ConsumerculturetheoristDouglasHolt(2003)focusesontheconstructofculturalresonance,reasoningthat resonance lasts longer and is more easily recalled than context-poor associations or claims about product functionality Resonance develops within the Cultural Diamond as cultural products are developed to reflect the social world Those that achieve resonance are those that best identify consumers ’ positions in the social world. Holt (2004) argues that consumers are most likely to remember effective stories or powerful myths offeredbybrands.Usingthislogic,thewinningcompanyorproduct orpopstar istheonethatcreatesthe most compelling narrative constructions Those with brand-specific details that stick in the minds of consumers build the greatest degree of resonance, and thus win the prize of increased loyalty and sales. Apple takes this approach, branding itself through specific memorable songs and design schemes. It’s hard for many listeners to hear U2’s “Vertigo,” or Jet’s “Are You Gonna Be My Girl” which were both used in early iPod/iTunes television advertising campaigns13 without seeing the dancing silhouettes from the commercials play in their minds Other examples of a pop star trying to achieve cultural resonance through narrative construction include handlers talking about Jewel living in a car a story an executive who worked withhersaidwasgreatlyexaggerated andtherags-to-richesstoryofTinaTurner.
For CCTs such as Holt, brand equity is a function of the quality of the stories told, provided, of course, thatthereisacompetitiveproducttosell AccordingtoHolt’s(2003)model,ifabrand’snarrativeshavegood historical fit, speak to tensions in society, create myths that lead culture, and speak with a rebel’s voice, they will likely resonate with their intended audience and become successful, if not iconic. Equity becomes a functionofstayingculturallyawareandchangingwiththetimes AccordingtoHolt,MountainDewchanged its central advertising character from an anti-yuppie hillbilly to a daredevil to a slacker because of cultural shifts and succeeded by riding these changes and remaining relevant while still communicating its core values of rebelliousness and individuality This openly defies the consistency-is-king mantra espoused by traditionalist marketing theorists, and embraces the context-is-critical idea espoused by such cultural theorists as Holt and McCracken. At present, there are no universally agreed-upon metrics available for measuring brandequity in consumer culture theory, but execution metrics will likely emerge as scholars and practitioners begintooperationalizetheirfindingsinnewstudies AsHolt(2004,p65)explains:
Such knowledge doesn’t come from focus groups or ethnography or trend reports the marketer’s usual means for “getting close to the customer” Rather, it comes from a cultural historian’s understanding of ideology as it waxes and wanes, a sociologist’s charting of the topography of contradictions the ideology produces,andaliterarycritic’sexpeditionintotheculturethatengagesthesecontradictions.
Holt’s quote is instructive in its articulation of the multidisciplinary approach required of those conducting researchwithinthemoreprogressiveareasofbranding Hissummaryisalsousefulinassessingthestrengthof the Beyoncé brand Borrowing from the traditionalists, let’s assume that consistency in strategy is key, and, drawing from the CCT researchers, let’s assume culture dictates that our brand must change its tactics, and sometimes even its strategy, to remain historically relevant Perhaps what Beyoncé is selling, at a strategic
level, is not music but rather female power, ambition, and sexuality Her music actually changes it’s the product, not the strategy Whether she’s putting her cheating husband on notice, having twins, promoting a tour, or releasing a movie to accompany her album her activities are all supporting her core offering, her brand.
Multivocality
The Cultural Diamond is built on the idea that relationships between its four points creator (producer), receiver(consumer),culturalobject(popstar),andthesocialworld arelinkedinmultipleways,throughmyriad influences It’snosurprise,then,thatbrandscometomeandifferentthingstodifferentpeople
Fournieretal(2008,p46)callthisquality“multivocality, ”meaningthatasinglebrandcanspeakwithmany voices and have many different market interpretations. These multiple voices help a brand productively and efficientlyaddressdifferenttargetmarketsbytailoringcommunicationswitheach Thisqualityenablesbrands toconnect,andreconnect,withpeopleovertimeastheychangetheirself-perception Thus,thewayinwhich a brand (or a pop star) is presented to us in all its forms through songs, videos, magazines, clothes, or fragrances frames the way in which we see and experience it But our own experiences and issues also provide a frame for how we make sense of such presentations Belk (1988) argues that brands help people definethemselvesforthemselves,andFournier(1998)constructsbrandsasculturalresourcesthathelppeople managehowtheythinkabout(orcomplete)themselves
Star handlers must constantly monitor brand meanings in circulation and make efforts to respond to them in authentic ways. Managing a star’s image can be a full-time job for multiple people. A star’s battery of handlerscanputwhateverspintheywantonherbehavior,butthere’snoguaranteethatthepublicwillaccept it as truth In light of this, brand stewards might want to consider working with culture rather than against it in order to create resonant narratives. Wipperfurth (2005) argues that brand managers should be recast as brand facilitators. That’s what effective celebrity handlers especially managers and publicists do, as we’ll see in greater detail in the next chapter They follow the artist’s lead Dynamic brands have to operate from openstructures theaudienceknowswhatthecelebritystandsfor,butnotalwayshowthebrandwillachieve its end. Beyoncé again serves as a provocative illustration. She and her handlers might know where they intend for the brand to be in two years, but they can’t reasonably anticipate all of the cultural opportunities andchallengesthatmightariseintheinterimtohelporhindertheirprogresstowardthatend
Celebrityendorsersandcelebrityfirms
The literature available for studying entertainment figures as brands is scant However, two key published papers Grant McCracken’s (1989) on celebrity endorsers and Rindova et al’s (2006) on celebrity firms and the social construction of popularity and one unpublished work Fournier and Herman’s (2006) essay on Martha Stewart provide the framework for conceptualizing how to begin evaluating popular culture figures asliving,breathingbrands.
McCracken studied celebrity endorsers and their role in making or breaking marketing campaigns. He argued that the brand passes meaning on to the celebrity endorsing it, who then passes these meanings on to theconsumer(McCracken,1989) HespecifiedthatBruceWilliswasagreatcelebrityendorser,butindicated that Meryl Streep was not. Why? Bruce Willis was always Bruce Willis we always knew what his “brand” meant (We still do!) Given her myriad dramatic roles and her well-documented acting ability, Streep disappeared into each role, and did not have a consistent brand message Stated simply, people did not (and do not) know what to make of Streep in an endorsement setting (McCracken, 1989). In today’s terms, is she the witchy editor from The Devil Wears Prada, the free spirit from Mamma Mia, or the business-owning, man-juggling entrepreneur from It’s Complicated? This question begs another question, though: How does gender facilitate the decoding and understanding of celebrity brands? Are men more likely to stand for something specific or uni-dimensional in the eyes of consumers than women? Are they expected to be consistent, eternally the same, growing from boy to man without fanfare? Are women meant to be (normatively) dynamic but fluid, flowing from girl to woman to wife to mother to grandmother? If women ’ s rolesaremoremultidimensional,shouldn’tthisleadthemtoawidervarietyofopportunities?
In terms of career longevity, it may be better to be like Willis at least for those aspiring to build long-
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Miksikä hän ei voinut rakastaa, niinkuin lukemattomat muut naiset, rakastaa ilman epäitsekkäisyyttä ja vilppiä? Uhrata itsensä kerrankin kokonaan ja unohtaa oma itsensä. Ilman rakkautta, — sen hän tänä hetkenä selvästi tunsi, — ilman rakkautta ei mikään hänelle onnistuisi, ei hän saisi mitään aikaan.
Mitä muistoja tuo ajatus äkkiä loihti hänelle esiin? Tuo ajatus ei ollut aina niin selvä hänelle ollut kuin nyt, se oli kerran vieraana ja käsittämättömänä tullut hänen luoksensa, mutta yhä uudestaan se oli palautunut takaisin, kunnes se vähitellen oli imeytynyt hänen vereensä. Hän muisti illan senaattori Tauben luona, jolloin hän oli istunut kahden Antti Hammarin kanssa Elsan huoneessa. Salista oli kaikunut tanssin säveleet. Hän oli ivannut rakkautta, persoonallista onnea ja puhunut uhrauksista, joita hän olisi halunnut kansallensa antaa. Kuinka sokea hän oli ollut. Ilman rakkautta ei voi mitään saada aikaan.
Hertta hypähti ylös vuoteeltansa. Selvä päivä valaisi huonetta ja pienen ruumiin kellertäviä kasvoja. Hänen täytyi toimia, hän ei saanut vaipua hyödyttömään haaveiluun. Olihan Antti luvannut auttaa, olihan hän kehoittanut häntä kääntymään hänen puoleensa, silloin kuin hän oli vailla neuvoa ja apua.
Hän otti esille paperia ja kynän ja kirjoitti kiihkeästi:
"Olen aivan avuton, tohtori Hammar. Tulirokko on päässyt valloilleen pienten turvattieni joukossa, kymmenen lasta sairastaa ja tänä yönä korjasi kuolema ensimäisen uhrinsa. Terveet lapset olen eroittanut toiseen rakennukseen, mutta ei sittenkään ole takeita siitä, ettei yhä uusia taudinkohtauksia ilmesty. Olen koettanut saada piirilääkäriä täällä käymään, mutta turhaan. Tiet ovat ummessa ja matkustaminen kovin vaivalloista. Olen aivan epätoivoissani, sillä
seison täällä yksin ja avuttomana. Antakaa minulle apua, tohtori
Hammar, lähettäkää joku nuori kandidaatti, tai tulkaa itse, jos voitte. Kertokaa kenraali Löfbergille miten asiat täällä ovat, nyt en jaksa hänelle kirjoittaa, sillä olen valvonut yksin useita öitä perätysten".
Vielä samana päivänä Hertta lähetti kirjeen erään miehen mukana, joka oli matkalla kaupunkiin.
XVI.
Tulirokko levisi turvakodissa yhä enenevällä voimalla. Toinen puoli pienistä hoidokkaista oli jo otettu sairashuoneen puolelle. Ensimäiset alkoivat kuitenkin jo parata, he saivat jo istua vuoteissansa ja jotain vähäistä askaroidakin. Mutta toiset olivat kovassa kuumeessa ja heittelivät itseään tuskissansa vuoteillaan.
Hertan oli täytynyt ottaa apulainen lapsia hoitamaan. Hän oli väsynyt ja rasittunut paljosta valvomisesta, ja huoli ja edesvastuu painoi raskaasti hänen hartioitaan. Antti Hammarilta hän ei ollut saanut vielä minkäänlaista vastausta. Mutta postinkulku olikin kovin hidas ja melkein sattuman nojassa.
Hertta istui ikkunan ääressä huoneessansa. Ovi oli auki viereiseen kamariin, jossa heikommat sairaat makasivat. Ilta jo hämärsi ja kova lumituisku teki ilman vieläkin pimeämmäksi. Kaksi viikkoa oli nyt yhtä mittaa lunta tuiskunnut, melkein aamusta iltaan. Hertta oli tuskin nimeksikään ulkona liikkunut.
Hän istui mietteissänsä katsellen lumihiuteita, jotka ikkunaruuduilla lentelivät. Ne muodostivat ihmeellisiä kuvia lasia vasten, kokonaisia maisemiakin, joissa joka ainoa yksityiskohta oli kuin mestarin
kädestä lähtenyt. Lumihiuteet yhä kasvoivat ja muuttivat muotoaan, kasaantuivat yhteen ja hävittivät toinen toisensa.
Hertan ajatukset ne liitivät kilpaa lumihiuteiden kanssa. Hän olisi tahtonut katseellaan lävistää tuon suuren pimeyden, joka ympäröi häntä joka puolelta. Hetkeksi pistäytyä isän huoneesen, joka nojatuolissansa poltti piippuaan ja kädellä sivellä hänen ryppyistä otsaansa. Isä oli kirjoittanut hänelle jonkun kerran, mutta vaikka kirje oli ollutkin lyhyt ja asiallinen, ilman vähintäkään tunteellisuuden jälkeä, niin oli rivien välistä sittenkin henkinyt Herttaa kohden yksinäisyyden ikävä.
Eteisestä kuului askeleita. Hertta ei pannut huomiota siihen, sillä hän luuli apulaisvaimon kulkevan ulkona. Mutta kopinaa jatkui edelleen ja hän kuuli oudon äänen soinnun. Hän hypähti pystyyn. Veri kohosi hänen poskiinsa ja sydän alkoi kiivaasti tykyttää. Voisiko se olla — —
Hertta seisoi jännityksessä. Samassa ovi avautui ja sisään astui pitkä, kookas mies.
— Hertta! Ääni oli pehmeä ja sydämellinen. Hän ojensi Hertalle molemmat kätensä.
Hertta syöksyi häntä vastaan.
— Tekö se todellakin olette, sai Hertta vihdoin sanotuksi. Hänen äänensä värähteli ja silmänsä kostuivat.
Antti päästi hänen kätensä irti. Hertta sytytti lampun ja asetti sen pöydälle sohvan eteen.
— Istukaa tohtori ja kertokaa minulle nyt kaikki, oikein juurta jaksain. Isästä, kenraali Löfbergistä, ja kaikista, kaikista.
— Antakaas, kun minä ensin katselen teitä, sanoi Antti. Hiukan kalpea ja laiha, mutta katse on kirkas, tavallistakin iloisempi.
— Se on teidän ansionne, tohtori. Käsitättekö minun riemuani?
Kerrankin minulla on joku, jonka kanssa voin puhua ja jolta voin saada neuvoa ja apua, Mutta kuinka te saatoitte tulla tänne, miten te pääsitte irti töistänne?
Antti ei voinut irroittaa katsettansa Hertasta. Aiheuttiko hän persoonallisesti hänen ilonsa, vai johtuiko se yleensä vain siitä, että hän näki tutut kasvot edessänsä? Oliko hän kertaakaan häntä kaivannut, niinkuin hän, Antti, jonka kaikkiin ajatuksiin, unelmiinkin hän oli kietoutunut? Aavistiko hän edes heikostikaan, että hän yksinomaan Hertan tähden oli jättänyt työnsä ja tullut hänen luoksensa?
Antti kävi sohvaan istumaan.
— Te olette varmaan hyvin nälissänne ja viluinen, sanoi Hertta.
— Enpä niinkään. Hiihtäessä pysyy lämpimänä. Hevosella ajoin Vaaran kestikievariin asti, jossa söin päivällistä. Tavarani tulevat jälestäpäin hevosella.
— Ja Vaaralta asti te tulitte hiihtäen?
— Eihän sitä ole kuin kaksi peninkulmaa.
Hertta sytytti tulen öljykeittiöön ja pani vettä kiehumaan.
— Isänne luona kävin iltaa ennen lähtöäni. Hän lähetti teille tämän.
Antti otti taskustansa pienen käärön.
Hertta kävi istumaan Antin viereen ja avasi sen. Pienessä rasiassa pumpulin välissä oli ohut kultainen medaljonki. Sen sisässä oli naisen kuva. Hertta painoi sen huulilleen.
— Voi sitä isää. Ja tämän hän lähettää minulle. Katsokaa, hän ojensi medaljongin Antille, — se on minun äitini.
Antti katseli kuvaa ja ehdottomasti hänen silmänsä siirtyivät siitä Herttaan.
— Kuinka te olette hänen näköisensä, Hertta neiti. Samat suuret silmät ja sama syvä katse.
— Oliko isä hyvin alakuloinen, kun kävitte hänen luonansa?
— Vanhentunut hän on paljon viime aikoina, mutta samalla hän on ikäänkuin pehmennyt.
— Isä parka. Hertta huokasi syvään. — Oletteko kuullut mitään herra Väisäsestä?
Antin katse kiintyi tutkivasti Herttaan. Miksikä hän häntä ensimäiseksi kysyi? Huhuna oli Antinkin korviin tullut kapteeni Ekin ja Väisäsen läheinen ystävyys ja Hertankin nimeä oli näihin huhuihin sekoitettu. Antti ei ollut kuitenkaan koskaan kallistanut korvaansa niille. Mutta nyt hänen mieleensä äkkiä kohosi epäilys. Entäs jos
siinä sittenkin olisi ollut perää, jos hän yksin olisi ollut sokea ja pettynyt — — —
Antti koetti hillitä itseään ja sanoi kylmällä, melkein purevalla äänensoinnulla:
— Minä tuon teille ehkä, aivan tahtomattani, ikävän uutisen. Herra
Väisänen on kadonnut kaupungista ja huhu tietää kertoa varsin kummallisia asioita.
— Mitä te sanotte? Hertan ääni oli melkein tuskallinen. — Onko jotain erityistä tapahtunut?
— Te tiedätte ehkä, että herra Väisänen on ollut "Vesa" yhtiön palveluksessa. Yhtiö on tehnyt vara-rikon ja Väisäsen rehellisyys on joutunut epäilyksen alaiseksi.
— Onko "Vesa" tehnyt vararikon? Hertan tuska yhä lisääntyi. Voi, isä parka!
— Onko teidän isänne missään tekemisessä yhtiön kanssa?
— Hänellä on siinä paljon osakkeita. Herra Väisänen sai hänet houkutelluksi siihen.
Antille selvisi nyt asian laatu. Hän veti helpoituksen huokauksen, ja melkein tahtomattaan pääsi hänen huuliltansa:
— Senkötähden te siis häntä kyselitte?
Hertta katsoi hämmästyneenä Anttiin. Mutta äkkiä hänen poskiinsa nousi puna ja hän sanoi loukkaantuneella äänellä:
— Mitä te sitten luulitte? Ette suinkaan te epäillyt, että minulla olisi ollut jotain tekemistä hänen kanssansa?
Antti punastui.
Hertta nousi ylös. Hänen kasvoihinsa tuli jäykkä, luotaan työntävä piirre. Ääneti hän asetti teen pöytään ja kehoitti Anttia ottamaan.
Antti seurasi hänen liikkeitään ääneti. Yksinkertainen, puolivillainen puku kohotti hänen vartalonsa kauniita muotoja ja hänen hiuksensa, jotka riippuivat pitkänä palmikkona hänen vyötäistensä alapuolelle, antoivat koko hänen olennolleen nuorekkaan, melkein lapsellisen leiman. Kasvoissa vain oli jotain ankaraa ja jäykkää ja niistä oli kadonnut se ehdoton ilo, joka vielä hetki sitten oli ikäänkuin kirkastanut niitä.
He astuivat viereiseen huoneesen. Peräseinällä oli neljä vuodetta rinnatusten. Vanha vaimo istui pöydän ääressä ja luki virsikirjaa. Pieni lamppu valaisi hämärästi huonetta.
— Teidän pitäisi jo panna maata, Lovisa. Ovatko lapset olleet rauhalliset?
— Ville heittelee itseään edes-takaisin vuoteella ja valittaa.
Antti astui vuoteen ääreen. Hän tarttui varovasti pojan käteen ja koetteli valtasuonta.
— Kuume on varsin korkea, sanoi Antti matalalla äänellä. — Jos hän herää, niin koetamme saada sen alenemaan. Entä toiset sairaat?
Hertta avasi tuvan oven. Siellä makasivat pienet toipilaat. Itse taudin he olivat jo voittaneet, mutta voimat olivat vielä hyvin heikot.
— Oletteko huomannut minkäänlaisia jälkitauteja heissä?
— En tiedä, minun kokemukseni tällä alalla on niin kovin vähäinen. Mutta huomenna, kun he ovat hereillä — — —
— Niin, nukkukoot nyt rauhassa. Eikö teillä ole yhtään kurkkumädän kohtausta ollut?
— Joitakuita, mutta harvoja ja luullakseni jokseenkin lieviä. Epäilen kuitenkin että pikku Maija, joka minulta kuoli, joutui juuri sen taudin uhriksi.
He astuivat ulos portaille. Lumituisku oli asettunut, ja taivas oli tähdessä. Ilma oli kylmä ja raitis, mutta tuuli oli kokonaan tyyntynyt.
— Kun te ette vain vilustuisi, sanoi Antti.
— Minä olen karaistunut. Ei minuun mikään pysty.
— Älkää sanoko sitä. Usein pienikin varomattomuus voi tuottaa ikäviä seurauksia. Neiti Hertta, lisäsi hän hetken kuluttua ja astui askeleen häntä kohti, — suokaa minulle anteeksi, että äsken loukkasin teitä. Ei se minun tarkoitukseni ollut. Ymmärrättehän te etten minä tullut tänne teitä loukatakseni, vaan siksi että — —
— Tohtori Hammar, sanoi Hertta ja ojensi hänelle kätensä, unohtakaamme koko asia. Minä olin turhan arka, ja te — Ei, mennään sisään, täällä tulee kylmä.
— Te olette varmaan kovin väsynyt, tohtori, sanoi Hertta, kun he palasivat takaisin huoneesen. — Te saatte tyytyä siihen mitä talo voi teille tarjota. Hyvää yötä.
— Entä te itse? Minä karkoitan teidät varmaan huoneestanne? Antti tarttui Hertan ojennettuun käteen.
— Ette laisinkaan. Minä olen tuvassa pienokaisteni kanssa. Nukkukaa hyvin.
XVII.
Aamu oli varhainen. Päivä hämärsi, taivas oli väritön ja kuun hohde oli kalpea. Se joudutti matkaansa laskua kohti.
Luonnossa vallitsi suuren hiljaisuuden hetki. Yön henget pakenivat päivän kajahdusta ja päivä kohosi arkaillen vaaran rinteen peitosta. Äänetönnä hongikko saarsi lumikenttiä ja äänettömänä oli järvi jääkahleissansa.
Mutta luonnon hiljaisuus oli lyhyt kuin hengähdys. Idässä kalvakka taivas värittyi ja sieltä-täältä kohosi sinervä savu ylös ilmaan. Hohde taivaan rannalla kävi yhä heloittavammaksi ja lumikinokset kimmelsivät tuhansin värein.
Hertta ja Antti seisoivat portailla. He ottivat suksensa esiin ja läksivät hiihtämään. Törmän kylkeä he laskivat kepeästi alas ja antoivat suksen viedä kauas alas jäälle.
— Katsokaa, kuinka luonto loistaa, tohtori, sanoi Hertta innolla. Tällainen aamu on oikea jumalanpalvelus minulle. Kuinka paljon enemmän hyvää ja jaloa minä opin luonnosta kuin monista kirjoista ja opetuksista.
— Mutta ei ole niinkään helppoa lukea tuota kirjaa, jota me luonnoksi nimitämme. Sillä on aivan oma kirjaimistonsa.
— Siihen tarvitaan opetusta ja harjoitusta, niinkuin kaikkeen muuhunkin. Mutta se, joka kerran on avaimen löytänyt, sen ei tarvitse muuta, kuin kuunnella ja odottaa. Se tulee aivan itsestänsä.
Antti katseli Herttaa, joka hiihti hänen rinnallansa. Hänen poskensa punoittivat ja silmänsä loistivat. Ja hänen liikkeensä olivat notkeat ja sulavat.
— Luuletteko te, Hertta neiti, että sitä samalla tavalla voisi löytää avaimen ihmissydämeenkin ja sitten asettua odottamaan ja kuuntelemaan?
Hertta pysähtyi ja kääntyi Anttiin.
— Sen teidän, lääkärinä, pitäisi paraiten tietää. Tehän olette tutkinut ihmissydämiä. Hertan kasvot hymyilivät ja hän luuli Antinkin laskevan leikkiä. Mutta kohdatessaan Antin vakavan, läpitunkevan katseen, hävisi hymy hänen kasvoiltansa ja hän käänsi katseensa pois.
He hiihtivät hetken aikaa ääneti, ja seurasivat jälkiä, jotka kulkivat lumikentän poikki sen toiseen rantaan.
— Runoilijat sanovat sitä avainta rakkaudeksi, Antin ääni värähteli, — mutta ihmiset ovat tahranneet sen, käyttämällä sitä itsekkäitä tarkoituksiansa varten.
He saapuivat rantaan, jossa seisoi matala mökki.
— Tuossako he asuvat? kysyi Antti osoittaen mökkiä.
— Niin, tuossa he asuvat. Mies on sokea ja vaimo saa yksin elättää heitä.
— Onko heitä suurikin perhe?
— Yksi lapsi vaan, joka on sairaana. Mutta toinen lie odotettavissa.'
He astuivat mökkiin. Kurjuus astui heitä vastaan joka puolelta. Vaimo makasi olkivuoteella tuvan nurkassa. Pieni poika lepäsi penkillä ja sokea mies istui uunin ääressä. Hänen vaatteensa olivat niin repaleiset, että hänen ruumiinsa vilkkui paikka paikoin paljaana niiden alta. Takka oli kylmillään, seinähylly ja pöytä tyhjänä, ei ruuan jälkeäkään näkynyt missään.
Antti astui vaimon luo. Hän makasi voimattomana lattialla ja hänen kasvonsa olivat kalpeat ja pöhöttyneet.
— Kuinka kauan te olette sairastanut? kysyi Antti.
— Kolmatta viikkoa. Ei ole ollut ruokaa, eilen söimme viimeisen leivän, jonka naapurin vaimo meille antoi.
Hertta oli kerännyt risuja ulkoa ja sytytti ne palamaan. Nokisen padan hän löysi uunin solasta, hän pesi sen puhtaaksi ja nosti sen tulelle.
— Jumala siunatkoon teitä, neiti, sanoi sokea mies uunin ääressä.
— Moneen viikkoon emme ole saaneet minkäänlaista keittoa, leipäpalan olemme vaan kastaneet suolaveteen. Mutta eilen loppui leipäkin.
Antti tutki sairasta vaimoa. Hän oli aivan viimeisillään ja ruuan puutteessa hänen voimansa olivat niin heikontuneet, ettei hän pysynyt jaloillaan.
— Kun jaksaisin nousta edes sen verran, että saisin tulta uuniin, sanoi vaimo nyyhkyttäen, — niin ei meidän tarvitsisi viluun kuolla.
— Onko teidän miehenne aivan sokea?
— Viisi vuotta sitten hän tuli sokeaksi tapaturman johdosta. Siitä saakka hän ei ole voinut tehdä mitään.
— Kuinka te sitten olette tulleet toimeen?
— Minä olen työtä tehnyt, olen raatanut aamusta iltaan. Olin kuokkinut pienen pellon tuohon ikkunan alle, mutta syksyllä halla vei perunat. Kun kevät vain joutuisi, niin että petäjän kuori irtaantuisi puun pinnasta, niin olisihan jotain mitä syödä.
— Onko poika kauan sairastanut?
— Vasta pari päivää. Sekin tuli vielä kaiken kurjuuden lisäksi. Kunpa Jumala armahtaisi ja korjaisi hänet pois.
Hertta nosti padan tulelta ja antoi vaimolle jauhovelliä. Hän nousi istualleen ja tarttui vapisevin käsin vatiin. Hänen silmänsä kyyneltyivät.
— Jumala palkitkoon teitä, kun köyhää muistatte, — hän pyyhki laihalla kädellään kyyneleen, joka oli vierinyt poskelle. Hän on laupias ja vanhurskas, eikä hän hylkää omiansa. Hän tahtoo vain koetella meidän heikkoa uskoamme.
Pieni poika penkillä avasi silmänsä. Niiden kiilto oli luonnoton ja kuumeen tuottama. Hän katseli miestä, joka istui pöydän ääressä ja vitkalleen nautti höyryävää keittoa. Hänen suunsa ympärillä karehteli tuskallinen piirre ja hän kohottautui puoleksi pystyyn kurottaen kättänsä.
Hertta ojensi hänelle lusikalla ruokaa. Ahnaasti poika tarttui siihen kiinni ja koetti niellä keittoa alas. Voimattomana hän vaipui vuoteelle ja ruoka valui suupieliä myöten rinnalle. Kurkusta kohosi karhea korina ja pienet kädet puristautuivat tuskallisesti kokoon.
Antti kiiruhti hänen luoksensa. Hän kohotti hänet pystyyn ja avasi hänen suunsa. Kurkku oli turvoksissa ja täynnä valkoisia pilkkuja. Hän tarjosi hänelle vettä, vaan ei sitäkään poika voinut niellä. Vaivalloisesti hengitys vain kulki turvonneessa kurkussa.
— Ei tässä lääkärin taito enää auta, sanoi hän puoliääneen Hertalle. Mutta vaimolle meidän täytyy hankkia apua. Hän ei voi jäädä tänne yksin tuon avuttoman miehen kanssa. Synnytys voi tapahtua milloin tahansa.
— Parin kilometrin päässä on talo. Voisinhan minä lähteä sieltä apua hankkimaan.
— Ei, jääkää te tänne ja minä lähden. He astuivat yhdessä ulos.
— Seuratkaa tuota tietä, sanoi Hertta ja osoitti metsää kohti. — Luullakseni se vie suoraan talolle. Etteköhän te löytäne…
— Olkaa huoleti, neiti, Antti katsoi häntä silmiin, — minä palaan pian takaisin.
Hertta silmäsi hänen jälkeensä, hän tunsi sydämensä lämpiävän ja rauhan tunne täytti koko hänen olentonsa.
Hän astui takaisin tupaan. Sokea mies oli polvillaan vaimon vuoteen ääressä. Hän nyyhkytti ääneensä.
— Hyvä Jumala, älä hylkää meitä — auta häntä — ja meitä kaikkia. Ääni oli katkonainen ja tukahdettu.
— Mikko, minä pelkään niin kovasti, kuului vaimon valittava ääni. Herra Jumala! Jos neiti olisi edes jäänyt tänne.
Hertta lähestyi häntä.
— Olkaa huoleti. Minä olen täällä ja tohtori tulee kohta takaisin. Ei teitä yksin jätetä.
Hertta lisäsi puita takkaan. Vesiämpärikin seisoi tyhjänä ovennurkassa. Hän otti sen käteensä ja riensi ulos. Avantoa peitti hieno jääkuori. Seipäällä hän rikkoi jään ja nosti vettä. Vesi pirskui hänen vaatteilleen ja jaloillensa. Mutta hän ei huomannut sitä. Nopeasti hän kiiruhti takaisin tupaan ja asetti vettä kiehumaan.
Vuoteelta kuului yhä vaimon valitusta. Aika ajoin tuskat hellittivät ja hän makasi ääneti. Mutta sitten ne taas yltyivät ja tuskissansa vaimo vaikeroitsi:
— Herra Jumala, Herra Jumala — —
Hertta seisoi neuvottomana. Hän ei tiennyt mitä tehdä, mihin tarttua. Vähä-väliin hän vilkaisi ulos ikkunasta. Ulkona oli hiljaista, ei ainoatakaan askelta tai ääntä kuulunut, tuuli humisi vain puiden
latvoissa. Hän painoi kätensä rintaa vasten. Jospa Antti joutuisi pian takaisin. Häntä peloitti tässä majassa, jonne kuolema ja elämä yhtä aikaa pyrkivät sisälle päästä.
Pieni poika liikahti vuoteellansa. Hän kohotti päänsä pystyyn, hän ponnisti kaikki voimansa ja tavoitteli käsillänsä ilmaa. Hertta riensi hänen luoksensa ja kannatti hänen ruumistaan. Pojan rinta teki lakkaamatta työtä, kurkkujänteet pullistuivat ja kasvot kävivät aivan mustansinisiksi. Rinta korahti vielä kerran ja hengetön ruumis vaipui Hertan syliin.
Hertta piteli lasta käsivarrellansa voimatta liikahtaa paikaltaan. Koko hänen ruumiinsa vapisi ja kädet vaipuivat vähitellen hervottomina alas. Hiljaa ja hellävaroen hän laski ruumiin vuoteelle ja painoi silmäluomet kiinni. Tuskan ilme haihtui hiljalleen lapsen kasvoista ja syvä rauha tasoitti taistelun jäljet.
Antti oli palannut takaisin tupaan. Hän seisoi hetken aikaa ja katseli Herttaa, joka piteli kuollutta lasta sylissänsä. Mutta hän riensi vaimon luo kuullessansa hänen valituksensa.
Kuolema oli kietonut Hertan huomion niin täydellisesti, ettei hän kuullut eikä nähnyt mitään mikä hänen ympärillään tapahtui. Hän heräsi todellisuuteen vasta kun Antti kutsui häntä.
— Hertta neiti, tulkaa minun avukseni. Antti oli kumartuneena vaimon yli. — Pitäkää häntä käsistä kiinni.
Vaimo väänteli itseään vuoteella eikä voinut hetkeäkään pysyä samassa asennossa.
— Pitäkää kiinni, Hertta, yhden hetken vaan, niin paljo kuin jaksatte.
Vaimo päästi surkean valitushuudon.
— Hyvä Jumala, armahda minua!
Hertan otsalta valui hiki ja hänen käsiään pakotti. Vaimon tuska tunkeutui hänen sydämeensä saakka, jokainen hermo hänen ruumiissaan kärsi hänen mukanansa. Hän ei voinut kääntää katsettaan vaimon tuskanvääntämistä kasvoista.
Vieressään hän näki Antin vakavana ja levollisena ja hänen rohkeutensa palasi takaisin.
Vaimon rinnasta kohosi raskas voihkina, sitten kaikki oli ääneti.
Hiljaa läähättäen hän makasi, silmät ummessa ja voimattomana. Aurinko tunkeutui tuvan pienestä ikkunasta sisään ja sen säteet leikittelivät karhealla, tyhjällä lattialla. Ja hiljaa ja arastellen ne lähenivät vaimon kalpeita kasvoja ja sivelivät hänen alastonta rintaansa.
— Lapsi on kuollut, sanoi Antti Hertalle, — se ei ollut pelastettavissa. Hänen äänensä sointu oli syvä ja katse vakava. Naapuritalosta lupasi vaimo tulla tänne. Hänen pitäisi pian saapua.
He astuivat sitten pojan ruumiin ääreen; Antti katseli pientä vainajaa, jonka kasvoissa oli jo vahan kuultava väri.
— Te olette rohkea nainen, Hertta neiti, hän sanoi tarttuen Hertan käteen ja puristi sitä lämpimästi.
Tuvan ovi avautui ja keski-ikäinen nainen astui sisään. Antti puhutteli häntä hetken aikaa ja lisäsi sitten:
— Me lähetämme tänne ruokaa ja puhtaita vaatteita. Pitäkää te nyt sairaasta huolta, minä tulen tänne huomenna uudestaan.
Sairas vaimo avasi silmänsä ja katsoi kiitollisena Anttiin.
— Jumala on armollinen, hän sanoi ojentaen kätensä hänelle, hän tietää kenen hän korjaa. Eikä hän anna meille suurempaa taakkaa, kuin minkä me jaksamme kantaa.
Hertta ja Antti läksivät tuvasta. Hiljalleen he hiihtivät kotia kohti. Hertta tunsi omituista väsymystä ja hervottomuutta ruumiissansa ja hänen päätänsä pakotti. Antti oli ajatuksiinsa vaipuneena.
Hänen ajatuksensa kiertelivät lakkaamatta Hertan ympärillä. Hänen sydämensä sykki rajusti ja hänen rintansa laajeni ja lämpeni siitä tunteesta, joka sai hänet yhä enemmän valtoihinsa. Hän rakasti Herttaa ja tuo rakkaus sai joka ainoan hermon värähtämään hänen ruumiissansa. Hän unohti kaiken muun, koko maailman ympärillänsä, hän ei tiennyt eikä tuntenut muuta kuin oman suuren palavan rakkautensa. Ja hän olisi tahtonut laskea sen Hertan jalkojen juureen ja yhdellä ainoalla voimakkaalla syleilyllä anastaa hänet omaksensa.
Mutta hän vaikeni ja hiihti hiljalleen eteenpäin.
Oli jo myöhäinen iltapuoli kun he saapuivat perille. Väsymyksestä ja liikutuksesta aivan uupuneena Hertta heitti päällysvaatteet päältänsä. Huoneessa vallitsi pimeys. Hän nojautui uunin reunaa vasten ja purskahti itkuun.
Antti oli seurannut häntä jäljissä. Vaistomaisesti, tunteensa valtaamana, hän astui hänen luokseen ja ojensi hänelle kätensä.
— Hertta! Hänen äänessään värähteli rakkauden syvimmät vireet.
Hertta kohotti silmänsä häneen. Äkillinen heikkouden ja avuttomuuden tunne valtasi hänet. Ja tietämättä mitä hän teki, hän vaipui Antin syliin.
— Hertta, Antti sanoi kuiskaten, — sinä olet minun, minun yksin, eikä kukaan saa riistää sinua minulta.
Hän hyväili hänen tukkaansa ja suuteli hänen ohimoitansa.
— Sano minulle yksi ainoa sana, Hertta, anna minulle yksi ainoa katse — —
Hertta kohotti päänsä hänen olkapäällään. Hän katsoi Anttia silmiin ja hän säpsähti. Hänen kasvonsa vääntyivät tuskasta. Hän työnsi hänet luotaan, ja heittäytyi pöydän ääreen, peittäen kasvonsa käsiinsä.
— Antakaa minulle anteeksi, jos minä teitä liian äkkiä yllätin, sanoi Antti kumartuen hänen puoleensa, — mutta kun minä joka päivä näen teidät rinnallani, kuulen teidän äänenne ja seuraan joka ainoata teidän liikettänne, niin minä en lopulta enää voi salata sitä tunnetta, joka on minut täydellisesti vallannut. Miksikä te luulette minun tulleen tänne? Miksi en olisi voinut lähettää tänne jotakuta muuta, jonka aika olisi ehkä ollut vähemmän kallis kuin minun? Siksi vaan että minä rakastin teitä, siksi vaan että elämä ilman teitä on minulle tyhjä ja mitätön. Ja siksi että minä luulin teidän kutsuvan minua.
