Brief contents
section i: Foundations
chapter 1 Introduction 1
chapter 2 Professional Identity of Counselors 25
chapter 3 Multicultural Competence and Social Justice 58
section ii: issues
chapter 4 Client Rights and Counselor Responsibilities 79
chapter 5 Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 106
chapter 6 Records and Subpoenas 130
chapter 7 Competence, Assessment, and Diagnosis 154
chapter 8 Malpractice and Resolving Legal and Ethical Challenges 188
chapter 9 Boundary Issues 216
chapter 10 Technology in Counseling 245
chapter 11 Counseling Children and Vulnerable Adults 264
chapter 12 Counseling Families and Groups 289
chapter 13 Professional Relationships, Private Practice, and Health Care Plans 311
chapter 14 Issues in Counselor Education 338
chapter 15 Supervision and Consultation 358
chapter 16 Professional Writing, Conducting Research, and Publishing 380
Appendix A ACA Code of Ethics 399
Appendix B Counseling Disclosure and Agreement Forms 434
Appendix C Client Request Form to Transfer Records 442
Appendix D Client Permission Form to Record Counseling Session for Supervision Purposes 443
Appendix E Guidelines for Counseling Case Notes 444
Appendix F Clinical Supervision Model Agreement 445
References 447
Author Index 491
Subject Index 500
Counseling Psychology 39
School Counseling 40
Vocational Rehabilitation Counseling 40
Counseling as a New Profession 40
Steps in Becoming a Profession 41
Progress Toward Professionalization 42
Professional associations of counselors 42
American Counseling Association 43
ACA Divisions 44
ACA State Branches 44
Other Associations 46
current issues related to Professional identity 46
Specialties Versus One United Profession 47
Organizational Structure of ACA 47
CACREP Accreditation of Specialties 48
Varying State Licensure and Certification Requirements 49
Legal and Political issues 49
Challenges to the Scope of Practice of Counselors 49
Job Classifications for Counselors 50
Third-Party Reimbursement 51 identity and Professionalism 51
Counseling and Other Mental Health Professions 51
Pride in the Counseling Profession 54
Counseling Around the World 55 Summary and Key Points 56
chapter 3 multicultural competence and social Justice 58
Multiculturalism, advocacy, and ethical standards 59 components of Multicultural competence 60
Self-Awareness 61
Knowledge 62
Skills 63 ethical considerations in Multicultural counseling and advocacy 64
Racism 64
Sexism 65
Classism 66
Homoprejudice
ethical Principles and Diversity 73
clients Who May Be Victims of illegal Discrimination 75
Gay and Lesbian clients and family Law issues 76 cultural issues in crisis counseling 76 Summary and Key Points 77
section ii: issues
chapter 4 client Rights and counselor Responsibilities 79 counselor responsibilities 80
Counselor Needs and Motivations 80
Counselors’ Personal and Professional Values 81
Avoiding Dependent Relationships 87
Involuntary or Mandated Clients 88
Counseling Techniques 89
Interruptions and Termination 90
Avoiding Abandonment 92 informed consent 94
Contract Law 94
Informed Consent in Medicine 95
Informed Consent in Mental Health 96
Written Disclosure Statements 97 Summary and Key Points 104
chapter 5 confidentiality and Privileged communication 106 confidentiality 108
Origins of Confidentiality 108
The Rationale for Confidentiality 109
Counselor Practices and Confidentiality 110
Ethical Standards and Confidentiality 111 Privileged communication 112
Origins of Privileged Communication 113
The Rationale for Privileged Communication in Counseling Relationships 115
Asserting the Privilege 117
Responding to Subpoenas 117
Suits for Disclosure 118
Exceptions to Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 118
Client Waiver of the Privilege 118 Death of the Client 119
Sharing Information with Subordinates or Fellow Professionals 119
Protecting Someone Who Is in Danger 122
Counseling Multiple Clients 123
Counseling Minor or Legally Incompetent Clients 125
Court-Ordered Disclosures 126
Legal Protections for Counselors in Disputes 126
Other Legal Exceptions 126
Diversity considerations in confidentiality and Privileged communication 127
Summary and Key Points 128
chapter 6 Records and subpoenas 130 records 130
Purposes of Records 131
Ethical Standards Related to Records 133
Legal Requirements 135
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication Requirements 136
Types of Records Kept by Counselors 136
Clinical Case Notes 138
Client Access to Records 142
Federal Laws Affecting Counseling Records 142
Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 143
Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act 145
Federally Funded Substance Abuse Programs 146
Other Federal Statutes 147
Handling, Storing, and Destroying Records 147
Voluntarily Transferring Records 148 subpoenas 148
Discovery in Litigation 149
Validity of Subpoenas 150
Interrogatories 151
Appearances at Proceedings 151
Testimony Under Oath 151
Turning Over Records 152
Summary and Key Points 152
chapter 7 competence, Assessment, and diagnosis 154 competence as an ethical and Legal concept 154
Counselor Preparation 156
Credentialing 157
chapter 8
Licensure 158
Certification 159
Specialties 159
Maintaining Competence 160
Continuing Education 160
Peer Review 161
Technology 162
Making Referrals 162
Diversity Considerations 164
Erosion of Competence: Burnout and Impairment 165
Diversity Considerations in Burnout Prevention 170 assessment and Diagnosis 170
Evaluation and Assessment 170
Testing 173
Test Security 176
Release of Testing Records 176
Providing Explanations to Clients 176
Diversity Issues in Testing 178
Diagnosis 179
Informed Consent 181
Consulting with Physicians 182
Qualifications to Diagnose 182
Diversity Considerations in Diagnosis 183
Legal Issues in Diagnosis 184 Summary and Key Points 185
malpractice and Resolving legal and ethical challenges 188 Malpractice 188
Suicidal Clients 189
Clients Who May Be at Risk for Harming Others 194
A Hypothetical Malpractice Case 198
Actual Malpractice Cases 200
resolving Legal and ethical challenges 201
Legal and Ethical Decision Making 202
Responding to Accusations of Unethical or Illegal Behavior 203
Formal Complaints 204
When You suspect a colleague is acting Unethically or illegally 207
Unethical Behavior 207
Unwarranted Complaints 211
Inappropriate Discrimination Against Those Who Have Been Accused 211
Illegal Behavior of Others 211
Cases Are Often Complex 212
Guidelines for Avoiding Problems 213 Summary and Key Points 214
chapter 9 Boundary issues 216
the complexities of Dual relationships 217 ethical standards for Professional and nonprofessional relationships 219 risks and Benefits of Dual/Multiple relationships 220
The Potential for Harm 220
Potential Benefits 222
Unavoidable Dual Relationships 223
Boundary Crossings versus Boundary Violations 226
The Legal Perspective on Boundary Crossings 228
Specific Boundary Issues 228
Ethical Decision Making 235 sexual Dual relationships 237
The Offending Mental Health Professional 237 Harm to Clients 238
Legal Consequences for Offending Counselors 239
Postcounseling Sexual Relationships 241
Sexual Attraction to Clients 241
Counseling Clients Who Have Been Abused by Previous Counselors 242 Summary and Key Points 243
chapter 10 technology in counseling 245
client Use of technology 246
Social Media 246
Other Technology Used by Clients 248
Distance counseling 248
counselor Use of technology 253
Using the Internet to Educate Clients 253
Communicating with Clients 253
Telephone Use by Counselors 254
Electronic Mail Communications 255
Testing 257
Technology in Teaching 257
Technology in Clinical Supervision 258
Social Media Use by Counselors 258
Office Security Systems 259
Electronic Record Keeping 259
Client Behavior and Technology 260
Diversity Considerations in the Use of Technology 262 Summary and Key Points 263
chapter 11 counseling children and Vulnerable Adults 264
counseling Minor clients 265
Legal Status and Rights of Minors 266
The Rights of Parents 267
Responding to Parents Who Demand Confidential Counseling Information 268
Children at Risk for Harm to Self or Others 269
Release of Records 271
Confidentiality in School Counseling 271
Confidentiality in Working with Minors in Nonschool Settings 272
Confidentiality in Consultations 272
Reporting Suspected Child Abuse or Neglect 273
School Violence 277
Dual or Multiple Relationships 277
Diversity Considerations with Minors 279
Vulnerable adults 281
Elder or Vulnerable Adult Maltreatment 281
Other Issues in Counseling Older Adults 284
Diversity Considerations in Counseling Older Adults 286
Clients Who Have Been Declared Legally Incompetent 286 Summary and Key Points 287
chapter 12 counseling Families and groups 289 family counseling 290
Informed Consent 291
Client Welfare 292
Risky Techniques 293
Family Violence 294
Privacy, Confidentiality, and Privileged Communication 295
Family Secrets 297
Divorce and Child Custody 298
Counselor Competence 299
Counselor Values 300
Group counseling 302
Informed Consent 302
Screening 304
Client Welfare and Protection from Harm 304
Privacy and Confidentiality 305
Confidentiality with Minors 305
Privileged Communication 306
Dual Relationships 306
Socializing Among Members 307
Counselor Competence 308
Diversity and Values Considerations in Group Counseling 308
Summary and Key Points 309
chapter 13 Professional Relationships, Private Practice, and health care Plans 311
Professional relationships 311
Employer/Employee Relationships 312
Confidential Information 318
Referrals 318
Respecting Other Professionals 320
Private Practice 321
Taxes and Business Licenses 321
Business Form 322
Fees for Services 323
Attorney and Accountant Services 324
Professional Liability Insurance 325
Making the Transition 325
Health care Plans 326
State Insurance Laws 327
Managed Care 328
Types of Health Care Plans 328
Counselors as Service Providers 329
Federal Health Care Plans 330
Client Privacy 330
Diagnosis 331
Informed Consent 331
Receiving Payment for Services 331
Continuing Treatment and Denial of Services 332
Avoiding Fraud 333
Changing Nature of Health Care Plans 335
Diversity Considerations 335
Summary and Key Points 336
chapter 14 issues in counselor education 338
counselor education Programs 339
Informed Consent 339
Admissions 339
Curriculum Issues 341
Gatekeeping 346
faculty and student issues 349
Faculty Competence 349
Diversity Considerations 349
Student–Faculty Research Collaboration 350
Personal Relationships Between Counselor Educators and Students 351
Diversity Considerations in Faculty–Student Relationships 354
Relationships Among Students 355
Responsibilities of Students 356
Summary and Key Points 356
chapter 15 supervision and consultation 358
supervision 359
Fair Evaluation 360
Informed Consent 360
Supervision Agreements 362
Supervisor Competence 362
Confidentiality Concerns 363
Supervisory Relationships 364
Accountability and Responsibility 367
Vicarious Liability 368
Supervisor and Supervisee Rights and Responsibilities 369
Technology Issues in Supervision 370
Diversity Considerations in Supervision 370 consultation 371
Accountability 372
Power 373
Consultation Contracts 373
Consultant Competence 374
Safeguarding Consultee and Client Rights 374
The Consultation Relationship 376
The Role of Values and Diversity in Consultation 377
Summary and Key Points 378
chapter 16 Professional writing, conducting Research, and Publishing 380
Professional Writing 381
Academic Integrity 381
conducting research 384
Research Roles 384
Research Design 385
Protecting Research Participants from Harm 386
Institutional Review Boards 389
Reporting Results 390
Commitments to Participants 390
Honest and Accurate Reporting of Results 391
Cooperating with Other Researchers 391
Publications 392
Giving Credit to Contributors 392
Submitting Work for Publication Consideration 394
Copyright Laws 394
Contracts 395
Reporting Income 396
Summary and Key Points 397
Appendix A ACA Code of Ethics 399
Appendix B Counseling Disclosure and Agreement Forms 434
Appendix C Client Request Form to Transfer Records 442
Appendix D Client Permission Form to Record Counseling Session for Supervision Purposes 443
Appendix E Guidelines for Counseling Case Notes 444
Appendix F Clinical Supervision Model Agreement 445
References 447
Author Index 491
Subject Index 500
COUNSELING PRACTICE
The courage of your convictions
Decision making skills & models
self-awareness
Knowledge of ethics, legal, & professional standards
Moral principles & virtues of the helping professions
Intentionality
fiGUre 1-1 Professional practice—built from within and balanced from outside the self
Source: Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ.
The third element is knowledge of ethical, legal, and professional standards. You will find that there is a wealth of resources available to you as you work to gain, maintain, and expand your knowledge base. Texts such as this one, casebooks, professional journals, codes of ethics, workshops and seminars, professional conferences, and your supervisors and colleagues are all excellent resources that can help to increase your knowledge.
The fourth element is self-awareness. As discussed earlier in this chapter, counselors must maintain a high level of self-awareness so that they do not inadvertently impose their own values, beliefs, and needs onto their clients. Knowledge of ethical, legal, and professional standards is not sufficient; best practice is achieved through constant self-reflection and personal dedication, rather than through mandatory requirements of external organizations (Francis, 2015).
Even after you have developed a solid knowledge base and the habit of self-reflection, you must have skills for applying your knowledge and reasoning through the questions and dilemmas that will arise in your practice. It also helps to have a model that will serve as a road map to guide your ethical decision making and bring some consistency to the process.
The final internal element is the courage of your convictions. This element can challenge even the most conscientious counselors who have the best intentions. As a counselor, you will face ethical quandaries. It can take courage to do what you believe is right, especially when there is a high cost to yourself, when your personal needs are involved, when you know that others may not agree with or approve of your actions, or when (as is the case in ethical dilemmas) there is no single, clear, right answer to the problem.
The following are some examples of ethical quandaries that take courage and that involve the behavior of other counseling professionals: What if you know that one of your professors has published, under her or his own name only, an article based largely on a paper you wrote? What if your supervisor at your internship site is engaging in a behavior that you strongly believe is unethical? What if you know that one of your fellow interns, who is also your friend, is engaging in inappropriate relationships with clients? In such instances, it can be easier to turn a blind eye than to confront the individual involved and run the risk of retaliatory action by the professor, a poor evaluation from your supervisor, or the loss of a friend. Chapter 8 discusses important points you must consider if you suspect another professional is behaving in an unethical manner and actions you might take.
Examples of ethical dilemmas that involve your own behavior include the following: What if you know that you are supposed to maintain personal boundaries between you and your clients, but just once you agree to allow a client to buy you a cup of coffee and have a social conversation immediately after a session has ended? What if you know you are supposed to render diagnoses of mental and emotional disorders for your clients based on criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fifth Edition (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), yet you generally render the same diagnosis of adjustment disorder for most clients because you think this diagnosis is the least stigmatizing? What if you report to a counselor certification board that you attended a continuing education workshop you paid for, even though you did not actually attend it? In these situations, it might be tempting to make some minor compromises to your usual ethical behavior, especially when you feel no harm comes to a client or to anyone else as a result.
Nonetheless, if you do nothing when you know the behavior of other professionals is unethical, or if you compromise your own ethical behavior, you have set foot on an ethical slippery slope. The slippery slope phenomenon is a term used by moral philosophers to describe what happens when one begins to compromise one’s principles—it becomes easier and easier to slide down the slope, diminishing one’s sense of moral selfhood along the way.
The diagram of the model also includes external forces that can support counselors in their efforts to maintain sound, professional practice. External sources of guidance and support include consulting with colleagues, seeking supervision, and increasing your knowledge and skills through continuing education activities. Your code of ethics is certainly a major source of guidance. Some laws support counselors in fulfilling ethical obligations; for example, privileged communication statutes can help you to uphold your clients’ confidentiality when called to testify in court or produce records. The system (school, agency, or institution) in which you are employed may also have policies on which you can rely when confronted with a challenge or a request to compromise your ethics.
Professional ethics
Concern about ethics acknowledges the awesome responsibilities inherent in the practice of counseling. A counselor’s work can make a difference in whether an abused child’s life situation is recognized and addressed, whether a battered spouse finds the self-affirming courage to move to a safe environment, or whether a suicidal client finds the hope needed to choose life. Other clients come with less dramatic, more mundane problems, yet counseling can play a vital role in their struggle to lead more meaningful and effective lives (Pope & Vasquez, 2010). Ethical counselors take these responsibilities seriously.
foundations of ethics
For many centuries, philosophers have debated what characterizes a moral and ethical person and how to behave in a moral and ethical manner, and these issues have been addressed within the helping professions since ancient times. The Hippocratic Oath was written about 2,500 years ago
in ancient Greece, and in fact Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle created most of the ethical principles that helping professionals use today.
ethical theories
Ethical theories provide a framework that counselors can use to decide whether an action or contemplated action is ethical. It is important for you to have an ethical theory because it will enable you to resolve the ethical dilemmas you encounter in your work and help you defend the solutions you reach. A number of ethical theories take opposing positions on what it means to be and act as an ethical person. Having some familiarity with a few of these positions may help you become aware of the approach you take in your ethical decision making as a counselor and perhaps challenge the assumptions you make. Remember that ethical reasoning is an acquired skill, not an inherent gift, and it can be sharpened through practice.
One set of opposing viewpoints on ethics is ethical absolutism versus ethical relativism. Ethical absolutists believe that there are some absolute moral standards that are universally applicable; that is, they must prevail in all circumstances and are not dependent on a person’s beliefs or cultural values. These standards exist a priori (they exist before a situation arises) and independently of whether or not one believes in them. Ethical relativists, on the other hand, do not believe that any absolute moral standards exist that can be universally applied. Rather, they take the position that if the members of a culture believe an action is morally right, then it is morally right to perform that act in that culture (Freeman, 2000). As you begin to study the codes of ethics for counselors, these codes may seem to you to be written in absolutist terms. They are written in terms such as “counselors do not . . .” and “counselors ensure that . . . ,” which appear to suggest that there are absolute do’s and don’ts of ethical behavior. We believe, however, that ethical standards must be interpreted in a relativistic manner, taking into account the uniqueness of the client, the situation, and any cultural variables that are involved. These distinctions should become clearer to you as you progress through the chapters of the text and begin to grapple with the ethical issues and dilemmas that are presented.
A related issue that is raised by philosophers of ethics is that of utilitarianism versus deontology, or consequential versus nonconsequential ethics. Utilitarian thought, represented by thinkers such as John Stuart Mill, argues that people should choose the act that will do the greatest good for the greatest number. In other words, an act is evaluated by its consequences. By contrast, deontologists, represented by the thinking of Emmanuel Kant, believe that an action is justified by its being inherently right, not by its consequences. Another way to state this idea is that what makes an action right is the principle that guides it. This philosophical question underlies much of the reasoning that counselors use in attempting to determine what is ethical professional behavior.
A third set of opposing philosophical viewpoints has to do with what motivates people to act morally or ethically. Egoism is the term used to describe actions taken out of self-interest, whereas altruism is the word that describes actions taken to benefit others (Freeman, 2000). Most people who choose counseling as their life’s work tend to see themselves as altruists, and indeed one of the most fundamental ethical values of counselors is that “client welfare comes first.” Although this ethical value is well established in the counseling profession, this does not mean that there is no place for egoism or self-interest in our work. When we consider the possible consequences of a decision or action we might take, we would be prudent to reflect on the effects that action could have on us as well as on our clients. This dual consideration of altruism and selfinterest, in fact, is reflected in the differences between the ethical and legal perspectives that are presented throughout this text. The ethical perspective is focused more on the welfare and protection of the client, whereas the legal perspective is focused more on protecting the counselor.
1-2 The Case of Edward
Edward is a high school counselor. His administrative supervisor is the school principal, Ms. Wilcox. Although Ms. Wilcox has no training as a counselor, she generally has been supportive of the counselors on her staff. She asks Edward to provide, for her eyes only, a list of his clients and presenting concerns. Edward trusts the supervisor to be responsible and refrain from sharing the list with others. Nonetheless, Edward believes it would be wrong to produce the list because it would violate his clients’ right to confidentiality. At the same time, he realizes he could be at risk for disciplinary action for refusing to produce the list. He thinks that no real harm would be likely to result from giving it to Ms. Wilcox. He is also concerned that a refusal could negatively affect Ms. Wilcox’s supportive attitude toward the counselors.
• What should Edward do? Do you believe the principle of confidentiality is the overriding consideration?
• Or, do you believe that it is more important for Edward to consider the consequences of the decision?
Discussion: If Edward reasons that the ethical principle is most important, he would be committing himself to uphold the moral principle of fidelity. Fidelity refers to fulfilling a responsibility of trust in the counseling relationship: Counselors strive to be faithful to the promises they make, such as keeping clients’ disclosures confidential. If Edward adheres to this line of reasoning, he could be said to be thinking as an ethical absolutist—that the principle always applies, regardless of the situation. He would also be thinking as a deontologist, by deciding that keeping the students’ confidentiality is the right thing to do, regardless of the consequences. In addition, he might be relying on altruism, in that he believes that his actions must uphold client welfare rather than serve his own interests.
If Edward decides to produce the list for Ms. Wilcox, he might be motivated by egoism, or a focus on protecting himself and his fellow counselors from negative repercussions. He could be using utilitarian reasoning as suggested by Mill, that because no harm is likely to come to the students, his decision will do the greatest good for the greatest number of people—not only himself and his fellow counselors but also the students who would be better served by having a supportive school administration.
We believe the best course of action in this situation would be for Edward to have an open discussion with his principal and explain his concerns about providing her with the list of students he has seen in counseling. Hopefully, his principal will either understand his concern and withdraw her request or convince Edward of the need for the list that would override his ethical concerns about the privacy of his students.
All of the theories discussed up to this point have focused on the question of what constitutes ethical action. Other theories focus on what constitutes ethical character. Virtue ethics, which originated with Aristotle, explores the question of what character traits or dispositions form the basis for right action. Aristotle believed that positive personal character is developed when individuals consistently take actions that are based on their society’s values. Virtue ethics focuses on individuals rather than actions and evaluates the whole individual instead of isolated decisions the individual
makes. Virtue ethicists believe that moral choices cannot be made by rule; what is needed instead is good judgment.
The ethic of care, or relational ethics, is based on the recognition that human beings exist in relationship and connection with one another. Psychologist Carol Gilligan (1982), who represents this perspective, believes that ethics exist in a world of relationships in which the awareness of connection among people gives rise to a recognition that we are responsible for each other. Thus, the solution to an ethical dilemma is not found in a contest between opposing philosophies but, rather, in a strengthening of the relationship on which the actors in the dilemma depend. Feminist ethicists have further articulated the ethic of care. Manning (1992) has stated, “An ethic of care involves a morality grounded in relationship and response. . . . In responding, we do not appeal to abstract principles . . . rather we pay attention to the concrete other in his or her real situation [and to] the effect of our response on the networks that sustain us both” (p. xiv). Relational or feminist ethicists do not disagree with principle ethicists, but their focus is different—they view moral actions as those that empower individuals, promote social justice, and ensure that all people are cared for and nurtured to develop their potentials (Vasquez, 2008).
With these general ethical theories in mind, we now turn to a consideration of ethical reasoning as it has been applied in the field of counseling.
linking theory to Practice: Principles and Virtues
Thoughtful mental health professionals have struggled with questions of ethical ideals, concepts, principles, and values, and how to link these to ethical decisions in professional practice (Beauchamp & Childress, 1994; Jordan & Meara, 1990; Kitchener, 1984; Meara, Schmidt, & Day, 1996). Two helpful perspectives are principle ethics and virtue ethics. Even though these two approaches are quite different from one another, they are complementary. When integrated into a holistic framework for ethical decision making, they can serve as a bridge from philosophy to practice.
Principle ethics have their foundation in moral principles, which are agreed-upon assumptions or beliefs about ideals that are shared by members of the helping professions. They are prima facie obligations that are always considered in ethical decision making (Meara et al., 1996). Although moral philosophers do not agree about the nature or number of moral principles, the following six are included in the Preamble to the ACA Code of Ethics (ACA, 2014):†
• Respect for autonomy means to foster self-determination. According to this principle, counselors respect the rights of clients to choose their own directions, act in accordance with their beliefs, and control their own lives. Counselors work to decrease client dependency and foster independent decision making.
• Nonmaleficence means to avoid actions that cause harm. This principle, long established in the medical profession, obligates counselors to avoid actions that risk hurting clients, even inadvertently.
• Beneficence is the counterpoint to nonmaleficence. It could be argued that the obligation of ordinary citizens in our society ends with doing no harm to others, whereas professionals have a higher obligation to provide a service that benefits society. Thus, counselors actively work for the good of individuals and society by promoting the mental health and well-being of their clients.
• Justice refers to the counselor’s commitment to fairness in professional relationships and treating people equitably. Counselors’ actions and decisions must be fair to all concerned. Justice demands equality, which has implications for nondiscrimination and equitable treatment of all clients.
†Source: Based on Preamble to the ACA Code of Ethics (2014), American Counseling Association.
• Fidelity refers to fulfilling a responsibility of trust in the counseling relationship by honoring commitments and keeping promises. Counselors strive to be faithful to the promises they make, such as keeping clients’ disclosures confidential.
• Veracity means truthfulness and addresses the counselor’s obligation to deal honestly with clients and others with whom they relate professionally.
Some writers have suggested additional principles such as respect for persons, which refers to a duty to honor others and their rights and responsibilities (Kenyon, 1999), and self-care, which reminds counselors that we must take good care of ourselves as a prerequisite to being able to be fully present for others (Barnett, 2008). Another principle that may have increasing salience in the future is reparation, which is the duty to make up for a wrong. This principle seems foundational to our profession’s commitment to social justice and advocacy (which we discuss in more detail in Chapter 3)
In theory, all of these principles have equal value and should be considered along with all the others when weighing an ethical decision. In reality, however, these principles can compete with one another, and counselors may need to sacrifice one in order to uphold another. For example, a counselor who is counseling a suicidal client may decide to intervene by notifying family members against the client’s wishes (thus breaching confidentiality and sacrificing fidelity) or by seeking involuntary hospitalization (thus sacrificing client autonomy) in order to uphold the obligations to prevent harm and do good (nonmaleficence and beneficence).
Virtue ethics start from a premise very different from principle ethics. The basic assumption of virtue ethics is that professional ethics involve more than moral actions; they also involve traits of character or virtue. Virtue ethics focus on the actor rather than on the action. Principle ethics ask the question “What should I do?”; virtue ethics asks “Who should I be?” Patterns of virtuous behavior are evident throughout the career of a professional, rather than being found in any particular action or decision. Thus, this perspective asks you to look at who you are, rather than at what you do. Certain characteristics of virtuous agents have been suggested as appropriate for mental health professionals (Meara et al., 1996). We hope that you will read about these characteristics with an eye to whether you see them as representing the ideals you hold for yourself, and that you will assess their relevance for you as an aspiring counselor.
• Integrity. Virtuous agents are motivated to do what is right because they believe it is right, not because they feel obligated or fear the consequences. They have stable moral values and are faithful to these values in their actions.
• Discernment. Discerning counselors are able to perceive the ethically relevant aspects of a situation, know what principles apply, and take decisive action. Discernment involves a tolerance for ambiguity, the ability to maintain perspective, and an understanding of the links between current behaviors and future consequences.
• Acceptance of emotion. Without discounting the value of logic and systematic deliberation about ethical issues, virtuous agents also recognize the role of emotion in ethical decisions. Rather than assume that emotion hinders reason, they believe that emotion informs reason. Virtuous counselors are compassionate and sensitive to the suffering of others.
• Self-awareness. Virtuous agents know their own assumptions, convictions, and biases and how these may affect their relationships and interactions with others.
• Interdependence with the community. Virtuous agents realize that values cannot be espoused without awareness of context. They are connected with and understand the expectations and values of their communities.
Both perspectives—a focus on principles and a focus on virtues—can contribute to your understanding of the basis for professional ethics. Principle ethics help you to systematically evaluate what you should do when trying to resolve an ethical dilemma. Virtue ethics can help you examine your ideals and define the kind of person you aspire to be as a helping professional. Thinking about principles and virtues requires you to look inward in order to identify internal resources that can assist you in ethical decision making. There are external resources as well, and primary among these is your professional code of ethics.
codes of ethics
Promulgating a code of ethics is one way that a group of practitioners can establish its professional status. Codes of ethics serve a number of other important purposes as well. They educate members of the profession as well as consumers about what constitutes ethical practice, help to ensure accountability through enforcement of the standards, protect the profession from government by allowing the profession to regulate itself and function more autonomously, promote stability within the profession by helping to control internal disagreement, and serve as a catalyst for improving practice (Herlihy & Corey, 2015; Mappes, Robb, & Engels, 1985; Van Hoose & Kottler, 1985). An established code of ethics also can protect practitioners—if professionals behave according to established guidelines, their behavior is more likely to be judged in compliance with accepted standards in a malpractice suit or licensing board complaint. Most fundamentally, codes of ethics exist to protect and promote the welfare of clients.
Some counselors practice mandatory ethics; that is, they function at a level of ethical reasoning that merely keeps them in compliance with minimal standards. By complying with these basic musts and must nots, they meet the letter but not the spirit of the ethical standards. Corey et al. (2015) use the term fear-based ethics to describe a level of ethical functioning that is motivated by a desire to avoid lawsuits, complaints to ethics committees or licensing boards, or getting into trouble in some other way. According to Pope and Vasquez (2010), counselors who set their sights at this level are vulnerable to denial and to other means of distorting, discounting, or dismissing ethical questions they encounter. Some of the self-statements that these counselors use to justify their actions include the following:
“It can’t be unethical if I don’t see it as an ethical issue.”
“It isn’t unethical if there is no ethical standard that specifically prohibits it.”
“It can’t be unethical if I know other practitioners who do it.”
“It isn’t an ethical problem as long as no client has ever complained about it.”
“It’s not unethical as long as no one finds out about it.”
Other counselors practice aspirational ethics, a term that describes the highest standards of conduct to which counselors can aspire. They understand the spirit behind the code and the moral principles on which it rests. They not only look outward to established standards, but also look inward and ask themselves whether what they are doing is best for their clients. Aspirational ethics, or concernbased ethics (Corey et al., 2015), means striving for the highest level of care for clients and is closely related to the concept of best practice. Corey et al. (2015) have emphasized that clients’ needs are best met when counselors monitor their own ethics and challenge their own thinking and behavior.
A code of ethics that would address every possible situation that a counselor might encounter would probably fill an entire library. You cannot expect your code of ethics to provide an answer to every question you might have. Codes are a crucial resource, but they are not a substitute for an active, deliberative, and creative approach to fulfilling your ethical responsibilities (Pope & Vasquez, 2010). You must attend to both the letter and the spirit of the code and work to understand
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521. C , Le Conseil des empereurs, 473.
522. Lo notarono anche i contemporanei; cfr. E . o. c. 5 I . C . De vita monast. 3, 5.
523. Cfr. le due lettere di Ottaziano Porfirio e di Costantino in O . P . Carmina, ed. M , pp. 3, 4.
524. A . V . Epit. 41, 8.
525. I . Orat. 1, 8 c., ed. H .
526. A . V . Epit. 41, 14.
527. C . Antiqu. const. P. 42 d. A . Ant. const. 1, 31 (in B , o. c. I, 3, p. 12). Veramente; l’uno e l’altro dicono soltanto che la successione dei maestri, adibitivi all’insegnamento, durò 414 anni, fino al 10º dell’impero di Leone Isaurico. La fondazione sarebbe dunque avvenuta nel 313 di C., innanzi cioè quella di Costantinopoli.
528. G , o. c. III, 30 C . Griech. Litter. 809, (4ª ed.)
B , Κωνσταντινόπολις, Atene, 1890, I, 458.
529. A . o. c. I, 31 C . o. c. P. 42 d. Z . 15, 3, 13-16 (= P. II. 104 b. c.) C . P. 454 c. d.
530. Cfr. M , Ueber das rhetorische Gepräge d. römischen Litteratur, in Vermischte Abhandlungen u. Aufsätze, Breslau, 1821, p. 83, n. x.
531. Notitia urbis constantinopolitanae, 9, 10 (in Notitia dignitat. ed. S ). Cod. th. 14, 9, 3. Sulla Basilica Capitolina, cfr. Anth. pal. 9, 660 B , o. c. II, 853 B , o. c. I, 283.
532. A . Enarr. Chronogr. antiqu. Constant. 296 (in B o. c. I, 103).
533. Cfr. H , Die Geschichte d. Griechenland unter d. Herrschaft. d. Römer, Halle, 1875, III, 494. G , Geschichte d. öströmischen Reiches unter den Kaisern Arcadius u. Theodosius II., Halle, 1885, p 275
534. S . H. E. 3, 1 b.
535. Cfr. il cap. VIII del pres. scritto.
536. S . l. c.
537. Anth. pal. 9, 660.
538. H . Chronicon (ed. S , II, 195) A . XVI, 2, 4 T . Or. 23, p. 292 a sgg. Cfr. M , De rhetoricae discipulis atque magistris per Orientem in IV. Cristiani aevi saeculo, Parisiis, 1866, pp. 41-42.
539. Cod. th. 14, 9, 3. 6, 21, 1.
540. Cod. th. 6, 21, 1.
541. Curiosum Urbis e Notitia (in R , Topographie d. Stadt Rom, p. 375)
542. T . Orat. 23, p. 294 b.
543. S . Malchus.
544. Cod. th. 13, 4, 1.
545. Se noi fossimo sicuri che non ci sia errore materiale in una delle nostre fonti, potremmo anche discorrere di una vera e propria biblioteca di libri di meccanica raccolta da Costantino in un apposito edificio, i Μάγγανα, ch’era altresì un arsenale di macchine e di materiali di guerra (G . Ann. 3, P. 252 o un codice de l’A . Antiqu. constant. 2, 69 in B , o. c. II, 606). Ma è lecito sospettare che il testo originario, in luogo di βίβλοι μηχανικαὶ, abbia discorso di ὕλαι μηχανικαὶ (cfr. B , l. c.).
546. Cfr. Cod. th. 11, 27, 1-2.
547. Cod. th. 13, 3, 1.
548. Cfr. il commento del G alla legge.
549. Cod. th. 13, 3, 2.
550. Cod. th. 13, 3, 3.
551. Cfr. P . V. S. 2, 25, 5 e G (V, 29) nel suo commento al Cod. th. 13, 3, 1. K , Historia originis ac progressus scholarum inter Christianos, Helmstadi, 1743, pp 41 sgg
552. Cod. th. 13, 3, 16.
553. Di tale fatto ci fornirebbe un’indiscutibile riprova una variante, che del passo della legge ci è offerta in alcuni mss. del C. I. 10, 53, 6, dove essa verrà riprodotta e dove, insieme con gli altri beneficati, si elencano i doctores legum, se però quella variante potesse sicuramente interpretarsi come una meditata interpolazione dei giurecousulti compilatori del C I Cfr D , Die Institutionen d Caius, Halle, 1869, p 8, n 14
554 quo facilius liberalibus studiis et memoratis artibus multos instituant
555 Cod th 13, 4, 2 (= C I 10, 66, 1)
556 Il Cod th ha albarii; il C I , albini e dealbatores
557 I codici hanno medici, ma l’inclusione dei medici tra questi professionisti non si spiega, e deve trattarsi di un errore
558 Per indicare gli indoratori, il testo adopera barbaricarii e deauratores Sulla differenza di significato tra questi due sinonimi, cfr B , Adnot ad Notit dignitat , Bonnae, 1839-1853, II, 1, pp 364-365
559 Il C I (l c ) aggiunge: gli scavatori di pozzi (o lectarii, fabbricatori di letti?), i magnani, i cocchieri (o costruttori di quadrighe?), i fabri (meccanici?), i sarti, i piumai (o ricamatori?), i coniatori, i lavoratori di lino Ma sul valore e la paternità di queste aggiunte del C I , data la grande libertà e varietà di criteri, cui si attennero i compilatori, non possiamo dire nulla di sicuro
560 CIL 6, 1708 — Notitiadignit occid 4, 14; cfr H , o c p 272 — D R , Diz. ep. II, 1327.
561 A M 16, 6, 2; cfr W , Gesch d Kunst, in Werke, Donaueschingen, 1825, VI, 346-348
562. Cfr. B , Grundriss der griech. Literatur, I4 , 656.
563. E . V. S. p. 492, ed. B .
564. Fragm. vat. 150, ed. M .
565. Cod. th. 13, 4, 3 (= C. I. 10, 66, 2) e commento del G .
566. T . Or. 4, 59 d. sgg. Non si tratta di una nuova pubblica biblioteca, come pure è stato creduto. Il passo di T non autorizza in nessun modo a ritenerlo, e il Cod. th. 14, 9, 2, come S . Malchus, parlano di una sola pubblica biblioteca costantinopolitana
567. L . Or. 1, p. 27, ed. R .
568. L . Or. 1, pp. 52-54; 58; 126.
569. L . Or. 1, p. 27.
570. L . Or. 1, p. 36.
571. L . Or. 1, p. 52 sgg.
572. L . Or. 1, p. 58.
573. E . V. S. p. 487 P I , L’école d’Athènes, Paris, 1868, pp. 29; 33-34.
574. C . Oratio ad Them. (in T . Orationes, ed. D , p. 21 sgg.) pp. 20 a-21 c.
575. T . Or. 4, 61 a-b.; cfr. anche p. 54 d.
576. Cod. th. 13, 3, 4.
577. Cod. th. 12, 1, 36; 41; 42; 44.
578. Cfr. il commento del G a Cod. th. 13, 3, 4.
579 Cod th 13, 3, 2; cfr 6, 21, 1
580 Cod th 13, 3, 4; cfr il commento del G — I Ep 26, ed. H .
581 Cfr pp 236-237 del pres scritto
582 K o c I, 89 I Ep 45
583 Z 3, 11, 3
584 I Epist ad S P Q Athen p 277 c
585. I . Ep. 9; 36.
586. Cod. th. 13, 3, 5. Nel C. I. 10, 53, 7, che la riproduce, manca, grazie alla libertà dei compilatori, l’ultima parte, relativa all’autorizzazione del principe.
587. N , Giuliano l’Apostata, Milano, 1902, 2ª ed., p. 327 A , Julien l’Apostat, Paris, 1903; II, 354 e passim, e così la maggior parte degli storici. Fra le poche eccezioni parmi debbano annoverarsi il M , Flavius Claudius Julianus, Gotha, 1867-1869, 2, 81 sgg e il G nel suo commento
588 Il R , Gesch d Reaction Kaiser Iulianus etc , Jena, 1877, p 64
L , Della politica religiosa di G imperatore, Piacenza, 1887, pp 110-111 N , o c p 329
589 Cod th 13, 3, 6
590 M , o c 2, 81
591 I Ep 42; cfr anche A M 22, 10, 7-25, 4, 20
592. Questa mi pare la più ragionevole interpretazione di questo passo, che vedo invece reso da altri diversamente: πῶς οὐ τοῦτο
593 G N 4, 5-6; 101 sgg A De civ Dei, 18, 52 R H E 10, 33, ed M S H E 3, 16 c S 5, 18 b
594 Cfr su ciò anche R , o c 66, n 8
595 κακουργία (In Iuvent et Maxim 1)
596 S H E 3, 16
597. N o. c. p. 335.
598. E . V. S. p. 482, ed. B :
599. Or. 18, p. 574.
600. D B , L’Église et l’empire romain au IV. siècle, Paris, 1862, IV, pp. 209-210; 213; 217.
601. A , o. c. II, 357 agg.
602. H -K , Storia universale della Chiesa, (trad. it.), Firenze, 1904, I, 14.
603. D B , o. c. IV, 217.
604. L , o. c. 110-111.
605. G , The history of decline and fall of the roman Empire, 1829, IV, pp. 92 sgg. B , Zur Beurteilung d. Kaisers Iulianus, Bayreuth, 1891 (progr.) 23-24. È questa la tesi ampiamente svolta da S. Gregorio di Nazianzo (Or. 4, 5, sgg.), il teologo di quel tempo più violento contro Giuliano. Ma (singolare contradizione!) le due orazioni di S Gregario contro Giuliano sono per buona parte un attacco vivacissimo contro la cultura classica e la immoralitè dell’insegnamento, che è possibile ritrarre dagli scrittori pagani
606 D M , La libertà di riunione; di associaz etc in Rendiconti dell’Istituto lombardo di sc e lett , 1900, p 851
607 Ad es il M , Études morales, Paris, 1883, p 294
608 M , o c 2, 84
609. N , Julian l’Apostat et sa philosophie du polythéisme, Paris, 1877, pp 170-172
610. G , Iulian philosopher and Emperor, New-York, 1895, p. 239-240.
611. N , o. c. 344 sgg.
612. P . Protag. 15.
613. Sui criteri pedagogici, informatori delle scuole di retorica, cfr. B , Fin du paganisme I, 218 sgg. e le acute osservazioni, di cui è cosparso uno scritto, che gli storici di solito non leggono, S , La ruine du monde antique, Paris, 1901, pp. 69 sgg.
614. Per le scuole famose di Port-Royal, cfr. C , Les pédagogues de Port-Royal, Paris, 1887, pp. XVII-XVIII; 60-61; 61, nn. 1 e 2; 272 sgg.
615. Si potrebbe dire di più: il passo dell’editto di Giuliano (Ep. 42 c.), che richiedeva che i maestri non nudrissero opinioni contrarie a quelle da loro professate in pubblico (μὴ μαχόμενα
φέρεν δοξάσματα) è stato con cecità partigiana, anche dai migliori (cfr A , o c II, 357), interpretato come recante l’imposizione di una conformità di vedute tra i maestri e l’opinione pubblica Tale interpretazione, se stenta ad accordarsi con la grammatica, termina certamente per attribuire a Giuliano il più illogico e il più sbagliato dei ragionamenti
616 N , o c 344 sgg
617 Cfr i Cap VIII e IX del pres scritto
618 S H E 3, 16
619 È stato da più di un moderno ricordato che, anche ai nostri giorni, degli ecclesiastici hanno chiesto il bando degli autori classici dalle scuole (B , o c I, 353) Ma essi non hanno rilevata la singolare, ma non istrana, coincidenza, per cui le scuole cattoliche, che sono tutte confessionali, e il cui grande pregio è di inculcare una fede, e di farne il fuoco centrale ispiratore dell’educazione e dell’insegnamento, ripetono, con le opportune, o necessarie, mutazioni di mezzi e di fini, la loro natura dal criterio fondamentale dell’editto di Giuliano.
620. D B , o. c. IV, 213.
621. A . Confess. 8, 5, 10.
622 E V S p 492
623 I Ep 2
624 H Chron ad a 366 (II, 196 ed S )
625 H l c E V S p 493 Non ho potuto vedere il L , Influence des Pères de l’Église sur l’éducation, ove, secondo trovo riferito, si sostiene che Proeresio non sarebbe stato cristiano
626 O 7, 30, 3 I C In Iuv et Maxim 1
627 M , o c 2, 82 B , o c 22
628 D B , o c IV, 216 e n 1 G , Decline and fall of the rom empire, IV, 93 L , Der Untergang d Hellenismus, München,
1854, p. 64, n. 184 R , o. c. 66 A , o. c. II, 363-364.
629. S . H. E. 2, 46, 3, 16 a S . H. E. 5, 18 c.
630. G . N . Orat. 4, 111-112; cfr. S . H. E. 5, 16.
631. 14, 6, 18.
632. Cfr. anche H , Les écoles d’Antioche, Paris, 1898, 114 sgg.
633. pari a ca. l. 64. Sull’arruffata questione della capacità dell’artaba, nell’età imperiale romana, cfr. H , Beiträge zur Aegyptischen Metrologie, in Archiv f. Papyrusforschung etc. II, 283 sgg. G -H , in Tebt. Pap. I, 232-233 B , Contributo alla storia economica dell’antichità, Roma, 1907, pp. 57-59.
634. Ep. 56.
635. Ep. 71.
636. Com’è noto, l’autorità delle lettere di Giamblico a Giuliano è stata più volte posta in dubbio (S , De vita et scriptis Iuliani imperatoris, Bonn, 1888, pp. 23 sgg. Z , o. c. III4 , 2, 736-8, n. 3); ma quei dubbi non hanno in verità fondamenta troppo solide (C , Hist de la litter grecque, Paris 1899, V, 888 e n 1 N , o c 451, n 1)
637 Ep 3
638. Ep. 40.
639. Ep. 4.
640. Ep. 15.
641. 22, 7, 3, cfr. L . Or. 18, p. 574.
642. A . M . 25, 3, 15 sgg.
643. Cod. th. 13, 3, 6.
644. Così mutilata la ritroviamo nel C. I. 10, 53, 7.
645. A . M . 23, 5, 11.
646. Cod. th. 14, 9, 1.
647. Queste consociationes debbono essere state le corporazioni degli studenti, i cui atti talora criminosi sono più volte censurati dagli scrittori contemporanei
648. I corporati erano persone, facenti parte di associazioni speciali, riconosciute dallo Stato, le quali, nel IV e nel V secolo di C , ebbero una importanza massima nella vita dell’impero, segnatamente in Roma e in Costantinopoli, e vennero incaricate di speciali servizi pubblici, in cambio dei quali godevano determinati privilegi; cfr W , Les corporations professionelles chez les Romains, Louvain, 1896, II, 139 sgg ; 193 sgg e passim
649 Cfr , oltre a quello del G , il bel commento alla legge del C , in D S , Novus thesaurus antiquitatum, III, Venetiis, 1735, pp 1199-1232, nonchè le osservazioni del K , o c § 12-16 e del V , Essai sur l’histoire de la praefectura urbis à Rome, Paris, 1896, pp. 305; 118.
650. Le fonti sono Libanio, S. Gregorio di Nazianzo, S. Agostino. Per un quadro generale di quella vita e di quell’ambiente, cfr. H , o. c. III, 349 sgg. H , Les écoles d’Antioches, pp. 205 sgg. M , Les Africains, Paris, 1894, 66 sgg. R , o. c. 29.
651. A . Confess. 5, 8, 14: quietius studere adulescentes et ordinatiore disciplinae coercitione sedari.
652. Cod. th. 13, 3, 10.
653. Cod. th. 13, 4, 4. Il testo dà picturae professores. Tale epiteto non basterebbe a designare dei maestri. Ma la legge è richiamata in un’altra di Teodosio II. (Cod. th. 13, 3, 18; cfr. C. I. 12, 40, 8), rubricata sotto il titolo de professoribus, che questa volta sono realmente insegnanti pubblici e privati.
654. Era un’imposta che gravava sui mercanti.
655. A . M . 30, 9, 4.
656. M , Röm. Strafrecht, Leipzig, 1899, 249-250.
657. Questa è la più probabile interpretazione della seconda tra le clausole da noi enumerate della legge di Valentiniano. Essa dette luogo a un’interessante discussione tra il S (Römische Steuerverfassung unter d. Kaisern in Verm. Schriften, II, 83-84) e lo Z
L (Zur Gesch. d. röm. Steuerwesen in d. Kaiserzeit, estr. dalle Mémoires de l’Académie imper. des sciences de S. Pétersbourg, 1863, pp 5 sgg) Cfr anche P , o c 95 sgg
658. Cod. th. 13. 4, 1; 2.
659. Orat. 9, p. 123 b.
660. Cod. th. 14, 9, 2.
661. Era questa la forma di rimunerazione, adottata ora anche per i pubblici docenti; cfr., ad es., T . Or. 23, p. 292 a sgg.
662. C , in D R , Diz. ep. III, 282 sgg.
663. Z . 4, 14-15.
664. A . M . 29, 1, 41. Perchè, ad es., i libri di diritto?
665. Cfr. anche S . H. E. 6, 35 e B , Ueber die Chronik d. Sulpicius Severus in Gesammelte Abhandlungen, Berlin, 1885, II, 102.
666. Orat. 10, p. 129 d-130 a.
667. Cod. th. 13, 3, 11.
668. Questa singolare modestia di stipendio del grammatico greco di Treviri si può spiegare col fatto che, in questa città, l’uso del greco era raro, l’apprendimento svogliato (cfr. A . 16, 9 ed. S ) e l’insegnamento, quindi, negletto come cosa superflua.
669. B , Die Diokletianische Taxordnung vom Jahre 301, in Zeitschrift für die gesammte Staatswissenschaft. 1894, p. 197 M , Die wirtschaftl. Entwickelung etc. in Jahrb. f. N. Ö. 1895, p. 742 e nota.
670. Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertin.; Val. 13, 3, ed M M ; cfr. B , in Vierteljahrschrift für Social u. Wirtschaftsgesch. 1906, pp. 659 sgg.
671. I, 27, 1, 22 sgg.
672. CIL. 3 suppl. 2, p. 235828 , l. 1 a.
673. G . L . p. 34, ed. F .
674. T . Or. 23, p. 292 a.
675. Edict. de pretiis etc. 3, 3, ed M -B .
676. Secondo l’Edictum de pretiis (2, 1 sgg.), il vino, nell’impero romano, era uno dei prodotti più costosi.
677. Cfr. C , in D R , Diz. ep. III, 285 sgg.
678. 16, 9, 6: fructus exilis tennisque sermo.
679. Cod. th. 13, 3, 8 (= C. I. 10, 53, 9); 9 S . Ep. 10, 27 (= 10, 40= 10, 47) 2 sgg. V , in Revue arch. 1880 (39) p. 355 sgg.
680. Cod. th. 13, 3, 10; 12.
681. Cod. th. 15, 1, 14. Cfr. A . M . 27, 3, 10.
682. Cod. th. 15, 1, 19.
683. A . Gratian act. 17 e passim. Su Ausonio precettore di Graziano, cfr. I , Ausone et son temps, in Revue histor. 1891 (47) 256 sgg.
684. C , Hist. de la litt. grecque, V, p. 863.
685. B , Fin du paganisme, II, 209-210.
686 Così suona il lamento degli Ellenofili; cfr L Orat 1, p 133
687 B , o c II, 437
688 T Or 5, p 63 c; 9, p 123
689 Sulla reazione religiosa di Teodosio, cfr L Der Untergang d Hellenismus, München, 1854, pp 98 sgg S , Gesch d Untergangs d Heidentums, Jena, 1887, I, 257 sgg
690 S , o c I, 259; 276 sgg e fonti ivi cit
691 Cod th 12, 1, 98 (= C I 10, 32, 35)
692 Cod th 12, 1, 86; 87; 90; 91; 93; 94
693 Cod th 12, 1, 98: ne quid patriae periisse videatur
694. S . 5, 35 (= 33). Noi conosciamo il destinatario solo attraverso le poche lettere indirizzategli da Simmaco, che vanno dal 382 al 389. D’altra parte, fino al 380, il diritto a cotali stipendii non era stato messo in discussione (cfr S 1, 79 (= 73) )
695 Cfr P J , L’école d’Athènes, p 128
696. Cod. th. 13, 3, 13; 14; 15.
697. Cod. th. 16, 10, 8.
698. Ad es. il M , o. c. p. 47.
699. Ep. 10, 27 (= 40 = 47).
700. Il G e, sulla sua fede, anche lo S (o. c. I, 256 e n. 1) pensa sia stato un tempio della metropoli di quella regione, Edessa, quello stesso, che Libanio celebra nella sua orazione Pro templis, 10. Il D (Hist. ancienne de l’Église, Paris, 1906-07, II, 631, n. 2) pensa che si tratti invece della città di Harran, l’antica Charrae.
701. A . M . 14, 6, 12 sgg. Ammiano compose le sue Istorie verso il 390; cfr T , Gesch d röm Litt , II5 , 1093
702 Intendi le biblioteche private, come il testo chiarisce
703 A M 14, 6, 18-19
704. Cod. th. 15, 1, 37 (= C. I. 8, 11, 13) C. I. 1, 24, 1.
705. I due editti sono indirizzati a un Teodosio, allora praefectus praetorio delle Gallie (C . 17, vv. 50 sgg.).
706. Cod. th. 16, 10, 15; 18 (= C. I. 1, 11, 3). Circa i paesi, cui il primo si riferirà, cfr. il commento del G .
707. Cod. th. 16, 10, 16.
708. E , Histoire générale de la littérature du Moyen âge en Occident (trad. fr.) Paris, 1883, I, 298.
709. Advers. Symmachum. I, vv. 501-505.
710. G , Atenaide, storia di un’imperatrice bisantina (trad. it.), Torino, 1882, pp. 47 sgg.; 55 sgg. G , Geschichte d.
öström. Reiches, , 223.
711. Cod. th. 13, 3, 16 (= C. I. 10, 53, 11); 17.
712. Cod. th. 15, 1, 53. 14, 9, 3 (= C. I. 11, 19, 1-2). 6. 21, 1 (= C. I. 12, 15, 1).
713. Ciò è detto implicitamente nella legge del marzo (Cod. th. 6, 21, 1 C. I. 12, 15, 1). Per la emendazione dei passi corrotti di questo testo, ho seguito le ipotesi del G , accolte anche dal M , nella sua edizione del Codex Theodosianus.
714. H , Gesch. Griechenlands unter d. Herrschaft d. Römer, III, 272 G , o. c. 275 B , A history of later roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene, London, 1889, I, 128. Il G (o c 120-121) oscilla fra le due opinioni
715 S , Hist de l’école d’Alexandrie, Paris, 1845, II, 371 sgg V , Hist critique de l’école d’Alexandrie, Paris, 1846, II, 192 sgg — P J , o c pp 129 sgg — Z , o c III4 , 2, 805 sgg.
716 G , o c 278
717 G T Mirac 1 praef E CDXXXVIII, 10 (p 301302), ed V ; cfr G , o c 277-278
718 Si desume, confrontando il Cod th 6, 21, 1 con il Cod th 14, 9, 3
719 Tale infatti fu Elladio, un dotto, che aveva risieduto in Alessandria fino al 381, ove, per giunta, era stato sacerdote di Giove (S H E 5, 16 a)
720 H , o c 234-235; 240 sgg e fonti ivi cit
721 Cfr P , Die Regionen d Stadt Rom, p 170, n *
722 Cfr S , Storia del diritto rom nel M E (trad it ), Torino, 1854, I, 262, n c ; 263, n i
723 CIL 6, 9858, illustrata in Boll crist 1863, p 14 Sul retore privilegiato nel VI secolo, cfr J , in Berichte über die Verhandlungen d Königlich-Sächsischen Gesellschaft d Wissenschaft zu Leipzig, Philhist Classe, 1851, pp 351-352
724. Cfr. il Cap. IX. del pres. scritto.
725. Cod. th. 13, 3, 18 (= C. I. 12, 40, 8).
726. C , Institutions, II, 777, n. 2.
727. Cfr. S , o. c. I, 20 sgg. G , o. c. , 1 sgg. C , o. c. II, 777 sgg.
728. Su questi due codici, cfr. K , o. c. I, 941 sgg. K , Hist. des sources du droit romain, trad. fr., Paris, 1894, pp. 381 sgg. C , Storia delle fonti del diritto romano, Torino, 1909, pp. 114-116 e la bibliografia ivi citata.
729. A . M . 30, 4, 3 sgg.; 11: iuris professi scientiam repugnantium sibi legum abolevere discidia.
730. P . . 11, 20.
731. A . M . 30, 40, 8 sgg.
732. (Digest.) Const. Omnem, 1 sgg.
733. Nov. Theod. 1, 1 sgg.
734. Su l’opera giuridica di Teodosio II., cfr. K , o. c. I, 943 sgg.
735. Cod. th. 1, 1, 5.
736. Cod. th. 1, 1, 6.
737. Nov. Theod. 1; cfr. K , o. c. 1, 943 sgg.
738 Si tratta di una curiosa tradizione, che vale proprio la pena di riferire
P A , un letterato della prima metà del sec. XVI., fa, in un suo scritto (De exilio, Lipsiae, 1707, pp. 213-214), raccontare dal cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici, che, nella di lui biblioteca, era un libro di autore greco de rebus a Gothis in Italia gestis, in cui si diceva che Attila, allorquando ebbe invaso l’Italia, ordinò che niuno adoperasse più il latino e chiamò anzi dal suo paese maestri perchè insegnassero il gotico agli Italiani. Il T (o. c. II, 587-588) obbietta che Attila non poteva considerare l’Italia come cosa sua, e, quindi, legiferare secondo l’A riferirebbe. In verità, l’obbiezione non è insuperabile. Piuttosto, si potrebbe notare la stranezza del fatto che Attila avrebbe
imposto il gotico, anzichè l’unno, come lingua ufficiale. Ma ne anche a questa seconda obbiezione è impossibile replicare.
739. Const. Omnem 7 Cod. iust. 1, 17, 1, 10.
740. Ha dato di ciò una magistrale dimostrazione il Krumbacher, Gesch. d. byzant. Litteratur, München, 1897, 2ª ed., Einl. 1 sgg. Sui problemi di classificazione cronologica dell’antichità e del Medio Evo, discussi in questo breve paragrafo, cfr. G , Die Grenze zwischen Altertum u Mittelalter, in Kleine Schriften, Leipzig, 1894, V , 393 sgg
741 U , Anecdota Holderi, Bonn, 1877, p 67 M , Prooemium alle Variae di C , p VIII
742. U , o. c. 68 sgg. M , o. c. IX sgg.
743. Var. 9, 24, 8.
744. Var. 2, 3, 1 sgg.; 15, 4. 3, 33, 1 sgg. 10, 7, 2 sgg. etc.
745. La fonte è P (De bello goth. 1, 2), il quale però non riferisce la cosa come un fatto, della cui constatazione egli assuma la responsabilità, ma come un argomento dei nazionalisti Goti contro la figlia di Teodorico, Amalasunta
746. Cfr. C . Var. 1, 24.
747. C . Var. 10, 4, 6.
748. P . de bello goth. 1, 3.
749. C . Variae 1, 39, 4, 6 e, fors’anche, 2, 22. Cfr. M , Gesch. d. öst-gothischen Reiches in Italien, Breslau, 1824, p. 132, n. v.
750. C . Var. 5, 22. 4, 6.
751. in Nov. App. 7, 22.
752. C . Var. 2, 35.
753. I , Var. 1, 25.
754. C . Chron. ad a. 500.
755. I , Var. 1, 25; 28. 2, 7; 34; 39. 3, 29, 31. 4, 51. 7, 15.
756. C . Var. 7, 13.
757. E . Paneg. Theod. 56 e CDXXXVIII; cfr. M , o. c. 124 sgg.; 136 sgg.
758. C . Var. 8, 29; 30, 10, 30.
759. C . Var. 9, 24, 11.
760. C . Var. 8, 12, 8.
761. C . Var. 8, 18, 4.
762. P . de b. g. 1, 2; cfr. H , Italy and her invaders, Oxford, 1885, III, 585 sgg.
763. Debbono essere gli impiegati dell’officium a rationibus, cui spettava la cura suprema del fiscus; cfr. R , Fiscus in D R , Diz. ep. III, 133 sgg. H , Untersuchungen etc., pp. 29 sgg.
764. C . Var. 9, 21.
765. E . CDLII, 18, sgg. Fra i personaggi più colti dell’aristocrazia romana del tempo erano anche delle donne.
766. E . Paneg. Theod. 2; 76 C . De inst. dir. praef.
767. T , o. c. III, 51 sgg.
768. I , o. c. III, 35 sgg. M , Les moines d’Occident, Paris, 1860, II, 79-81.
769. A . (5, 14) si esprime testualmente: «Di quanti regnarono in Costantinopoli egli fu il primo sovrano assoluto, così di fatto, come di nome».
770. Sulla politica religiosa di Giustiniano, cfr. L , o. c. 144 sgg. S , o. c. I, 437 sgg. D , Justinien et la civilisation byzantine au VI. siècle, Paris, 1901, 552 sgg.
771. Cod. iust. 1, 5, 18, 4.
772. Cod. iust., 1, 11, 10, 2-3.
773. Z . 5, 5.
774. M . 18, O 187 d-e.
775. Su questo particolare, cfr. G , Gesch. d. Stadt d. Athen, I, 55-56 e 56, n. 1. Non mi è stato possibile avere tra mano il P (Ἱστορία τοῦ Ἔλλ. ἔθνους, 1887), ove, secondo trovo indicato, si nega la realtà delle soppressioni avvenute nel 529, tesi questa, che però non è stata accolta dai più recenti storiografi di quell’età
776 A 2, 30 M 18, O 237-238
777 A 2, 28; 30-31 Sulla fine della Università ateniese, cfr anche Z , o c 59 sgg
778 Z , o c 63 Z , o c III4 , 2, 917, n 1
779 M 18, O 187 d-e Il cronista fa tale divieto contemporaneo all’altro dell’insegnamento della filosofia Ma questo è impossibile Nel 529 Giustiniano aveva già riconosciuto quelle scuole (M 18, O 183) L’ordine della chiusura della facoltà di giurisprudenza deve essere quindi contemporaneo alla pubblicazione del Digesto (Const. Omnem 7).
780 I Or 3, p 153
781 C , Anecd graeca e Codd Paris IV, 315
782 P H A 26 (= P 74 c-d)
783 Su Procopio, quale fonte della storia di Giustiniano, cfr H , Zur Beurtheilung d Geschichtsschreibers Procopius, Munich, 1896 B , Zur Beurtheil Procopius, Ansbach, 1896, C , o c V, 1018-1019 K , o. c. I2 , 230-237 B , o. c. I, 359 D , o. c. XII sgg.
784. K , o. c. I2 , 373.
785. Z . 14, 6, 31-32 (= P. 2. II. 63, b.)
786. in Nov. App. 7, 22.
787. Cod. iust. 2, 7, 22, 4-5; 24, 4-5.
788. Cod. iust. 2, 7, 11, 1 sgg.
789. Sull’opera giuridica di Giustiniano, cfr. G , o. c. VIII, 30 sgg. K , o. c. I, 1003 sgg. K , o. c. p. 431 sgg. D , o. c. 250 sgg C , o c 130 sgg , ove, assai più del testo è pregevole il copioso apparato bibliografico
790 Const Deo auctore 5
791. Const. Tanta, 11.
792. Const. Tanta 13.
793. Const. Imper. maiest., praef.; cfr. De Iust. cod. conf. praef.
794. Const. Imper. maiest. 3.
795. Ibid. 7.
796. Const. Imper. maiest. 3.
797. Const. Omnem 7. Giustiniano (ibid.) soggiunge che tale investitura ufficiale fu, dai suoi predecessori, data anche a Berito, a Roma e a Costantinopoli, ma non ad altri luoghi. Egli dimentica però le costituzioni imperiali, cui si riferisce un passo del Digesto (27, 1, 6, 12), secondo cui i principi riconoscono l’insegnamento della giurisprudenza nelle province, pur non onorandone i maestri delle consuete immunità: «qui ius civile docent in provincia vacationem non habent, Romae docentes habent »
798. Cotali sedi di scuole giuridiche non dovevano essere poche; cfr. Dig. 27, 1, 6, 12 e B , Rechtslehrer u Rechtsschulen, 71 sgg
799. Const. Omnem 7.
800. Cfr. il § IX. del pres. capitolo.
801. Cfr. S , o. c. I, 263 n. a. K , o. c. I, 1023. A Berito dovevano esservene certamente più di due. Durante i lunghi anni di compilazione delle Pandette, noi troviamo nella Commissione due professori di Berito, i quali, naturalmente, erano costretti a soggiornare a Costantinopoli Se a Berito non ve ne fossero stati altri, quella gloriosa facoltà giuridica sarebbe rimasta senza maestri
802 Per la compilazione della prima edizione del Codice v’è solo un professore di Costantinopoli; per la seconda, solo uno di Berito; per le
Pandette, due di Costantinopoli e due di Berito; per le Istituzioni, uno di Costantinopoli e uno di Berito.
803. Significava Dupondii studenti da due dramme? E in che modo a codesto nome si convenivano le critiche imperiali? Cfr., su codesta oscura, questione, P , Miscellanea, I, 107 sgg R , in Zeitschrift f Rechtsgeschichte, III, 38
804 Const Omnem 1
805. Const. Omnem 7.
806. Const. Omnem 5.
807. Const. Omnem 9-10.
808. Const. Omnem 10. Non è inopportuno rilevare l’analogia di queste disposizioni con quelle che regolano le Università medievali, di cui fu modello Bologna (S , o. c. I, 556-557).
809. Il testo, come in altri punti della costituzione, ha leges, ma sul significato della parola, cfr. K , o. c. 468, n. 1.
810. Giustiniano dice partes legum, ma cfr. K , l. c. K , o. c. I, 1026.
811. Const. Omnem, 1; 4.
812. Ibid. 1; 5.
813. Const. Omnem 1.
814. Sul probabile valore simbolico di questa, come di parecchie altre cifre, contenute in questi programmi, cfr. B , o. c. I, 368-369.
815. Const. Omnem 2 sgg.
816. I . L , De magistr. 3, 29.
817. H , Commentarius de Ioanne Laurentio Lydo, p. IX, nell’edizione Bonnense delle opere di Lido.
818. l. c. L’H rimane incerto fra la lingua greca e la latina, ma il testo del decreto fa propendere per quest’ultima: Giustiniano lo lodava per la sua perizia nella ρωμαίων φωονὴ (L . De magistr. 3, 29).
819. Cfr. A . V . Caes. 10, 1.
820. C . De rep. 4, 3, 3.
821. Cfr. B , Scuola, Stato e politica in Roma repubblicana, in Riv. di filol. class., 1910, fasc. 4º.
822. Δημηγωρία etc. (in T . Orationes, ed. D ) p. 21 b-c.
823. S . Ep. 1, 79.
824. Const. Omnem, 7.
825. Const. Omnem 10.
826. Cfr. H , o. c. 227 e sgg. G , Kulturgesch. d. Kaiserzeit, Stuttgart, 1903, I, 141.
827. Cfr. P . o. c. 84.
828. C. I. 10, 53, 2.
829. È tipica la legge del Cod. th. 13, 3, 1.
830 Cfr Cod th 12, 2, 1 (= C I 10, 37 (36))
831 Const Omnem 7
832 CIL 8, 20 684
833 Cfr C , Procurator in D S , Dict d’ant class 4, 1, p 662
834 CIL 10, 1739
835 Cfr in ispecie il CIL 10, 7580; 14, 2916
836 CIL 6, 2132
837 Così hanno opinato, contro il M (in H G , Texte u Unters etc 1903, 111-112), l’H , o c 305 nota e il L , o c 140-141 Ma, fuori di Roma, gli imperatori avevano certamente biblioteche private ne è prova quella greco-latina, collocata da Adriano nella sua villa a Tivoli , e, se questo accadeva fuori di Roma, doveva a potiori avvenire in Roma e in Costantinopoli
