W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees.
BOX 14.3 CONSIDER THIS: Offshore Drilling and the Deepwater Horizon Disaster 558 Chapter Review 562
CHAPTER 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources 564
15.1 Introduction 565
15.2 Metals and Their Discovery 565
15.3 Ores, Ore Minerals, and Ore Deposits 568
15.4 Ore-Mineral Exploration and Production 574
15.5 Nonmetallic Mineral Resources 576
BOX 15.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Amazing Chilean Mine Rescue of 2010 577
BOX 15.2 CONSIDER THIS: The Sidewalks of New York 579
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Forming and Processing the Earth’s Mineral Resources 580–581
15.6 Global Mineral Needs 583 Chapter Review 586
PART VI PROCESSES AND PROBLEMS AT THE EARTH’S SURFACE
INTERLUDE F
Ever-Changing Landscapes and the Hydrologic Cycle 590
F.1 Introduction 591
F.2 Shaping the Earth’s Surface 591
BOX F.1 CONSIDER THIS: Topographic Maps and Profiles 593
F.3 Factors Controlling Landscape Development 596
F.4 The Hydrologic Cycle 597
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Hydrologic Cycle 598–599
F.5 Landscapes of Other Planets 600
BOX F.2 CONSIDER THIS: Water on Mars? 602
Interlude F Review 605
CHAPTER 16
Unsafe Ground: Landslides and Other Mass Movements 606
16.1 Introduction 607
16.2 Types of Mass Movement 608
BOX 16.1 CONSIDER THIS: What Goes Up Must Come Down 612
16.3 Why Do Mass Movements Occur? 618
BOX 16.2 CONSIDER THIS: The Storegga Slide and North Sea Tsunamis 619
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Mass Movement 622–623
16.4 Where Do Mass Movements Occur? 626
16.5 How Can We Protect against Mass-Movement Disasters? 628 Chapter Review 632
CHAPTER 17
Streams and Floods: The Geology of Running Water 634
17.1 Introduction 635
17.2 Draining the Land 635
17.3 Describing Flow in Streams 641
17.4 The Work of Running Water 643
17.5 How Do Streams Change along Their Length? 646
17.6 Streams and Their Deposits in the Landscape 648
17.7 The Evolution of Fluvial Landscapes 656
17.8 Raging Waters 660
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Changing Landscape along a Stream 662–663
BOX 17.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Johnstown Flood of 1889 666
BOX 17.2 CONSIDER THIS: Calculating the Threat Posed by Flooding 671
17.9 Vanishing Rivers 672 Chapter Review 674
CHAPTER 18
Restless Realm: Oceans and Coasts 676
18.1 Introduction 677
18.2 Landscapes beneath the Sea 679
18.3 Ocean Water Characteristics 684
18.4 Tides 686
BOX 18.1 CONSIDER THIS: The Forces That Generate Tides 688
18.5 Wave Action 690
18.6 Currents: Rivers in the Sea 693
BOX 18.2 CONSIDER THIS: A Closer Look at the Coriolis Effect 696
18.7 Where Land Meets Sea: Coastal Landforms 699
18.8 Causes of Coastal Variability 710
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Oceans and Coasts 712–713
18.9 Coastal Problems and Solutions 714 Chapter Review 718
CHAPTER 19
A Hidden Reserve: Groundwater 720
19.1 Introduction 721
19.2 Where Does Groundwater Reside? 722
19.3 Characteristics of the Water Table 726
19.4 Groundwater Flow 729
19.5 Tapping Groundwater Supplies 731
BOX 19.1 CONSIDER THIS: Darcy’s Law for Groundwater Flow 732
BOX 19.2 CONSIDER THIS: Oases 735
19.6 Hot Springs and Geysers 737
19.7 Groundwater Problems 739
19.8 Caves and Karst 746
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Caves and Karst Landscapes 750–751 Chapter Review 754
CHAPTER 20
An Envelope of Gas: The Earth’s Atmosphere and Climate 756
20.1 Introduction 757
20.2 The Formation of the Atmosphere 758
20.3 General Atmospheric Characteristics 760
BOX 20.1 CONSIDER THIS: Air Pollution 761
BOX 20.2 CONSIDER THIS: Why Is the Sky Blue? 762
20.4 Atmospheric Layers 764
20.5 Wind and Global Circulation in the Atmosphere 766
BOX 20.3 CONSIDER THIS: The Earth’s Tilt: The Cause of Seasons 769
20.6 Weather and Its Causes 772
20.7 Storms: Nature’s Fury 779
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Life Cycle of a Large Tornado 788–789
20.8 Global Climate 795
Chapter Review 800
CHAPTER 21
Dry Regions: The Geology of Deserts 802
21.1 Introduction 803
21.2 The Nature and Location of Deserts 803
21.3 Producing Desert Landscapes 806
21.4 Deposition in Deserts 811
21.5 Desert Landforms and Life 813
BOX 21.1 CONSIDER THIS: Uluru (Ayers Rock) 818
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: The Desert Realm 822–823
21.6 Desert Problems 824
Chapter Review 830
CHAPTER 22
Amazing Ice: Glaciers and Ice Ages 832
22.1 Introduction 833
22.2 Ice and the Nature of Glaciers 834
BOX 22.1 CONSIDER THIS: Polar Ice Caps on Mars 838
22.3 Carving and Carrying by Ice 845
22.4 Deposition Associated with Glaciation 851
22.5 Consequences of Continental Glaciation 856
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Glaciers and Glacial Landforms 858–859
22.6 The Pleistocene Ice Age 863
BOX 22.2 CONSIDER THIS: So You Want to See Glaciation? 864
22.7 The Causes of Ice Ages 868
Chapter Review 874
CHAPTER 23
Global Change in the Earth System 876
23.1 Introduction 877
23.2 Unidirectional Changes 878
23.3 Cyclic Changes 880
23.4 Global Climate Change 883
BOX 23.1 CONSIDER THIS: Global Climate Change and the Birth of Legends 887
BOX 23.2 CONSIDER THIS: Goldilocks and the Faint Young Sun 890
23.5 Human Impact on Land and Life 894
23.6 Recent Climate Change 898
23.7 The Future of the Earth 908
GEOLOGY AT A GLANCE: Consequences of Sea-Level Change 910–911
Chapter Review 912
Metric Conversion Chart A-1
The Periodic Table of Elements A-2
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
Preface
Narrative Themes
Why do earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, and landslides happen? What causes mountains to rise? How do beautiful landscapes develop? How have climate and life changed through time? When did the Earth form, and by what process? Where do we dig to find valuable metals, and where do we drill to find oil? Does sea level change? Do continents move? The study of geology addresses these important questions and many more. But from the birth of the discipline, in the late 18th century, until the mid-20 th century, geologists considered each question largely in isolation, without pondering its relation to the others. This approach changed, beginning in the 1960s, in response to the formulation of two paradigm-shifting ideas that have unified thinking about the Earth and its features. The first idea, called the theory of plate tectonics, states that the Earth’s outer shell, rather than being static, consists of discrete plates that slowly move, relative to each other, so that the map of our planet continuously changes. Plate interactions cause earthquakes and volcanoes, build mountains, provide gases that make up the atmosphere, and affect the distribution of life on our planet. The second idea, the Earth System concept, emphasizes that the Earth’s water, land, atmosphere, and living inhabitants are dynamically interconnected, so that materials constantly cycle among various living and nonliving reservoirs on, above, and within the planet. In the context of this idea, we have come to realize that the history of life is intimately linked to the history of the physical Earth, and vice versa.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition, is an introduction to the study of our planet that uses the theory of plate tectonics as well as the Earth System perspective throughout, to weave together a number of narrative themes, including:
1. The solid Earth, the oceans, the atmosphere, and life interact in complex ways.
2. Many important geologic processes involve the interactions of plates—pieces of the Earth’s outer, relatively rigid shell.
3. The Earth is a planet formed, like other planets, from dust and gas. But, in contrast to other planets, the Earth is a dynamic place where new geologic features continue to form, and old ones continue to be destroyed.
4. The Earth is very old—indeed, about 4.56 billion years have passed since its birth. During this time, the map of the planet and its surface features have changed, and life has evolved.
5. Internal processes (driven by the Earth’s interior heat) and external processes (driven by heat from the Sun) interact at the Earth’s surface to produce complex landscapes.
6. Geologic knowledge can help society understand, and perhaps reduce, the danger of natural hazards, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, and floods.
7. Energy and mineral resources come from the Earth and are formed by geologic phenomena. Geologic study can help locate these resources and mitigate the consequences of their use.
8. Geology is a science, and the ideas of science come from observation, calculation, and experiment by researchers—it is a human endeavor. Furthermore, geology utilizes ideas from physics, chemistry, and biology, so the study of geology provides an excellent opportunity for students to improve their science literacy.
These narrative themes serve as the book’s take-home message, a message that students hopefully will remember long after they finish their introductory geology course. In effect, the themes provide a mental framework on which students can organize and connect ideas, and can develop a modern, coherent image of our planet.
Pedagogical Approach
Educational research demonstrates that students learn best when they actively engage with a combination of narrative text and narrative art. Some students respond more to the words of a textbook, which help to organize information, provide answers to questions, fill in the essential steps that link ideas together, and help a student develop a context for understanding ideas. Some students respond more to figures and photos, for images help students comprehend, visualize, and remember the narrative. And some respond best to active learning, an approach where students can practice their knowledge by putting ideas to work. Earth: Portrait of
a Planet, Sixth Edition, provides all three of these learning tools. The text has been crafted to be engaging, the art has been configured to tell a story, the chapters are laid out to help students internalize key principles, and the online activities have been designed both to engage students and to provide active feedback. This book’s narrative doesn’t merely provide a dry statement of facts. Rather, it provides the story behind the story—the reasoning and observation that led to our current understanding, as well as an explanation of the processes that cause a particular geologic phenomenon.
Each chapter starts with a list of Learning Objectives that frame key pedagogical goals for each chapter. These objectives are revisited in the end-of-chapter Review Questions and in the Smartwork5 online activities. Take-Home Message panels, which include both a brief summary and a key question, appear at the end of each section to help students solidify key themes before proceeding to the next section. Throughout the chapter, brief Did You Ever Wonder? questions prompt students with real-life questions they may already have thought about—answers to these questions occur in the nearby text. See for Yourself panels guide students to visit spectacular examples of geologic features, using the power of Google Earth. They allow students to apply their newly acquired knowledge to the interpretation of real-world examples. In the ebook version of the text, these features are live links that “fly” students to the precise locations discussed. Each chapter concludes with a concise, two-page chapter summary that reinforces understanding and provides a concise study tool at the same time. Review Questions at the end of each chapter include two parts: the first addresses basic concepts; and the second, labeled as On Further Thought, stimulates critical thinking opportunities that invite students to think beyond the basics. Some of the questions use visuals from the chapter.
To enhance active-learning opportunities, the Smartwork5 online activity system has been developed specifically for Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition. Smartwork5 offers a wide range of visual exercises, including ranking, labeling, and sorting questions. Smartwork5 questions make the textbook art interactive, and they integrate the Narrative Art Videos, animations, and simulations that have been created to accompany the text. Questions are designed to give students answer-specific feedback when they are incorrect, coaching them toward developing a thorough understanding of the core concepts discussed in the book.
Organization
The topics covered in this book have been arranged so that students can build their knowledge of geology on a foundation of overarching principles. To set the stage, the book starts by describing processes that led to the formation of the
Earth, in the context of scientific cosmology. It then introduces the architecture of our planet, from surface to center. With this basic background, students are prepared to delve into plate tectonics theory. Plate tectonics appears early in the book, so that students can relate the content of subsequent chapters to the theory. Knowledge of plate tectonics, for example, helps students understand the suite of chapters on minerals, rocks, and the rock cycle. Knowledge of plate tectonics and rocks together, in turn, provides a basis for studying volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains. And with this background, students are prepared to see how the map of the Earth has changed through the vast expanse of geologic time, and how energy and mineral resources have developed. The book’s final chapters address processes occurring at or near the Earth’s surface, such as the flow of rivers, the evolution of coasts, and the carving of landscapes by glaciers. We also consider the problems that the Earth’s surface processes can cause, such as landslides and floods. This part concludes with a topic of growing concern in society—global change, particularly climate change.
In addition to numbered chapters, the book contains several Interludes. These are, in effect, “mini-chapters” that focus on topics that are self-contained but are not broad enough to require an entire chapter. By placing selected topics in interludes, we can keep the numbered chapters reasonable in length, and can provide additional flexibility in sequencing topics within a course.
Although the sequence of chapters and interludes was chosen for a reason, this book is designed to be flexible enough for instructors to choose their own strategies for teaching geology. Therefore, each self-contained chapter reiterates relevant material where necessary. For example, if instructors prefer to introduce minerals and rocks before plate tectonics, they simply need to reorder the reading assignments. A low-cost, loose-leaf version of the book allows instructors to have students bring to class only the chapters that they need.
We have used a tiered approach in highlighting terminology in Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition. Terminology, the basic vocabulary of a subject, serves an important purpose in simplifying the discussion of topics. For example, once students understand the formal definition of a mineral, the term can be used again in subsequent discussion without further explanation or redundancy. Too much new vocabulary, however, can be overwhelming. So we have tried to keep the book’s Guide Terms (set in boldface and referenced at the end of each chapter for studying purposes) to a minimum. Other terms, less significant but still useful, appear in italic when presented, to provide additional visual focus for students as they read the chapters. We take care not to use vocabulary until it has been completely introduced and defined.
Special Features of this Edition
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition, contains a number of new or revised features that distinguish it from all competing texts.
Narrative Art, What a Geologist Sees, and See for Yourself
It’s difficult to understand many features of the Earth System without being able to see them. To help students visualize these and other features, this book is lavishly illustrated with figures that try to give a realistic context for the particular feature, without overwhelming students with too much extraneous detail. The talented artists who worked on the book have used the latest computer graphics software, resulting in the most sophisticated pedagogical art ever provided by a geoscience text. Many figures have been updated with an eye toward improving students’ 3-D visualization skills. The figures have also been reconfigured to be more friendly and intuitive. All of the plate tectonics figures have been revised in this Sixth Edition in order to provide students the clearest, most vibrant, and most accurate visual understanding of the Earth’s interior dynamics.
In addition to the drawn art, the book also boasts over 1,000 stunning photographs from all around the world. Many of the photographs were taken by the author, in order to illustrate the exact concept under discussion. Where appropriate, photographs are accompanied by annotated sketches named What a Geologist Sees. These figures allow students to see how geologists perceive the world around them and to encourage students to start thinking like geologists.
Throughout the book, drawings and photographs have been integrated into narrative art, which has been laid out, labeled, and annotated to tell a story—the figures are drawn to teach! Subcaptions are positioned adjacent to relevant parts of each figure, labels point out key features, and balloons provide important annotation. Subparts are arranged to convey time progression, where relevant. The color schemes of drawings have been tied to those of relevant photos, so that students can easily relate features in the drawings to those in the photos. The author has also written and narrated over a dozen Narrative Art videos, which bring this art to life.
Google Earth provides an amazing opportunity for students to visit and tour important geologic sites wherever they occur. Throughout the book, we provide See for Yourself panels, which offer coordinates and descriptions of geologic features that students can visit at the touch of a finger, or the click of
a mouse. The adjacent box provides a quick guide for using these panels.
Featured Paintings—Geology at a Glance
In addition to individual figures, artists Gary Hincks and Stan Maddock have created spectacular two-page annotated paintings for each chapter. These paintings, called Geology at a Glance, integrate key concepts introduced in the chapters, visually emphasize the relationships between components of the Earth System, and allow students a way to review a subject . . . at a glance. The Sixth Edition includes three new paintings, illustrating the formation of minerals (Chapter 5), the life cycle of a tornado (Chapter 20), and the consequences of sea-level change (Chapter 23).
Enhanced Coverage of Current Topics
To ensure that Earth: Portrait of a Planet continues to reflect the latest research discoveries and help students understand geologic events that have been featured in current news, we have updated many topics throughout the book. For example, the Sixth Edition discusses the causes of and lessons learned from recent natural disasters such as Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria (Chapter 20), and assesses the impact of recent earthquakes in Nepal, Japan, and Ecuador (Chapter 8). The Sixth Edition also includes updated coverage of the economics of oil and other energy resources, and the difference between conventional and unconventional reserves (Chapter 14). These topics, along with expanded discussion of climate change and its impacts (Chapter 23), highlight the relevance of physical geology concepts and phenomena to students’ lives today.
Other notable new content in the Sixth Edition includes a revision of the paleomagnetism discussion to makes this topic more accessible (Chapter 3); new coverage of mantle modeling technology, and how it has changed our understanding of the appearance and behavior of subducted plates (Interlude D); new introductions to the concepts of phylogenetics, ecosystems, and paleoecology (Interlude E); and an intensive revision of the explanation of the Coriolis force and other atmospheric concepts, using text and figures developed in collaboration with atmospheric scientist Robert Rauber of the University of Illinois, coauthor of the First Edition of a separate book, Earth Science . This reworking ensures that students have access to the most contemporary and accurate explanations of these important processes (Chapter 18).
See for Yourself Using Google Earth
Visiting the SFY Field Sites Identified in the Text
There’s no better way to appreciate geology then to see it first-hand in the field. The challenge is that the great variety of geologic features that we discuss in this book can’t be visited from any one locality. So, even if your class takes geology field trips during the semester, at best you’ll see examples of just a few geologic settings. Fortunately, Google Earth makes it possible to fly to spectacular geologic field sites anywhere in the world in a matter of seconds—you can take a virtual field trip electronically. In each chapter in this book, See for Yourself panels identify geologic sites that you can explore on your own computer (Mac or PC) using Google Earth software, or on your Apple/Android smartphone or tablet with the appropriate Google Earth app.
To get started, follow these three simple steps:
1. Check to see if Google Earth is installed on your personal computer, smartphone, or tablet. If not, download the free software from https://www.google.com/earth, or access the desktop version at earth.google.com. You can also download the app from the Apple or Android app store.
2. Each See for Yourself panel in the margin of the chapter provides a thumbnail photo of a geologically interesting site, as well as a very brief description of the site. The panel also provides the latitude and longitude of the site.
3. Open Google Earth and enter the coordinates of the site in the search window. As an example, let’s find Mt. Fuji, a beautiful volcano in Japan. We note that the coordinates in the See for Yourself panel are as follows:
Latitude 35°21’41.78 0 N
Longitude 138°43’50.740 E
Type these coordinates into the search window of Google Earth as:
35 21 41.78N, 138 43 50.74E
with the degree, minute, and second symbols left blank. When you click “Enter” or “Return,” your device will bring you to the viewpoint right above Mt. Fuji, as illustrated by the left-hand thumbnail above.
Google Earth contains many built-in and easy-to-use tools that allow you to vary the elevation, tilt, orientation, and position of your viewpoint, so that you can tour around the feature, see it from many different perspectives, and thus develop a threedimensional sense of the feature. In the case of Mt. Fuji, you’ll be able to see its cone-like shape and the crater at its top. By zooming out to higher elevation, you can instantly perceive the context of the given geologic feature—for example, if you fly up into space above Mt. Fuji, you will see its position relative to the tectonic plate boundaries of the western Pacific. The thumbnail on the right below shows the view of the same location you’ll see if you tilt your viewing direction and look north.
If you’re having trouble, please visit digital.wwnorton.com/earth6. There you will find a video showing how to download and install Google Earth, additional instructions on how to find the See for Yourself sites, links to Google Earth videos describing basic functions, and links to any hardware and software requirements. Also, notes addressing Google Earth updates will be available at this site.
We also offer a separate book— the Geotours Workbook, Second Edition (ISBN 978-1-324-00096-9), by Scott Wilkerson, Beth Wilkerson, and Stephen Marshak—that identifies additional interesting geologic sites to visit, provides active-learning exercises linked to the sites, and explains how you can create your own virtual field trips.
Smartwork5 Online Activities
Smartwork5
Smartwork5 is Norton’s tablet-friendly, online activity platform. Both the system and its physical geology content were designed with the feedback of hundreds of instructors, resulting in unparalleled ease of use for students and instructors alike.
Smartwork5 features easy-to-deploy, highly visual assignments that provide students with answer-specific feedback. Students get the coaching they need to work through the assignments, while instructors get real-time assessment of student progress via automatic grading and item analysis. The question bank features a wide range of higher-order questions such as ranking, labeling, and sorting. All of the Narrative Art videos, animations, and interactive simulations are integrated directly into Smartwork5 questions—making them assignable. Smartwork5 also contains What a Geologist Sees questions that take students to sites not mentioned in the book, so they can apply their knowledge just as a geologist would. In addition, Smartwork5 offers reading quizzes for each chapter and Geotours-guided inquiry activities using Google Earth.
Based on instructor feedback, Smartwork5 offers three types of pre-made activity:
• Chapter Reading Quizzes, designed to help students prepare for lecture
• Chapter Activities, consisting of highly visual exercises covering all chapter Learning Objectives
• Geotours Worksheets —guided inquiry activities that use Google Earth
Smartwork5 is fully customizable, meaning that instructors can add or remove questions, create assignments, write their own questions, or modify ours. Easy and intuitive tools allow instructors to filter questions by chapter, section, question type, and learning objective.
SMARTWORK5 features a variety of question types to get students working hands-on with geologic concepts.
All Smartwork5 content is written by geology instructors. Our Sixth Edition Smartwork5 authors include Heather Lehto of Angelo State University, Tobin Hindle of Florida Atlantic University, Christine Clark of Eastern Michigan University, and Jacqueline Richard of Delgado Community College.
Media and Ancillaries
Animations, Simulations, and Videos
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition, provides a rich collection of new animations, developed by Alex Glass of Duke University, working with Heather Cook of California State University, San Marcos. These illustrate geologic processes in a consistent style and with a 3-D perspective. Interactive simulations allow students to control variables and see the resulting output. The newest simulations are designed to help students understand basic terminology.
Narrative Art Videos, written and narrated by Stephen Marshak, bring both textbook art and supplementary field photos to life. And a robust suite of over 100 real-world video clips illustrate key processes, concepts, and natural phenomena.
ANIMATIONS illustrate geologic processes.
All the videos, animations, and interactive simulations are free, require no special software, and are available in a variety of settings to offer ultimate flexibility for instructors and students: on the Norton Digital Landing Page (digital.wwnorton.com/earth6); in LMS-compatible coursepacks; integrated into Smartwork5 questions; linked to the ebook; and as linked resources in the new Interactive Instructor’s Guide that accompanies the text (iig.wwnorton.com/earth6/full).
Mobile-ready E-book
Earth Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition is available in a new format perfect for tablets and phones. Within the ebook, art expands for a closer look, links send you to geologic locations
in Google Maps, animations and videos link out from each chapter, and pop-up key terms allow for quick review. It’s also easy to highlight, take notes, and search the text.
The Geotours Workbook
Created by Scott Wilkerson, Beth Wilkerson, and Stephen Marshak, the Geotours Workbook, Second Edition, provides active-learning opportunities that take students on virtual field trips to see outstanding examples of geology at locations around the world, using Google Earth. Arranged by topic, the questions in the Geotours Workbook have been designed for auto-grading, and they are available as worksheets, both in print format (these come free with the book and include complete user instructions and advanced instruction) or electronically with automatic grading through Smartwork5 or your campus LMS. The Geotours Workbook also provides instructions that will allow instructors or students to make their own geotours. Request a sample copy to preview each worksheet.
Lecture PowerPoints and Image Files
Norton provides a variety of electronic presentations of art and photographs in the book to enhance the classroom experience. These include:
• Lecture Slides —Designed for instant classroom use, these slides utilize photographs and line art from the book in a form that has been optimized for use in the PowerPoint environment. The art has been relabeled and resized for projection. Lecture Slides also include supplemental photographs. For the Sixth Edition, the lecture bullet PowerPoints were revised by Brian Zimmer of Appalachian State University, and accuracy-checked by Lalo Guerrero of Portland Community College.
• Labeled and Unlabeled Image Files —These include all art from the book, formatted as JPEGs, pre-pasted into PowerPoints. We offer one set in which all labeling has been stripped for use in quizzes and clicker questions, and one set in which the labeling has been retained. Individual JPEGs are also available for download.
• Quarterly Update PowerPoints—Norton offers a quarterly update service that provides new PowerPoint slides, with instructor support, covering recent geologic events. Monthly updates are authored by Paul Brandes.
Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank
The Instructor’s Manual, prepared by Robin Nagy of Houston Community College, and accuracy-checked by Kerry Workman-Ford of California State University, Fresno, is
designed to help instructors prepare lectures and exams. It contains detailed Learning Objectives, Chapter Summaries, and complete answers to the end-of-chapter Review Questions and On Further Thought Questions for every chapter and interlude. The Test Bank, written by Heather Cook of California State University, San Marcos, and Geoffrey Cook of University of California, San Diego, has been revised not only to correlate with this new Edition, but to provide greater, more rounded assessment than ever before. Expert accuracy checkers Angela Aranda of California State University, Fullerton, and Haraldur Karlsson of Texas Tech University have ensured that every question in the Test Bank is scientifically reliable and truly tests students’ understanding of the most important topics in each chapter, so that the questions can be assigned with confidence.
New for the Sixth Edition, the Interactive Instructor’s Guide is a dynamic, searchable, online resource that provides all instructor resources in one place. With content tagged by book chapter and section, learning objective, and keyword, instructors can find what they need, when they need it— whether a Real World Video, an in-class activity idea, or the Lecture Slides for the chapter.
LMS Coursepacks
Available at no cost to professors or students, Norton Coursepacks bring high-quality Norton digital media into a new or existing online course. Coursepacks contain ready-made content for your campus LMS. For Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition, content includes the full suite of animations, simulations, and videos keyed to core figures in each chapter; the Test Bank; reading quizzes authored by Cynthia LiutkusPierce of Appalachian State University and accuracy-checked by Karen Koy of Missouri Western State University; new European case studies; Geotour questions; vocabulary flashcards; and links to the ebook.
Acknowledgments
Many people contributed to the long and complex process of bringing this book from the concept stage to the shelf in the first place, and now to the continuous effort of improving the book and keeping it current. Textbooks are, by definition, always a work in progress.
Developing and revising this book is done in partnership with my wife, Kathy. She carries out the immense task
of pulling together content and writing changes introduced in my other books, Essentials of Geology, Fifth Edition, and Earth Science, First Edition, including suggestions from users and reviewers, to produce Earth: Portrait of a Planet, Sixth Edition. Kathy edits new text, cross-checks many sets of proofs, and manages the never-ending inflow and outflow of proofs that perpetually occupy our dining-room table. Without her efforts, the updating of Earth: Portrait of a Planet through the years would not be possible. We are grateful to our daughter, Emma, and our son, David, who provided valuable feedback and several of the photos—and who also served as scale in some of the photos. They allowed “the book” to become a member of our household, for more than two decades, and tolerated the overabundance of geo-stops on family trips.
Kathy and I are very grateful to the staff of W. W. Norton & Company for their incredible, continuing efforts during the development of this book and its companions, over the past two decades. It has been a privilege to work with an employee-owned company that is willing to collaborate so closely with its authors. In particular, I would like to thank Jake Schindel, the geology editor at Norton, who has injected new enthusiasm and ideas into the project, working steadfastly to bring order to the chaos of juggling multiple titles at once. His skill in editing, ability to oversee many moving parts, and his friendly reminders of deadlines, led this book to completion on an accelerated production schedule. Thom Foley, the book’s senior project editor, as always, does an amazing job of guiding the book through production. He somehow keeps track of all the drafts, all the changes, and all the figures for a lengthy and complicated project, while remaining incredibly calm and providing essential institutional memory for the geology team at Norton. It’s thanks to Thom that everything somehow manages to get done, and that mistakes are few and far between. Rob Bellinger continues to keep the technology component of the book at the cutting edge, by introducing new web tools and overseeing the development of Smartwork5 for the book. Katie Sweeney has done wonders as the marketing manager for the book, by helping to determine how to meet the needs of adopters worldwide. I also wish to thank the previous editors for the book. Eric Svendsen ably oversaw the Fourth and Fifth Editions. And our dear friend, the late Jack Repcheck, served as the editor for the first three editions of the book. Jack suggested many of the innovations that strengthened the book, and his instincts about what works in textbook publishing brought the book to the attention of a wider geological community than I ever thought possible. He will always be remembered as an understanding friend and a fountain of sage advice.
Moving a new edition of Earth: Portrait of a Planet from concept to completion involves a large team of professionals. The artists, Joanne Brummett and Stan Maddock, in Champaign, Illinois, have created beauty and enhanced pedagogy
with the new illustrations that they have rendered for this Edition. Their work, along with the past work of other artists once anchored at Precision Graphics, set the bar for the quality of art in geology textbooks. Stan established the initial style of the book’s art and developed innovative ways of visualizing geologic phenomena. Trish Marx has done a fantastic job with the Herculean task of finding, organizing, and crediting photographs and bringing the photo selection process into the 21st century. Lissi Sigillo creatively developed a clean and friendly page design. I am also grateful to Rob Bellinger, Cailin Barrett Bressack, Liz Vogt, Kim Yi, Marcus Van Harpen, Leah Clark, Francesca Olivo, Arielle Holstein, Gina Forsythe, and Kelly Smith for their innovative approach to ancillary and e-media development. Thanks also go to Marcus Van Harpen, Lizz Thabet, and Mateus Teixeira for their work on the tablet and mobile e-books, and to associate production director Benjamin Reynolds, who coordinated the back-and-forth between the publisher and various vendors and suppliers. Norma Sims-Roche has done an excellent job as copy editor for this Sixth Edition, and Associate Editor Rachel Goodman provided consistent editorial support and trouble-shooting throughout the process of making this book. The six editions of this book and its cousin, Essentials of Geology, have benefited greatly from input by expert reviewers for specific chapters, by general reviewers of the entire book, and by comments from faculty and students who have used the book and were kind enough to contact the author or the publisher with suggestions and corrections. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the individuals listed below, who have provided invaluable input into this and past editions either through comments or reviews. I apologize if I’ve inadvertently left anyone off the list.
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Thanks!
I am very grateful to the faculty who have selected Earth: Portrait of a Planet for their classes, and to the students who engage so energetically with the book. I particularly appreciate receiving questions and corrections from readers that help to improve the book and keep it as accurate as possible. I continue to welcome comments and can be reached at smarshak@illinois.edu.
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sweetened water, and daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, in manner before described. In this way we save our colony from being without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, days, and that, too, in the very height of the honey season, when time is money. If extra queens are wanting, we have only to look carefully through the old hive and remove all but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly make sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of bees, that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such a quest.
TO PREVENT SWARMING.
As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby offered a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had to make the payment. Mr Hazen attempted it, and partially succeeded, by granting much space to the bees, so that they should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room.' The Quinby hive already described, by the large capability of the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side-storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming are shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. But as we shall see in the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless we work for extracted honey—by which means we may greatly repress the swarming fever—prevents our obtaining honey in a desirable style. If we add sections, unless the connection is quite free—in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly vex us—we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading the combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested to me by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the honey to run down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming.
It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very rapid, and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the interims of
honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections. Too few experiments, to be at all decisive, have led me to look favorably in this direction.
The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey without increase, as practiced and advised by some even of our distinguished apiarists, seems to me a very questionable practice, to which I cannot even lend my approval by so much as detailing the method. I would rather advise: keeping a, queen, and the workers all at work in every hive, if possible, all the time.
HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS.
We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, for, even though no stock is too much reduced in numbers, no colony lost by not receiving prompt attention, no Sunday quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in anxious watching, yet, at best, the old colony is queenless for about two weeks, a state of things which no apiarist can or should afford. The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as just described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, and save loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, or still better to
DIVIDE.
This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our number of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, too, when time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and preferable to swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since I have kept bees, and never without the best results.
HOW TO DIVIDE.
By the process already described, we have secured a goodly number of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed time. Now, as soon as the white clover harvest is well commenced, early in June, we may commence operations. If we have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. Take one of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we wish to divide. This must only be done on warm days when the bees are active, and better be done, while the bees are busy, in the middle of the day Remove the division-board of the new hive, and then remove five combs, well loaded with brood, and of course containing some honey, from the old colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the remaining frames and shake the bees into the new hive. Only be sure that the queen still remains in the old hive. Fill both the hives with empty frames—if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be still better, if not it will pay to give starters or full frames of foundation—and return the new hive to its former position. The old bees will return to the old colony, while the young ones will remain peaceably with the new queen. The old colony will now contain at least seven frames of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so that they will work on as though naught had transpired, though perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added space and five empty frames. The empty frames may be all placed at one end, or placed between the others, though not so as to divide brood.
The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young fertile queen, plenty of bees, those of the previous nucleus and the young bees from the old colony, and will work with a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.
If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two from each of three, and carry them, bees and all, and place with the nucleus. Only, be sure that no queen is removed. Fill all the hives with empty combs, or foundation instead of frames, as before. In this way we increase
without in the least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent swarming.
By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding any bees, as there would be no danger of loss by chilling the brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei into full stocks, and keep back the swarming impulse with great facility.
These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The only objection that can be urged against them, and even this does not apply to the last, is that we must seek out the queen in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her, though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians, as of course we all will. I might give other methods which would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my mind inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as above described, the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, and if they do they will be discovered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the work may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies as first explained, and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for forming new nuclei.
CHAPTER XI.
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.
The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) have already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to discuss the subject in a practical light.
The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted question. A few among the able apiarists in our country take the ground that a thorough balancing of qualities will make as favorable a showing for the German, as for the Italian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron of Berlepsch held to the same view.
I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. I have never sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have not been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have never had, if I except two years, any direct interest in bees at all, and all my work and experiments had only the promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum.
Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully observed and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of storing, early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, amiability, etc., and I believe that to say that they are not superior to black bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our Essex and Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous lank breeds, with infinite noses, that, happily, are now so rare among us. The Italians are far superior to the German bees in many respects, and more—though I am acquainted with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of our country from Maine to California, yet I know of scarcely a baker's dozen that have had
opportunity to form a correct judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. That these men are honest, is beyond question; that those who disagree with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The black bees are in some respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper's methods cause him to give these points undue importance, in forming his judgments, then his conclusions may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong conclusions.
The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority:
First. They possess longer tongues (Fig, 20), and so can gather from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point has already been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How much value hangs upon this structural peculiarity, I am unable to state. I have frequently seen Italians working on red clover. I never saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy to see that this might be, at certain times and certain seasons, a very material aid. How much of the superior storing qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I am unable to say.
Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet I will give the figures of another: Mr Doolittle secured from two colonies, 309 lbs and 301 lbs., respectively, of box honey, during the past season. These surprising figures, the best he could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, and from hosts of our own apiarists.
Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the day, but of the season. On cool days in spring, I have seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen. On May 7th, 1877, I walked less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be described while considering the subject of wintering, we think this no objection, but a great advantage.
Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against robbers. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores soon find that they have "dared to beard the lion in his den." This is so patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede it.
Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the beemoth's larvæ. This is also universally conceded.
Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity of the neuters. This is observable at all seasons, but very striking when building up in spring. No one who will take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain in doubt on this point.
Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to have the bees very quiet.
Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently desirable to find the queen. In full colonies I would rather find three Italian queens than one black one. Where time is money, this becomes a matter of much importance.
Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while being handled, which some might regard a doubtful compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.
Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity.
Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, did it stand alone, the Italian bees are far more amiable. Years ago I got rid of my black bees, because they were so cross. Two years ago I got two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference, but to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous Italians were safely handled, even without
smoke. The experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me, that if not much handled, they are more cross than the blacks. From my own experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as desirable as the pure Italians.
I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated.
The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than Italians, but if we use the sectional frames, and on other grounds we can afford to use no other, we shall find, with the more ample connection between the brood-chamber and sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many others have shown, the Italians still give the best returns.
I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more hardy, and have found many apiarists who agree with me. Yet, others of wide experience, think that there is no difference, while still others think the Italians more hardy.
The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, as they are more active, is quite probable. As I have never had a case of serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from experience. If the bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, which is very detrimental to either black or Italian bees, this point will have no weight, even if well taken.
ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS.
The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion of all other bees from the apiary. Truly, no one need to be urged to a course, that adds to the ease, profit, and agreeableness of his vocation.
HOW TO ITALIANIZE.
From what has been already explained regarding the natural history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change our bees, is to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a colony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian queen.
HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.
In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce a queen in the manner explained in the section on artificial swarming. To introduce a queen to a colony composed of old bees more care is required. First, we should seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian queen in a wire cage, which may be made by winding a strip of wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen to twenty meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on each side, and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube the size of the finger. We now have only to put the queen in the tube, and pinch the ends together, and the queen is caged. The cage containing the queen should be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, each of which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If we fear the queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and insert it in the upper end of the cage before we compress this end. This will furnish the queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again open the hive, after a thorough smoking, also the cage, which is easily done by pressing the upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the pressure when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. Now keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the queen emerges, the bees attack her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another forty-eight hours. I usually let some honey drip on the queen as soon as the cage is opened. Some think this renders the bees more
amiable. I have introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely been unsuccessful.
Mr Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when he goes to liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eating out the comb. I have tried this, but with no better success than I have had with the above method, while with this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do not receive her kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is thus held by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have never tried this plan. When bees are not storing, especially if robbers are abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at such time the utmost caution will occasionally fail of success if the bees are old.
A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always be safely given at once to the colony, after destroying the old queen.
A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt this course we must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells that may be formed; and if the one we supply is destroyed, wait seven days, then destroy all their queen-cells, and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save time I should always introduce a queen.
If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees, as already described. Smoke them well, sprinkle with sweetened water, daub the queen with honey, and introduce immediately. This method would involve really no risk. If the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees were rapidly escaping from the cells; there would soon be enough young bees to cluster about the queen, and soon enough bees for a good colony. This plan would not be advisable except in warm weather, and care is also required to protect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar for a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring.
By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may commence the next spring, and, as described in the section explaining the
formation of artificial swarms, we may control our rearing of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. I have done this several times, and with the most perfect satisfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no other way to make money so easily and pleasantly.
TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN.
Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth at least five dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell cheap queens. These are reared—must be reared—without care, and will, I fear, prove very cheap. It is a question, if any more sure way could be devised to injure our stocks than the dollar queen business, which is now so popular. It is quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian bees is owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, is what will augment the value of our apiaries.
The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate the inferior queens, many of which will appear in every apiary. These should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an apiarist will think even the poorest queens are worth a dollar. My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a dollar "Albino" queen last season which was not worth a cent. Yet it cost only a dollar, and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or even asked for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter, and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown away three dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more and buy cheaper in future.
I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the best; to study the art of breeding, and never send out an inferior queen. In this way we may hope to keep up the character of our apiaries, and the reputation of Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where "natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest."
REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS.
I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. After many inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if any apiarist can afford to rear queens, such as apiarists wish to buy, for less than four or five dollars. Only the best should be sold, and no pains should be spared by the breeder to secure such queens.
TO SHIP QUEENS.
This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a square block two inches each way, and one and a half inches deep—a hole bored into a two-inch plank to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom serves admirably. In this should be inserted a piece of capped honey, which has been entirely cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily perform this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, which is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden pin, which passes through holes previously bored in the box. We now cover the open chamber with fine wire-cloth, put in our queen and fifteen or twenty bees, and she is ready to ship. Any uncapped honey to daub the queen is almost sure to prove fatal.
Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with sugar (Fig, 57), which is very neat and safe. I have received queens from Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, and came in excellent condition.
TO MOVE COLONIES.
Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for ventilation, secure fastening of the frames so they cannot possibly move, and combs old enough so that they shall not break down and fall out. I would never advise moving bees in winter, though it has often been done with entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after such disturbance.
CHAPTER XII.
EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR.
The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any neglect to give other room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, and should never be taken from the bees, except when desired to render the honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient auxiliary in the
HONEY EXTRACTOR.
No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for this machine. It is equally true, that some have blundered quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame to the world, the apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, of Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey—aye, more, even if it must be thrown away, which will never be necessary, as it may always be fed to the bees with profit, even then I would pronounce the extractor an invaluable aid to every bee-keeper.
The principle which makes this machine effective is that of centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von Hruschka, by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled by his boy at the end of a string, was emptied of its honey. Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially like those now so common, though in lightness and convenience there has been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from
the top of the tub, fastenings extended to the axle, which projected for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the centre of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth. The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a string, which had been previously wound about the top of the axle, after the style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden tub with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will be seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of today As the machine is of foreign invention, it is not covered by a patent, and may be made by any one without let or hindrance. A good machine may be bought for eight dollars.
F . 58.
WHAT STYLE TO BUY.
The machine should be as light as is consistent with strength. It is best that the can be stationary, and that only a light frame be made to revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine should run with gearing, not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, so that we need not throw even drone larvæ from the broodcells. The arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy
and perfect shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I should also prefer that the can hold considerable honey— thirty or forty pounds—before it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it.
In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as most desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might hold four frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that winding the rack with fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth to resist the combs, while permitting the honey to pass. The rack should set so low in the can that no honey would ever be thrown over the top to daub the person using the machine. I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and made to hook on to the comb-rack (Fig, 58, a, a) which will hold pieces of comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (Fig, 58) made by Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though essentially like the extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial improvements, and is the cheapest, and I think the best extractor, that I have used or seen.
I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (Fig, 59) inclined down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of comb, but found them unsatisfactory. The combs would not be sustained. Yet, if the frames were long and narrow, so that the end of the frame would have to rest on the bottom of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame from falling in, before we commence to turn the machine.
F . 59.
The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred to wood, as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be either of tin or galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover to protect the honey from dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is necessary to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington honey knife (Fig, 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have used, though we have several of the principal knives made in the United States. It is, perhaps, sometimes desirable to have a curved point (Fig, 61), though this is not at all essential. F . 60.
USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.
Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it is nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no empty cells. The honey yield is so great that the workers occupy every available space, and sometimes even they become unwilling idlers, simply because of necessity. Seldom a year has passed but that I have noticed some of my most prolific queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the proper arrangement and best management of
frames for surplus would make such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the brood-chamber in two-story hives, with common frames above— the very best arrangement to promote storing above the broodchamber—so crowded as to force the queen either to idleness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, as also the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon this point, notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide experience and great intelligence, think me wrong.
The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted honey—in poor seasons, when he could get very little, if any, in sections or boxes.
By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist can secure nearly if not quite double the amount of honey, that he could get in combs.
The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the fall, which, if left in the hive, may cause disease and death.
By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for use the next spring. We now have in our apiary one hundred and fifty such empty combs.
If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket attachment, at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped sections can be emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of dronecomb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admirable for starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey at any season.
By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the price we ask for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not superior, to the best comb-honey, and which, were it not for appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market.
WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR.
If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve cents, the extractor may be used profitably the summer through; otherwise use it sufficiently often that there may always be empty worker-cells in the brood-chamber.
It is often required with us during the three great honey harvests —the white clover, basswood, and that of fall flowers. I have always extracted the honey so frequently as to avoid much uncapping. If the honey was thin, I would keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild heat, that it might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that I urge all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the cells. The labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey knives now at our command, is so light, that we can afford to run no risk that the honey produced at our apiaries shall sour and become worthless.
If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state with no injury, by healing, though the temperature should never rise above 200° F. This can best be done by placing the vessel containing the honey in another containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a stove, a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel from touching the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, the best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly above 80° F. If canned honey is set on top a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, it will remain liquid indefinitely.
To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses gate near the lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, and will of course pass more readily through common toweling or fine wire-cloth.
Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter. The honey, too, should be thrown from pieces of drone-comb which are cut from the broodframes, and from the uncapped comb in sections at the close of the season.
HOW TO EXTRACT.
The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient size to hold all the frames from a single hive. These should have convenient handles, and a close-fitting cover, which will slide easily either way. These will be more easily used if they rest on legs, which will raise their tops say three feet from the ground. Now, go to two or three colonies, take enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. The bees may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather If the bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb is placed inside. Extract the honey from these, using care not to turn so hard as to throw out the brood. If necessary, with a thin knife pare off the caps, and after throwing the honey from one side, turn the comb around, and extract it from the other. If combs are of very different weights, it will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced by them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of combs, and thus proceed till the honey has all been extracted. At the close, the one or two colonies from which the first combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set extracted, and thus, with much saving of time, little disturbance of bees, and the least invitation to robbing, in case there is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary.
TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.
Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick, and the vessels
