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Diplomatic Law: Commentary on

Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations Eileen Denza

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OXFORDCOMMENTARIESON INTERNATIONALLAW

GeneralEditors: ProfessorPhilipAlston,ProfessorofInternationalLaw atNewYorkUniversity,and VaughanLoweQC,EssexCourtChambers, London:EmeritusFellow,AllSoulsCollege,Oxford.

DiplomaticLaw

CommentaryontheViennaConvention onDiplomaticRelations

FOURTHEDITION

EILEENDENZA

GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP, UnitedKingdom

OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries ©EileenDenza2016

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Acknowledgements

Ishouldliketoexpressmygratitude

tothelateSirFrancisVallat,LegalAdvisertotheForeignOfficeandLeaderofthe UnitedKingdomDelegationtothe1961ViennaConference,who firstsetmeasanovice AssistantLegalAdvisertoworkonthedevelopmentofthelawofdiplomaticrelations. Whatwasoriginallytohavebeenajointarticlegrewandgrewintomy firstedition;

tothelateSirVincentEvans,hissuccessorasLegalAdvisertotheForeignand CommonwealthOfﬁce,forhisencouragementduringthepreparationofwhatbecame the ﬁrsteditionof DiplomaticLaw andforveryhelpfulcommentsonthemanuscript;

toProfessorRichardGardiner,formerlyaLegalCounsellorintheForeignand CommonwealthOfﬁce,whoprecededmetoUniversityCollegeLondon,inveigledme intohelpinghimtoteachanLLMcourseonForeignRelationsLawinordertoretainmy interestindiplomaticlawandtofocusonasecondedition,andwhohascontinuedtobea sourceofinformationandencouragement;

tothelateDrLukeLee,afriendfromourdaysattheHarvardInternationalLaw School,whoinvitedmetoassistandtocontributetohissecondeditionof ConsularLaw andPractice,publishedin1991,avaluablewarm-upforthesecondeditionofmyown book;

toOxfordUniversityPress,whogalvanizedmeintoasecondeditionandwhobya judiciousblendofcarrotandstickhavesteeredmealongtheroadtothethirdandnowthe fourth.ThanksinparticulartoJohnLouth,toDrGwenBoothand forthisfourth edition MerelAlstein,EmmaEndean,andEmmaSlaughter;

totheDepartmentofStateinWashington,whowereimmenselyhelpfulinthe provisionofmaterialnototherwiseavailableandforthcomingindiscussingdifficult pointsofinterpretation.WarmestthankstoLindaJacobson,AssistantLegalAdviserfor DiplomaticLawandLitigation,toLawrenceDunham,AssistantChiefofProtocol,to RichardMasseyoftheOfficeofForeignMissions,andtoStephenMcCrearyandGilda BrancatooftheOfficeoftheLegalAdviserfortheirhelpwiththesecondedition,andto JamesGresser,AttorneyAdviserintheOfficeoftheLegalAdviser,andhiscolleaguesfor assistancewiththethirdandfourth;

toProtocolDepartmentintheForeignandCommonwealthOfﬁceinLondonandto JoanneFoakesthenLegalCounsellorintheFCOwhorespondedgenerouslytoqueries onUKpolicyandpracticeforthesecondandthirdeditionsandtoChanakaWickramasinghe,LegalCounsellor,FCO,whohashelpedmewiththefourth.

EileenDenza September2015

TableofCases

767ThirdAvenueAssociatesandAnothervPermanentMissionoftheRepublicofZaire totheUnitedNations,988F2d295(1993);99ILR194... ..........................128

AvStateSecretaryforJustice,DistrictCourtofTheHague,RV(2000)No25,notedin 2002NYIL342. ...........................................................323

ACompanyLtdvRepublicofX,21December1989,87ILR412;TimesLaw Reports,9April1990. ....................................................

AAvPublicProsecutor,CourtofAppealofTheHague,1980,94ILR306 ..................143

AbdulazizvMetropolitanDadeCountyandOthers,11thCir,18September 1984,741F2d1328(1984);99ILR113... ...............................

AcuñadeArcevSolorzanoyMenocal,1956ILR422... ................................273

AdamsvDirectorofPublicProsecution,JudgeforDistrictNo16,HerMajesty’ s SecretaryofStateforHomeAffairs[2001]2ILRM401;[2000]IEHC45... ...........

AfghanEmbassyCase1937:64JournaldeDroitInternational561;1933–4 ADNo166..............................................................111

AfghanMinister(ConsularActivities)Case,1931–2ADNo179. .......................

AgborvMetropolitanPoliceCommissioner[1969]2AllER707;[1969]1WLR703; 1970BYIL215 ......................................................... 133,226

AgostinivDeAntueno,1950ILRNo91 ........................................

AhmedMahamdiavPeople’sDemocraticRepublicofAlgeriaCaseC-154/11, JudgmentoftheGrandChamberoftheCJEU ......................................55 AlcomvRepublicofColombia[1984]AC580;[1984]2AllER6;[1984]2 WLR750;74ILR170 ...................................................

AlHassancNahilaElYaﬁ,2001/18887;2004RGDIP1066... ...........................20 AlmeidadeQuinterosvUruguay,79ILR168.. ......................................121 AngeliniCase,1919–22ADNo206.... ...........................................111

ApexGlobalManagementLtdvFiCallLtdandOthers[2013]EWHC587(Ch). .............322 ArabRepublicofEgyptvGamal-Eldin[1996]2AllER237;104ILR673 ....................35 ArabRepublicofSyriavArabRepublicofEgypt,91ILR288... ..........................245 ArmonandanothervKatz,60ILR374.. ...........................................238 ArtwohlvUnitedStates,434F2d1319(1970);56ILR518... ..........................312 AssurantieCompagnieExcelsiorvSmith,40TimesLawReport105;AD1923–4 No173..................................................................329 AsylumCase,1950ICJReports266;AD1950No90,1951No113;VIIBDIL905... ........114 Attorney-GeneralvGuardianNewspapersLtdandothers[1987]3AllER316.. ..............184 Attorney-GeneralvGuardianNewspapers(No2)[1990]1AC109. ........................184

AustralianFederationofIslamicCouncilsIncvWestpacBankingCorp(1988) 17NSWLR623;104ILR405 ................................................236 AvelarvCotoiaConstruction,2011WL5245206(EDNY2011) ..........................131 Aziz(Mariam)vAzizandothers,SultanofBruneiintervening,Judgmentof 11July2007[2007]EWCACiv712;136ILR587.. ................................219 AzizvCaruzzi,101ILR358... .................................................243

BahvLibyanEmbassy,142ILR167... ...........................................236 BallonivAmbassadorofChiletotheHolySee,1933–4ADNo164.......................234 BanamarCapizzivEmbassyofAlgeria,87ILR56.. ....................................130 BankofPortugalvA.deSantosBandeina,1929–30ADNo201. .........................353 BaoananvBaja,627FSupp2d155(2009),152ILR596 ...............................360 BasiliadisCase,1922JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé407.. ..........................111

BayleycPiedanaetMauroy(1840)TribunaldelaSeine,1901JournaldeDroit InternationalPrivé341. ......................................................369

BeckmanvChinesePeople’sRepublic,1957:24ILR221.. ..............................146

BenkharbouchevEmbassyoftheRepublicofSudanandJanahvLibya[2013] UKEAT040_12_0410. .......................................................55

BennettvIslamicRepublicofIran,No09-5147,decided10September2010.... .......... 130,402

BennettandBallvPeople’sRepublicofHungary,28ILR392... ...................... 146,244 BergmanvDeSieyes,71FSupp334;170F2d360;1947ADNo73... ...................369 BolascovWolter,1957:24ILR525. ...............................................273

BonneandCompanyXvCompanyY,69ILR280;1973:2RBDI679... ...................238 BoosetalvBarry,485US312;99LEd2d333;108SCt1157[No86–803], decided22March1988;121ILR499. ..........................................142

BrazilianEmployeeCase,116ILR625.... ...........................................52

BritishArabCommercialBankplcvNationalTransitionalCouncilofthe StateofLibya[2011]EWHC2274,147ILR667,2011BYIL629.... ....................21

CarbonevCarbone(1924)123Misc(NY)656;1923–4ADNo170.......................369 CarreravCarrera,1949ADNo99 ................................................329

CaseconcerningArmedActivitiesontheTerritoryoftheCongo(Democratic RepublicoftheCongovUganda),2005ICJRep,Judgmentof 19December2005.... ........................................... 136,160,221,393 CaseConcerningCertainQuestionofMutualAssistanceinCriminal Matters(DjiboutivFrance)(2008)ICJRep177. ...................................220 CaseconcerningtheArrestWarrantof11April2000(DemocraticRepublic oftheCongovBelgium),2002ICJRep1 ...................................6, 257,363 CaseconcerningUnitedStatesDiplomaticandConsularStaffinTehran (HostagesCase),1980ICJReports3.. ....................64, 123,135,136,137,160,221, 223,234,385,390,393,407,420

CaseofTchitchérine,Genet(1931)volIp580;Satow(4thedn1958)p185 .................250 CassirerandGeheebvJapan,28ILR396. ....................................... 146,244 ChampelBellevuevStateofGeneva,1986ASDI98;102ILR180.. ........................278 ChineseEmbassy(Immunities)Case,1925–6AD321..................................281 Christidi,1899JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé369... ..............................355 CicippiovIslamicRepublicofIran,18FSupp.2nd62(D.D.C.1998),2000DUSPIL548. ......130 CityofNewYorkvPermanentMissionofIndia,618F3d172(2dCir2010); 2011AJIL339. ............................................................153 CominavKite,1919–22ADNo202..... ..........................................234 ConradesvUnitedKingdom,65ILR205(FederalRepublicofGermany, HanoverLabourCourt). ......................................................51 ConsulBaratvMinistèrePublic,1948ADNo102.. ...................................111 CopellovCanada(MinisterofForeignAffairs)[2002]3FC24,notedin2002 CanYIL557.. .............................................................71 CottenetetCie.cDameRafalovitch,1909JournaldeDroitInternational Privé151 ................................................................273 CouhiCase,1922JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé193. ..............................111 CudakvLithuania,ApplicationNo15869/02,Judgmentof23March2010. ...............54,55

DeAndradevDeAndrade,118ILR299(1984).. ............................. 235,242,253 DeDeckervUSA,23ILR209(Belgium,CourtofAppealofLeopoldville, BelgianCongo). ............................................................51 DeMeeusvForzano,1938–40ADNo164.. ........................................234 DemocraticRepublicoftheCongovUganda See CaseconcerningArmed ActivitiesontheTerritoryoftheCongo Deposit(LandinCzechoslovakia)Case,1938–40ADNo167......................... 241,247

DeputyCommissionerMcMahonvKevinMcDonald,SupremeCourtJudgment 185/88of27July1988byFinlayCJ;furtherDistrictCourtjudgmentof 19October1988,unreported. .................................................276

DeputyRegistrarCase,94ILR308. ............................................ 241,245 DickinsonvDelSolar[1930]1KB376,1929–30ADNo190.. ....................... 236,375

DiplomaticClaim,Eritrea’sClaim20(EritreavEthiopia),PartialAwardof 19December2005,135ILR519;RIAAVolXXVI381. ..................72–3,123,160,222

DiplomaticImmunityfromSuitCase,61ILR498 ..................................72,348 DorfCase,71ILR552.. .................................................... 121,226

DrtilekvBarbier,1925–6AD320. ................................................281 DuffvR[1979]28ALR663;73ILR678 ..........................................217 DuffDevelopmentCoLtdvGovernmentofKelantan[1924]AC797.. ....................279 DupontvPichon,SupremeCourtofPennsylvania,4Dall321.. ..........................355 DutchDiplomatTaxationCase,87ILR76.... ......................................296

EmbassyofCzechoslovakiavJensNielsen,78ILR81.. ................................280 EmbassyofthePeople’sRepublicofBeninvDistrictofColumbiaBoardofZoning Adjustments,534A2nd310(DC1987),describedin2001DUSPIL540... ..............107 EmpsonvSmith[1966]1QB426,[1965]2AllER881,41ILR407.. ..... 255,258,279,333,375 EngelkevMusmann[1928]AC433.... .........................................74,75 EritreaEthiopiaClaimsCommission See DiplomaticClaim,Eritrea’sClaim 20(EritreavEthiopia) .................................................... 160,222

FatemivUnitedStates,192At2nd525(DCCtA12July1963);notedin 1964AJIL192 ............................................................133 FayedvAl-Tajir[1988]1QB712;[1987]2AllER396;[1987]3WLR102; 86ILR131.. ...................................................... 159,167,275 FentonTextileAssociationvKrassin[1921]38TimesLawReports259. ....................349 FinzervBarry,798F2nd1450;121ILR499.. ......................................141 FirstFidelityBankNAvGovernmentofAntiguaandBarbuda Permanent Mission,877F2d189,USCourtofAppeals2ndCir.,7June1989; 99ILR125;describedin1990AJIL560.... ....................................33,275 FogartyvUnitedKingdom,Application37112/97,(2002)34EHRR12; 123ILR53.............................................................52,252 FormerSyrianAmbassadortotheGermanDemocraticRepublicCase, CaseNo2BvR1516/96;115ILR595;1998AJIL74.. ....................34, 359,364,369 FoureaudelaTourvErrembaultdeDudzeele,1891JournaldeDroitInternational Privé157... .............................................................277 FoxworthvPermanentMissionoftheRepublicofUgandatotheUnitedNations, SouthernDistrictofNewYork1992,99ILR138... ................................130 FrendetalvUnitedStates,100F2nd691(DCCtApp1938);certioraridenied, 306US640(1939);1938–40ADNo161................................. 112,141,217

Gallatin’sCoachmanCase,McNair(1956)volIp193. ................................234 GardenContaminationCase,80ILR367.. ..........................................126 GnomeandRhoneMotorsvCattaneo,1929–30ADNo199... ..........................111 GomaavMinistryofForeignAffairs,judgmentof24July1992,unreported, describedin1992AnnualReviewofIrishLaw20.... ................................354 GustavoJLandAnother,86ILR517.... .................................... 258,274,375

HarbvHRHPrinceAbdulAziz[2015]EWCACiv481;[2014]EWHC1807(Ch) ............362 HartvHelinski,78ILR4.. .....................................................281 HeathﬁeldvChilton,17874Burr2015. ............................................75 HeirsofPierreSvAustria,CaseNo1Ob49/81;86ILR546... ...........................33

HellenicLinesLimitedvMoore,120USAppDC288;345F2d978 (DCCir1965) ............................................................224

HighCommissionerforIndiavGhosh[1960]1QB134.. ..............................282 HildebrandvChampagne,82ILR121... ..........................................241

HMTheQueeninRightofCanadavEdelsonandOthers,131ILR279.

HolbrookvHenderson(NY1839)4Sandf619... ....................................369 HostagesCase See CaseconcerningUnitedStatesDiplomaticandConsularStaffinTehran HumbletvBelgianState(Case6/60)[1960]ECR559.....

IgnatievvUnitedStates,238F32rd464(DCCir2001);2001AJIL873. ................ 138,218 Immunities(ForeignStateinPrivateContracts)Case,1919–22ADNo79..

InreArmenianChargéd’Affaires,1923–4ADNo172.... ...............................19

InreAustrianLegation,1949ADNo95.. ..........................................382 InreBolguin,1933–4ADNo163................................................353 InrediSorbello(Marchese),1941–2ADNo108.....................................338 InreGarciáyGarciá,1931–2ADNo180. ..........................................353 InreGrandJuryProceedings,DoeNo700,81ILR599...

InreKhan,1931–2ADNo182.. ................................................353

InreOsman(No2) See RvGovernorofPentonvillePrison,exparteOsman(No2) InreReginaandPalacios,101ILR306... ..........................................354

InreScarponiandothers,1952:19ILR382. .........................................277

InreSuarez[1918]1Ch176..... ..................................... 275,277,353,355

InreSuccessionofDonaCarmendeGoyeneche,1919–22ADNo209...

InretheRepublicofBoliviaExplorationSyndicate[1914]1Ch139. .......................273 InreVitianu,1950ASDI146;1949ADNo16.94 ....................................349

IntheMatteroftheApplicationofLiberianEasternTimberCorporationv TheGovernmentofLiberia,89ILR360. ...................................... 130,170

IntheMatterofaReferenceastothePowersoftheCorporationoftheCityof OttawaandtheCorporationoftheVillageofRockcliffeParktoLevy RatesonForeignLegationsandHighCommissioners’ Residences (RockcliffeParkCase),1943SCR208;1941–2ADNo106... .........................151 IntproPropertiesLtdvSauvelandothers[1983]QB1019;[1983]2 AllER495;[1983]2WLR908. ............................................ 242,246 IraqvDumez,CivilCourtofBrussels,1995JournaldesTribunaux565; 106ILR285..............................................................130

JewishDefenceLeagueIncvWashingtonandothers,60ILR384 .........................141 JimenezvCommissionersforInlandRevenueDecisionofSpecialCommissioners forIncomeTax[2004]UKSPC00419(23June2004). .............................77

JonesvSaudiArabia[2007]1AC270... ..........................................252 JuanYsmael&CovS.S.Tasikmalaja,19ILR(1952)400. ..............................209 JurisdictionoverYugoslavMilitaryMission(Germany)Case,15Entscheidungen desBundesverfassungsgrerichts25;1963:16NeueJuristischeWochenschrift 435;1965AJIL653;38ILR162;65ILR108.. .................................

KahanvPakistanFederation[1951]2KB1003.. ....................................279 KhanvUnitedKingdom,Application35394/97,ECHR2000V,12.5.00. ...................162 KhurtsBatvTheInvestigatingJudgeoftheGermanFederalCourt[2011]EWHC 2029(Admin);[2012]3WLR180;147ILR633. ...................................57 KnabvRepublicofGeorgia,97-CV-03118(TPH)DDC29May1998.. ................ 360,364 KopytoffvCommercialRepresentationoftheUSSR,1931–2ADNo184....................17 KramerItaloLtdvGovernmentofBelgium,EmbassyofBelgium,Nigeria,103ILR299.. .......236 KuwaitAirwaysCorpvIraqiAirwaysandRepublicofIraq[1995]1WLR1147.. .............125 LAFICOandtheRepublicofBurundi,96ILR279. ....................................66 LarguechevTancrediFeni,101ILR377.. ..........................................242 LavertyvLaverty,1995CanYIL427..... ..........................................242

LegationBuildings(TurnoverTax)Case,AD1919–22No207.. ..........................111 LIAMCOvLibya,62ILR228.. .................................................280

LiberianEasternTimberCorporation(LETCO)vLiberia See IntheMatterofthe ApplicationofLiberianEasternTimberCorporationvTheGovernmentofLiberia LoganvDupuis,900FSupp26,DDC1997... ......................................251

LurievSteinmann,AD1927–8No246.. ...........................................234

LutgardaJimenezvCommissionersofInlandRevenue[2004]UKSPC00419 (23June2004) ......................................................... 343,351

MacartneyvGarbutt[1890]24QBD368. ................................59, 150,292,338 MachariavUnitedStates,238FSupp2nd13(DDC2002);onappeal334F3rd61 (DCCir2003)No02–5252describedin2004AJIL169... ..........................140 MagdalenaSteamNavigationCompanyvMartin[1859]121ER36;2EI&EI94 ......... 249,353 MatterofForeclosureofTaxLiensbyCityofNewRochellevRepublicofGhana, 255NYS2nd178,1965AJIL642... ...........................................243 McKeelvIslamicRepublicofIran,81ILR543(USCourtofAppeals).. ....................112 Meiercase ..................................................................372

MHvEmbassyoftheRepublicofChina,70ILR394.. ................................234 MighellvSultanofJohore[1894]1QB149.... ......................................279

MinisterforForeignAffairsandTradeandothersvMagnoandanother(1992–3) 112ALR529;101ILR202... .................................................142 MinistèrePublicandRepublicofMalivKeita,1977JournaldesTribunaux678; 77ILR410... .............................................................335 MissionofSaudiArabiatotheUnitedNationsvKirkwoodLtdIndexNo112122/01, summarizedin2003DUSPIL573... ...........................................160 MKvRepublicofTurkey,19NYIL(1988)435;94ILR350... ...........................52 MKvStateSecretaryforJustice,1988NYIL439;94ILR357.. ..........................130 Montwid-BiallozorvIvaldi,AD1925–6Nos245,246.. ................................243 MunirPachavAristarchiBey,1910JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé549... ..............111 MusurusBeyvGadban[1894]2QB352. ..........................................353

NewChiliGoldMiningCovBlanco,4TimesLawReports(1988)346. ....................369 NorwegianEmbassyvQuattri,Decision12771/1991,CourtofCassation,114ILR525. .........52 NovellovToogood[1823]1B&C554 ........................................ 229,294 NzievVessah,74ILR519.. .....................................................274

O’SheavItalianEmbassy,EqualityOfﬁcer ’sPreliminaryDecisionDEC-E2001/040.... .........52

PvP(DiplomaticImmunity:Jurisdiction)[1998]TimesLawReport119; 1FLR1026;114ILR485... .......................................... 235,358,364 PaceyvBarroso,1927–8AD250. ................................................329 PanattonivFederalRepublicofGermany,87ILR42... ................................290 ParkervBoggan[1947]1AllER46;1946AD159..... ................................279 ParkingPrivilegesforDiplomatsCase,70ILR396..... ................................169 ParkinsonvPotter[1885]16QBD152.. ........................................ 150,292 PermanentMissionofIndiavCityofNewYork,551US193(2007)... ....................153 PetrococchinovSwedishState,1929–30ADNo198... ................................146 PhilippineEmbassyBankAccount,65ILR146. ......................................129 Portion20ofPlot15Athol(Pty)LtdvRodrigues,133ILR389 ....................... 224,246 PortugalvGoncalves,82ILR115. ................................................253 PrivateServantofDiplomatCase,71ILR546.. ......................................336 PropendFinancePropertyvSingandCommissioneroftheAustralianFederal Police,JudgmentofLaws,14March1996,unreported;111ILR611. ..................35,254 PropendFinancePropertyvSingandCommissioneroftheAustralianFederal Police,Judgmentof17April1997,TimesLawReports,2May1997; 111ILR611....................................................35, 277,282,357 PublicProsecutorvAdiSF,1976NYIL338.. ......................................335

PublicProsecutorvJBC,94ILR339. ........................................... 274,372

PublicProsecutorvOrhanOlmez,87ILR212.... ................................. 262,277

PublicProsecutorvSluys,1957AD529.. ..........................................338

QuerouilvBreton,70ILR388... ................................................339

RvBowStreetMetropolitanStipendiaryMagistrate,expartePinochetUgarte [1998]3WLR1456,HL(E),[1998]4AllER897,119ILR27.. .............6, 360,361,362, 363,445,446

RvBowStreetMetropolitanStipendiaryMagistrate,expartePinochetUgarte(No2) [1999]2WLR272;[1999]1AllER577;119ILR50.. .................6, 360,361,362,363

RvBowStreetMetropolitanStipendiaryMagistrate,expartePinochetUgarte (AmnestyInternationalandothersintervening)(No3)[1999]2WLR827;[1999] 2AllER97;119ILR135.... .......................................6, 360,362,363

RvCommissionerofPolicefortheMetropolisCO/129/2000,unreported; TheTimes,20October1999.. ................................................144

RvGovernorofPentonvillePrison,exparteOsman(No2),DivisionalCourt, 21December1988,TimesLawReports,24December1988.. ...................76, 350,351

RvGovernorofPentonvillePrison,exparteTeja[1971]2QB274;[1971] 2AllER11;[1971]2WLR816.. .............................255–6,349,350,351,371

RvGuildhallMagistrates’ Court,exparteJarrett-Thorpe,TimesLawReports, 6October1977. ........................................................ 320,372

RvKent[1941]1KB454;1941–2ADNo110......................................273

RvKhan(Sultan)[1996]3WLR162... ..........................................162

RvLambethJustices,exparteYusufu[1985]CrimLR510;[1985]TimesLaw Reports114.. ............................................76, 257,350,351,371–2

RvMadan[1961]2QB1,[1961]1AllER588.. ....................................275

RvRoques,AcquittalbyChiefMetropolitanMagistrateonchargeofobstructing policeinthelawfulexecutionoftheirduty,1August1984,unreported. ...................144

RvSecretaryofStateforForeignandCommonwealthAffairs,exparteButt, 116ILR607..............................................................380

RvSecretaryofStateexparteButt,CourtofAppealCivilDivisionP399/6610/4. ..............36

RvSecretaryofStateforForeignandCommonwealthAffairs,exparteSamuel, TimesLawReports,17August1989;83ILR231. ..................................402 RvSecretaryofStatefortheHomeDepartment,exparteBaggaandothers[1990] 3WLR1013;[1991]1AllER777;[1990]ImmAR413;TimesLawReports, 19April1990. ....................................................50,76,77,351

R(ontheapplicationof ‘B’ andOthers)vSecretaryofStatefortheForeignand CommonwealthOfﬁce[2004]EWCACiv1344,[2005]QB643. .......................115

R(Bancoult)vSecretaryofStateforForeignandCommonwealthAffairs(No3), DivisionalCourtJudgment[2013]EWHC1502(Admin);CourtofAppeal Judgment[2014]EWCACiv708;TimesLawReports,10June2014. ................ 163,165 RadwanvRadwan[1972]3AllER1026;3WLR735... ..............................111

RastelloandPermanentDelegationofCommissionofEuropeanCommunityto InternationalOrganizationsinGenevavCaisseCantonaleGenevoisede CompensationandAnother,102ILR183 ........................................291

ReB(CareProceedings:DiplomaticImmunity)[2002]EWHC1751(Fam); [2003]1FLR241;[2003]2WLR168.. .................................. 227,235,334

ReC(anInfant)[1959]Ch363;[1958]2AllER656.... ..............................322 ReDK,77ILR467.. ..........................................................333

ReFranco-Franco,1954:21ILR248 ...............................................277 ReNidjam,deceased,1955ILR530. ..............................................247

ReP(Minors),114ILR479 ................................................. 267,358

RePdMB,1975:1ItalianYearbookofInternationalLaw252,CourtofRome... .............321 ReRFN,77ILR452,SupremeCourtofAustria.. ................................. 281,322

RealtyCorporationvUnitedArabEmiratesGovernment,63ILR135... ....................125 RegelevFederalMinistryofSocialAdministration,1958:26ILR544... ................. 111,288 RenchardvHumphreys&HardingInc,CivilActionNo2128–72,381FSupp 382(DDC1974);1973AJIL789;1975AJIL182and889.. ................... 124,125,159 Republicof ‘A’ EmbassyBankAccountCase,77ILR489 ...............................130 RepublicofArgentinavCityofNewYork,CourtofAppealsofNewYork, 1July1969,25NY2d252;303NYS2d644.. ....................................151 ReyesvAl-Malki[2015]EWCACiv32. ................................ 125,126,224,252 RibeyrovMassari,CourtofAppealofParis,30June1981,77ILR495. ....................320 RockcliffeParkCase See IntheMatterofaReferenceastothePowersofthe CorporationoftheCityofOttawaandtheCorporationoftheVillageofRockcliffe ParktoLevyRatesonForeignLegationsandHighCommissioners’ Residences RosevTheKing[1947]3DLR618;1946ADNo76. ................. 157,159,165,167,193 RoumanianLegation(Greece)Case,1949ADNo101. ................................146 RussianCommercialRepresentation(Greece)Case,1931–2ADNo185. .....................17 RussianFederationvSedelmayer,SupremeCourtJudgmentof1July2011,NoO179-10. .......265

SvIndia,82ILR13.... .......................................................281 SvMharapara,84ILR1. .......................................................112 SabehelLeilvFrance,ApplicationNo34869/05,Judgmentof29June2011... .............54–5 SaudiArabiavAhmed[1996]2AllER248;104ILR629 ................................14

SenguptavRepublicofIndia[1983]ICR221(EAT),64ILR352.. .........................51 ShawvShaw[1979]3AllER1;78ILR483.. ................................... 258,375

ShearsonLehmanBrosIncvMaclaineWatson&CoLtdandothers(International TinCouncilIntervening)[1988]1AllER116;[1988]1WLR16;77 ILR145. ....................................... 161,162,163,165,167,168,197,198 SicklesvSickles,1910JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé529.. ..........................368 SkeenvFederativeRepublicofBrazil,566FSupp1414(1983);121ILR482... ....... 271,322,376 SkidmoreEnergy,IncetalvKPMGetal,USDistrictCourtNorthernDistrictof TexasDallasDivision,CivilActionNo3:03-CV-2138-B,Memorandum Orderof3December2004.. .................................................254

SMHINvPublicProsecutor,CourtofAppealofTheHague,1985,94ILR (1985)349.. .............................................................143

SmithvOfﬁceNationaldel’Emploi,69ILR276. .....................................343 SomaliDiplomatCase,94ILR597. ...............................................290 StatusofLegationBuildingsCase,1929–30ADNo197................................111 SwarnavAl-Awadi,622F3d123(2dCir.2010);152ILR617;2010DUSPIL430 ............360 SwazeyvMerrillLynch,NYAppDiv2011.... ......................................125 SwissFederalProsecutorvKruszykandothers,102ILR176.... ..........................112

TvBelgiumConseild’Etat,9April1998;115ILR442 .................................71 Tabatabai,80ILR389.. .......................................................357

TabionvMufti,USCourtofAppeals,4thCir73F3d535;1996USAppLEXIS 495;107ILR452... ................................................ 251,252,254 TachionavMugabe,386F3rd205;2004DUSPIL553 ................................224 TaylorvBest[1854]14CB487;139ER201.. ............................... 249,277,386 Tekno-PharmaABvStateofIran,65ILR383.. ......................................280 ThamsvMinisterofFinance,1929–30AD300.. .....................................294 TheAmazone[1939]P322;onappeal[1940]P40;1938–40AD414.. ....................230 TheEmpirevChangandOthers,1919–22ADNo205................................353 ThaiLaoLignite(Thailand)Co.,Ltd.vGovernmentofLaoPeople’sDemocratic Republic,924FSupp.2nd508. ...............................................131 TietzandothersvPeople’sRepublicofBulgaria,28ILR369... ................... 111,146,244 TorladevBarrozo,1Miles366(PhilaDCt1830);9AILC181. ..........................157 TriquetvBath[1764]3Burr1478. ...............................................329

TrochanoffCase,1910JournaldeDroitInternationalPrivé551..

UnitedArabEmiratesvAbdelghafarandanother,107ILR627;Employment AppealTribunaldecision,10July1995,unreported... ...............................51 USvAl-Hamdi,DistrictCourtforEasternDistrictofVirginia,No03-CR-158, 356F3d564;notedin2003DUSPIL573;conﬁrmedonappeal:356F3d 564(4thCir2004),notedin2004DUSPIL534. ...................................323 USvCountyofArlington,Virginia,702F2d485(1983);72ILR652.. ...................302 USvDeaver,CrNo87–0096TPJ(DDC1987)... ....................................278 USvDevyaniKhobragade,USDistrictCourt,SouthernDistrictofNewYork Case1:14-cr-00008-SASOpinionandOrder.. ....................................352 USvErdos,USCourtofAppeals,4thCir474F2d157;1973AJIL785.. ...................267 USvGuinand,99ILR117.. ................................................. 258,375 USvKostadinov,USCA2ndCir1133,judgmentof10May1984;99ILR103.. .........82,87,94 USvMakharadze,NoF-1446–97(DCSuperCt)describedin1999AJIL485 andin1991–9DUSPIL1292;TheTimes,7January1997,17February1997. .......... 286,360 USvNoriegaandOthers,USDistrictCourt,SouthernDistrictofFlorida, 8June1990,99ILR143. ....................................................256 USvRosal,USDistrictCourt,SouthernDistrictofNewYork,191FSupp663; 31ILR389;notedin1961AJIL986.. ....................................... 368,371 UnitedStatesvSissoko,Case96–759-Cr.-Moore,USDistrictCourt,Southern DistrictofFlorida,995FSupp1469(1997);121ILR600.... .......................77,351

Vafadar,82ILR97.. ..........................................................372 VanderHulstvUnitedStates,22NYIL(1991)379;94ILR374.

VanLeeuwenvRotterdam(Case32/67)[1968]ECR43.. ..............................154

VitianuCase See InreVitianu VonDardelvUSSR,77ILR258. ............................................. 217,220 VulcanIronWorksIncvPolishAmericanMachineryCorp,479FSupp1060(1979) ............77

WeiYevJiangZemin,383F2nd620(7thCir2004);2004DUSPIL547. ..................224 WeinmannvRepublicofLatvia,28ILR385 ..................................... 146,244 WestminsterCityCouncilvGovernmentoftheIslamicRepublicofIran[1986] 3AllER284;[1986]1WLR979;108ILR557;describedin1986BYIL423. .............125 WilsonvBlanco(NY1889),4NYSuppl714.... ....................................369 WokurivKassam[2012]EWHC105(Ch);[2012]WLR(D)13;152ILR557.. .......... 251,360 WyattvSyrianArabRepublicin2015,Case1:08-cv-00502(RCL) ........................130

ZvGenevaSupervisoryAuthorityfortheEnforcementofDebtsandBankruptcy, 102ILR205..............................................................130 ZambianEmbassyvSendanayake,Decision5941/1992,CourtofCassation; 114ILR532.. .............................................................52 ZoernschvWaldock[1964]2AllER256. ....................................... 273,357

Abbreviations

ACAppealCases(LawReports)

ADAnnualDigestofPublicInternationalLawCases

AFDIAnnuairefrancaisdedroitinternational

AllERAllEnglandLawReports

AJILAmericanJournalofInternationalLaw

ALRAustralianLawReports

ARIELAustrianReviewofInternationalandEuropeanLaw

ASDIAnnuairesuissededroitinternational

AYILAustralianYearbookofInternationalLaw

B&CBarnewall&Cresswell(EnglishReports)

BDILBritishDigestofInternationalLaw

BurrBurrow(EnglishReports)

BYILBritishYearbookofInternationalLaw

CanYILCanadianYearbookofInternationalLaw

CBChiefBaron(oftheExchequer)

ChChancery(LawReports)

CILJCambridgeInternationalLawJournal

CmCommandPapers1986–

CmdCommandPapers1919–56

CMLRCommonMarketLawReports

CmndCommandPapers1956–86

CrimLRCriminalLawReports

DallDallas

DCDistrictofColumbia

DLRDominionLawReports(Canada)

DUSPILDigestofUnitedStatesPracticeinInternationalLaw

ECREuropeanCourtReports

E&E,El&ElEllis&Ellis(EnglishReports)

FCOForeignandCommonwealthOfﬁce

FOForeignOfﬁce

F2d,3dFederalReporter2d,3dSeries

FSuppFederalSupplement

GAGeneralAssembly

HavanaConventionConventiononDiplomaticOfﬁcers,Havana

HCDebsHouseofCommonsDebates(Hansard)

HLDebsHouseofLordsDebates(Hansard)

ICJInternationalCourtofJustice

ICLQInternationalandComparativeLawQuarterly

ICRIndustrialCourtReports

ILCInternationalLawCommission

ILMInternationalLegalMaterials

ILRInternationalLawReports

ImmARImmigrationAppealReports

ITUInternationalTelecommunicationsUnion

KBKing’sBenchDivision(LawReports)

K&JKay&Johnson(EnglishReports)

LNTSLeagueofNationsTreatySeries

Misc(NY)NewYorkMiscellaneous

NYILNetherlandsYearbookofInternationalLaw

NYSNewYorkState

NYSuppNewYorkSupplement

OECDOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

OJOfﬁcialJournaloftheEuropeanCommunities

PProbate(LawReports)

QB,QBDQueen’sBenchDivision(LawReports)

RBDIRevuebelgededroitinternational

RGDIPRevuegénéralededroitinternationalpublique

SIStatutoryInstrument

SR&OStatutoryRulesandOrders

SYILSpanishYearbookofInternationalLaw

TIASTreatiesandInternationalAgreements(US)

UKMILUnitedKingdomMaterialsinInternationalLaw

UKTSUnitedKingdomTreatySeries

UNDocUnitedNationsDocument

UNTSUnitedNationsTreatySeries

USCUnitedStatesCode

USCAUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals

WAWrittenAnswers(Hansard)

WLRWeeklyLawReports

INTRODUCTION

TheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelationscodiﬁestherulesfortheexchangeof embassiesamongsovereignStates.Theserulesprotectingthesanctityofambassadorsand enablingthemtocarryouttheirfunctionsaretheoldestestablishedandthemost fundamentalrulesofinternationallaw.TheConventionisacornerstoneofthemodern internationallegalorder.

Whenthe firsteditionof DiplomaticLaw wascompletedtheViennaConventionhad beeninforceforelevenyears,and112StateswereParties.Eventhenitwasapparentthat theConventionhadreceivedanoverwhelmingvoteofconfidencefromtheinternational community.Thefourtheditionof DiplomaticLaw isbeingcompleted fifty-oneyearsafter theConvention’sentryintoforceand190StatesareParties.Thisisclosetotheentire numberofindependentStatesintheworld.TheViennaConventionhasbecomea universalConvention,anditsprovisions,evenwhereatthetimeoftheiradoptionthey clearlymarkedprogressivedevelopmentofcustomorresolvedpointswherepractice conflicted,arenowregardedassettledlaw.Therehavebeenonslaughtsontheprotected statusofdiplomats,fromthoseassertingthatitcannotbejustifiedinthefaceofabuseof immunityandfromthoseclaimingthatitmustgivewaywhenitappearstoconflictwith claimstoaccesstojusticeortohumanrights.Inrecentyearsdiplomatshavebecome conspicuousandhighlyvulnerabletargetsforterroristattack.Inthefaceoftheseattacks theConventionhassurvivedunscathed.

TheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelationshasalsocontinuedtobeusedasa pointofreferenceinthedevelopmentofrelatedareasofinternationallaw.Manyofits provisionswereadopted,withappropriatemodifications,intheViennaConventionon ConsularRelations,andcasesontheconstructionofparticularphrasesinoneofthetwo relatedConventionsareoftencitedasauthoritiesinthecontextoftheother.Withvery fewmodifications,itsprovisionswereadoptedintheNewYorkConventiononSpecial Missions.IthasbeenusedextensivelytodeterminethetreatmenttobeaccordedtoHeads ofStateintheirpersonalcapacityandtoHighOfficersofandrepresentativesto internationalorganizations.Asinternationalrulesonstateimmunityhavedevelopedon morerestrictivelinestherehasalwaysbeenasavingfortherulesofdiplomaticand consularlawandanincreasingunderstandingthatalthoughthesesetsofrulesoverlapthey servedifferentpurposesandcannotinanysensebeunified.

ThereareanumberofreasonswhytheViennaConventionhasbeensosuccessfulin winningbothformalsupportandaremarkablyhighdegreeofobservance.First,therules oflawcodiﬁedintheConventionhadlongbeenstable.Bythetimetheyweredescribed byVattelin LeDroitdesGens,publishedin1758,theyhaddevelopedasfarastheycould withouttheassistanceofinternationalagreements,andtheyremainedconstantforthe following200years.Diplomaticlawinasenseconstitutestheproceduralframeworkfor theconstructionofinternationallawandinternationalrelations.Itguaranteestheefﬁcacy andsecurityofthemachinerythroughwhichStatesconductdiplomacy,andwithoutthis machineryStatescannotconstructlaw,whetherbycustomorbyagreementonmattersof substance.Itwasthereforeentirelynaturalthatasthemodernlegalorderofsovereign Statesgrewup,therulesfortheexchangeandthetreatmentofenvoysbetweenthemwere

theearliesttobe ﬁrmlyestablishedascustomarylaw.Subsequentdevelopmentsinthe functionsofgovernments,theconductofinternationalrelations,intrade,travel,and communicationsalteredinonlymarginalrespectsthemainfunctionsofdiplomatic missions torepresentthesendingStateandprotectitsinterestsanditsnationals,to negotiatewiththereceivingState,toobserve,andtoreport.Thebasicruleswhichenabled thosefunctionstobecarriedouthavethereforecontinuedlargelywithoutchange.

Secondly,reciprocityformsaconstantandeffectivesanctionfortheobservanceofnearly alltherulesoftheConvention.EveryStateisbothasendingandareceivingState.Itsown representativesabroadareinsomesensealwayshostages.Evenonminormattersofprivilege andprotocol,theirtreatmentmaybebasedonreciprocity.Forthemostpart,failureto accordprivilegesorimmunitiestodiplomaticmissionsortotheirmembersisimmediately apparentandislikelytobemetbyappropriatecountermeasures.Onlyoverthequestionof communicationsdoesthisnotapply.Sophisticateddevelopmentsinelectronictechnology arenotavailableequallytoallStates,andithasbeeninregardtocommunicationsthatthere havebeenconﬂictsofinterestbetweenStatesaswellaswidespreadviolationoftheprinciples oftheConvention.Inthelastfewyearsthereismorepubliclyavailableevidenceofthis disregard,butthereisnosignofanywillingnessbyStatestomodifytheunderlyingrulesor ontheotherhandtodesistfrominterceptingeachothers’ communications.

Thirdly,thoseintheInternationalLawCommissionwhobeganthepreparatory processwhichledtotheConvention,aswellasthosewhorepresentedtheirgovernments attheViennaConference,neverlostsightoftheneedto findsolutionswhichwouldbe acceptabletogovernmentsandtonationalParliamentsasawhole.Thelongdialogue betweentheInternationalLawCommission,nationalgovernmentalexperts,andthe SixthCommitteeoftheGeneralAssemblywascharacterizednotbythedrivingtowards anypoliticalobjectivebutbyattentivelisteningtocriticismandasearchforrealistic compromise.FromthecarefulCommentaryproducedbytheCommissiononitsdraft articlesandthepublishedrecordsofitsdebatesitisusuallyeasytocastlightonthe background,meaning,andpurposeofthe finalprovision.TherecordsoftheVienna Conferencearefarlesshelpfulinshowingthegeneralunderstandingorpurposeof individualamendments.Buttheydoshowthatonanumberofdifficultoccasions whereacontroversialsolutioncouldhavebeenforcedthroughbyavote,delegatesstepped backandrememberedthattheir firstdutywastonegotiateatextwhichcouldbewidely supported.Thequestionoftherighttoinstallanduseawirelesstransmitteronembassy premiseswasacaseinpoint.ThenegotiatorsoftheViennaConventiondidnotforget thattheinternationallegislativeprocesscannotbecontrolledbymajorityvotebut dependsultimatelyonratificationbynationalParliamentslookingtonationalselfinterest.Laternegotiatorsofotherlaw-makingconventions(inparticulartheConvention onSpecialMissions)werenotsosuccessfulinthisrespect.Thelongprocessbywhichthe newUnitedNationsConventiononJurisdictionalImmunitiesofStatesandtheir Propertywaspreparedwassimilarintermsofcarefornationalinterestsandrealism, andgivessomegroundforoptimismthatthisConventionmayovertimegainwidespread acceptancebytheinternationalcommunity.

Progressivedevelopmentofthelaw

TheViennaConventionisacomprehensiveformulationoftherulesofmodern diplomaticlaw.Noneoftheearlierattemptsatmultilateralcodi ﬁcation theVienna Regulationof1815regardingtheclassesandprecedenceofheadsofmission,the

ResolutionsadoptedbytheInstituteofInternationalLawin1895and1929,theHarvard DraftConventiononDiplomaticPrivilegesandImmunitiesof1932 hadcoveredthe ﬁeldsothoroughly.Almosteverypointwascoveredonwhichalegalruleexistedoron whichtherewasadvantageinbringingintoharmonydivergentrulesofstatepractice. Thereareafewmattersonly suchas droitdechapelle ,embassybankaccounts,diplomaticasylum omittedforvariousreasonsfromitsprovisions.Ondiplomaticasylumitis unlikelythatspeciﬁcrulesgoingbeyondthoseofinviolabilityofmissionpremisesandthe dutyofdiplomatstorespectlocallawsandregulationscouldhavebeenformulatedbythe ViennaConferencetothesatisfactionofthemajorityofStates.Onembassybank accounts,casesinmanyjurisdictionshavebuiltupaclearconsensusnowcrystallized intocustomarylaw.

SixprovisionsoftheConventionmaybesingledoutashavingbeensigniﬁcant developmentsofthepreviouscustomaryinternationallaw.

Article22establishedwithoutanyspeciﬁcexceptiontheinviolabilityofmission premises.TheConventionleavesitindoubtexactlywheninviolabilitybeginsandends. Butthecleardescriptionoftheimplicationsofinviolability,andtheprovisionthatno pretextofpublicemergencyorabusebytheembassyofitsimmunitymayjustifyentryby theauthoritiesofthereceivingStatewerecrucialdevelopmentsinthelaw.Inspiteof increasesinmobdemonstrationsandviolencedirectedatembassies,aswellasinterrorist seizuresofembassiesthemselves,thisprohibitionhasremainedcentral.

Article27setsoutcomprehensiverulesfortheprotectionofallformsofdiplomatic communication themostimportanttothefunctioningofadiplomaticmissionofallits privilegesandimmunities.Aswithdiplomaticpremises,theConventionalteredthe previouscustomarylawwhichhadpermittedsupervisedsearchofsuspectdiplomatic bags,withthesendingStateretainingtheoptionofreturningthechallengedbag.The Conventionprovidedsimplythatthediplomaticbag ‘shallnotbeopenedordetained’ . ThenewerStatesseemedtogainavictoryintherequirementthattheinstallationofa wirelesstransmitterrequirestheconsentofthereceivingState,andthisquestionwasone ofthemostcontroversialattheViennaConference.ButtheassertionintheVienna ConventionoftherightofthesendingStatetocommunicateby ‘allappropriatemeans’ wasinthelongertermprobablymoresigniﬁcant.Methodsofcommunicationhave proliferated,undetectedinterceptionhasbecomeeasier,sothatthebasicprincipleof therighttofreecommunicationisevenmoreimportantasaguidetolawfulconduct.

Article31 finallysettledwhatweretheexceptionstotheimmunityofadiplomatfrom civiljurisdiction.Thefunctionalapproachtoimmunityisapparentintheestablishment ofexceptionsrelatingtothediplomat’sprivateholdingofrealpropertyinthereceiving Stateandhisprofessionalorcommercialactivitiesthere.The firstoftheseexceptionshas givenrisetouncertaintyandtomuchlitigationoveritsscope.Butitdoesstrikeabalance betweentheneedtoprotectadiplomatfromfrivolousormaliciouslawsuitswhichcould impedehiseffectivenessinhispostandtheconflictingneedtominimizeabuseof diplomaticimmunitywhereitisunjustifiedormightleaveaclaimantwithnopossible forumtoresolvedisputesoverland.Article31alsomadeanimportantchangeinthelaw ingivingdiplomatsexemptionfromthedutytogiveevidenceasawitness.

InArticle34thefunctionalapproachtoprivilegesisalsoevidentinalltheexceptions establishedtothebasicprincipleofexemptionfromtaxes.Theseexceptionsfallintothree categories mattersunrelatedtoadiplomat’sofﬁcialactivitiesortohisnormallifeinthe receivingState,dueswhicharenottrulytaxesbutchargesforservicesrendered,andtaxes whererefundorexemptionwouldbeadministrativelyimpractical.TheConvention

establishedaclearframeworkwhichnationalauthoritiesmustapplytotheirowntaxlaws. Generallyspeakingitrelievesthemigrantdiplomatandhisfamilyfromtheneedto grapplewiththetaxregimesofsuccessivehostStateswhileminimizingthepossibilityof hisproﬁteeringfromextraneousactivitiesorinvestments.

Article37ofalltheConventionprovisionsprovedthemostdifficulttoresolveinview ofthegreatdiversityofapproachindifferentStatestothetreatmentofjuniorstaffof diplomaticmissionsandfamilies.Theonlyrulewhichcouldbesaidtobepreviously establishedcustomarylawwastheimmunityofadministrativeandtechnicalstaffin respectofofficialacts.Eventheterminologyfortheclassificationofjuniormembersof amissionwasextremelyvaried.Article37,onceagainrigorouslyapplyingtheprincipleof efficientperformanceofthefunctionsofmissions,limitedthecivilimmunityofadministrativeandtechnicalstafftoactsperformedbytheminthecourseoftheirduties,while allowingthemfullimmunityfromcriminaljurisdiction.Servicestaffwereaccordedan absoluteminimumofprivilegeandimmunity.ForStateswhich,liketheUnitedKingdom andtheUnitedStates,undertheirpreviousdomesticlawaccordedfullprivilegesand immunitiestoallmembersofthe ‘ambassador’ssuite’,Article37drasticallycutthearmies ofprivilegedpersonsintheircapitalswhobysheernumbersaswellasbyoccasional irresponsibilitythreatenedtobringintodisreputetheentiresystemofdiplomaticimmunity. ForsomeStateswhichaccordedonlyimmunityforofficialactstoallsubordinatestaff,it wouldleadtoincreasedprivilegesandimmunitiesandwasstronglyresisted thoughonlya veryfewStatesmadereservationsinrespectoftheregimetobeaccordedtoadministrative andtechnicalstaff.ForallStatesArticle37offeredaclearcompromiseruletoreplacethe previousconfusion.

Finally,Article38debarredfromallprivilegesandimmunities(beyondtheminimum ofimmunityfordiplomatsinregardtotheirofficialacts)nationalsandpermanent residentsofthereceivingState.Theexclusionofpermanentresidentsalongwithnationals ofthereceivingStatewasanewruleformostStatesandthemeaningofthewordswasnot madeclearbythenegotiators.Thelossofprivilegesandpersonalimmunitiesbypermanentresidentswas,however,fullyjustifiedongroundsofprinciple.NationalsandpermanentresidentsofthereceivingStatearemuchlesslikelytobecareerdiplomatsandthe justificationforaccordingthemextensivetaxandcustomsprivilegesaswellasexemption fromsocialsecurityobligationsiscorrespondinglyweaker.Ingeneral,theyareunlikelyto beharassedforpoliticalmotives.Intheircasethealternativeremedieswhichtosome extentcompensateforimmunityfromjurisdiction thepossibilityofactioninthe sendingStateorrecoursetothesendingStateitself aremuchlesslikelytobeeffective. SolongasnationalsandpermanentresidentsofthereceivingStateareaccordedimmunity fortheirofficialacts,theireffectivenessincarryingouttheirfunctionsissafeguarded. OfthesesixprovisionsoftheViennaConventionwhichhavebeensingledoutasthe clearestcasesofprogressivedevelopmentofthelaw,the firsttwoincreasedforthebenefit ofdiplomaticmissionsthemselvesthedegreeofimmunityoverwhatwaspreviously accorded.Inthelatterfourprovisionsontheotherhand,allofwhichrelatetoindividual membersofmissions,theeffectinmostStateswastodecreasetheprivilegesand immunitiesenjoyedbydiplomats,othermembersofdiplomaticmissions,andtheir families.Theunifyingthreadwhichranthroughallthesechangeswastheattemptto ensure,inthewordsofthePreambletotheConvention, ‘thatthepurposeofsuch privilegesandimmunitiesisnottobenefitindividualsbuttoensuretheefficient performanceofthefunctionsofdiplomaticmissionsasrepresentingStates’.The

functionalapproachwasnotregardedbythosewhopreparedtheConventionasmerelyan academicrationale itguidedthemateverycrucialpoint.Thegeneraleffectwasto tightentheprotectiongiventothemissionitself itspremises,communications,property,andarchives.Ontheotherhand,itreducedtheoccasionswhenprivilegeor immunitycouldbeinvokedinregardtoessentiallyprivateactivitiesofindividuals,and itreducedtheprotectionandprivilegesofjuniormembersofthemissionandofthose whobelongedtothereceivingState.Inthesecasesitwasdecidedthatpossibleabuseby missionstaffoftheirprivilegesandimmunitieswasmorelikelythantheirharassmentfor politicalmotives.

HowtheConventionregimehaschanged

RevisitingtheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelationsforlatereditionsofthisbook, themoststrikingimpressionishowithasstabilizedthelaw.Reservationstothe Convention almostalltotheprovisionsprecludingsearchordetentionofthediplomaticbagortotheprivilegesandimmunitiesgiventoadministrativeandtechnicalstaff areofverylimitedimportance.Insomecasestheyhavebeenformallywithdrawn,in otherstheyhavesimplyneverbeenapplied,andinotherstheConventionrulesare appliedostensiblyonthebasisofreciprocity.Tobesureofthemeaningofmanyofits provisionsitisstillimportanttogobacktothecustomarylaw,andmanyofthe ambiguitiesintheConventionhavebeenclariﬁedbyconsistentstatepracticenow hardenedintonewcustom.Examplesincludethemeaningoftheterms ‘membersof thefamilyformingpartofthehousehold’ and ‘permanentlyresidentinthereceiving State’.FormostpurposestheConventionhasbecomethelaw.Therewereinearlieryears manycaseswherenationalcourtsbasedtheirdecisionsalmostentirelyontheConvention evenwhereoneorotheroftheStatesinvolvedwasnotyetaContractingParty,andthe samehasbeentrueofintergovernmentaldisputes.Reciprocityisstillofgreatpractical importance butthelatitudegivenbytheConventionforrestrictiveapplications,for custom,andforreciprocalagreementsseemstohavebeenusedmainlyasamethodof forcingdeviantStatesbackintolinewiththeConventionrules.AlthoughmanyStates wishedtopreservemorefavourabletreatmentalreadyextendedonabilateralbasis,thereis verylittleevidenceofArticle47beingusedasthebasisforanewnetworkofspecial regimes.Inthisrespectdiplomaticlawisverydifferentfromconsularlaworthelaw relatingtospecialmissionsortointernationalorganizations.

ThesecondpointwhichcanbemadeisthattheConventionhasprovedremarkably resilienttoexternalattacks.IntheUnitedKingdomandintheUnitedStatesinparticular, theeffectofasmallnumberofappallingorbizarreinstancesofabuseofdiplomatic immunityduringthe1980s,andofwidespreadresentmentofthe ﬂoutingbydiplomats andotherprivilegedpersonsofparkingrestrictions,wasacryforrevisionofthe Conventionorfornewwaysofcombatingperceivedabuse.Itwouldindeedhavebeen possible,hadthepoliticalwillbeengenerallypresent,tohaveachievedsomereductionof theprotectiongiven,inparticular,tothediplomaticbag.ButWesterngovernmentswere toowellawareoftheoverallneedforprotectionoftheirdiplomatsandtheirmissions abroadagainstterrorism,mobviolence,andintrusiveharassmentfromunfriendlyStates todispensewiththeessentialarmourprovidedbytheViennaConvention.Theirresponse wastotightenadministrativecontrolandsupervisionofforeignmissions,tousethe remediesalreadyprovidedintheConventionmorevigorouslyevenwherethiscarried

short-termpoliticaldisadvantages,toinvokecountermeasuresonabasisofreciprocity, andtobuildupcoalitionstoapplypressureonStates floutingnormalrulesofinternationalconduct.Graduallythesemeasurescouldbeshowntohaveachievedsome results,theinstancesofabuseofimmunitycametobeseeninawidercontext,andthe criesagainstdiplomaticimmunitydiedaway.TheConventionwasleftintactandintruth strengthenedbythesystematicre-examinationithadundergone.Eveninregardto diplomaticbagsandcouriersitwasultimatelyacceptedthattherewasnogeneralwill tomodifytheConventionrulesortoinflatetheessentialimmunitiesalreadygivento diplomaticcouriers.InthepastfewyearstheincreaseinviolenceinmanyStateshasmade theneedforspecialprotectionevenmoreobvious,buttheresulthasoftenbeenthe closureofpermanentmissionsandtheuseofspecialdefensivemeasuressuchastheuseof privatesecurity firmsandbarrierspreventingnormalaccesstoembassies.

Inrecentyearstherehavealsobeenclaimsthatimmunities inparticularthoseof HeadsofStateorMinisterswhicharelessclearlydelineatedthanthoseofdiplomats mustcedeplacetohumanrightssuchastherightofvictimstoaccesstojustice.These rightsaresaidtohavehighervalueas iuscogens.The Pinochet and ArrestWarrant cases raisedasmanyquestionsoverthisconﬂictastheyresolved.ThecleardescriptioninArticle 3oftheViennaConventionofthefunctionsofdiplomaticmissions,aswellasjudicial pronouncementsemphasizingtheunchallengedvalidityofrulesofpersonalimmunityfor thosestillinofﬁcehave,however,ensuredthattheimpactofthischallengeonthe Conventionregimehasbeenverylimited.Inmostcountriesitisacceptedthatthe protectionofhumanrightsandthemonitoringofhumanrightsperformanceiscentral todiplomacyandproperlywithinthediplomaticfunctionsofobservationandprotection, sothat asnotedbelow theprohibitioninArticle41ondiplomatsinterferinginthe internalaffairsofthereceivingStateisgraduallybecomingmorecircumscribed.

Thereisnowawealthofcaselawontheinterpretationandapplicationofmany provisionsoftheConvention.TheavailabilityofsomanyofthesecasesintheInternationalLawReportshasbeenofenormousimportanceinassessingtheConventionasit nowstands.Amongthemostinterestingarethosecases particularlyintheUnitedStates andinAustralia inwhichnationalcourtshavetriedtobalancetherightsofembassiesto protectionagainstintrusionordamage,disturbanceoftheirpeace,andimpairmentof theirdignitywiththeoftenconflictinghumanrightsorconstitutionalrightsofdemonstratorstofreedomofassemblyandfreedomofspeech.Otherimportantcasesillustrate thewayinwhichissuesofdiplomaticandofsovereignimmunityareincreasingly intertwined.Moreandmoreoften,asstateimmunityhasbeencutbackbynational legislationreflectingthechangingroleoftheStateandthechangingrequirementsof internationallaw,plaintiffs findthatitisprofitabletosueanambassadororadiplomat andinthesameproceedingsalsotosuehissendingState.Thesecasesshowhowthe differingreasonsfordiplomaticandstateimmunitymayleadtodifferentanswersto thequestionofthejurisdictionofanationalcourt.SomepartsofthisCommentaryonthe Conventionhavebeencompletelyrewrittensoastotakeaccountofthechanginglawon stateimmunity thoughthisbookdoesnotpretendtoaddressquestionsofstate immunityexceptwheretheyareinextricablyintertwinedwiththeinterpretationofthe ViennaConvention.TheadoptionandsignaturebyasubstantialnumberofStatesofthe UNConventiononJurisdictionalImmunitiesofStatesandtheirPropertyhashelpedto clarifysomeuncertaintiesinregardtotheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelations. Oneareawherethisissoisthatofemploymentdisputesbroughtbymembersofamission

orprivateservantsofdiplomatsagainstthesendingState numericallythelargestclassof casesinnationalcourtsraisingquestionsofstateimmunity.

EvidenceofrecentstatepracticeontheConventioninmanycapitalsisnowwidely availableinnationaljournals,monographs,andinthepress.The firsteditionof DiplomaticLaw asitadmittedwasheavilyweightedinfavourofUKpractice.SincetheUnited KingdomwasanearlyandactiveparticipantintheConventionregimefacedwiththe needtoformulateitsinterpretationsfromscratch,andthebookwaswrittenfromwithin theForeignandCommonwealthOfficeinLondonbyoneofthelabourersinthistask, thisbiaswasunsurprising.Thesecond,third,andfourtheditionsrangemuchmore widely butitisremarkablehowfrequentlytheUKpracticeestablishedearlyinthelifeof theConventionhasbeenbroadlyconfirmedorfollowedbyotherStateswhichwerelater inratifyingoraccedingtotheConvention.TheUKapproachestothedefinitionof ‘memberofthefamilyformingpartofthehousehold’ andof ‘permanentlyresident’ ,to taketwoexamples,havebeencloselyfollowedelsewhere.Thereisnowextensiveand valuablematerialonUSpracticepubliclyavailablethroughcases,throughtheDigestof UnitedStatesPracticeinInternationalLaw,andtheAmericanJournalofInternational Law. TheauthorwasmostfortunateintheassistanceprovideddirectlybytheState DepartmentandtheOfficeofForeignMissionsinconfirmingandsupplementingthis materialforlatereditions.Internetsources,inparticularthematerialnowavailableonthe StateDepartmentwebsiteandwebsitesofotherministriesofforeignaffairs,havealso beenofgreatvalueinpreparingthethirdandfourtheditions.

Thepracticeillustrateshowverylimitedaretheoccasionswhenevenunderthemost extremeprovocationStateshavedeliberatelyinfringedorcondonedtheinfringementof inviolabilityofpremises,archives,ordiplomaticbags.Itissubmittedthatinsofarasthese fewinstancescanbejustifieditmustbeonabasisofself-defenceoroftheoverriding sanctityofhumanlife.Inthemostfundamentalaspects,thissituationhasnotchanged sincethesixteenthcentury,whenagainstthebackgroundofprofoundconflictsofreligion andofnumerousplotsbyambassadorstobringabouttheoverthrowofthesovereignto whomtheywereaccredited,thosesovereignsresistedadvicefromlawyersthattreason justifiedexceptionstotheinviolabilityofthoseambassadorsandconfinedthemselvesto expellingthem.Thelongerterminterestinthesanctityofenvoyseventhenoutweighed theshort-terminterestintrialandpunishment.ThedetentionoftheUShostagesin Tehranin1979and1980wasaterribleaberrationfromthisgeneralpattern,andlater incidentshaveshownIrancontinuingtobecavalierinitsapproachtoitsConvention responsibilities.ThereishowevernothinginthepracticeofotherStatestosuggestthat theseeventsalteredthelawinanyway.Threatstothesecurityofdiplomatsandembassies arenowsofrequentandseriousasgravelytoimpedetheirproperfunctioning.When embassiesareforcedtoretreatintofortifiedbunkersandtolimitaccessbythepublic, ambassadorscannotacteffectivelyastheeyesandearsofthesendingState.Thesethreats donot,however,comefromgovernmentsandtheydonotdemonstratechangein compliancebyStatesPartiestotheConvention.

Studyofrecentpracticeshows,however,thatthereisnowmuchgreater ﬂexibility amongStatesinhowtheyconducttheirdiplomaticrelations.Arelativelynewfeatureis thatmostStatesmaintaindiplomaticrelationswiththemajorityofthoseothercountries intheworldwhichtheyrecognizeasStates.FormerlyStatesdidnotingeneralestablish diplomaticrelationswithoneanotherunlesstheysoughttosendandreceivepermanent missions.Themodernpracticebycontrastisthatestablishmentofformaldiplomatic

relations,ifitdoesnotactuallyconstituterecognitionofanewState,followshardupon suchrecognition.Theestablishmentofdiplomaticrelationsis,however,notnecessarily followedbytheestablishmentofpermanentmissions.AlmostallStatesareunder constraintsastotheirexpenditurewhichprecludetheestablishmentoffullembassiesin alltheStateswithwhichtheyhavediplomaticrelations.TheConventionoffersarangeof morelimitedalternatives multipleaccreditationunderArticle5orArticle6,and protectionofinterestsunderArticle45whererelationshavebeenbrokenorunderArticle 46wheretheymayneverhavebeenestablished.Virtualembassiesareanewpossibilityfor smallerStates.Thereisincreaseduseofalltheseoptions.Whenrelationsdeteriorateitis increasinglythepracticetorecallanambassadorforconsultationsortorecalltheentire missionratherthantoproceedtoaformalbreachofdiplomaticrelations.Forallthese situationstheConventionmakesclearprovision,andits ﬂexibleframeworkallowsafull missiontobesetuporenlargedquickly.Flatpackmissionsdesignedforrapidresponseto emergencysituationshavebecomepartofthenewdiplomacy.Statessharepremisesand informationinordertocutcostsandtofunctionmoreeffectively.

TwoprovisionsoftheViennaConventionhavebeenexceptionstothegenerallyhigh standardofcompliance.The firstisArticle26requiringareceivingStatetoensureto membersofdiplomaticmissionsfreedomofmovementandtravelwithinitsterritory. ManyCommunistStatesonratificationoftheConventioncontinuedtheirprevious practiceofbarringlargetractsoftheirterritorytodiplomatsnotgivenspecialpermission. Thoughitwasclearthatthesetravelrestrictionscouldhardlybejustifiedasa ‘restrictive applicationoftheConvention’ butwereratherabreachofitsprovisions,therewasvery littlediplomaticprotestorrecoursetoremediessuchasexpulsionorbreachofdiplomatic relations.Instead,otherStatesrespondedwithpreciselyreciprocalrestrictionsoftheir own,elaboratelypoliced.Theproblemhasnowlargelyvanished,butasaresultofthe disappearanceofrestrictionsonmovementinStateswhicharenolongerCommunist ratherthanasaresultofmorerobustrelianceonArticle26.Civilwarsandinsurrections havebecomeafarmoreseriousobstacletothefreemovementofdiplomats.

Secondly,thefundamentaldutyonthereceivingStateunderArticle27to ‘permitand protectfreecommunicationonthepartofthemissionforallofficialpurposes’ appearsto beverywidelydisregardedbythoseStateswhichhavethetechnicalcapacitytointercept embassycommunications.Discoveryofimplantedlisteningdeviceswasafrequent occurrenceduringtheColdWar.Aswithrestrictionsonfreemovementandtravel,States didnotgenerallyrespondtothesediscoveriesbyclosingmissionsbutratherbyimproving theirownphysicalandtechnicaldefencesagainstintrusion.SincetheendingoftheCold WartherehavebeenfewerpublicexchangesbetweenStatescomplainingofviolationof theirrighttofreeandsecretcommunication,butthereisincreasingevidenceofwidespreaddisregardofthesecrecyofdiplomaticcommunications.Thus,forexample,itwas disclosedin2001thattheFBInotonlybuiltasurveillancetunnelundertheEmbassyof theSovietUnionbutorganizedconductedtourstodemonstrateitslisteningcapacities. Therewerewidespreadallegationsofbugging,inparticularbytheUnitedStates,offellow membersoftheSecurityCouncilduringthediplomaticeffortsin2003tosecureaUnited NationsresolutionexplicitlyauthorizingthefurtheruseofforceinIraq.Therevelations byWikiLeakshaveconfirmedthescaleofdisrespectfortheconfidentialityofdiplomatic communications.

Finally,amatterofincreasingcontroversyisthetensionbetweenthedutyofadiplomat underArticle41oftheConventionnottointerfereintheinternalaffairsofthereceiving

StateandtheopinionofmanyliberalStatesthathumanrightsinallcountriesareamatter oflegitimateinternationalconcernwhoseactivepromotionisamajorobjectoftheir foreignpolicy.Thus,forexample,in2000Burma(Myanmar)accusedtheBritish Ambassadorofoverstepping ‘universaldiplomaticnorms’ bytryingtomakecontactwith theleaderoftheNationalLeagueforDemocracyParty,DawAungSuuKyi,butthe ambassadorwasstronglybackedbytheUKGovernmentwhostressedthathumanrights wereamatterofgeneralconcern.TheUnitedStatesinrecentyearshasopenlysupported non-governmentalorganizationsinBelarusopposedtotheCommunistregimeofPresidentLukashenkowhilewithholdingsupportfromoppositionpoliticalpartiesonthebasis thatthiswasprohibitedbylaw.Ambassadorstreadadelicatelineinbalancingtheirduties topromoteuniversalhumanrightsandtorefrainfrominterferenceinlocalaffairs.

Theobjectofthebook

Thefourtheditionof DiplomaticLaw is,likeitspredecessors,acommentaryontheVienna ConventiononDiplomaticRelations.Itisintendedprincipallyasapractitioner’shandbook.EachArticleorgroupofArticlesisplacedinthecontextofthepreviouscustomary internationallaw,thenegotiatinghistoryisdescribedinsofarasitremainsilluminating, ambiguitiesordifﬁcultiesofinterpretationareanalysed,andthesubsequentstatepractice isdescribed.Itisimpossibleforasinglecommentatortocoverstatepracticeinrelationto theConventioninacomprehensiveway,andthisCommentaryisinevitablyweightedin favourofUKandUSpractice.PracticeinotherStatesis,however,alsocoveredinsofarasit canreadilybeascertainedfrommaterialsinEnglish,French,German,orSpanish,fromthe Press,fromtheincreasingnumberofinternationallawjournals,DigestsofStatepractice, andInternetsites,orfromcasesreportedintheInternationalLawReports,andinsofarasit illustrateshowtheConventionitselfisinterpretedandapplied.

PREAMBLE

TheStatesPartiestothepresentConvention

Recalling thatpeopleofallnationsfromancienttimeshaverecognizedthestatusof diplomaticagents,

Havinginmind thepurposesandprinciplesoftheCharteroftheUnitedNations concerningthesovereignequalityofStates,themaintenanceofinternationalpeaceand security,andthepromotionoffriendlyrelationsamongnations,

Believing thataninternationalconventionondiplomaticintercourse,privilegesand immunitieswouldcontributetothedevelopmentoffriendlyrelationsamongnations, irrespectiveoftheirdifferingconstitutionalandsocialsystems,

Realizing thatthepurposeofsuchprivilegesandimmunitiesisnottobeneﬁt individualsbuttoensuretheefﬁcientperformanceofthefunctionsofdiplomatic missionsasrepresentingStates,

Afﬁrming thattherulesofcustomaryinternationallawshouldcontinuetogovern questionsnotexpresslyregulatedbytheprovisionsofthepresentConvention,

Haveagreed asfollows:

ThePreambletotheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelationshastwoimportant legalfunctions tostatetheviewoftheparticipatingStatesonthetheoreticalbasisof diplomaticprivilegesandimmunities,andtomakeexplicittherelationshipbetweenthe Conventionandcustomaryinternationallaw.

DuringthedebateintheInternationalLawCommissionin1957onthedraftarticles preparedbytheSpecialRapporteur,SirGeraldFitzmauriceexpressedtheviewthatit wouldbeusefultoincorporateintothearticlestheviewoftheCommissiononthebasisof diplomaticprivilegesandimmunities.TheRapporteurinhisCommentaryhadsetoutthe maintheories inparticulartheexterritorialitytheory,therepresentationaltheory,and thetheoryoffunctionalnecessity.Whileacknowledgingtheimportantinﬂuencetheyhad hadonthedevelopmentofthelaw,hehadexpressedcriticismofallofthemasthesole justiﬁcationorbasisforimmunities,andhehadputforwardnoviewontheirrelative merits.1 SirGeraldFitzmauricehimselfexpressedtheconvictionthatthetheoryof functionalnecessitywasthecorrectone:

Thetheoryofexterritorialitywouldnotbearcloseexamination,andtheotheropinionswereopen toseriouscriticism.Thefunctionaltheory,ontheotherhand,thoughithadbeencriticized,was veryneartothetruth,forthesimplereasonthat,inthelastanalysis,itwasimpossiblefora diplomaticagenttocarryouthisdutiesunlessaccordedcertainimmunitiesandprivileges.

OtherMembersoftheCommission,however,wereopposedtoanexpressstatement regardingthetheoreticalbasisofprivilegesandimmunities,onthegroundthatsuch theoriesdidnomorethanattempttoexplainrulesandprinciplesalreadyinexistence,and

1 UNDocA/CN4/91,AEFSandström,SpecialRapporteur, ReportonDiplomaticIntercourseandImmunities atpp11–13.

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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Crystal Circe

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Crystal Circe

Author: Henry Kuttner

Illustrator: John B. Musacchia

Release date: August 11, 2022 [eBook #68726]

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Fictioneers, Inc, 1942

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CRYSTAL CIRCE ***

THE CRYSTAL CIRCE

By Henry Kuttner

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from Astonishing Stories, June 1942.

Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]

Prologue

The stratoship from Cairo was late, and I was wondering whether the newsreel theatre or a couple of drinks would make time pass faster. It was early dusk. Through the immense, curved wall-window of the Manhattan Port Room I could see the landing field, with a silvery ship being rolled over the tarmac, and the skyscrapers of New York beyond.

Then I saw Arnsen.

It was Steve Arnsen, of course. No doubt about that. No other man had his great breadth of shoulders, his Herculean build. Ten years ago we had been classmates at Midwestern. I remembered rakehell, laughing, handsome Steve Arnsen very well, with his penchant for getting into trouble and out of it again, usually dragging Douglas O'Brien, his room-mate, along with him like the helpless tail of a kite. Poor Doug! He was the antithesis of Arnsen, a thoughtful, studious boy with the shadow of a dream lurking always in his dark eyes. An idealist was Douglas O'Brien, as his Celtic ancestors had been. Strong friendship had existed between the two men—the mental communion of laughter and a dream.

Arnsen was looking up into the darkening sky, a queer tensity in his posture. He turned abruptly, came to a table near me, and sat down. From his pocket he took a small box. It snapped open. His gaze probed into the unknown thing that was hidden by his cupped hands.

I picked up my drink and went to Arnsen's table. All I could see was the back of his sleek, massive head. Then he looked up—

If ever I saw hell in a man's face, I saw it in Arnsen's then. There was a dreadful longing, and an equally horrible hopelessness, the expression one might see on the face of a damned soul looking up from the pit at the shining gates forever beyond his reach. And Arnsen's face had been—ravaged.

The searing mark of some experience lay there, branded into his furrowed cheeks, his tightened lips, into his eyes where a sickness dwelt. No—this was not Steve Arnsen, the boy I had known at Midwestern. Youth had left him, and hope as well.

"Vail!" he said, smiling crookedly "Good Lord, of all people! Sit down and have a drink. What are you doing here?"

I sought for words as I dropped into a chair. Arnsen watched me for a moment, and then shrugged. "You might as well say it. I've changed. Yeah—I know that."

"What happened?" There was no need to fence.

His gaze went beyond me, to the dark sky above the landing field. "What happened? Why don't you ask where Doug is? We always stuck together, didn't we? Surprising to see me alone—"

He lit a cigarette and crushed it out with an impatient gesture. "You know, Vail, I've been hoping I'd run into you. This thing that's been boiling inside of me—I haven't been able to tell a soul. No one would have believed me. You may. The three of us kicked around together a lot, in the old days."

"In trouble?" I asked. "Can I help?"

"You can listen," he said. "I came back to Earth thinking I might be able to forget. It hasn't worked. I'm waiting for the airliner to take me to Kansas Spaceport. I'm going to Callisto—Mars—somewhere. Earth isn't the right place any more. But I'm glad we ran into each other, Vail. I want to talk. I want you to answer a question that's been driving me almost insane."

I signalled the waiter and got more drinks. Arnsen was silent till we were alone once more. Then he opened his cupped hands and showed me a small shagreen box. It clicked open. Nestling in blue velvet was a crystal, not large, but lovelier than any gem I had ever seen before.

Light drifted from it like the flow of slow water. The dim shining pulsed and waned. In the heart of the jewel was—

I tore my eyes away, staring at Arnsen. "What is it? Where did you get the thing? Not on Earth!"

He was watching the jewel, sick hopelessness on his face. "No—not on Earth. It came from a little asteroid out there—somewhere." He waved vaguely toward the sky. "It isn't charted. I took no reckonings. So I can never go back. Not that I want to, now. Poor Doug!"

"He's dead, isn't he?" I asked.

Arnsen looked at me strangely as he closed the box and slipped it back into his pocket. "Dead? I wonder. Wait till you know the story, Vail. About Doug's lucky charm, and the dreams, and the Crystal Circe...."

The slow horror of remembrance crept across his face. Out there, in space, something had happened. I thought: It must have been frightful to leave such traces on Arnsen.

He read my thought. "Frightful? Perhaps. It was quite lovely, too. You remember the old days, when I thought of nothing but raising hell...."

After a long pause, I said, "Who was—the Crystal Circe?"

"I never knew her name. She told me, but my brain couldn't understand it. She wasn't human, of course. I called her Circe, after the enchantress who changed her lovers to swine." Again he looked at the darkening sky. "Well—it began more than two years ago, in Maine. Doug and I were on a fishing trip when we ran into the meteorite. Little fishing we got done then! You know how Doug was— like a kid reading a fairy tale for the first time. And that meteorite—"

CHAPTER ONE

The Star-Gem

It lay in the crater it had dug for itself, a rounded arc visible about the brown earth. Already sumac and vines were mending the broken soil. Warm fall sunlight slanted down through the trees as Douglas O'Brien and Steve Arnsen plodded toward the distant gurgling of the stream, thoughts intent on catching the limit. No fingering tendril of menace thrust out to warn them.

"Mind your step," Arnsen said, seeing the pit. He detoured around it and turned, realizing that O'Brien had not followed. "Come on, Doug. It's getting late."

O'Brien's tanned young face was intent as he peered down into the hollow. "Wait a bit," he said absently. "This looks—say! I'll bet there's a meteor down there!"

"So there's a meteor. We're not fishing for meteors, professor. They're mostly iron, anyway. Gold, now, would be a different matter."

O'Brien dropped lightly into the hole, scraping at the dirt with his fingers. "Wonder how long it's been here? You run along, Steve. I'll catch up with you."

Arnsen sighed. O'Brien, with his vast enthusiasm for everything under the sun, was off again. There would be no stopping him now till he had satisfied his curiosity about the meteorite. Well, Arnsen had a new fly he was anxious to use, and it would soon be too late for good fishing. With a grunt he turned and pushed on toward the stream.

The fly proved excellent. In a surprisingly short time Arnsen had bagged the limit. There was no sign of O'Brien, and hunger made itself evident. Arnsen retraced his steps.

The younger man was sitting cross-legged beside the crater, holding something in his cupped hands and staring down at it. A swift glance showed Arnsen that the meteorite had been uncovered, and, apparently, cracked in two, each piece the size of a football. He stepped closer, to see what O'Brien held.

It was a gray crystal, egg-sized, filled with cloudy, frozen mists. It had been cut into a diamond-shaped, multifaced gem.

"Where'd you get that?" Arnsen asked.

O'Brien jumped, turning up a startled face. "Oh—hello, Steve. It was in the meteorite. Damnedest thing I ever saw. I saw the meteorite had a line of fission all around it, so I smacked the thing with a rock. It fell apart, and this was in the middle. Impossible, isn't it?"

"Let's see." Arnsen reached for the jewel. O'Brien showed an odd reluctance in giving it up, but finally dropped it into the other's outstretched hand.

The gem was cold, and yet not unpleasantly so. A tingling raced up Arnsen's arm to his shoulder. He felt an abrupt, tiny shock.

O'Brien snatched the jewel. Arnsen stared at him.

"I'm not going to eat it. What—"

The boy grinned. "It's my luck piece, Steve. My lucky charm. I'm going to have it pierced."

"Better take it to a jeweler first," Arnsen suggested. "It may be valuable."

"No—I'll keep it." He slipped the gem into his pocket. "Any luck?"

"The limit, and I'm starving. Let's get back to camp."

Over their meal of fried trout, O'Brien fingered the find, staring into the cloudy depths of the gem as though he expected to find something there. Arnsen could sense a strange air of withdrawal about him. That night O'Brien fell asleep holding the jewel in his hand.

His sleep was troubled. O'Brien watched the boy, the vaguest hint of worry in his blue eyes. Once Doug lifted his hand and let it fall reluctantly. And once a flash of light seemed to lance out from the gem, brief and vivid as lightning. Imagination, perhaps....

The moon sank. O'Brien stirred and sat up. Arnsen felt the other's eyes upon him. He said softly, "Doug?"

"Yes. I wondered if you were awake."

"Anything wrong?"

"There's a girl...." O'Brien said, and fell silent. After what seemed a long time, he went on: "Remember you said once that I'd never find a girl perfect enough to love?"

"I remember."

"You were wrong. She's like Deirdre of the Tuatha Dé, like Freya, like Ran of the northern seas. She has red hair, red as dying suns are red, and she's a goddess like Deirdre, too. The Song of Solomon was made for her. 'Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in thee.... I

sleep, but my heart waketh; it is the voice of my beloved that knocketh.' Steve," he said, and his voice broke sharply. "It wasn't a dream. I know it wasn't. She exists, somewhere." He stirred; Arnsen guessed that he was peering at the gray jewel.

There was nothing to say. The frosty brilliance of the stars gleamed through the laced branches above. A curious breath of the unearthly seemed to drop down from the vast abyss of the sky, chilling Arnsen's heart.

In that moment he knew that his friend was ensorcelled.

Superstition—foolishness! He shook the thought away. But all the blood of his Northern ancestors rose up in him, the Vikings who had believed in Queen Ran of Ocean, in trolls and warlocks and the water-maidens who guard sunken gold.

"You're dreaming," he said stubbornly, more loudly than he thought. "It's time we got back to the city. We've been here long enough."

To his surprise, O'Brien agreed. "I think so. I've an idea I want to work on." And the boy shut up like a clam, relaxing almost instantly into peaceful slumber.

But Arnsen did not sleep for a long time. The stars seemed too close and, somehow, menacing. From the black void, eyes watched—not human eyes, for all their loveliness. They were pools of darkest night, and stars glimmered within them.

He wished that O'Brien had not found the meteorite.

CHAPTER TWO

Lure of the Crystal

There was a change in the boy after that. The dream in his eyes did not fade, but he worked now with an intensity of purpose that had never existed before. Previously, the two had held routine jobs in a huge commercial organization. Without warning O'Brien quit. Arnsen

followed suit, feeling the necessity for staying close to the younger man. Yet in the days to come, he amounted to little more than excess baggage.

O'Brien had plans. He borrowed money, scraped together enough to equip a small laboratory, and there he worked long hours. Arnsen helped when he could, though that was not often. He seldom knew exactly what the boy was trying to accomplish.

Once O'Brien said a queer thing. They were in the laboratory, awaiting the result of an experiment, and Arnsen was pacing back and forth nervously.

"I wish I knew what was up, Doug," he said almost with anger. "We've been at this for months now. What do you expect, anyway? You've had no more than an ordinary training in physics."

"The jewel helps," O'Brien said. He took the gem from its suede bag and stared into the cloudy depths. "I catch—thoughts from it."

Arnsen stopped short, staring. His face changed. "You kidding?" he demanded.

O'Brien flushed. "Okay, try it," he said, thrusting the stone at Arnsen, who took it rather reluctantly "Shut your eyes and let your mind go blank. That does it, sometimes."

"I—all right." Arnsen squeezed his eyes closed and thought of nothing. Instantly a sick, horrible feeling swept through him—a terrible yearning such as he had never known before. So might the Assassins feel, deprived of the magic drug that took them to Paradise. An Assassin exiled, cast into outer darkness.

A face swam into view, lovely and strange beyond imagination. Only a glimpse he had, blotted out by rainbow, coruscating lights that darted and flashed like elfin fireflies. Then darkness, once more, and the frightful longing—for what?

He let go of the gem; O'Brien caught it as it fell. The boy smiled wryly

"I wondered if you'd get it, too. Did you see her?"

"I saw nothing," Arnsen snarled, whirling toward the door. "I felt nothing!"

"Yet you're afraid. Why? I don't fear her, or the stone."

"The more fool you," Arnsen cast over his shoulder as he went out. He felt sick and weak, as though unnameable vistas had opened before him. There was no explanation for what he had felt—no sane explanation, at least.

And yet there might be, he thought, as he paced about the yard, smoking an endless chain of cigarettes. Telepathy, thoughttransference—he had simply caught what was in O'Brien's mind. But it was horrible to know that Doug was feeling that soul-sick craving for the goddess-girl who could not exist.

O'Brien came out of the laboratory, eyes aglow "It's done," he said, trying to repress his triumph. "We've got the alloy at last. That last treatment did the trick."

Arnsen felt vague apprehension. He tried to congratulate O'Brien, but his tone rang false to his own ears. The boy smiled understandingly.

"It's been good of you to string along, Steve. The thing will pay off now. Only—I'll need a lot of money."

"You'll have a lot. Plenty of companies will be bidding for the process."

O'Brien said, "I want enough to buy a spaceship."

Arnsen whistled. "That's a lot. Even for a small boat." His eyes narrowed. "Why do you want it?"

"I'm going to find Deirdre," the other said simply. "She's out there, somewhere." He tilted his head back. "And I'll find her."

"Space is pretty big."

"I've a guide." O'Brien took out the gray gem. "It wants to go to her, too. It wants to go back. It isn't really alive here on Earth, you know.

And I'm not just dreaming, Steve. How do you suppose I managed to make this alloy—the perfect plastic, tougher than beryllium steel, lighter than aluminum, a conductor or non-conductor of electricity depending on the mix.... You know I couldn't have done it alone."

"You did it."

O'Brien touched the jewel. "I found out how to do it. There's life in here, Steve. Not earthly life, but intelligent. I could understand a little, not much. Enough to work out the alloy. I had to do that first, so I could get money enough to buy a spaceship."

"You don't know how to pilot in space."

"We'll hire a pilot."

"We?"

He grinned. "I'm going to prove my point. You don't believe in Deirdre. But you'll see her, Steve. The jewel will guide us. It wants to go home —so we'll take it there."

Arnsen scowled and turned away, his big shoulders tense with unreasoning anger. He found himself hating the imaginary being O'Brien had created. Deirdre! His fists clenched.

She did not exist. The major planets and satellites had been explored; the inhabited ones held nothing remotely human. Martians were huge-headed, spindle-legged horrors; Venusians were scaled amphibians, living in a state of feudalism and constant warfare. The other planets ... the avian, hollow-boned Callistans were closest to humanity, but by no stretch of the imagination could they be called beautiful. And Deirdre was beautiful. Imaginary or not, she was lovely as a goddess.

Damn her!

But that did no good. O'Brien was not to be turned from his purpose. With relentless, swift intensity he patented the alloy process, sold it to the highest bidder, and purchased a light space cruiser He found a pilot, a leather-skinned, tough, tobacco-chewing man named Tex Hastings, who could be depended on to do what he was told and keep his mouth shut.

O'Brien chafed with impatience till the cruiser jetted off from the spaceport. The closer he came to achieving his goal, the more nervous he grew. The jewel he kept clenched in one hand most of the time. Arnsen noticed that a dim brilliance was beginning to glow within it as the ship plunged farther out toward the void.

Hastings cast quizzical glances at O'Brien, but did what he was told. He confided in Arnsen.

"We haven't even bothered with charts. It's screwy, but I'm not kicking. Only this isn't piloting. Your friend just points at a star-sector and says, 'Go there.' Funny." He scratched his leathery cheek, faded eyes intent on Arnsen's face.

The big man nodded. "I know But it isn't up to me, Hastings. I'm super-cargo."

"Yeah. Well, if you—want any help—you can count on me. I've seen space-madness before."

Arnsen snorted. "Space-madness!"

Hastings' eyes were steady. "I may be wrong, sure. But anything can happen out here. We're not on Earth, Mr. Arnsen. Earth laws don't apply. Neither does logic. We're on the edge of the unknown."

"I never thought you were superstitious."

"I'm not. Only I've been around, and seen a lot. That crystal Mr. O'Brien lugs around with him—I never saw anything like that before." He waited, but Arnsen didn't speak. "All right, then. I've known things to drift in from Outside. Funny things, damn funny. The Solar System's like a Sargasso. It catches flotsam from other systems, even other universes, for all I know. One rule I've learned—when you can't guess the answer, it's a good idea to stay clear."

Arnsen grunted moodily, staring out a port at the glaring brilliance of the stars.

"Ever heard any stories about jewels like that one?"

Hastings shook his closely-cropped head. "No. But I saw a wreck once, Sunside of Pluto—a ship that hadn't been designed in this System. It was deserted; God knows how long it had been out there. Or where it came from. Inside, it wasn't designed for human beings at all. It came from Outside, of course, and Outside is a big place. That jewel, now—" He bit the end off a quid of tobacco.

"What about it?"

"It's an Outside sort of thing. And your friend isn't acting normal. It may add up to trouble. It may not. My point is that I'm going to keep my eyes open, and you'd be wise to do the same thing."

Arnsen went back to the galley and fried eggs, angry with himself for listening to Hastings' hints. He was more than ever uncomfortable. Back on Earth, it had been easier to disbelieve in any unknown powers that the gray jewel might possess; here, it was different. Space was the hinterland, the waste that bordered the cryptic Outside. The forward step in science that threw open the gates of interplanetary travel had, in a way, taken man back in time to a day when he cowered in a cave, fearing the powers of the dark that lurked in the unknown jungle. Space travel had broken barriers. It opened a door that, perhaps, should have remained forever closed.

On the shores of space strange flotsam was cast. Arnsen's gaze probed out through the port, to the red globe of Mars, the blinding brilliance of the Milky Way, the enigmatic shadow of the Coal Sack. Out there anything might lie. Life grown from a matrix neither Earthly nor even three-dimensional. Charles Fort had hinted at it; scientists had hazarded wild guesses. The cosmic womb of space, from which blasphemous abortions might be cast.

So they went on, day after day, skirting Mars and plunging on into the thick of the asteroid belt. It was uncharted country now, a Sargasso of remnants from an exploded planet that had existed here eons ago. Sounds rang loudly in the narrow confines of the space ship. Nervousness gripped all three of the men. But O'Brien found comfort in the gray crystal. His eyes held a glowing light of triumph.

"We are coming closer, Steve," he said. "Deirdre isn't far away now."

"Damn Deirdre," Arnsen said—but not aloud.

The ship went on, following the blind course O'Brien pointed. Hastings shook his head in grim silence, and trained his passengers in the use of the space-suits. Few of the asteroids had atmosphere, and it became increasingly evident that the destination was an asteroid....

CHAPTER THREE

The Singing Crystals

They found it at last, a jagged, slowly revolving ball that looked incredibly desolate, slag from some solar furnace. The telescope showed no life. The ball had hardened as it whirled, and the molten rock had frozen instantly, in frigid space, into spiky, giant crags and stalagmites. No atmosphere, no water, no sign of life in any form.

The crystal O'Brien held had changed. A pale light streamed from it. O'Brien's face was tensely eager.

"This is it. Set the ship down, Hastings."

The pilot made a grimace, but bent toward the controls. It was a ticklish task at best, for he had to match the ship's speed to the speed of the asteroid's revolution and circle in, describing a narrowing spiral. Rocket ships are not built for maneuverability. They blast their way to ground and up again through sheer roaring power.

She settled bumpily on the iron-hard surface of the asteroid, and Arnsen looked through the thick visiglass at desolation that struck a chill to his heart. Life had never existed here. It was a world damned in the making, a tiny planetoid forever condemned to unbearable night and silence. It was one with the darkness. The sun-glare, in the absence of atmosphere, made sharp contrasts between light and jet shadow. The fingers of rock reached up hungrily, as though searching for warmth. There was nothing menacing about the picture. It was horrible in its lifelessness; that was all.