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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Adler, Freda, autor. | Mueller, Gerhard O. W., author. | Laufer, William S., author.
Title: Criminology / Freda Adler, University of Pennsylvania, Gerhard O.W. Mueller, Rutgers University, William S. Laufer, University of Pennsylvania.
Description: Ninth edition. | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill, [2016]
Identifiers: LCCN 2016025411 | ISBN 9780078140969 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Criminology.
Classification: LCC HV6025 .A35 2016 | DDC 364--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016025411
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.
About the Authors
FREDA ADLER is Visiting Professor, and Senior Fellow, Zicklin Center, The Wharton School and Emeritus Distinguished Professor of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University, School of Criminal Justice. She received her B.A. in sociology, her M.A. in criminology, and her Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Adler began her career in criminal justice as an evaluator of drug and alcohol treatment programs for federal and state governments. She has been teaching since 1968; her subjects include criminal justice, criminology, comparative criminal justice systems, statistics, and research methods. She has served as criminal justice advisor to the United Nations, as well as to federal, state, and foreign governments. Dr. Adler’s published works include 15 books as author or coauthor, 10 books as editor or coeditor, and over 80 journal articles. She has served on the editorial boards of the Journal of Criminal Justice, Criminology, and the Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency. Dr. Adler is editorial consultant to the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology and is coeditor of Advances in Criminological Theory. She has also served as president of the American Society of Criminology (1994–1995).
GERHARD O. W. MUELLER is the late Distinguished Professor of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University, School of Criminal Justice. After earning his J.D. degree from the University of Chicago, he went on to receive a master of laws degree from Columbia University. He was awarded the degree of Dr. Jur. h. c. by the University of Uppsala, Sweden. His career in criminal justice began in 1945, when he served as a chief petty officer in the British Military government Water Police, where he commanded a Coast Guard cutter. His teaching in criminal justice, begun in l953, was partially interrupted between 1974 and l982 when, as Chief of the United Nations Crime Prevention
and Criminal Justice Branch, he was responsible for all of the United Nations’ programs dealing with problems of crime and justice worldwide. He continued his service to the United Nations as chair ad interim of the Board of the International Scientific and Professional Advisory Council of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme. Professor Mueller was a member of the faculties of law at the University of Washington, West Virginia University, New York University, and the National Judicial College, with visiting appointments and lectureships at universities and institutes in the Americas, western and eastern Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. He was the author of some 50 authored or edited books and 270 scholarly articles.
WILLIAM S. LAUFER is the Julian Aresty Professor at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, where he is Professor of Legal Studies and Business Ethics, Sociology, and Criminology. Dr. Laufer, former chair of the Department of Criminology at Penn, received his B.A. in social and behavioral sciences at Johns Hopkins University, his J.D. at Northeastern University School of Law, and his Ph.D. at Rutgers University, School of Criminal Justice. Dr. Laufer’s research has appeared in law reviews and a wide range of criminal justice, legal, and psychology journals, including Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, American Journal of Criminal Law, Law and Human Behavior, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, and Business Ethics Quarterly. His most recent book is Corporate Bodies and Guilty Minds: The Failure of Corporate Criminal Liability (University of Chicago Press). Dr. Laufer is coeditor of the Handbook of Psychology and Law; Personality, Moral Development and Criminal Behavior; and Crime, Values, and Religion. He is series coeditor with Freda Adler of Advances in Criminological Theory.
To: David S., Daniel A., Julia A., Noah A., Zoe A., Hannah M., Nicolai A., John J., Lauren E., Stephen W., Anna L., Erik D., Johann D., Sasha K., Misha K.
PART 1 Understanding Criminology 1
1 The Changing Boundaries of Criminology 3
2 Defining Crimes and Measuring Criminal Behavior 24
3 Schools of Thought throughout History 51
PART 2 Explanations of Crime and Criminal Behavior 71
4 Biological and Psychological Perspectives 73
5 Strain and Cultural Deviance Theories 101
6 The Formation of Subcultures 125
7 Social Control Theory 152
8 Labeling, Conflict, and Radical Theories 172
9 Theories of Crime, Place, and Victimization 192
14 International and Comparative Criminology 342
PART 4* A Criminological Approach to the Criminal Justice System
15 Processes and Decisions
16 Enforcing the Law: Practice and Research
17 The Nature and Functioning of Courts
18 A Research Focus on Corrections
* Part 4, Chapters 15–18, are available only at the Instructor Edition of the Online Learning Center: http://highered.mheducation.com:80/sites/007814096x.
List of Boxes xvii
Preface xviii
PART 1 Understanding Criminology 1
1 The Changing Boundaries of Criminology 3
The Changing Boundaries of Criminology 4 Terrorism 5
Illicit Drug Trafficking 5
Money Laundering 6
Infiltration of Legal Business 7
Computer Crime 7
Illicit Arms Trafficking 7
Trafficking in Persons 8
Destruction of Cultural Property 8
What Is Criminology? 11
The Making of Laws 12 Deviance 12
The Concept of Crime 13
The Consensus and Conflict Views of Law and Crime 14
Fairy Tales and Crime 16
The Breaking of Laws 17
Society’s Reaction to the Breaking of Laws 18
Criminology and the Criminal Justice System 20
The Global Approach to the Breaking of Laws 20
Research Informs Policy 21
BOXES
World News: Sex Trafficking Factsheet 8
Window to the World: Terrorism and the Fear of Terrorism 14
Debatable Issues: Fame and Crime 18
Review 22
Criminology & Public Policy 22
You Be the Criminologist 23 Key Terms 23
2 Defining Crimes and Measuring Criminal Behavior 24
The Ingredients of Crime 25
The Act Requirement 26
The Legality Requirement 26
The Harm Requirement 26
The Causation Requirement 27
Mens Rea: The “Guilty Mind” Requirement 27
The Concurrence Requirement 28
The Punishment Requirement 28
The Defenses 28
Typologies of Crime 29
Measuring Crime 29
Methods of Collecting Data 30
Ethics and the Researcher 34
The Nature and Extent of Crime 35
Police Statistics 35
Victimization Surveys 37
Self-Report Surveys 38
Measuring Characteristics of Crime 39
Crime Trends 39
Locations and Times of Criminal Acts 41
Severity of Crime 41
Measuring Characteristics of Criminals 42
Age and Crime 43
Gender and Crime 47
Women in the criminal justice system: mothers in prison 47
Who Cares for Children of incarcerated Mothers? 47
Challenges to Maintaining Familial Bonds 47
Social Class and Crime 49
Race and Crime 49
BOXES
Window to the World: Victims around the World 45
Review 50
You Be the Criminologist 50
Key Terms 50
3 Schools of Thought throughout History 51
Classical Criminology 52
The Historical Context 52
Cesare Beccaria 53
Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism 56
The Classical School: An Evaluation 58
Positivist Criminology 58
Biological Determinism: The Search for Criminal Traits 58
Lombroso, Ferri, Garofalo: The Italian School 59
A Return to Biological Determinism 62
Somatotyping: A Physique for Crime? 64
Psychological Determinism 64
Pioneers in Criminal Psychology 65
Psychological Studies of Criminals 65
Sociological Determinism 65
Adolphe Quételet and André-Michel Guerry 65
Gabriel Tarde 66
Émile Durkheim 66
Historical and Contemporary Criminology: A Time Line 66
The Future of our History 67
BOXES
Window to the World: Stone Age Crime and Social Control 54
Debatable Issues: Utilitarianism Gone Astray 56
Review 69
Criminology & Public Policy 69
You Be the Criminologist 70
Key Terms 70
4 Biological and Psychological Perspectives 73
Biology And Criminality 76
Modern Biocriminology 76
Genetics and Criminality 76
The Controversy over Violence and Genes 78
The IQ Debate 79
Biochemical Factors 80
Neurocriminology 82
Crime and Human Nature 84
Criticisms of Biocriminology 84
Psychology and Criminality 85
Psychological Development 85
Moral Development 86
Maternal Deprivation and Attachment Theory 88
Learning Aggression and Violence 89
Personality 93
Mental Disorders and Crime 95
Psychological Causation 96
Myths of the Insanity Defense 97
An Integrated Theory 98
BOXES
Criminological Concerns: Is It Wrong to Criminalize and Punish Psychopaths? 92 Review 99
Criminology & Public Policy 99
You Be the Criminologist 100 Key Terms 100
5 Strain and Cultural Deviance Theories 101
The Interconnectedness of Sociological Theories 102
Anomie: Émile Durkheim 102
The Structural-Functionalist Perspective 102
Anomie and Suicide 103
Strain Theory 103
Merton’s Theory of Anomie 103
Modes of Adaptation 104 Tests of Merton’s Theory 107
Evaluation: Merton’s Theory 109
Obituary for Tupac Amaru Shakur (1971–1996) 109
Institutional Imbalance and Crime 110
General Strain Theory 111
Cultural Deviance Theories 113
The Nature of Cultural Deviance 114
Social Disorganization Theory 115
Tests of Social Disorganization Theory 117
Evaluation: Social Disorganization Theory 118
Differential Association Theory 119
Tests of Differential Association Theory 120
Evaluation: Differential Association Theory 120
Culture Conflict Theory 121
BOXES
Window to the World: A Social System Breaks Down 106
The Future of White-Collar and Corporate Crime 313
BOXES
Window to the World: Yates Memorandum, a letter from the Department of Justice 294
Debatable Issues: How Much Corporate Power Is Too Much? 304
Criminological Concerns: Corporate Fraud 314
Review 317
Criminology & Public Policy 317
You Be the Criminologist 317
Key Terms 317
13 Public Order Crimes 318
Drug Abuse and Crime 319
The History of Drug Abuse 319
The Extent of Drug Abuse 321
Patterns of Drug Abuse 321
Crime-Related Activities 324
Drug Control 325
Alcohol and Crime 329
The History of Legalization 329
Crime-Related Activities 330
Sexual Morality Offenses 331
Deviate Sexual Intercourse by Force or Imposition 332
Prostitution 332
Pornography 337
BOXES
Window to the World: Global Sexual Slavery: Women and Children 334
Debatable Issues: Cyberporn: Where Do We (Should We) Draw the Line? 336
Review 340
You Be the Criminologist 341
Key Terms 341
14 International and Comparative Criminology 342
What Is Comparative Criminology? 344
The Definition of Comparative Criminology 344
The History of Comparative Criminology 344
The Goals of Comparative Research 345
Engaging in Comparative Criminological Research 346
Comparative Research 346
Comparative Research Tools and Resources 346
The Special Problems of Empirical Research 347
Theory Testing 348
Validation of Major Theories 348
The Socioeconomic Development Perspective 348
Practical Goals 348
Learning from Others’ Experiences 348
Developing International Strategies 349
Globalization versus Ethnic Fragmentation 356
BOXES
Debatable Issues: What Should Be Done to Prevent International Corporate Fraud? 352
Review 357
Criminology & Public Policy 357
You Be the Criminologist 357
Key Terms 357
15 Processes and Decisions
The Stages of the Criminal Justice Process
Entry into the System
Prosecution and Pretrial Services
Adjudication Decisions
Sentencing Decisions
Corrections Decisions
Diversion out of the System
Juvenile Justice
The Development of the Juvenile Justice System
The Juvenile Justice Process
Victims and Criminal Justice
Victims’ Rights
The Victim’s Role in the Criminal Justice Process BOXES
Criminological Concerns: In re Gault: The Demise of Parens Patriae Review
Criminology & Public Policy
You Be the Criminologist
Key Terms
16 Enforcing the Law: Practice and Research
The History of Policing
The English Heritage Policing in the United States
Law Enforcement Agencies
Federal Law Enforcement
Department of Homeland Security
State Police
County Police
Municipal Police
Special-Purpose Police
Private Police
Command Structure
Operations Bureau: Patrol
Operations Bureau: Investigation
Specialized Units
Nonline Functions
Police Functions
Law Enforcement
Order Maintenance
Community Service
The Police and the Community Community Policing
Police-Community Relations Programs
The Rule of Law in Law Enforcement
Constitutional Due Process
Civil Rights
Use of Deadly Force and Police Brutality
Abuse of Discretion
Corruption
* Part 4, Chapters 15–18, are available on the Online Learning Center: http://highered.mheducation.com:80/sites/007814096x.
Police Officers and Their Lifestyle
Qualifications
Changing Composition of the Police Force
The Police Subculture
BOXES
Window to the World: Interpol: The International Criminal Police Organization
Criminological Concerns: Fear of Crime Decreases—Fear of Police Increases
Review
Criminology & Public Policy
You Be the Criminologist
Key Terms
17 The Nature and Functioning of Courts
The Origins of Courts
The U.S. Court System
State Courts
Federal Courts
Interaction between State Courts and Federal Courts
Lawyers in the Court System
The Role of the Trial Judge
Arraignment
Pretrial Motions
Release Decisions
Plea Bargaining
The Trial
Selecting the Jury: Voir Dire
The Proceedings
Jury Decision Making
Sentencing: Today and Tomorrow
Incapacitation
Deterrence
Retribution
Rehabilitation
Model Penal Code Sentencing Goals
Just Deserts
Restorative Justice
Sentencing Limits and Guidelines
Capital Punishment
The Deterrence Argument
The Discrimination Argument
Other Arguments
Trends in American Capital Punishment
BOXES
Window to the World: Judging at the World Level
Criminological Concerns: A New Crime: Hate
A New Punishment: Sentence Enhancement
Review
Criminology & Public Policy
You Be the Criminologist
Key Terms
18 A Research Focus on Corrections
Punishment and Corrections: A Historical Overview
From Antiquity to the Eighteenth Century Punishment in the New World
The Reformatory Movement
The Medical Treatment Model
Community Involvement
The Prisoners’ Rights Movement
Corrections Today
Types of Incarceration
The Size and Cost of the Correctional Enterprise
The Problem of Overcrowding
Prison Culture and Society
Correctional Officers
Programs in Penal Institutions
Evaluation of Rehabilitation
Medical Problems: AIDS, TB, and Mental Illness
The Elderly Inmate
Women in Prison
Privatization of Corrections
Community Alternatives
Probation
Parole
The Search for Cost-Beneficial Alternatives
Evaluation of Community Alternatives
BOXES
Debatable Issues: Beyond the Conjugal Visit?
Criminological Concerns: Boot Camp: A Military Option for Corrections
Review
Criminology & Public Policy
You Be the Criminologist
Key Terms
Notes N-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Indexes I-1
List of Boxes
CRIMINOLOGICAL CONCERNS
Is It Wrong to Criminalize and Punish Psychopaths? 92
National Gang Report 2015 144 Gangs and Parents 148 Defying Convention and Control: “In Your Face” 162 Labeling Countries “Corrupt”: A Perverse Outcome? 178 Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime 239
Mortgage Fraud 270 Insurance Fraud 274
Corporate Fraud 314
In re Gault: The Demise of Parens Patriae Fear of Crime Decreases—Fear of Police Increases
A New Crime: Hate A New Punishment: Sentence Enhancement Boot Camp: A Military Option for Corrections
DEBATABLE ISSUES
Fame and Crime 18
Utilitarianism Gone Astray 56 Cults—Culture Conflict—Crime 122 Cohen vs. Miller 136
Are Human Beings Inherently Bad? 163 Maximum-Security Schools? 204 Does the Brady Law Work? 255 Piracy Emerges as a Major Worldwide Problem: How Can It Be Controlled? 267 How Much Corporate Power Is Too Much? 304 Cyberporn: Where Do We (Should We) Draw the Line? 336
What Should Be Done to Prevent International Corporate Fraud? 352
Life or Death? Beyond the Conjugal Visit?
WINDOW TO THE WORLD
Terrorism and the Fear of Terrorism 14 Victims around the World 45 Stone Age Crime and Social Control 54 A Social System Breaks Down 106 Nations with Low Crime Rates 168 The Forgotten Criminology of Genocide 186 Yates Memorandum, a letter from the Department of Justice 294 Global Sexual Slavery: Women and Children 334
Interpol: The International Criminal Police Organization Judging at the World Level
WORLD NEWS
Sex Trafficking Factsheet 8
Preface
Criminology is a young discipline. In fact, the term “criminology” is only a little more than a century old. But in this brief time, criminology has emerged as an important social and behavioral science devoted to the study of crime and criminal behavior, and the society’s response to both. Criminology fosters theoretical debates, contributes ideas and constructs, develops and explores new research methodologies, and suggests policies and solutions to a wide range of crime problems that dramatically affect the lives of countless people in the United States and around the world. Problems as vital and urgent as those addressed in this book are challenging, exciting, and, at the same time, disturbing and tragic. Moreover, these problems are immediately relevant to all of our lives. This is especially true today, when crimes here and abroad touch so many lives, in so many ways.
Our goal with this book has been, and remains, to discuss these problems, their origins, and their possible solutions in a clear, practical, straightforward fashion that brings the material to life for students. We invite faculty and students alike to join the authors’ in traveling along criminology’s path, exploring its expanding boundaries, and mapping out its future.
THE NINTH EDITION
In the eight preceding editions of this text, we sought to prepare students of criminology to appreciate the contemporary problems with which criminology is concerned and to anticipate those problems society would have to face as we progress in the twenty-first century. It is now time to face the new century’s crime problems as we simultaneously continue to work on solutions to old problems. Because of the forward-looking orientation of previous editions of Criminology and the respect and acceptance those editions have enjoyed, we maintain the book’s established structure and approach with modest but significant changes.
In prior editions we spent considerable time with the emergence of the crime of terrorism in the field of criminology, highlighting the threat of domestic terrorism as a catalyst of change in the criminal justice system. No single crime was ever poised to share and reshape the field of criminology
like the crime of terrorism. It remains unclear that this has happened or should happen. There is no doubt, however, that terrorism will continue to be studied intensely by criminologists around the world, and that such research will result in theoretically-rich and policy-relevant work. To that end, we continue to incorporate the latest findings from criminological research into terrorism.
The continued spate of corporate malfeasance represents another potential challenge to our field. We continue to expand our coverage of white-collar and corporate crimes, including significant coverage of some of the criminological antecedents of the credit crisis in the United States. Like crimes of terrorism, white-collar and corporate offenses have been on the periphery of the field of criminology— but no longer.
As in prior revisions, we have vigorously researched, refined, and updated every chapter of the text—not only to maintain this edition’s scholarly integrity, but also to ensure its relevance. In addition to updating the research presented in every chapter, we expanded coverage of the most critical issues facing the field, and how advances in sister disciplines, including the neurosciences, inform our research.
Inasmuch as developments in criminology influence and are influenced by media reports of national and local significance, students will find discussion and analysis of recent major current events.
As in previous editions, we have endeavored not only to reflect developments and changes, but also anticipate them on the basis of the latest criminological data. After all, those who study criminology with the ninth edition must be ready to address and resolve new criminological problems of tomorrow, when they are decision makers, researchers, faculty, and policy analysts. The aim with this edition, however, remains the same as it was with the first edition more than twenty years ago: to arrive at a future as free from crime as possible.
ORGANIZATION
The ninth edition of Criminology continues with the revised format of our book. The printed book contains Chapters 1–14, covering criminology. The remaining criminal justice chapters
(Chapters 15–18) are available at our book-specific Online Learning Center (http://highered.mheducation. com:80/sites/007814096x). For schools that retain the traditional criminology course, which includes criminological coverage of criminal justice, our text and the online chapters provide the ideal resource.
Part 1, “Understanding Criminology,” presents an overview of criminology—now made more exciting with integrated coverage of terrorism and related crimes—and describes the vast horizon of this science. It explains what crime is and techniques for measuring the amount and characteristics of crime and criminals. It also traces the history of criminological thought through the era that witnessed the formation of the major schools of criminology: classicism and positivism (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries).
Part 2, “Explanations of Crime and Criminal Behavior,” includes explanations of crime and criminal behavior based on the various theories developed in the twentieth century. Among the subjects covered are theories that offer biological, neurocriminological, psychological, sociological, sociopolitical, and integrated explanations. Coverage of research by radical, socialist, and feminist criminologists has been updated. Theories that discuss why offenders choose to commit one offense rather than another at a given time and place are also covered in Part 2.
Part 3, “Types of Crimes,” covers the various types of crimes from a legal and sociological perspective. The familiar street crimes, such as homicide and robbery, are assessed, as are criminal activities such as white-collar and corporate crime—so much in the spotlight these days—as well as technology-dependent crimes that have been highlighted by researchers only in recent years.
Part 4, “A Criminological Approach to the Criminal Justice System” (available only online), includes an explanation of the component parts and functioning of the system. It explains contemporary criminological research on how the people who run the criminal justice system operate it, the decision-making processes of all participants, and the interaction of all the system components.
PEDAGOGICAL AIDS
Working together, the authors and the editors developed a format for the text that supports the goal of achieving a readable, practical, and attractive text. In addition to the changes already mentioned, we include plentiful, current photographs to make the book even more approachable. Redesigned and carefully updated tables and figures highlight and amplify the text. Chapter outlines, lists of key terms, chapter review sections, and a comprehensive end-of-book glossary all help students master the material. Always striving to help students see the relevance of criminology in their
lives, we also updated a number of the features to this edition:
• Theory Connects marginal inserts. These notes in the text margins correlate the intensely applied material in Part 3 of the text (“Types of Crimes”) with the heavily theoretical material in Part 2 (“Explanations of Crime”), giving students much-needed cross-reference material and posing criticalthinking questions that will help them truly process what they are reading.
• Criminology & Public Policy exercises. These end-of-chapter activities challenge students to explore policy issues related to criminology.
• Crime Surfing. These particularly interesting web addresses accompanied by miniexercises allow students to explore chapter topics further.
• Did You Know? These surprising factual realities provide eye-opening information about chapter topics.
• Theory Informs Policy. These brief sections in theory chapters demonstrate how problems identified by criminologists have led to practical solutions.
Our “box” program continues to be updated and improved. In the boxes, we highlight significant criminological issues that deserve special attention. All chapters have a number of boxes that enhance and highlight the text—including boxes that raise debatable issues, criminological concerns, and reveal just how the field of criminological touches every part of the world.
The ninth edition of Criminology is now available online with Connect, McGraw-Hill Education’s integrated assignment and assessment platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience proven to improve grades and help students study more effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content is also available through Connect, including:
• A full Test Bank of multiple choice questions that test students on central concepts and ideas in each chapter.
• An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full chapter outlines, sample test questions, and discussion topics.
• Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.
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Connect Insight is Connect’s new one-of-akind visual analytics dashboard—now available for both instructors and students—that provides at-a-glance information regarding student performance, which is immediately actionable. By presenting assignment, assessment, and topical performance results together with a time metric that is easily visible for aggregate or individual results, Connect Insight gives the user the ability to take a just-in-time approach to teaching and learning, which was never before available. Connect Insight presents data that empowers students and helps instructors improve class performance in a way that is efficient and effective.
Connect’s new, intuitive mobile interface gives students and instructors flexible and convenient, anytime–anywhere access to all components of the Connect platform.
Students can view their results for any Connect course.
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Proven to help students improve grades and study more efficiently, SmartBook contains the same content within the print book, but actively tailors that content to the needs of the individual. SmartBook’s adaptive technology provides precise, personalized instruction on what the student should do next, guiding the student to master and remember key concepts, targeting gaps in knowledge and offering customized feedback, and driving the student toward comprehension and retention of the subject matter. Available on smartphones and tablets, SmartBook puts learning at the student’s fingertips—anywhere, anytime.
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IN APPRECIATION
We greatly acknowledge the assistance and support of a number of dedicated professionals. At Rutgers University, the librarian of the N.C.C.D. Criminal Justice Collection, Phyllis Schultze, has been most helpful in patiently tracking and tracing sources. We thank Professor Sesha Kethineni (Illinois State University) for her tireless assistance on the first edition, Deborah Leiter-Walker for her help on the second, Kerry Dalip and Nhung Tran (University of Pennsylvania) for their assistance on the fourth, Reagan Daly and Ashish Jatia (University of Pennsylvania) for their work on the sixth edition, and Melissa Meltzer (University of Pennsylvania) for her work on the seventh edition. Gratitude is also owed to the many former and current Rutgers University students who have valiantly contributed their labors to all editions. They include Susanna Cornett, Dory Dickman, Lisa Maher, Susan Plant, Mangai Natarajan, Dana Nurge, Sharon Chamard, Marina Myhre, Diane Cicchetti, Emmanuel Barthe, Illya Lichtenberg, Peter Heidt, Vanja Steniius, Christine Tartaro, Megan McNally, Danielle Gunther, Jennifer Lanterman, Smita Jain, and Kim Roberts. Thanks also to Maria Shields for revising the supplements to accompany the seventh edition of this text.
Many academic reviewers offered invaluable help in planning and drafting chapters. We thank them for their time and thoughtfulness and for the experience they brought from their teaching and research:
Jay Albanese, Virginia Commonwealth University
Dr. Pamela Dee Parkinson, American Public University System, Utah
Kevin Drakulich, Northeastern University, Massachusetts
Jarrod Sadulski, American Public University System, Florida
Charles Crawford, Western Michigan University, Michigan
William Michael Holmes, UMASS Boston, Massachusetts
Tomasina Cook, Erie Community College, New York
John Courie, Schoolcraft College, Michigan
Thomas E. Allen, Jr., University of South Dakota
W. Azul La Luz, University of New Mexico
Tony A. Barringer, Florida Gulf Coast University
Stephen Brodt, Ball State University
Daniel Burgel, Vincennes University
Alison Burke, Southern Oregon University
David A. Camp, Culver-Stockton College
Daniel D. Cervi, University of New Hampshire
Bernard Cohen, Queens College, New York
Ellen Cohn, Florida International University
Cavit Cooley, Truman State University
Roger Cunningham, Eastern Illinois University
Richard P. Davin, Riverside Community College
Julius Debro, University of Hartford
Albert Dichiara, Eastern Illinois University
Sandra Emory, University of New Mexico
Edna Erez, Kent State University
Raymond A. Eve, University of Texas, Arlington
The late Franco Ferracuti, University of Rome, Italy
Edith Flynn, Northeastern University
Harold A. Frossard, Moraine Valley Community College
Karen Gilbert, University of Georgia
Ronald J. Graham, Fresno City College
Clayton Hartjen, Rutgers University
Marie Henry, Sullivan County Community College
John Hill, Salt Lake Community College
Matrice Hurrah, Southwest Tennessee Community College
Randy Jacobs, Baylor University
Joseph Jacoby, Bowling Green State University
Debra L. Johnson, Lindenwood University
Kareen Jordan, University of Central Florida
Deborah Kelly, Longwood College
Dennis Kenney, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
James Kenny, Fairleigh Dickinson University
Nicholas Kittrie, American University
Kathryn Noe Kozey, University of Maryland
James J. Lauria, Pittsburgh Technical Institute
Matthew T. Lee, University of Akron
Anna C. Leggett, Miami Dade Community College
Linda Lengyel, The College of New Jersey
Michael A. Long, Colorado State University
Joel Maatman, Lansing Community College
Coramae Mann, Indiana University, Bloomington
Harry L. Marsh, Indiana State University
Robert McCormack, The College of New Jersey
P. J. McGann, University of Michigan
Jean Marie McGloin, University of Maryland
Sharon S. Oselin, University of California, Irvine
Jesenia Pizarro, Michigan State University
Lydia Rosner, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Lee E. Ross, University of Wisconsin
Harjit Sandhu, Oklahoma State University
Jennifer L. Schulenberg, Sam Houston State University
Clayton Steenberg, Arkansas State University
Richard Steinhaus, New Mexico Junior College
Melvina Sumter, Old Dominion University
Austin T. Turk, University of California, Riverside
Prabha Unnithan, Colorado State University
James Vrettos, John Jay College of Criminal Justice
Charles Wellford, University of Maryland at College Park
Frank Williams, California State University, San Bernardino
The late Marvin E. Wolfgang, University of Pennsylvania
We thank our colleagues overseas who have prepared translations of Criminology to help familiarize students of foreign cultures with criminological problems that are now global, with our theories, and with efforts to deal with the persistent problem of crime in the future:
The Arabic translation: Dr. Mohammed Zeid, Cairo, Egypt, and Rome, Italy
The Japanese translation: Dr. Toyoji Saito, Kobe, Japan, and his colleagues
The Hungarian translation: Dr. Miklos Levai, Miskolc, Hungary, and his colleagues
The Georgian translation: Dr. Georgi Glonti, Tbilisi, Georgia
Finally, we owe a special debt to the team at McGraw-Hill: Thank you for the leadership, encouragement, support, and timeless editorial work.
A combined total of over a hundred years of teaching criminology and related subjects provides the basis for the writing of Criminology, Ninth Edition. We hope the result is a text that is intellectually provocative, factually rigorous, and scientifically sound and that offers a stimulating learning experience for the student.
Freda Adler William S. Laufer
A Guided Tour
Up-to-the-Minute Coverage
The expansion of white-collar and corporate crime, the effects of the current global economic downturn, and a new look at the connection between biology and criminology are among the cuttingedge topics discussed in this Ninth Edition.
Hormones
Experiments have shown that male animals typically are more aggressive than females. Male aggression is directly linked to male hormones. If an aggressive male mouse is injected with female hormones, he will stop fighting.47 Likewise, the administration of male hormones to pregnant monkeys results in female offspring who, even three years after birth, are more aggressive than the daughters of non-injected mothers.48 While it would be misleading to equate male hormones with aggression and female hormones with nonaggression, there is some evidence that abnormal levels of male hormones in humans may prompt criminal behavior. Several investigators have found higher levels of testosterone (the male hormone) in the blood of individuals who have committed violent offenses.49 Some studies also relate premenstrual syndrome (PMS) to delinquency and conclude that women are at greater risk of aggressive and suicidal behavior before and during the menstrual period. After studying 156 newly admitted adult female prisoners, Katharina Dalton concluded that 49 percent of all their crimes were committed either in the premenstrual period or during menstruation.50 More recently, however, critics have challenged the association between menstrual distress and female crime.51
Neurocriminology
In England in the mid-1950s, a father hit his son with a mallet and then threw him out of a window, killing him instantly. Instead of pleading insanity, as many people expected him to do, he presented evidence of a brain tumor, which, he argued,
Chapter Openers
rape, and assault. Subsequent studies found that violent and impulsive male offenders had a higher rate of hypoglycemia than noncriminal controls. Consider the work of Matti Virkkunen, who has conducted a series of studies of habitually violent and psychopathic offenders in Finland. In one such study done in the 1980s, he examined the results of a glucose tolerance test (used to determine whether hypoglycemia is present) administered to 37 habitually violent offenders with antisocial personalities, 31 habitually violent offenders with intermittent explosive disorders, and 20 controls. The offenders were found to be significantly more hypoglycemic than the controls.46
Each chapter opens with an outline of key topics, followed by a lively excerpt highlighting concepts from the field of criminology.
Here we have a host of different types of crimes, committed in a two day period in New York. The prosecutors in these juris-
Labeling, Conflict, and Radical Theories
joined the revolution.
These criminologists turned away from theories that explained crime by characteristics of the offender or of the social structure. They set out to demonstrate that individuals become criminals because of what people with power, especially those in the criminal justice system, do. Their explanations largely reject the consensus model of crime, on which all earlier theories rested. Their theories not only question the traditional explanations of the creation and enforcement of criminal law but also blame that law for the making of criminals (Table 8.1). It may not sound so radical to assert that unless an act is made criminal by law,
Confirming Pages
NEW! World News Boxes
Part of our acclaimed thematic box program, World News boxes feature current issues and problems reported from across the globe.
Sex Trafficking Factsheet
Trafficking women and children for sexual exploitation is the fastest growing criminal enterprise in the world. This, despite the fact international law and the laws of 134 countries criminalize sex trafficking.
• At least 20.9 million adults and children are bought and sold worldwide into commercial sexual servitude, forced labor and bonded labor.
• About 2 million children are exploited every year in the global commercial sex trade.
• Almost 6 in 10 identified trafficking survivors were trafficked for sexual exploitation.
• Women and girls make up 98% of victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation.
Window to the World Boxes
Sex Trafficking Is a Human Rights Violation
They forced me to sleep with as many as 50 customers a day. I had to give [the pimp] all my money. If I did not [earn a set amount] they punished me by removing my clothes and beating me with a stick until I fainted, electrocuting me, cutting me.
—Kolab, sex trafficking survivor from Cambodia
Sex trafficking—whether within a country or across national borders— violates basic human rights, including the rights to bodily integrity, equality, dignity, health, security, and freedom from violence and torture. Key
international human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), consider sex trafficking a form of sex discrimination and a human rights violation. Survivors of sex trafficking tell stories of daily degradation of mind and body. They are often isolated, intimidated, sold into debt bondage and subject to physical and sexual assault by their traffickers. Most live under constant mental and physical threat. Many suffer severe emotional trauma, including symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and disassociation. They are at greater risk of contracting sexually transmissible infections, including HIV/AIDS. Many become pregnant and are forced to undergo often unsafe abortions.
former Soviet installations. During both the Clinton and the Bush administrations, fears were expressed that rogue states that have traditionally supported terrorism sought these materials for the creation of weapons of mass destruction. The United States finds itself at war with this justification as its premise. One of the pretexts for the U.S.-Iraq war was the issue of United Nations inspections of suspected Iraqi nuclear arms facilities. As history has demonstrated, no weapons of mass destruction were found by UN inspectors or U.S. military personnel.
numbers of persons linked to terrorist organizations.11 There are also masses of illegal aliens who have moved from Iran, Iraq, and Turkey—across the Aegean Sea—into Northern Africa, where they become vulnerable recruits for terrorist activities. The problem of illegal immigration is now a major political issue in the United States, raising concerns about border security, civil liberties, and the rights of citizenship.
Drawing on criminology’s increased emphasis on global factors, Window to the World boxes examine developments abroad that affect America’s crime situation.
Trafficking in Persons
WINDOW TO THE WORLD
Smuggling would-be illegal migrants from lessdesirable homelands to more promising lands of opportunity has become a huge criminal enterprise involving millions of human beings, billions in funds paid to smugglers, and the loss of a great number of innocent lives. Many of the countries of destination fear the growth of immigrant communities that might be terrorist havens, like the refugee camps of Palestine. Even greater is the fear that terrorist organizations deliberately infiltrate their members into immigrant populations. To their dismay, for example, Italian law enforcement authorities have learned that among the waves of illegal immigrants washing ashore in Sicily are increasing
Destruction of Cultural Property
Lenin’s terrorists became infamous for their efforts to destroy the evidence of a culture past: Christian churches were destroyed. Hitler’s terrorists burned down the synagogues of Germany and every other cultural symbol, especially literature, art, and music, deemed inconsistent with the new “culture” they wanted to impose. The Taliban took delight in firing artillery shells into two ancient statues of Buddha—the largest in the world—reducing them to rubble. And, countless antiquities have been destroyed in Syria and Iraq by ISIS “fighters.” Most disturbing is the damage to both art and architecture in the ancient Syrian city of Palmyra in 2015. Terrorists, especially those with millennial goals or of religious or political extremism, seek to destroy past cultures and to impose their own vision of culture.
The capacity for societies to maintain social control can change over time in response to other changes in social conditions. This means that countries labeled as either “low crime” or “high crime” at one point in time may experience changes in their crime status as social control mechanisms change
Japan, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, and Switzerland) have remarkably been able to maintain low crimes rates for several decades. In contrast, a couple of these countries, namely Bulgaria and Peru, were not able to maintain their “low crime” status as dramatic political and economic changes severely dis-
Debatable Issues Boxes
These boxes highlight controversies requiring real-world resolutions.
Schools?
Criminological Concerns Boxes
These boxes focus on problems that challenge us to come up with effective responses right now.
quality of significantly with aggressive, Delinquency effects of of death, absence cause equivocal. evidence comes by Joan relationship parental affection) and the childsubsequent family-related activity. affection mother’s lack deviance were of crimes father’s absence behavior. provide presence. Delinquent of family and found boys who
ing theorists reject the notion that internal functioning alone makes us prone to act aggressively or violently.
Learning Aggression and Violence
Social learning theory maintains that delinquent behavior is learned through the same psychological processes as any other behavior. Behavior is learned when it is reinforced or rewarded; it is not learned when it is not reinforced. We learn behavior in various ways: observation, direct experience, and differential reinforcement.
Observational Learning
Albert Bandura, a leading proponent of social learning theory, argues that individuals learn violence and aggression through behavioral modeling: Children learn how to behave by fashioning their behavior after that of others. Behavior is socially transmitted through examples, which come primarily from the family, the subculture, and the mass media.82
Psychologists have been studying the effects of family violence (Chapter 10) on children. They have found that parents who try to resolve family controversies by violence teach their children to use similar tactics. Thus, a cycle of violence may be perpetuated through generations. Observing a healthy and happy family environment tends to result in constructive and positive modeling.
To understand the influence of the social environment outside the home, social learning theorists have studied gangs, which often provide excellent models of observational learning of violence and aggression. They have found, in
Crime Surfing www.ncjrs.org
Maternal deprivation can be related to delinquent behavior. What happens to deprived (often abused and neglected) children? Is there a cycle of violence?
Crime Surfing Features
Internet references accompanied by mini-exercises allow students to further explore chapter topics.
DID YOU KNOW?
. . . that, while evidence is lacking that deprivation directly causes delinquency, research on the impact of family-based crime prevention programs is promising? Programs that target family risk factors in multiple settings (ecological contexts) have achieved success.
Chapter 4 Biological and Psychological Perspectives 89 01/24/17 09:00 PM
Theory Connects Features
These marginal notes correlate the applied material in Part 3 of the text (“Types of Crimes”) with the theoretical material in Part 2 (“Explanations of Crime”), giving students much needed cross-reference material and posing critical-thinking questions.
THEORY CONNECTS
Pornography
Psychologists have long studied the deleterious effect on children of violence on television (Chapter 4). Does cyber pornography pose similar threats to children? To what extent does violent pornography, freely available on the Internet, legitimize violence against girls and women?
Did You Know? Facts
Intriguing, little-known facts related to specific chapter topics engage students’ natural curiosity about criminology.
of children. That was the stance taken by many national and local societies devoted to the preservation of public morality in the nineteenth century. More recently, the emphasis has shifted to the question of whether the availability and use of pornography produce actual, especially violent, victimization of women, children, or, for that matter, men.
Pornography and Violence
The National Commission on Obscenity and Pornography in 1970 and the Attorney General’s Commission on Pornography in 1986 reviewed the evidence of an association between pornography, on one hand, and violence and crime, on the other. The National Commission provided funding for more than 80 studies to examine public attitudes toward pornography, experiences with pornography, the association between the availability of pornography and crime rates, the experience of sex offenders with pornography, and the relation between pornography and behavior. The commission concluded:
[E]mpirical research designed to clarify the question has found no evidence to date that exposure to explicit sexual materials plays a significant role in the causations of delinquent or criminal behavior among youth or adults. The Commission cannot conclude that exposure to erotic materials is a factor in the causation of sex crimes or sex delinquency.79
Between 1970 (when the National Commission reported its findings) and 1986 (when the Attorney General’s Commission issued its report), hundreds of studies had been conducted on this question. For example:
• Researchers reported in 1977 that when male students were exposed to erotic stimuli, those stimuli neither inhibited nor had any effect on levels of aggression. When the same research team worked with female students, they found that mild erotic stimuli inhibited aggression and that stronger erotic stimuli increased it.80
• Researchers who exposed students to sexually explicit films during six consecutive weekly sessions in 1984 concluded that exposure to increasingly explicit erotic stimuli led to a decrease in both arousal responses and aggressive behavior. In short, these subjects became habituated to the pornography.81
After analyzing such studies, the Attorney General’s Commission concluded that nonviolent and nondegrading pornography is not significantly associated with crime and aggression. It did conclude, however, that exposure to pornographic materials
(1) leads to a greater acceptance of rape myths and violence against women; (2) results in pronounced effects when the victim is shown enjoying the use of force or violence; (3) is arousing for rapists and for some males in the general population; and (4) has resulted in sexual aggression against women in the laboratory.82
The Feminist View: Victimization
To feminists, these conclusions supported the call for greater restrictions on the manufacture and dissemination of pornographic material. Historian Joan Hoff has coined the term “pornerotic,” meaning any representation of persons that sexually objectifies them and is accompanied by actual or implied violence in ways designed to encourage readers or viewers that such sexual subordination of women (or children or men) is acceptable behavior or an innocuous form of sex education.83
Hoff’s definition also suggests that pornography, obscenity, and erotica may do far more than offend sensitivities. Such material may victimize not only the people who are depicted but all women (or men or children, if they are the people shown). Pornographers have been accused of promoting the exploitation, objectification, and degradation of women. Many people who call for the abolition of violent pornography argue that it also promotes violence toward women. Future state and federal legislation is likely to focus on violent and violence-producing pornography, not on pornography in general.
The Legal View: Supreme Court Rulings Ultimately, defining pornographic acts subject to legal prohibition is a task for the U.S. Supreme Court. The First Amendment to the Constitution guarantees freedom of the press. In a series of decisions culminating in Miller v. California (1973), however, the Supreme Court articulated the view that obscenity, really meaning pornography, is outside the protection of the Constitution. Following the lead of the Model Penal Code and reinterpreting its own earlier decisions, the Court announced the following standard for judging a representation as obscene or pornographic:
• The average person, applying contemporary community standards, would find that the work, taken as a whole, appeals to prurient interests.
• The work depicts or describes, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically defined by the applicable state law.
Confirming Pages
values. Those communities most accessible to Atlantic City suffered the worst economic consequences.
Middle- and working-class people tend to escape the urban ghetto, leaving behind the most disadvantaged. When you add to those disadvantaged the people moving in from outside who are also severely disadvantaged, over time these areas become places of concentrated poverty, isolated from the mainstream.
Some social ecologists argue that communities, like people, go through life cycles. Neighborhood deterioration precedes rising crime rates. When crime begins to rise, neighborhoods go from owneroccupied to renter-occupied housing, with a significant decline in the socioeconomic status of residents and an increase in population density.
Later in the community life cycle, there is a renewed interest on the part of investors in buying up the cheap real estate with the idea of renovating it and making a profit (gentrification).59
Evaluation: Social Disorganization Theory
Although their work has had a significant impact, social ecologists have not been immune to challenges. Their work has been criticized for its focus on how crime patterns are transmitted, rather than on how they start in the first place. The approach has also been faulted for failing to explain why delinquents stop committing crime as they grow older, why most people in socially disorganized areas do not commit criminal acts, and why some bad neighborhoods seem to be insulated from crime. Finally, critics claim that this approach does not come to grips with middle-class delinquency.
Clearly, however, modern criminology owes a debt to social disorganization theorists, particularly to Shaw and McKay, who in the 1920s began to look at the characteristics of people and places and to relate both to crime. There is now a vast body of research for which they laid the groundwork.
THEORY INFORMS POLICY
Theorists of the Chicago School were the first social scientists to suggest that most crime is committed by normal people responding in expected ways to their immediate surroundings, rather than by abnormal individuals acting out individual pathologies. If social disorganization is at the root of the problem, crime control must involve social organization. The community, not individuals, needs treatment. Helping the community, then, should lower its crime rate.
The Chicago Area Project
Social disorganization theory was translated into practice in 1934 with the establishment of the
118 PART 2 Explanations of Crime and Criminal Behavior
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End-of-Chapter Features
Every chapter concludes with a Review, Criminology & Public Policy exercise, You Be the Criminologist exercise, and a listing of chapter-specific Key Terms. These tools help students reinforce and expand the chapter content.
Chicago Area Project (CAP), an experiment in neighborhood reorganization. The project was initiated by the Institute for Juvenile Research, at which Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay were working. It coordinated the existing community support groups—local schools, churches, labor unions, clubs, and merchants. Special efforts were made to control delinquency through recreational facilities, summer camps, better law enforcement, and the upgrading of neighborhood schools, sanitation, and general appearance.
In 1994, this first community-based delinquencyprevention program could boast 60 years of achievement. South Chicago remains an area of poverty and urban marginalization, dotted with boarded-up buildings and signs of urban decay, though the pollution from the nearby steel mills is under control. But the Chicago Area Project initiated by Shaw and McKay is as vibrant as ever, with its three-pronged attack on delinquency: direct service, advocacy, and community involvement. Residents, from clergy to gang members, are working with CAP to keep kids out of trouble, to help those in trouble, and to clean up the neighborhoods. “In fact, in those communities where area projects have been in operation for a number of years, incidents of crime and delinquency have decreased”.60
Operation Weed and Seed and Others
Operation Weed and Seed is a federal, state, and local effort to improve the quality of life in targeted high-crime urban areas across the country. The strategy is to “weed” out negative influences (drugs, crime) and to “seed” the neighborhoods with prevention and intervention.
When the program began in 1991, there were three target areas—Kansas City, Missouri; Trenton, New Jersey; and Omaha, Nebraska. By 1999, the number of target areas had increased to 200 sites. An eight-state evaluation showed that the effectiveness of Operation Weed and Seed varied by the original severity of the crime problems, the strength of the established network of community organizations, early seeding with constant weeding, active leadership of key community members, and the formation of partnerships among local organizations.61
Another community action project has concentrated on revitalizing a Puerto Rican slum community. Sister Isolina Ferre worked for 10 years in the violent Navy Yard section of Brooklyn, New York. In 1969, she returned to Ponce Plaza, a poverty-stricken area in Ponce, Puerto Rico, infested with disease, crime, and unemployment. The area’s 16,000 people had no doctors, nurses, dentists, or social agencies. The project began with a handful of missionaries, university professors, dedicated citizens, and community members who were willing to
Organizational crimes are characterized by the use of a legitimate or illegitimate business enterprise for illegal profit. As American corporations grew in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, they amassed much of the nation’s wealth. Many corporations abused their economic power. Government stepped in to curb such abuses by legislation. Edwin Sutherland, who provided the first scholarly insight into the wrongdoing of corporations, originated the concept of white-collar crime. Subsequent scholars have distinguished whitecollar crime, committed by individuals, from corporate crime, committed by business organizations. Corporate or individual white-collar offenses include securities-related crimes, such as misrepresentation and churning; bankruptcy fraud of various kinds; fraud against the government, in particular contract and procurement fraud; consumer fraud; insurance fraud; tax fraud; bribery and political fraud; and insider-related fraud. In the twentieth century,
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“Sutherland challenged the traditional image of criminals and the predominant etiological theories of crime of his day. The white-collar criminals he identified were middle-aged men of respectability and high-social status. They lived in affluent neighborhoods, and they were well respected in the community. Sutherland was not the first to draw attention to such criminals. In earlier decades, scholars such as W. A. Bonger (1916) and E. A. Ross (1907) and popular writers such as Upton Sinclair (1906) and Lincoln Steffens (1903) pointed out a variety of misdeeds by businessmen and elites. However, such people were seldom considered by those who wrote about or studied crime and were not a major concern of the public or policy makers when addressing the crime problem.” (SOURCE: David Weisburd and Elin Waring, White-Collar Crime and Criminal Careers [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001], p. 8.)
Theory Informs Policy
These brief sections in theory chapters demonstrate how problems identified by criminologists have led to practical solutions.
REVIEW corporations have been subjected to criminal liability for an increasing number of offenses, including common law crimes and environmental as well as other statutory offenses. The phases of the corporate criminal law include a transition from a period when concerns over personhood predominated to a time when corporations used creative strategies to avoid criminal liability. In recent years—after a series of compliance and governance failures and multiple scandals—legislators, regulators, judges, and academics are raising questions about extant law. Models of corporate culpability that focus on proactive fault, reactive fault, corporate culture, constructive concepts of organizations, and corporate policy extend current law. With new allegations of fraud stemming from the credit crisis and the recent recession, it is clear that the future of organizational criminality and the legitimacy of Wall Street are inextricably connected.
Questions for Discussion Professors Weisburd and Waring make the point, in the introduction to their book White-Collar Crime and Criminal Careers, that much of the conventional wisdom of whitecollar offenders is untrue. These researchers previously established that white-collar offenders are not “elite” offenders as Sutherland conceived. Whitecollar criminals generally come from the middle class and have multiple contacts with the criminal justice system. White-collar offenders have criminal careers as well! What can you conclude from the similarity between and among white-collar and street criminals? Should criminologists expect meaningful differences in the life course of offenders? Should policy makers ensure different or similar treatment in the criminal process?
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sweetened water, and daubing the new queen with honey, we may be almost sure of success. If desired, the queen-cells can be used in forming nuclei, in manner before described. In this way we save our colony from being without a fertile queen for at least thirteen, days, and that, too, in the very height of the honey season, when time is money. If extra queens are wanting, we have only to look carefully through the old hive and remove all but one of the queen-cells. A little care will certainly make sure work, as, after swarming, the old hive is so thinned of bees, that only carelessness will overlook queen-cells in such a quest.
TO PREVENT SWARMING.
As yet we can only partly avert swarming. Mr. Quinby offered a large reward for a perfect non-swarming hive, and never had to make the payment. Mr Hazen attempted it, and partially succeeded, by granting much space to the bees, so that they should not be impelled to vacate for lack of room.' The Quinby hive already described, by the large capability of the brood-chamber, and ample opportunity for top and side-storing, looks to the same end. But we may safely say that a perfect non-swarming hive or system is not yet before the bee-keeping public. The best aids toward non-swarming are shade, ventilation, and roomy hives. But as we shall see in the sequel, much room in the brood-chamber, unless we work for extracted honey—by which means we may greatly repress the swarming fever—prevents our obtaining honey in a desirable style. If we add sections, unless the connection is quite free—in which case the queen is apt to enter them and greatly vex us—we must crowd some to send the bees into the sections. Such crowding is almost sure to lead to swarming. I have, by abrading the combs of capped honey in the brood-chamber, as suggested to me by Mr. M. M. Baldridge—causing the honey to run down from the combs—sent the bees crowding to the sections, and thus deferred or prevented swarming.
It is possible that by extracting freely when storing is very rapid, and then by rapidly feeding the extracted honey in the interims of
honey secretion, we might prevent swarming, secure very rapid breeding, and still get our honey in sections. Too few experiments, to be at all decisive, have led me to look favorably in this direction.
The keeping of colonies queenless, in order to secure honey without increase, as practiced and advised by some even of our distinguished apiarists, seems to me a very questionable practice, to which I cannot even lend my approval by so much as detailing the method. I would rather advise: keeping a, queen, and the workers all at work in every hive, if possible, all the time.
HOW TO MULTIPLY COLONIES WITH THE BEST RESULTS.
We have already seen the evils of natural swarming, for, even though no stock is too much reduced in numbers, no colony lost by not receiving prompt attention, no Sunday quiet disturbed, and no time wasted in anxious watching, yet, at best, the old colony is queenless for about two weeks, a state of things which no apiarist can or should afford. The true policy then is to practice artificial swarming, as just described, where we save time by cutting the queen's-wing, and save loss by permitting no colony to remain queenless, or still better to
DIVIDE.
This method will secure uniform colonies, will increase our number of colonies just to our liking, will save time, and that, too, when time is most valuable, and is in every respect safer and preferable to swarming. I have practiced dividing ever since I have kept bees, and never without the best results.
HOW TO DIVIDE.
By the process already described, we have secured a goodly number of fine queens, which will be in readiness at the needed time. Now, as soon as the white clover harvest is well commenced, early in June, we may commence operations. If we have but one colony to divide, it is well to wait till they become pretty populous, but not till they swarm. Take one of our waiting hives, which now holds a nucleus with fertile queen, and remove the same close along side the colony we wish to divide. This must only be done on warm days when the bees are active, and better be done, while the bees are busy, in the middle of the day Remove the division-board of the new hive, and then remove five combs, well loaded with brood, and of course containing some honey, from the old colony, bees and all, to the new hive. Also take the remaining frames and shake the bees into the new hive. Only be sure that the queen still remains in the old hive. Fill both the hives with empty frames—if the frames are filled with empty comb it will be still better, if not it will pay to give starters or full frames of foundation—and return the new hive to its former position. The old bees will return to the old colony, while the young ones will remain peaceably with the new queen. The old colony will now contain at least seven frames of brood, honey, etc., the old queen, and plenty of bees, so that they will work on as though naught had transpired, though perhaps moved to a little harder effort by the added space and five empty frames. The empty frames may be all placed at one end, or placed between the others, though not so as to divide brood.
The new colony will have eight frames of brood, comb, etc., three from the nucleus and five from the old colony, a young fertile queen, plenty of bees, those of the previous nucleus and the young bees from the old colony, and will work with a surprising vigor, often even eclipsing the old colony.
If the apiarist has several colonies, it is better to make the new colony from several old colonies, as follows: Take one frame of brood-comb from each of six old colonies, or two from each of three, and carry them, bees and all, and place with the nucleus. Only, be sure that no queen is removed. Fill all the hives with empty combs, or foundation instead of frames, as before. In this way we increase
without in the least disturbing any of the colonies, and may add a colony every day or two, or perhaps several, depending on the size of our apiary, and can thus always, so my experience says, prevent swarming.
By taking only brood that is all capped, we can safely add one or two frames to each nucleus every week, without adding any bees, as there would be no danger of loss by chilling the brood. In this way, as we remove no bees, we have to spend no time in looking for the queen, and may build up our nuclei into full stocks, and keep back the swarming impulse with great facility.
These are unquestionably the best methods to divide, and so I will not complicate the subject by detailing others. The only objection that can be urged against them, and even this does not apply to the last, is that we must seek out the queen in each hive, or at least be sure that we do not remove her, though this is by no means so tedious if we have Italians, as of course we all will. I might give other methods which would render unnecessary this caution, but they are to my mind inferior, and not to be recommended. If we proceed as above described, the bees will seldom prepare to swarm at all, and if they do they will be discovered in the act, by such frequent examinations, and the work may be cut short by at once dividing such colonies as first explained, and destroying their queen-cells, or, if desired, using them for forming new nuclei.
CHAPTER XI.
ITALIANS AND ITALIANIZING.
The history and description of Italians (see Frontis-plate) have already been considered (p. 41), so it only remains to discuss the subject in a practical light.
The superiority of the Italians seems at present a mooted question. A few among the able apiarists in our country take the ground that a thorough balancing of qualities will make as favorable a showing for the German, as for the Italian bees. I think, too, that the late Baron of Berlepsch held to the same view.
I think I am capable of acting as judge on this subject. I have never sold a half-dozen queens in my life, and so have not been unconsciously influenced by self-interest. In fact, I have never had, if I except two years, any direct interest in bees at all, and all my work and experiments had only the promotion and spread of truth as the ultimatum.
Again, I have kept both blacks and Italians side by side, and carefully observed and noted results during eight years of my experience. I have carefully collected data as to increase of brood, rapidity of storing, early and late habits in the day and season, kinds of flowers visited, amiability, etc., and I believe that to say that they are not superior to black bees, is like saying that a Duchess among short-horns is in no wise superior to the lean, bony kine of Texas; or that our Essex and Berkshire swine are no whit better than the cadaverous lank breeds, with infinite noses, that, happily, are now so rare among us. The Italians are far superior to the German bees in many respects, and more—though I am acquainted with all the works on apiculture printed in our language, and have an extensive acquaintance with the leading apiarists of our country from Maine to California, yet I know of scarcely a baker's dozen that have had
opportunity to form a correct judgment, that do not give strong preference to the Italians. That these men are honest, is beyond question; that those who disagree with us are equally so, there is no doubt. The black bees are in some respects superior to the Italians, and if a bee-keeper's methods cause him to give these points undue importance, in forming his judgments, then his conclusions may be wrong. Faulty management, too, may lead to wrong conclusions.
The Italians certainly possess the following points of superiority:
First. They possess longer tongues (Fig, 20), and so can gather from flowers which are useless to the black bee. This point has already been sufficiently considered (p. 42). How much value hangs upon this structural peculiarity, I am unable to state. I have frequently seen Italians working on red clover. I never saw a black bee thus employed. It is easy to see that this might be, at certain times and certain seasons, a very material aid. How much of the superior storing qualities of the Italians is due to this lengthened ligula, I am unable to say.
Second. They are more active, and with the same opportunities will collect a good deal more honey. This is a matter of observation, which I have tested over and over again. Yet I will give the figures of another: Mr Doolittle secured from two colonies, 309 lbs and 301 lbs., respectively, of box honey, during the past season. These surprising figures, the best he could give, were from his best Italian stocks. Similar testimony comes from Klein and Dzierzon over the sea, and from hosts of our own apiarists.
Third. They work earlier and later. This is not only true of the day, but of the season. On cool days in spring, I have seen the dandelions swarming with Italians, while not a black bee was to be seen. On May 7th, 1877, I walked less than one-half a mile, and counted sixty-eight bees gathering from dandelions, yet only two were black bees. This might be considered an undesirable feature, as tending to spring dwindling. Yet, with the proper management, to be described while considering the subject of wintering, we think this no objection, but a great advantage.
Fourth. They are far better to protect their hives against robbers. Robbers that attempt to plunder Italians of their hard-earned stores soon find that they have "dared to beard the lion in his den." This is so patent, that even the advocates of black bees are ready to concede it.
Fifth. They are almost proof against the ravages of the beemoth's larvæ. This is also universally conceded.
Sixth. The queens are decidedly more prolific. This is probably in part due to the greater and more constant activity of the neuters. This is observable at all seasons, but very striking when building up in spring. No one who will take the pains to note the increase of brood will long remain in doubt on this point.
Seventh. They are less apt to breed in winter, when it is desirable to have the bees very quiet.
Eighth. The queen is more readily found, which is a great advantage. In the various manipulations of the apiary, it is frequently desirable to find the queen. In full colonies I would rather find three Italian queens than one black one. Where time is money, this becomes a matter of much importance.
Ninth. The bees are more disposed to adhere to the comb while being handled, which some might regard a doubtful compliment, though I consider it a desirable quality.
Tenth. They are, in my judgment, less liable to rob other bees. They will find honey when the blacks gather none, and the time for robbing is when there is no gathering. This may explain the above peculiarity.
Eleventh. And, in my estimation, a sufficient ground for preference, did it stand alone, the Italian bees are far more amiable. Years ago I got rid of my black bees, because they were so cross. Two years ago I got two or three colonies, that my students might see the difference, but to my regret; for, as we removed the honey in the autumn, they seemed perfectly furious, like demons, seeking whom they might devour, and this, too, despite the smoker, while the far more numerous Italians were safely handled, even without
smoke. The experiment at least satisfied a large class of students as to superiority. Mr. Quinby speaks in his book of their being cross, and Captain Hetherington tells me, that if not much handled, they are more cross than the blacks. From my own experience, I cannot understand this. Hybrids are even more cross than are the pure black bees, but otherwise are nearly as desirable as the pure Italians.
I have kept these two races side by side for years, I have studied them most carefully, and I feel sure that none of the above eleven points of excellence is too strongly stated.
The black bees will go into close boxes more readily than Italians, but if we use the sectional frames, and on other grounds we can afford to use no other, we shall find, with the more ample connection between the brood-chamber and sections, that even here, as Mr. Doolittle and many others have shown, the Italians still give the best returns.
I have some reasons to think that the blacks are more hardy, and have found many apiarists who agree with me. Yet, others of wide experience, think that there is no difference, while still others think the Italians more hardy.
The Italian bees are said to dwindle worse in spring, which, as they are more active, is quite probable. As I have never had a case of serious spring dwindling, I cannot speak from experience. If the bee-keeper prevents early spring flying, which is very detrimental to either black or Italian bees, this point will have no weight, even if well taken.
ALL SHOULD KEEP ONLY ITALIANS.
The advantages of the Italians, which have been considered thus fully, are more than sufficient to warrant the exclusion of all other bees from the apiary. Truly, no one need to be urged to a course, that adds to the ease, profit, and agreeableness of his vocation.
HOW TO ITALIANIZE.
From what has been already explained regarding the natural history of bees, it will be seen that all we have to do to change our bees, is to change our queens. Hence, to Italianize a colony, we have only to procure and introduce an Italian queen.
HOW TO INTRODUCE A QUEEN.
In dividing colonies, where we give our queen to a colony composed wholly of young bees, it is safe and easy to introduce a queen in the manner explained in the section on artificial swarming. To introduce a queen to a colony composed of old bees more care is required. First, we should seek out the old queen and destroy her, then cage our Italian queen in a wire cage, which may be made by winding a strip of wire-cloth, three and one-half inches wide, and containing fifteen to twenty meshes to the inch, about the finger. Let it lap each way one-half inch, then cut it off. Ravel out the half inch on each side, and weave in the ends of the wires, forming a tube the size of the finger. We now have only to put the queen in the tube, and pinch the ends together, and the queen is caged. The cage containing the queen should be inserted between two adjacent combs containing honey, each of which will touch it. The queen can thus sip honey as she needs it. If we fear the queen may not be able to sip the honey through the meshes of the wire, we may dip a piece of clean sponge in honey and insert it in the upper end of the cage before we compress this end. This will furnish the queen with the needed food. In forty-eight hours we again open the hive, after a thorough smoking, also the cage, which is easily done by pressing the upper end, at right-angles to the direction of the pressure when we closed it. In doing this do not remove the cage. Now keep watch, and if, as the bees enter the cage or as the queen emerges, the bees attack her, secure her immediately and re-cage her for another forty-eight hours. I usually let some honey drip on the queen as soon as the cage is opened. Some think this renders the bees more
amiable. I have introduced many queens in this manner, and have very rarely been unsuccessful.
Mr Dadant stops the cage with a plug of wood, and when he goes to liberate the queen replaces the wooden stop with one of comb, and leaves the bees to liberate the queen by eating out the comb. I have tried this, but with no better success than I have had with the above method, while with this plan the queen is surely lost if the bees do not receive her kindly. Mr. Betsinger uses a larger cage, open at one end, which is pressed against the comb till the mouth of the cage reaches the middle of it. If I understand him, the queen is thus held by cage and comb till the bees liberate her. I have never tried this plan. When bees are not storing, especially if robbers are abundant, it is more difficult to succeed, and at such time the utmost caution will occasionally fail of success if the bees are old.
A young queen, just emerging from a cell, can almost always be safely given at once to the colony, after destroying the old queen.
A queen cell is usually received with favor. If we adopt this course we must be careful to destroy all other queen-cells that may be formed; and if the one we supply is destroyed, wait seven days, then destroy all their queen-cells, and they are sure to accept a cell. But to save time I should always introduce a queen.
If we are to introduce an imported queen, or one of very great value, we might make a new colony, all of young bees, as already described. Smoke them well, sprinkle with sweetened water, daub the queen with honey, and introduce immediately. This method would involve really no risk. If the apiarist was still afraid, he could make assurance still more sure by taking combs of brood where the young bees were rapidly escaping from the cells; there would soon be enough young bees to cluster about the queen, and soon enough bees for a good colony. This plan would not be advisable except in warm weather, and care is also required to protect from robbers. The colony might be set in the cellar for a few days, in which case it would be safe even in early spring.
By having a colony thus Italianized in the fall, we may commence the next spring, and, as described in the section explaining the
formation of artificial swarms, we may control our rearing of drones, queens, and all, and ere another autumn have only the beautiful, pure, amiable, and active Italians. I have done this several times, and with the most perfect satisfaction. I think by making this change in blood, we add certainly two dollars to the value of each colony, and I know of no other way to make money so easily and pleasantly.
TO GET OUR ITALIAN QUEEN.
Send to some reliable breeder, and ask for a queen worth at least five dollars. It is the mania now to rear and sell cheap queens. These are reared—must be reared—without care, and will, I fear, prove very cheap. It is a question, if any more sure way could be devised to injure our stocks than the dollar queen business, which is now so popular. It is quite probable that much of the superiority of Italian bees is owing to the care and careful selection in breeding. Such careful selection in-breeding, either with black or Italian bees, is what will augment the value of our apiaries.
The tendency of the dollar queen business is to disseminate the inferior queens, many of which will appear in every apiary. These should be killed, not sold. Yet, many an apiarist will think even the poorest queens are worth a dollar. My friend, Mrs. Baker, bought a dollar "Albino" queen last season which was not worth a cent. Yet it cost only a dollar, and, of course, no satisfaction could be secured or even asked for. I think it behooves apiarists to think of this matter, and see if dollar queens are not very dear. I have thrown away three dollars on them, and have concluded to pay more and buy cheaper in future.
I believe our breeders should be encouraged to give us the best; to study the art of breeding, and never send out an inferior queen. In this way we may hope to keep up the character of our apiaries, and the reputation of Italians. Else we are safer under the old system where "natural selection" retained the best, by the "survival of the fittest."
REARING AND SHIPPING QUEENS.
I have already explained the matter of queen-rearing. After many inquiries, and some experience, I much doubt if any apiarist can afford to rear queens, such as apiarists wish to buy, for less than four or five dollars. Only the best should be sold, and no pains should be spared by the breeder to secure such queens.
TO SHIP QUEENS.
This is a very simple matter. We have only to secure a square block two inches each way, and one and a half inches deep—a hole bored into a two-inch plank to within a quarter of an inch of the bottom serves admirably. In this should be inserted a piece of capped honey, which has been entirely cleaned by bees. Bees will speedily perform this work, if the comb containing the honey is placed on the alighting-board. This must be fastened into the shipping-box, which is easily done, by pinning it with a slender wooden pin, which passes through holes previously bored in the box. We now cover the open chamber with fine wire-cloth, put in our queen and fifteen or twenty bees, and she is ready to ship. Any uncapped honey to daub the queen is almost sure to prove fatal.
Mr. A. I. Root furnishes a cage already provisioned with sugar (Fig, 57), which is very neat and safe. I have received queens from Tennessee, which were fed exclusively on candy, and came in excellent condition.
TO MOVE COLONIES.
Should we desire to purchase Italian or other colonies, the only requisites to safe transport are: A wire-cloth cover for ventilation, secure fastening of the frames so they cannot possibly move, and combs old enough so that they shall not break down and fall out. I would never advise moving bees in winter, though it has often been done with entire safety. I should wish the bees to have a flight very soon after such disturbance.
CHAPTER XII.
EXTRACTING, AND THE EXTRACTOR.
The brood-chamber is often so filled with honey that the queen has no room to lay her eggs, especially if there is any neglect to give other room for storing. Honey, too, in brood-combs is unsalable, because the combs are dark, and the size undesirable. Comb, too, is very valuable, and should never be taken from the bees, except when desired to render the honey more marketable. Hence, the apiarist finds a very efficient auxiliary in the
HONEY EXTRACTOR.
No doubt some have expected and claimed too much for this machine. It is equally true, that some have blundered quite as seriously in an opposite direction. For, since Mr. Langstroth gave the movable frame to the world, the apiarist has not been so deeply indebted to any inventor as to him who gave us the Mell Extractor, Herr von Hruschka, of Germany. Even if there was no sale for extracted honey—aye, more, even if it must be thrown away, which will never be necessary, as it may always be fed to the bees with profit, even then I would pronounce the extractor an invaluable aid to every bee-keeper.
The principle which makes this machine effective is that of centrifugal force, and it was suggested to Major von Hruschka, by noticing that a piece of comb which was twirled by his boy at the end of a string, was emptied of its honey. Herr von Hruschka's machine was essentially like those now so common, though in lightness and convenience there has been a marked improvement. His machine consisted of a wooden tub, with a vertical axle in the centre, which revolved in a socket fastened to the bottom of the vessel, while from
the top of the tub, fastenings extended to the axle, which projected for a distance above. The axle was thus held exactly in the centre of the tub. Attached to the axle was a frame or rack to hold the comb, whose outer face rested against a wire-cloth. The axle with its attached frame, which latter held the uncapped comb, was made to revolve by rapidly unwinding a string, which had been previously wound about the top of the axle, after the style of top-spinning. Replace the wooden tub with one of tin, and the string with gearing, and it will be seen that we have essentially the neat extractor of today As the machine is of foreign invention, it is not covered by a patent, and may be made by any one without let or hindrance. A good machine may be bought for eight dollars.
F . 58.
WHAT STYLE TO BUY.
The machine should be as light as is consistent with strength. It is best that the can be stationary, and that only a light frame be made to revolve with the comb. It is desirable that the machine should run with gearing, not only for ease, but also to insure or allow an even motion, so that we need not throw even drone larvæ from the broodcells. The arrangement for exit of the honey should permit a speedy
and perfect shut-off. A molasses gate is excellent to serve for a faucet. I should also prefer that the can hold considerable honey— thirty or forty pounds—before it would be necessary to let the honey flow from it.
In case of small frames, like the ones I have described as most desirable to my mind, I should prefer that the rack might hold four frames. Mr. O. J. Hetherington has found that winding the rack with fine wire, serves better than wire-cloth to resist the combs, while permitting the honey to pass. The rack should set so low in the can that no honey would ever be thrown over the top to daub the person using the machine. I think that a wire basket, with a tin bottom, and made to hook on to the comb-rack (Fig, 58, a, a) which will hold pieces of comb not in frames, a desirable improvement to an extractor. Such baskets are appended to the admirable extractor (Fig, 58) made by Mr. B. O. Everett, of Toledo, Ohio, which, though essentially like the extractor of Mr. A. I. Root, has substantial improvements, and is the cheapest, and I think the best extractor, that I have used or seen.
I have tried machines where the sides of the rack (Fig, 59) inclined down and in, for the purpose of holding pieces of comb, but found them unsatisfactory. The combs would not be sustained. Yet, if the frames were long and narrow, so that the end of the frame would have to rest on the bottom of the rack, instead of hanging as it does in the hive, such an incline might be of use to prevent the top of the frame from falling in, before we commence to turn the machine.
F . 59.
The inside, if metal, which is lighter and to be preferred to wood, as it does not sour or absorb the honey, should be either of tin or galvanized iron, so as not to rust. A cover to protect the honey from dust, when not in use, is very desirable. The cloth cover, gathered around the edge by a rubber, as made by Mr. A. I. Root, is excellent for this purpose. As no capped honey could be extracted, it is necessary to uncap it, which is done by shaving off the thin caps. To do this, nothing is better than the new Bingham & Hetherington honey knife (Fig, 60). After a thorough trial of this knife, here at the College, we pronounce it decidedly superior to any other that we have used, though we have several of the principal knives made in the United States. It is, perhaps, sometimes desirable to have a curved point (Fig, 61), though this is not at all essential. F . 60.
USE OF THE EXTRACTOR.
Although some of our most experienced apiarists say nay, it is nevertheless a fact, that the queen often remains idle, or extrudes her eggs only to be lost, simply because there are no empty cells. The honey yield is so great that the workers occupy every available space, and sometimes even they become unwilling idlers, simply because of necessity. Seldom a year has passed but that I have noticed some of my most prolific queens thus checked in duty. It is probable that just the proper arrangement and best management of
frames for surplus would make such occasions rare; yet, I have seen the brood-chamber in two-story hives, with common frames above— the very best arrangement to promote storing above the broodchamber—so crowded as to force the queen either to idleness or to egg-laying in the upper frames. This fact, as also the redundant brood, and excessive storing that follows upon extracting from the brood-chamber, make me emphatic upon this point, notwithstanding the fact that some men of wide experience and great intelligence, think me wrong.
The extractor also enables the apiarist to secure honey-extracted honey—in poor seasons, when he could get very little, if any, in sections or boxes.
By use of the extractor, at any time or season, the apiarist can secure nearly if not quite double the amount of honey, that he could get in combs.
The extractor enables us to remove uncapped honey in the fall, which, if left in the hive, may cause disease and death.
By use of the extractor, too, we can throw the honey from our surplus brood-combs in the fall, and thus have a salable article, and have the empty combs, which are invaluable for use the next spring. We now have in our apiary one hundred and fifty such empty combs.
If the revolving racks of the extractor have a wire basket attachment, at the bottom as I have suggested, the uncapped sections can be emptied in the fall, if desired, and pieces of dronecomb cut from the brood-chamber, which are so admirable for starters in the sections, can be emptied of their honey at any season.
By use of the extractor, we can furnish at one-half the price we ask for comb-honey, an article which is equal, if not superior, to the best comb-honey, and which, were it not for appearance alone, would soon drive the latter from the market.
WHEN TO USE THE EXTRACTOR.
If extracted honey can be sold for fifteen, or even twelve cents, the extractor may be used profitably the summer through; otherwise use it sufficiently often that there may always be empty worker-cells in the brood-chamber.
It is often required with us during the three great honey harvests —the white clover, basswood, and that of fall flowers. I have always extracted the honey so frequently as to avoid much uncapping. If the honey was thin, I would keep it in a dry warm room, or apply a mild heat, that it might thicken, and escape danger from fermentation. Yet, so many have sustained a loss by extracting prematurely, that I urge all never to extract till after the bees have sealed the cells. The labor of uncapping, with the excellent honey knives now at our command, is so light, that we can afford to run no risk that the honey produced at our apiaries shall sour and become worthless.
If the honey granulates, it can be reduced to the fluid state with no injury, by healing, though the temperature should never rise above 200° F. This can best be done by placing the vessel containing the honey in another containing water, though if the second vessel be set on a stove, a tin basin or pieces of wood should prevent the honey vessel from touching the bottom, else the honey would burn. As before stated, the best honey is always sure to crystallize, but it may be prevented by keeping it in a temperature which is constantly above 80° F. If canned honey is set on top a furnace in which a fire is kept burning, it will remain liquid indefinitely.
To render the honey free from small pieces of comb, or other impurities, it should either be passed through a cloth or wire sieve—I purposely refrain from the use of the word strainer, as we should neither use the word strained, nor allow it to be used, in connection with extracted honey—or else draw it off into a barrel, with a faucet or molasses gate near the lower end, and after all particles of solid matter have risen to the top, draw off the clear honey from the bottom. In case of very thick honey, this method is not so satisfactory as the first. I hardly need say that honey, when heated, is thinner, and will of course pass more readily through common toweling or fine wire-cloth.
Never allow the queen to be forced to idleness for want of empty cells. Extract all uncapped honey in the fall, and the honey from all the brood-combs not needed for winter. The honey, too, should be thrown from pieces of drone-comb which are cut from the broodframes, and from the uncapped comb in sections at the close of the season.
HOW TO EXTRACT.
The apiarist should possess one or two light boxes, of sufficient size to hold all the frames from a single hive. These should have convenient handles, and a close-fitting cover, which will slide easily either way. These will be more easily used if they rest on legs, which will raise their tops say three feet from the ground. Now, go to two or three colonies, take enough combs, and of the right kind for a colony. The bees may be shaken off or brushed off with a large feather If the bees are troublesome, close the box as soon as each comb is placed inside. Extract the honey from these, using care not to turn so hard as to throw out the brood. If necessary, with a thin knife pare off the caps, and after throwing the honey from one side, turn the comb around, and extract it from the other. If combs are of very different weights, it will be better for the extractor to use those of nearly equal weights on opposite sides, as the strain will be much less. Now take these combs to another colony, whose combs shall be replaced by them. Then close the hive, extract this second set of combs, and thus proceed till the honey has all been extracted. At the close, the one or two colonies from which the first combs were taken shall receive pay from the last set extracted, and thus, with much saving of time, little disturbance of bees, and the least invitation to robbing, in case there is no gathering, we have gone rapidly through the apiary.
TO KEEP EXTRACTED HONEY.
Extracted honey, if to be sold in cans or bottles, may be run into them from the extractor. The honey should be thick, and the vessels
