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Corporate Governance in the Aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, Volume IV Emerging Issues in Corporate Governance

Zabihollah Rezaee

Corporate

Corporate Governance in the Aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, Volume IV

Emerging Issues in Corporate Governance

Corporate Governance in the Aftermath of the Global Financial Crisis, Volume IV: Emerging Issues in Corporate Governance

Copyright © Business Expert Press, LLC, 2018.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means— electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission of the publisher.

First published in 2018 by Business Expert Press, LLC 222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017 www.businessexpertpress.com

ISBN-13: 978-1-94784-374-5 (paperback)

ISBN-13: 978-1-94784-375-2 (e-book)

Business Expert Press Financial Accounting and Auditing Collection

Collection ISSN: 2151-2795 (print)

Collection ISSN: 2151-2817 (electronic)

Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Services Private Ltd., Chennai, India

First edition: 2018

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed in the United States of America.

Abstract

Corporate governance has made impressive progress in the past two decades in the aftermath of financial scandals at the turn of the twenty-first century and the 2007–2009 global financial crisis. Corporate governance has moved to the center stage of corporate culture and business model in defining the roles and responsibilities of all corporate gatekeepers and holding them accountable for contributing to shared value creation for all stakeholders. Today, corporate governance functions in an environment of ever-increasing regulatory reforms established to protect investors and the public from financial scandals and crisis and restore public trust and investor confidence in public financial information and financial markets. Corporate governance, in complying with the ever-increasing regulatory reforms, is striving to improve effectiveness. This volume presents emerging issues in corporate governance in the areas of board oversight function, managerial operation and performance, and gatekeepers’ responsibilities and accountabilities. Recent regulatory reforms have created a better power-sharing balance between shareholders, the board of directors, and management in contributing to shared value creation for all stakeholders. This volume consists of five chapters addressing emerging issues in corporate governance including the global perspectives, convergence in corporate governance, and emerging issues relevant to shareholders, directors, and executives. This volume also examines the corporate governance of private and not-for-profit organizations and the future of corporate governance. Anyone who is involved with corporate governance, the financial reporting process, internal and external audit functions, and compliance with laws, rules and regulations should be interested in this volume. Specifically, corporations and their boards of directors and audit committees, executives, internal and external auditors, accountants, governing bodies, policy makers, regulators, users of financial statements (investors, creditors, pensioners), and other professionals (attorneys, financial analysts, bankers) and scholars conducting research in corporate governance will benefit from this volume.

Keywords

business sustainability, corporate governance, emerging issues in corporate governance, global corporate governance, professional ethics, shared value

Preface

In the aftermath of the 2007–2009 global financial crisis, corporate governance has been in the center stage of businesses, encouraged massive laws, regulations, rules, standards, and best practices that redefined the corporate governance structure, established significant corporate governance reforms, and created new responsibilities and accountability for corporate gatekeepers. Corporate gatekeepers are boards of directors, executives, regulators, auditors, legal counsel, institutional investors, among others. This book presents all applicable laws, regulations, rules, standards, guiding principles, and best practices impacting the structure and effectiveness of corporate governance in protecting the interests of all stakeholders, particularly shareholders. In today’s business environment, global businesses are under scrutiny and profound pressures from lawmakers, regulators, the investment community, and their diverse stakeholders to accept accountability and responsibility for their corporate governance effectiveness. Corporate governance is a process (journey) of managing corporate affairs to create shareholder value and protect the interests of other stakeholders. The landscape of corporate governance has significantly changed in recent years, and there is a need for a good book presenting the roles and responsibilities of corporate governance participants including directors, officers, stakeholders, and corporate gatekeepers. Effective corporate governance should develop a proper balance between the achievement of short-term targets and long-term sustainable performance. To effectively fulfill their fiduciary duties, corporate governance participants should lead from the front (and by example) and manage instability in hypercompetitive and global environments.

This timely and relevant book describes the practice of good governance in the aftermath of the recent global crisis, with a keen focus on internal and external corporate governance mechanisms having the potential to address future global challenges. Corporate governance measures are accelerating, converging, and reshaping organizational

structure, corporate culture, ethics, trust, and transparency along with the roles, responsibilities, and accountability of all corporate functions designed to add value and contribute to sustainable performance. This book presents a road map for various functions and measures of corporate governance in addressing global finance, capital market, and economic challenges. Written in a practical and succinct style, it will focus on internal corporate governance mechanisms and the incorporated provisions of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX), the Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 (DOF), the Jumpstart Our Business Startups (JOBS) Act of 2012, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)-related implementation rules, and global corporate governance best practices. This book presents the essential and fundamental concepts of corporate governance with a new holistic approach that addresses all corporate activities, performance, reporting, and assurance.

Effective corporate governance has been the subject of extensive debate and discussion in various financial, professional, business, and accounting seminars. This book goes far beyond existing books on corporate governance that address only limited aspects of corporate governance. Organized into four separate volumes, each volume can be utilized separately or in an integrated form. The first volume addresses the relevance and importance of corporate governance as well as the framework and structure of corporate governance including corporate governance principles, mechanisms, and functions. It consists of five chapters that examine the importance and relevance of corporate governance, address internal and external corporate governance mechanisms, and present corporate governance functions, corporate governance theories, research, and education. The second volume consists of four chapters that present the three prevailing corporate governance functions of oversight, management, and monitoring. The third volume consists of four chapters addressing corporate governance functions performed by corporate gatekeepers, including policy makers, regulators, standard-setters, internal auditors, external auditors, legal counsel, and financial advisers. The fourth volume consists of five chapters addressing emerging issues in corporate governance including governance for private companies and nonprofit organizations, the global perspectives, convergence in global corporate governance, and emerging issues relevant to shareholders, directors, and executives.

The four volumes of this book present the essential and fundamental aspects, structure, and functions of corporate governance, with a keen focus on a new holistic approach that addresses all corporate activities, performance, reporting, and assurance. Anyone who is involved with corporate governance, the financial reporting process, and audit functions should be interested in this book. Specifically, corporations and their executives, the boards of directors and audit committees, internal and external auditors, accountants, governing bodies, users of financial statements (investors, creditors, pensioners), business schools, and other professionals (attorneys, financial analysts, bankers) will benefit from this book. The four volumes should assist corporate governance participants with effectively discharging their responsibilities. This book is different from the existing corporate governance books in many ways:

1. Relevance: This book exposes readers to all functions of corporate governance (oversight, managerial, monitoring, and gatekeeping).

2. Comprehensiveness: Unlike existing books, this book presents a holistic approach to corporate governance by focusing on the role of all corporate governance participants (the board of directors, the audit committee, executives, SEC, Public Company Accounting Oversight Board [PCAOB], internal auditors, external auditors, investors, creditors, NYSE, NASDAQ, AMEX, other professional organizations, and users of financial reports).

3. Content Materials: This book incorporates provisions of the SOX, the DOF, the JOBS Act of 2012, the SEC-related implementation rules, corporate governance guiding principles of national stock exchanges, the Conference Board, the new auditing standards of the PCAOB, and other professional organizations into all chapters.

Sincerely,

March 21, 2018

Acknowledgments

I acknowledge the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Big Four Accounting Firms, and Corporate Governance Organizations for permission to quote and reference their professional standards and other publications.

The encouragement and support of my colleagues at the University of Memphis are also acknowledged. In particular, two of my graduate assistants, Mr. Charles Bell and Mr. Matthew Cantin, provided invaluable assistance. I thank the members of the Business Expert Press team and S4Carlisle Publishing Services, including Scott Isenberg, Mark Bettner, Michael Coyne, and Premkumar Narayanan, for their hard work and dedication in editing the book.

My sincere thanks are due to my family, my wife Soheila and my children Rose and Nick. Without their love, enthusiasm, and support, this book would not have come to fruition when it did.

CHAPTER 1

Corporate Governance, Performance, Evaluation, Accountability, and Reporting

Introduction

Corporate governance has evolved in the best decade as primarily a compliance process to its integration into the corporate culture and business environment. In the aftermath of the 2007–2009 global financial crisis, countries worldwide have taken initiatives to improve their corporate governance by establishing more robust corporate governance measures to enhance performance, promote economic stability, public trust, and investor confidence in their financial reporting. Good corporate governance also implies the need for a network of monitoring and incentives set up by a company to ensure accountability of the board and management to shareholders and other stakeholders. The strongest form of defense against governance failure comes from an organization’s culture and behaviors. An effective corporate governance demands proper communication among shareholders, the board of directors, management, and other gatekeepers. This communication is very important in ensuring democracy in the boardroom and transparency of managerial decisions and actions in achieving sustainable performance to create shareholder value. The role of corporate governance is to align management incentives with investor interests. Accountability and performance of all corporate governance participants should be properly measured and reported. This chapter presents corporate governance reporting (CGR), ratings, and index in reflecting the effectiveness of corporate governance measures and in establishing a benchmark in evaluating performance.

Corporate Governance Performance Evaluation

Corporate governance has evolved as a central issue within regulators and public companies in the wake of the 2007–2009 global financial crisis. Corporate governance is defined from a legal perspective as measures that enable and ensure compliance with all applicable laws, rules, regulations, and standards. From the agency theory perspective, corporate governance is defined as a process of aligning management interests with those of shareholders in creating shareholder value.1 Thus, corporate governance performance should reflect how effectively companies achieve their corporate governance objective of creating shared value for all stakeholders, while ensuring compliance with all applicable laws, rules, regulations, standards, and best practices. All corporate governance participants— from the board of directors to executives, regulators, internal and external auditors, legal counsel and financial advisers, and investors—play vital roles in the effectiveness of corporate governance. Good corporate governance is committed to transparency, which should lead to an increase in capital inflows from domestic and foreign investors.

Corporate governance has evolved from compliance with laws and regulations to a business imperative in creating shared value for all stakeholders. The effectiveness of corporate governance in promoting sustainable performance and in enabling all corporate governance participants—from directors to executives, employees, and auditors—to add value to the success of their organizations should be communicated through CGR. Organizations can communicate the roles and responsibilities of all corporate governance participants and send a signal to shareholders about their success through CGR. The effectiveness of corporate governance depends on a vigilant board of directors, responsible and competent executives, and talented high-performance employees. The business culture of integrity, competency, and accountability can be measured in terms of corporate key performance indicators (KPIs), disclosed through CGR, verified by corporate governance assurance, and assessed by corporate governance ratings discussed in this chapter.

Companies have recently undergone a series of corporate governance reforms aimed at improving the effectiveness of their governance, internal controls, and financial reports. Effective corporate governance promotes

accountability, improves the reliability and quality of financial information, and prevents financial crisis and scandals. Poor corporate governance adversely affects the company’s potential, performance, financial reports, and accountability and can pave the way for business failure and financial crisis. While effective corporate governance may not ensure complete corporate success and may not prevent all corporate failures and financial crisis, ineffective corporate governance is a recipe for corporate failures and financial crisis. Corporate governance measures of the oversight function assumed by the board of directors, managerial function delegated to management, internal audit function conducted by internal auditors, external audit function performed by external auditors, and compliance function enforced by policy makers, regulators, and standard-setters are vital to the effectiveness of corporate governance, improvements in corporate governance performance, and the quality of financial information.

To improve corporate governance performance, corporate governance participants—from the board of directors to executives, auditors, and legal counsel—must structure the process to ensure creating shared value for all stakeholders. The corporate governance structure is shaped by internal and external governance mechanisms, as well as policy interventions through regulations. Corporate governance mechanisms are viewed as a nexus of contracts that is designed to align the interests of management with those of the shareholders. The effectiveness of both internal and external corporate governance mechanisms depends on the cost–benefit trade-offs among these mechanisms and is related to their availability, the extent to which they are being used, whether their marginal benefits exceed their marginal costs, and the company’s corporate governance structure. Corporate governance performance can be significantly improved when there is an appropriate “balance of authority” exercised by boards, management, and shareholders in the corporate decision-making process and governance. Directors and executives are now accountable to a wide range of stakeholders, including shareholders, creditors, employees, customers, suppliers, government, and communities in which the corporation operates.

In 2016, the Rock Center for Corporate Governance at Stanford University along with The Miles Group conducted a nationwide survey of 187 board directors of public and private companies.2 The study reveals

that while boards generally rate themselves positively in terms of skills and expertise, significantly high negatives are a cause for concern for a large number of firms. The vast majority (89 percent) of respondents say that their board has the skills and experience necessary to oversee the company, whereas boards are less effective in taking proactive steps to ensure retaining a proper mix of skills. Over half (57 percent) of the directors agree that their board is effective in bringing new talent, and only one-third of directors (34 percent) rate their board very positively on planning for director turnover. Results of the survey suggest that boards can improve in the following areas3:

1. Trust levels are adequate as about two-thirds (68 percent) of directors report that they have a very high level of trust in their fellow board members.

2. Directors do not often provide each other with honest feedback as only a quarter (23 percent) of surveyed directors rate their boards very effective at offering feedback to fellow board members.

3. Boardroom dynamics are suboptimal for the majority of surveyed boards in the following areas: the active participation of all directors in decision making, the possibility of personal or past experience to dominate directors’ perspective, hesitation in expressing honest opinions in the presence of management, building consensus too quickly, not being focused on board issues, and a lack of proper understanding of the boundary between oversight function and managerial activities.

Corporate top executives including CEOs and CFOs should be periodically evaluated by the board of directors for their performance. Executive compensation should be determined based on their performance. The 2016 public survey on executive compensation reveals that CEOs are generally overpaid with no relation to their performance; therefore, their compensation should be significantly reduced.4 The survey suggests the following: (1) CEOs are compensated more than they deserve as about 74 percent of Americans believe that CEOs are not paid the correct amount relative to their performance and in comparison with the average worker pay; (2) the majority of Americans (62 percent) believe that there

is a maximum amount that CEOs should be paid relative to the average worker (e.g., 20 times compared with over currently paid 210 times), regardless of the company and its performance; (3) the majority believe that CEO pay should be capped in some manner; (4) the majority of respondents say that CEOs should receive only 0.5 percent of the annual revenues/value creation reported by the company as compensation; and (5) about half of respondents (49 percent) report that the government should do something to change current CEO pay practices based on the increased value creation.5

The 2016 survey of CEOs and directors on pay indicates the following: (1) public company directors give CEOs considerable credit for corporate success, believing that 40 percent of a company’s overall results, on average, are directly attributed to the CEO’s efforts; (2) about 76 percent of CEOs and directors believe that CEOs are paid correctly, based on the expected value of compensation awards at the time they are granted; (3) the high majority (95 percent) believe that CEO pay is aligned with performance; (4) more than 77 percent report that compensation arrangements contain the correct mix of short- and long-term incentives; and (5) about 75 percent report that a CEO’s compensation package should be performance based (rather than fixed or guaranteed).6

Corporate Governance Reporting

Several corporate governance reforms in the United States have been established in the past two decades, including the SOX and the DOF to restore investor’s confidence in corporate America and financial markets. CGR is intended to present reliable, useful, timely, relevant, and transparent information regarding the way the organization is managed and run—from the independence and effectiveness of the board of directors to executive compensation and risk management and investor democratic election. Effective CGR should disclose all corporate governance KPIs in a systematic and standardized format. The content and format of such reporting should be tailored to the company’s organization culture, applicable regulatory measures, the corporate governance structure consisting of principles, mechanisms, and functions, and the roles and responsibilities of all corporate gatekeepers. The new corporate governance

paradigm, drawn from scholarly research, suggests that shareholders and other non-shareholding stakeholders collaborate in achieving sustainability performance and disclosing both financial economic sustainability and non-financial environmental, social, and governance sustainability performance information (that create long-term shared value and resist short-termism.7)

CGR entails assessing the quality and effectiveness of the organization’s corporate governance and reporting findings to interested stakeholders, including the board of directors, executives, auditors, regulatory agencies, and shareholders. CGR should disclose all relevant information about the effectiveness of the company’s corporate governance, focus on the company’s economic, governance, social, ethical, and environmental sustainability performance, provide transparent information about the company’s performance and its impacts on all stakeholders, and assess the company’s responsiveness to the needs of its stakeholders.8

Drivers of CGR are the following: (1) increasing attention on corporate governance in the aftermath of financial scandals at the turn of the twenty-first century and the 2007–2009 global financial crisis; (2) growing demand by investors and regulators on how public companies are run and managed; (3) market-driven interests in companies’ business models and KPIs; (4) changes in the balance of power between investors, the board of directors, and management resulting from new governance measures imposed by recent regulatory reforms; (5) more interest shown by stakeholders in understanding the roles and responsibilities of all corporate gatekeepers, including the board of directors, legal counsel, internal auditors, and external auditors; (6) the market demand for better alignment between management compensation and firm risk-taking and sustainable performance; (7) ever-increasing corporate governance regulatory reforms and best practices; and (8) the ongoing debate on how to improve the effectiveness of corporate governance either through principles-based and market-driven best practices or through rules-based and regulatory-driven reforms or perhaps through a combination of both.9

It is expected that regulatory reforms continue to advance, and best practices in corporate governance will evolve. The expected progress in corporate governance necessitates a better uniform and standardized

CGR. Nonetheless, the establishment of globally accepted governance reporting presents many challenges regarding the format, content, structure, and frequency of reporting. Prevailing challenges are10 the following:

1. CGR is a sensitive issue addressing the roles, responsibilities, activities, and accountability of directors, which may have some business and legal repercussions.

2. There are a wide range of audiences for corporate governance with no clear reporting purposes. This growing diversity of audiences and of their information needs makes standardizing CGR difficult.

3. Corporate governance disclosures are often isolated from the story in the sense that major initiatives and developments along with major challenges are typically not mentioned in the governance report.

4. Inadequate focus on the effectiveness of corporate governance and the excessive use of the report as a compliance exercise reflecting the processes and procedures rather than performance

5. Investors’ lack of confidence in the value-relevance of corporate governance reports in providing useful information about the quality and performance of the board and management

CGR entails assessing the quality of the organization’s corporate governance and presenting findings to interested stakeholders, including the board of directors, executives, auditors, regulatory agencies, and shareholders. Corporate governance reports disclose how well the company is managed, directed, and controlled. The extent and type of corporate governance disclosures reflected in the report can vary worldwide and at the minimum should include relevant information about the board composition, board committees and their functions, executive performance and compensation, and relations with and accountability to shareholders. Standards should be developed to assess, attest to, and report on the effectiveness of this process. Public companies do not usually report their corporate governance activities. However, in the post-SOX era, many companies have begun to disclose their corporate governance policies along with other information on their websites. Such reporting goes beyond the mandatory periodic financial reports or filings with regulatory bodies (the SEC). Corporate governance reports disclose the following:

the company’s vision, strategies, and missions in creating sustainable stakeholder value; the composition, independence, and functions of its board of directors; and additional information pertaining to financial, economic, social, and environmental indicators.

In November 2016, the King Committee released its King IV “Report on Corporate Governance for South Africa,” which became effective on or after April 2017. The new King Code is viewed as a positive step toward outcomes-based and principles-based reporting on corporate governance. 11 As companies focus on the achievement of long-term sustainable performance, the corporate governance report should reflect long-term corporate governance KPIs. The integrated sustainability/CGR is now required or highly recommended by stock exchanges in several countries, including Hong Kong, South Africa, the European Union’s directive on environmental, social and governance (ESG), the United Kingdom’s strategic report, the Operating Financial Review in Australia, and some of the regulations of the SEC in the United States.

A corporate governance report should at the minimum disclose the following:

1. How the company is managed, directed, and controlled

2. Relevant information about the board composition, board committees and their functions, executive performance and compensation, and relations with and accountability to shareholders

3. Information regarding management performance, compensation, and its link to performance

4. Disclosures regarding internal control assessment

5. Disclosures about risk management and assessment

6. Disclosures on foreign operations, assets, and liabilities

7. Disclosure of diversity including race and gender

8. Disclosure of nonfinancial performance including corporate social responsibility and environmental initiatives.

Corporate Governance Key Performance Indicators

KPMG advises that effective corporate reporting should properly target its audience and provide sufficient, credible, and reliable information that

would assist in investors in their decision making.12 It is unrealistic to expect all corporate directors and officers to provide accurate and complete financial information all the time. Indeed, the reported financial scandals and highly publicized financial restatements prove that directors and officers can be motivated to provide misleading and fraudulent financial reports when the opportunities exist. Thus, corporate governance measures are designed to create a culture of ethical conduct and compliance and to ensure that investors receive accurate, complete, and timely information to make investment and voting decisions. Corporate success and its corporate governance effectiveness should be measured and disclosed through KPIs. KPIs can be prepared for both financial and nonfinancial activities such as corporate governance to present a company’s progress toward achieving its goals. KPIs should reflect a company’s corporate governance effectiveness including strategic mission, goals, and how these goals are measured and achieved. KPIs should communicate key activities used by the board of directors and officers in managing an organization such as achieving a desired return on investment for shareholders, maximizing customer satisfaction, or attracting and retaining the best and most talented employees. Public companies should properly disclose their corporate governance KPIs to inform all stakeholders, including shareholders, about the effectiveness of their corporate governance in creating shared value for all stakeholders. These consolidated disclosure requirements include board meetings and committees; particular disclosures regarding audit, nominating, and compensation committees; and a narrative description of the company’s procedures for determining director and executive compensation, related-person transactions, director independence, and other corporate governance matters. The extent and types of corporate governance KPIs can vary among companies, their peers, industries, and countries, with the one overriding determinant of being relevant to the company and its operations. The following are some examples of corporate governance KPIs:

• Number of board committees, percentage of board independence, full independence of board committees, board diversity in terms of ethnicity, sex, expertise, and minority, staggered board, separation of the position of the chair of the board, and CEO

• Board accountability and liability, number of board meetings, number of members in the board, and percentage of insider directors on the board

• Number of members in the audit committee, number of audit committee meetings, and number of audit committee financial experts

• Value of stock options awarded to the directors, and the link between executive compensation and financial performance.

Electronic Corporate Governance Reports Using XBRL

The Extensible Business Reporting Language (XBRL) format, a derivative language of the Extensible Markup Language, has recently gained considerable attention of 450 major companies and is becoming an integral component of corporate reporting.13 XBRL is a consortium consisting of a series of technical specifications intended to make business information more accessible and more easily communicated electronically. XBRL also facilitates the timely and accurate analysis of both internal and external business information. Companies and users of business reports can electronically search, download, and analyze information that is “tagged” electronically. XBRL also facilitates the timely and accurate analysis of both internal and external business information. Companies and users of business reports can electronically search and download financial and nonfinancial information.

The primary benefits of XBRL are the ability to retrieve and analyze data and to facilitate interparty interactions without human interference, as well as the formalization of labels, definitions, and interpretations. XBRL defines and tags data using standard definitions that provide a mechanism for consistent structure and the use of the XBRL US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) Financial Reporting Taxonomy and/or other taxonomies including those developed by the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) or extended (customized) tags based on either national or international accounting standards. The SEC has encouraged public companies to tag financial statement information on the EDGAR reporting system using XBRL since 2005, as

approximately 9,600 public companies are filing XBRL-formatted information with the SEC.14 Since 2009, the SEC has required that public companies that use US GAAP file their financial statements in the XBRL format.

The development of the XBRL taxonomy for sustainability reports represents an important milestone in implementing the concept of sustainability reporting. While the use of XBRL facilitates the standardization of sustainability reporting, there are many challenges that must be addressed as financial reporting paradigm shifts from a paper-based to an information-based model. A variety of XBRL taxonomy has been proposed to be used for sustainability reporting in order to harmonize the document structure for online communication by organizations. The mandatory use of XBRL-formatted financial reporting is an important step in applying XBRL to corporate governance performance as well as the effective and efficient analysis by all participants (board of directors, management, auditors, legal counsel, financial analysts, regulators, and investors) involved in the corporate reporting process. The tags of corporate governance taxonomies describe each of the corporate governance measures and have labels that are both human- and machine-readable and show their relation to other sustainability data elements and applying sustainability frameworks (e.g., GRI v.4). XBRL-tagged sustainability reports, when made publicly available, can be used by all stakeholders interested in corporate governance information. The global acceptance of XBRL-formatted corporate governance reports requires the proper development of taxonomies for both internal and external mechanisms of corporate governance. The corporate governance Taxonomy Architecture is intended to integrate the XBRL frameworks (i.e., architectures) of the IFRS and US GAAP taxonomies and then supplement them with nonfinancial taxonomies (e.g., GRI, CCI, WICI, GRC, CDP, CCRT, and IS-FESG) relevant to corporate governance measures. Once benchmarking and best practice taxonomy has been completed, corporate governance KPI metrics can be identified and integrated into the XBRL taxonomy. The existing XBRL taxonomies focus on objective/factual items as the basis for taxonomy elements. XBRL GL is a unique technology suggested for integrating CGR and XBRL.15

Corporate Governance Assurance

Given that CGR gains acceptance, be standardized, and practiced, then its reliability, objectivity, transparency, and credibility can be improved by providing assurance on corporate governance reports. Unlike audit reports on financial statements and internal control over financial reporting, assurance opinions on corporate governance reports are neither standardized nor regulated. A number of professionals, including internal auditors, external auditors, and other service providers, can offer assurance on corporate governance information. International accounting firms have developed expertise in sustainability reporting and assurance in general and CGR in particular, and they are well equipped and trained to provide assurance services on corporate governance reports.

Currently, corporate governance reports are voluntary and normally not audited by external auditors. Accounting and auditing standards are long-established for financial reporting and auditing.16 Standards also exist for measuring, recognizing, reporting, and auditing of governance, ethics, social responsibility, and environmental activities and performance, but these are fairly new by comparison. The persisting challenge is to disclose concise, accurate, reliable, complete, comparable, and standardized sustainability reports that are relevant and useful to all stakeholders.17 The Global Reporting Initiative in April 2001 released its working paper entitled Overarching Principles for Providing Independent Assurance on Sustainability Reports that can also be used for corporate governance reports.18

Aspects of test procedures in a limit assurance engagement including timing, nature, and the extent are determined based on the practitioners’ understanding of the engagement’s circumstances, underlying subject matters, critical events, risk of significant misstatement of information, the materiality of information presented, the level of meaningful and relevant assurance for intended users, and professional judgment. The common understanding is that applied evidence-gathering procedures in a limited assurance engagement include an understanding of the client’s subject matter (social, governance, ethics, environmental performance); inquiries of management, board of directors, and personnel; and analytical procedures. The assessment of the effectiveness of internal

control concerning subject matter information is recommended but not required. Additional test procedures may be performed if the practitioner becomes aware of matters that cause him or her to believe the information may be materially misstated. Evidence gathered by performing additional procedures should assist the practitioners in either concluding that the area of concern is not likely to cause the subject matter information to be materially misstated. Appropriate working papers should be presented for both reasonable assurance and limited assurance engagements. Working papers should document the type of engagement, considered subject matter and related information, engagement standard applied, test procedures performed, evidence gathered, and conclusions reached.19

The level of assurance provided by auditors on sustainability performance is determined by the type of sustainability category. The level of assurance from low to high depends on the type of assurance from social to economic, as well as the extent and nature of evidence-gathering procedures. In general, obtaining assurance requires an objective examination of subject matter and gathering of sufficient and competent evidence to provide an impartial assurance on the subject matter.20 Audits on financial statements reflecting the economic dimension of business sustainability has a high to reasonable level of assurance, whereas the review of social dimension of sustainability performance can offer only a low to limit level. Examination of corporate social responsibility performance requires assurance providers to offer limit assurance indication that the third-party provider is not aware of noncompliance with state social criteria.21

In the opinion-formulation stage, audit evidence includes information relating to the completeness, validity, and accuracy of the financial statements as a whole, such as information relating to the consistency of the financial statements with the auditor’s knowledge of the business. The audit report is the most common and highest level of assurance provided by an independent auditor to those interested in a company’s financial information. The company’s financial statements are the most common assertion upon which assurance is expressed. The preparation of the audit report is also the final phase of the auditing process, and to meet these responsibilities, auditors must have a thorough understanding of the auditing standards pertaining to auditors’ reports. This includes knowledge of the contents of the audit report regarding different types

of opinions and the conditions that must be made for them to be issued. Independent auditors provide various levels of assurance about different types of assertions. Performing attestation is the most important way by which they add credibility to an assertion of the financial statements prepared by the company’s management. The credibility added is in the form of an audit report that expresses assurance about the assertion. This report is often the only formal means of communicating to interested parties a conclusion about a company’s financial statements.

Corporate governance assurance should lend more credibility to corporate governance reports by providing assurance on the effectiveness of all corporate governance functions, from oversight function by the board of directors to management function by executives, compliance function by regulators, assurance function by auditors, and monitory function by investors. Corporate governance assurance reports provide assurance on the adequacy and effectiveness of both internal and external mechanisms, risk management, control processes as well as the integrity and reliability of both internal and external reports. A corporate governance assurance report may include the following:

1. Assurance on all seven corporate governance functions and their effectiveness

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si el gobierno hubiera atropellado las leyes para castigar los atropellos de otros, debería haber empezado por embarcarse él para Canarias, y decir: Marchemos todos francamente, y yo el primero, por la senda de presidio? Vaya, Andrés, que eso ni suponerse puede, y si te cuentan que tal caso ha sucedido, puedes decir que el que lo cuente es un malévolo de ésos que traen la anarquía en el bolsillo. Diría el gobierno y diría bien: «Yo no hice tal cosa, y si la hiciera, ¿qué diferencia habría entre los atentados del pueblo y los míos? Porque en fin, mientras que la ley no le ha declarado reo, el condenado es asesinado: en ese caso no habría entre mi atentado y el del pueblo más que una diferencia, á saber: que el pueblo asesinó malamente carlistas y yo asesino malamente liberales».

Asesinatos por asesinatos, ya que los ha de haber, estoy por los del pueblo.

Puedes estar seguro de que hay causa; y si no se les ha formado, es porque andamos de prisa, ó por mejor decir, lo que ha ido á Canarias no ha sido una cadena de culpables, sino una comisión artística compuesta de liberales, que van á costa del gobierno á acabar de descubrir aquellas islas, y escribir una memoria de las alturas del globo, y á dar testimonio al mundo sobre todo de la altura á que estamos, tomando el meridiano del pico de Tenerife.

También te habrán contado posteriormente otra pequeña arbitrariedad ejecutada oficialmente en una vieja, en virtud de un cúmplase de un héroe. ¡Dios nos libre de caer en manos de héroes! Sólo te diré que á lo menos en Barcelona tuvieron que acometer una fortaleza y exponerse á ser rechazados. Bueno es remontarse á las causas de las cosas, al tronco, y no á las ramas. Es así que la primera causa de que existen facciosos fueron las madres que los parieron; ergo quitando de en medio á las madres; lo que queda. Los teólogos dicen: sublata causa tollitur efectus. Es lástima que no haya vivido el abuelo, porque mientras más arriba más seguro es el golpe. Pero hemos tenido que contentarnos con la madre. Está probado que así como Sansón tenía la fuerza en el pelo, los facciosos tienen el veneno en la madre, que viene á ser la hiel de ellos; en quitándosela se vuelven como malvas: así lo ha probado la

experiencia, porque de resultas el otro no ha fusilado más que á treinta. ¿Quién sabe los que hubiera fusilado si hubiera tenido madre todavía? Luego, las mujeres son las que están impidiendo la felicidad de España, y hasta que no acabemos con ellas no hay que pensar en tener tranquilidad. En cuanto á las hermanas, como estaban casadas con guardias nacionales, les tocaba fusilar la mitad á los de allá, y la otra mitad á los de acá; pero nosotros, más desprendidos, no quisimos perdonar ni la mitad que nos tocaba, y lo fusilamos todo. ¡Bienaventurados en tiempos de héroes los incluseros, porque ellos no tienen padre ni madre que les fusilen!

Pasadas estas etiquetas de recíproca cortesía, dieron en correr voces de que el ejército estaba descontento, y que la guerra de Navarra no iba lo ligera que debía. Felizmente para todos, algunos amigos tuyos y míos, que así saben mover la pluma como esgrimir la espada, enderezaron la opinión en artículos luminosos, probando lo que ninguno debía tener olvidado, que las guerras civiles son largas, á pesar de todos los programas del mundo; que éstos son por el contrario los que tienen corta vida; que así las civiles como las demás se sostienen con dinero y con soldados; que un gobierno en lucha con una facción pierde más cuando pierde una batalla, que adelanta cuando la gana, y que una derrota nuestra nos quita más honra que gloria da á la facción; que por lo tanto es fuerza no aventurarse sino á ciencia cierta; que la guerra no se hace en el ministerio, sino en Vizcaya; que de real orden se llevan y se traen jueces, se envían buques á Canarias, y se conquistan votos, pero de real orden no se ganan batallas; que algunos descalabros nuestros han sido debidos á reales órdenes; que para hacer la guerra se necesita un plan; que para tener plan es preciso que el general sólo sea responsable; y que Córdoba, en fin, sin que haya necesidad de llamarle héroe, tiene un plan, el cual es forzoso dejarle llevar á cabo, siquiera porque no ha habido hasta ahora otro mejor que el suyo.

Tales razones no convencieron, fué bien acogida la representación del ejército, y si bien ninguno de los que hablaban fué á dar su brazo en vez de su voto, al fin no se admitió la dimisión, y sigue el general, y su plan, y la guerra de Navarra, en el mejor estado posible.

Mientras todo esto pasaba echáronse encima las próximas elecciones, hoy ya pasadas, y porque digo se echaron encima, no vayas á pensar alguna tontería. Dijeron muchos si habría amaños ó si no habría amaños; que se escribió largo y se intrigó más. Lo primero solo prueba cultura en el país, lo segundo arguye talento. ¡Vaya usted á impedir que hablen las gentes! Para que no fuesen las elecciones muy populares bastante amaño era ya la propia ley electoral, en virtud de la cual debían elegir los electores nombrados por los ayuntamientos y los mayores contribuyentes. No hay cosa para elegir como las muchas talegas: una talega difícilmente se equivoca; dos talegas siempre aciertan, y muchas talegas juntas hacen maravillas. Ellas han podido decir á su procurador por boca de los mayores contribuyentes la famosa fórmula aragonesa: «Nos, que cada una de nos valemos tanto como vos, y todas juntas mucho más que vos, os hacemos procurador».

Luego, los elegidos habían de tener doce mil reales de renta: gran garantía de acierto: por poco que valga un real en estos tiempos, no hay real que no valga una idea, sin contar con las muchas que hasta ahora hemos visto que no valían un real, y con los varios casos en que por menos de real daría uno todas sus ideas: bueno es siempre que haya reales en el Estamento por si acaso no hubiese ideas. Tanto mejor si hay lo uno y lo otro.

No es menos importante lo de los treinta años; no es menos simbólico ni cabalístico el número de treinta que el de tres tan citado, y de que es décuplo; treinta días tiene el mes, treinta minutos cada media hora, por treinta dineros vendió Judas á un Dios, treinta años representa la vida de un jugador, y treinta años, en fin, la capacidad de un procurador Muchos filósofos han creído que cuando el hombre nace, el Ser Supremo, que esta atisbando, le sopla dentro el alma por medio del mismo procedimiento que usa un operario en una fábrica de cristales para dar forma á una vasija; pero eso es el alma, mas no la capacidad y la facultad de procurar: esta tal otra quisicosa se la infunde el Criador el día que cumple treinta años, por la mañanita temprano, así como la aptitud legal y la mayoría se la comunica á los veinte y cinco. Oh tú, Andrés, que no los has cumplido, está con cuidado el día que los hayas de cumplir,

y escríbeme para mi gobierno lo que sientas en ese día: dime por dónde entra la capacidad, y hacia dónde se coloca en tu persona: prevenido de esa suerte de los síntomas que la anuncian podré yo hacer á la mía, el día que me baje, el recibimiento que se debe á tan ilustre huésped. ¿Cuándo tendremos treinta años? Aquel día seremos ya unos hombrecitos.

Bien ha habido hombres que han discurrido antes de los treinta años, pero ésos son fenómenos portentosos, raros ejemplos de no vista precocidad; y en cuanto á Pitt y otros de su especie, ministros ya mucho antes, ni siquiera es posible considerarlos como monstruos de naturaleza; es fuerza inferir error de cálculo y mala fe en la de bautismo.

El haber nacido en la provincia, ó tener en ella arraigo, no es de menos importancia, si recordamos que las primeras impresiones se graban para siempre en la cabeza del niño, y deciden de lo que ha de ser después cuando grande: ni es posible que un hombre conozca su provincia, y se interese por ella, si no ha nacido por allí cerca. Puede suceder que una provincia tenga más confianza en la reputación, en el saber de un forastero; pero páselo en paciencia la buena de la provincia, que más pasó Cristo por ella.

Dicen sin embargo que todos los electores no han tenido presentes todas esas verdades; así que, unos procuradores no han nacido, otros no tienen la renta, ¡qué sé yo! Esto tiene compostura habiendo comisión de poderes, y en todo caso se aplica la renta de unos á otros, como hacen los buenos cristianos con los méritos de nuestro Señor Jesucristo, que valen mucho más que las rentas; y así poniendo de aquí y quitando de allí tengo para mí que se ha de remediar. Y aun yo diría más. Don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal fué elegido por ejemplo por Barcelona, siendo natural de Cádiz, y no habiendo residido en Cataluña. Decían: «Pero no tiene nada suyo en Cataluña, sino los electores:» ¿pues eso no es tener?, ¿no valen tanto por lo menos los electores como una casa, ó una tapia, ó unas cuantas fanegas de pan llevar? ¡Sino que poniéndose á hablar las gentes!...

Por lo demás es sabido que el gobierno no ha influido absolutamente nada en las elecciones, y desde luego se dijo que eran á pedir de boca. Para que formes una idea, han salido elegidos los sugestos siguientes:

Por Barcelona, como llevo dicho, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Cádiz, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Gerona, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Granada, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Madrid, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Málaga, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

Por Pontevedra, don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, etc., etc., etc.

Que es el cuento de pasó una cabra, y volvió y pasó otra, y volvió á tornar y á pasar otra cabra, y así sucesivamente.

Si oyes decir que se abre el Estamento, di que es broma, que quien se abre es don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.

No habrás olvidado que los ministros de estado y de hacienda, y el presidente del consejo, son don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal, y que los otros ministros no son sino una manera de ser, distinta sólo en la apariencia del don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal. Ahora figúrate el día que el Estamento don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal pida cuentas al ministro don Juan Álvarez Mendizábal...; aquí llaman esto un gobierno representativo: sin que sea murmuración, confieso que yo llamo esto un hombre representativo.

Una vez conocida la buena índole de las elecciones y la idoneidad de esos diversos señores procuradores, ocurrió la duda de si estas Cortes que iban á reunirse vendrían sólo para hacer una ley electoral mejor que la que les confiere su derecho; ó si podrían constituirse revisoras. Quiénes se agarraron á la legalidad, diciendo que esto último sería ilegal; quiénes intentaron probar que lo de menos era la legalidad, y que lo que importaba era la conveniencia. Por fin salimos del atolladero, y parece que no tratarán de constituirse por varias razones. Porque no han sido convocadas

para eso. Porque siendo su objeto principal hacer una ley electoral, en virtud de la cual puedan convocarse luego las revisoras, es claro que los demás asuntos que á ellas se sometan, por importantes que sean, habrán de ser subalternos al principal. La nación tiene un cimiento, y necesita una casa: en estas Cortes va á decidir cuáles han de ser las circunstancias del arquitecto que se la puede hacer á su gusto. Por consiguiente, todo lo que sea proceder á construir el que sólo está comisionado para designar el constructor, es hacer la casa y dejar para después el arquitecto: equivale á blanquear después de pintar; es dejar al que venga detrás el derecho de poner en duda la validez de la construcción.

En estas disputas andábamos, cuando otro run run más terrible vino á poner nuevo espanto en nuestro corazón. He aquí que una noche corre la voz de que se va á poner la constitución del año 12. ¡Bravo!, dije yo: esto es lo que se llama andar camino. Aquí no se sabe multiplicar, pero restar á las mil maravillas. Vamos á quién puede más. El año 14 vino el rey y dijo: quien de catorce quita seis, queda en ocho. Vuelvan pues las cosas al ser y estado del año 8. El año 20 vienen los otros y dicen: quien de veinte quita seis, queda en catorce: vuelvan las cosas al ser y estado del año 14. El año 23 vuelve el de más arriba y dice: quien de veinte y tres quita tres, queda en veinte; vuelvan las cosas al ser y estado de febrero del año 20. El año 1836 asoman los segundos, y éstos quieren restar más en grande: quien de treinta y seis quita veinte y cuatro, queda en doce; vuelva todo al año 12. Éstos han pujado, si se exceptúa el del Estatuto, que más picado que nadie cogió y lo restó todo, y nos plantó en el siglo .

¡Diantre!, ¡si volveremos todavía á la venida de Túbal! Sepamos primero cómo se entiende nuestro progreso. ¿Hacia dónde vamos?

¿Hacia atrás, ó hacia adelante? Tengamos el cuento del cochero, que, montado al revés, arreaba al coche.

Ya te lo he dicho: tejedores; tejer y destejer. Nadie vende su tela, y nadie hace tela nueva.

Decían ellos que el volver atrás no era más que tomar carrera. ¡Dios los bendiga, y qué larga la toman!

Vamos claros. La constitución del año 12 era gran cosa en verdad, pero para el año 12: en el día da la maldita casualidad de que somos más liberales que entonces: si te he de hablar ingenuamente, á mí me parece poco.

Las circunstancias del año 12, la guerra que sosteníamos apoyada en el fanatismo popular, y el mayor atraso de la época, exigieron concesiones en el día no necesarias, ridículas.

En ellas hablan las Cortes en nombre de Dios Todopoderoso, Padre, Hijo y Espíritu Santo: gran principio para una novena: buena es la devoción, pero á su tiempo: eso es adoptar, heredar de la monarquía el derecho divino: la sociedad puede servir á Dios en toda clase de gobiernos. El Supremo Hacedor no delega facultades temporales ningunas, ni en un soberano, ni en un congreso; la sociedad se hace ella misma por derecho propio sus reyes y sus asambleas. Cristo vino al mundo á predicar, no á redactar códigos. Á Dios daremos cuenta de nuestras creencias, no á los hombres: reflexión igualmente aplicable al capítulo II, artículo 12, porque el Salvador quiso convencer, no obligar, porque no quiere más homenajes que los voluntarios.

Ítem más: en la constitución del año 12 no está consignada la libertad de imprenta, sino para las ideas políticas, y eso es decirle á un hombre: Ande usted, pero con una sola pierna.

En cambio nos impone como ley fundamental el amor á la patria y la obligación de ser justos y benéficos... en cambio... Andrés mío, callemos, porque, repito, que la venero, y tengo por indigno de un liberal poner en ridículo el paladión de nuestra independencia nacional, y la cuna de nuestra libertad, por fácil que eso sea. Pero la respeto, como Cristo respetó el testamento viejo, fundando el nuevo. Veneremos el viejo código, y venga no obstante otro nuevo más adecuado á la época.

Parécense los hombres del año 12, amigo Andrés, al cura que no sabía leer más que en su breviario: ó mejor al gastrónomo en VistaAlegre, que viendo su mesa puesta, pugna por sentarse á ella en cuanto le dejan un momento libre, en cuanto ve un resquicio por donde acercarse á la mesa. El caso es el mismo: todos les hacemos

cumplimientos, pero no les dejamos sentarse. Unas veces se lo impidió el poseedor don Pascual de la Rivera, otras los mozos de su fábrica... Convengo en que es una desesperación; pero culpen, no á nosotros, sino á ellos mismos, que tantas veces se dejaron interrumpir antes de llegar el bocado á la boca.

Aténgome á su artículo, que dice:

«La nación española es libre é independiente, y no es ni puede ser patrimonio de ninguna familia, ni persona».

Esto digo yo: entre á gobernar, no éste ni aquél, sino todo el que se sienta con fuerzas, todo el que dé pruebas de idoneidad. Basta de ensayos. Á eso nos responden ellos: «¿Y dónde están esos hombres?» ¿Dónde han de estar? En la calle, esperando á que acaben de bailar los señores mayores, para entrar ellos en el baile.

«¿Cómo no salen esos hombres?», añaden. ¿Cómo han de salir? De Calomarde acá, ¿qué protección, qué ley electoral ha llamado á los hombres nuevos para darles entrada en la república? Cuenta sin embargo con ella, y llámelos la ley presto: ¡¡¡déjese entrar legalmente á los hombres del año 1836, ó se entrarán ellos de rondón!!!

En conclusión, hombres nuevos para cosas nuevas: en tiempos turbulentos hombres fuertes sobre todo, en quienes no esté cansada la vida, en quienes haya ilusiones todavía, hombres que se paguen de gloria, y en quien arda una noble ambición y arrojo constante contra el peligro.

«¿Qué saben los jóvenes?», exclaman. Lo que ustedes nos han enseñado, les responderemos, más lo que en ustedes hemos escarmentado, más lo que seguimos aprendiendo. ¡Y qué eran ustedes el año 12! Nosotros fundaremos nuestro orgullo en ser sus sucesores, en aprovechar sus lecciones, en coronar la obra que empezaron. Nosotros no rehusamos su mérito; no rehúsen ellos nuestra idoneidad, que el árbol joven es la esperanza del jardinero, si el viejo ya le da sombra.

Según el miedo que tienen de que la juventud entre en los puestos, no parece sino que es posible hacerlo peor que ellos.

Para el año 1836 la única constitución posible es la constitución de 1836.

Una idea te diría, si no la hubieras de contar; y sólo á ti te la diría, porque ellos la tomarán á personalidad, si de ella hiciese un artículo, y sabe Dios que no lo digo por tal. Mucho venero á los hombres de otra época, Andrés mío; mucho saben, sobre todo en no hablándose de gobernar, para lo cual ya nos han manifestado repetidas veces hasta donde rayan: mucho saben, y tanto que no sólo no los lanzaría yo de la república, sino que los guardara muy guardados como guardaban los romanos los libros sibilinos, para consultarlos con el mayor respeto: de ellos armaría una biblioteca viva, donde vueltos de espaldas en muy pulidos estantes, leyese el estudioso encima Fulano, de Economía Política; Mengano, de Reformas Constitucionales; Zutano, de la Guerra de la Independencia; Perengano, de Metáforas y del Espíritu del Siglo, etc., etc.; de suerte que no hubiese más que volverlos y ojearlos en un apuro, cuidando mucho de quitarles antes y después el polvo, y de tornarlos á volver hasta otra duda, como pergaminos preciosos. Ahí verás tú si los respeto, y si los tengo en estima.

Hasta aquí de la constitución y de los hombres del año 12. Pasó el susto, y la noticia, como habrás visto, no tuvo consecuencia. Sin duda el ruido que metió fué el último cumplimiento de despedida que nos hizo.

No ganamos para sustos. Posteriormente se cruzaron de palabras el pueblo de Valencia y su capitán general. Éste tomó una porción de providencias, entre otras las de Villadiego; con cuyo ingenioso arbitrio no le pudieron haber los valencianos, que es decir que ha podido más que ellos, que se ha burlado de ellos. Tiene mucho talento. Buen chasco se han llevado. Así, así: á los alborotadores hay que jugarles esas pasadas; con eso escarmientan. Á buen seguro que si Basa hubiera hecho otro tanto, no le hubieran deshecho á él, y el pueblo de Barcelona se hubiera llevado el mismo chasco que el de Valencia. ¿No queréis capitán general? Pues tomad capitán general. ¿No te figuras tú al pueblo de Valencia buscando á su capitán general por todas partes, como quien busca

una sanguijuela extraviada, y él trota que trota para Madrid? Á mí me hace morir de risa. Es lo que él dice: «¿Pues qué, querían ustedes que me mataran?» ¿Qué habíamos de querer?

Conque ahora está aquí bueno, gordo y tranquilo; no ha sido poca fortuna el poderlo contar.

En Zaragoza fué por otro estilo: salieron unos carlistas sentenciados á qué sé yo qué bobería: se levantó el pueblo, sitió á los jueces, y dieron en quererlos juzgar. Al maestro cuchillada. Pero no les da el naipe para esos pasajes á los jueces de Zaragoza, como á los capitanes generales de Valencia.

Entre tanto el ministerio de gracia y justicia sigue siempre de mudanza, y hace bien, porque el juez que no da fruto en una tierra, lo da en otra. El juez ha de ser como el zapato, hecho al pie; por eso el que no le viene bien al uno, le viene al otro.

Para eso el de la gobernación no se mete con nadie, ni habla mal de nadie. Es un excelente señor; á su oficina y no más. Da lástima hacerle daño, y sería completo si se le volviese C la H de su apellido; pero llámalo h.

En cuanto al de la guerra nadie sabe una palabra de él.

En mi última te pintaba en globo la confusión que en el Estamento y fuera de él había causado la ley electoral, y te añadía:

«Yo por el pronto sólo veo clara una cosa, y es que para el 22 de marzo se reunirán de nuevo en Madrid otras Cortes... que para entonces es probable que empecemos á entendernos... y que seguramente no tendremos facción, porque estarán al caer los seis meses de la promesa, ó no tendremos ministerio, si no la cumple, porque estará caído, etc.».

De todas esas profecías sólo en la primera acerté; porque en cuanto á entendernos da gusto. Unos dicen que Mendizábal es el primer hombre del mundo; otros que no es tal, sino el último; que el primero es Istúriz y Galiano; te advierto que éste son dos: otros que ni Istúriz ni Mendizábal: no sé qué te diga: quién asegura que esto puede durar unos quince días, quién defiende que durará más que un constipado mal curado: éste no ve más que el prestigio que tiene

todavía en las provincias, el cual no se destruye tan fácilmente, sobre todo cuando no deja de tener algún fundamento; aquél no atiende más que al descrédito en que ha caído en sus corros y cafés, y cree que toda la nación puede juzgarle con igual talento, y tan de cerca como él. Éstos disputan que no hay hombres aquí; aquéllos que sí hay hombres; los de la izquierda que hay dinero; los de la derecha que no hay un cuarto; estoy por éstos. Quién opina que la guerra es inacabable; quién la da por acabada; añadiendo que no falta más que tirar una línea: uno dice que el mal de España no tiene remedio; otro que ésa es la mejor señal, que empieza la revolución, y que en Francia sucedía lo mismo, á pesar de que todo era diferente; varios juzgan que el rigor es de justicia, y que el árbol de la libertad se riega con sangre: algunos creen que la humanidad repugna tales horrores: no falta quien piensa que es guerra de empleos, y sobra quien no piensa ni eso ni nada. Pero todos somos liberales y vamos á una: eso sí. Por lo cual esto se acabará pronto de un modo ó de otro: en prueba de ello te puedo decir que se empiezan ya á acabar dos cosas: el dinero y la paciencia.

Pero son tantas las opiniones en fin y los hechos que se acumulan, y tantas las cosas que van á suceder, sin contar las que han sucedido desde la apertura de las Cortes, que me es indispensable reservarlas para otras cartas: me limito en ésta á ponerme al corriente, saliendo del atraso de noticias en que te tenía. En lo sucesivo aprovecharé todas las ocasiones posibles de escribirte, y al siguiente correo para Francia recibirás la inmediata, salvo extravío, golpe de mano airada, ó caso fortuito.

Si en el ínterin, y en medio de este conflicto de opiniones encontradas, me pides la mía, te contaré un caso que juzgo oportuno.

Sitiaban los Franceses al mando del mariscal Moncey esa misma Valencia, que en distintas épocas han mandado el Cid y Carratalá. Reuniéronse en tan grave apuro el ayuntamiento y las personas más ricas del pueblo, entre las cuales quedóse dormido de confusión y pesadumbre un confitero, que entendía más de ramilletes que de disturbios políticos. Iba diciendo cada uno en la asamblea su opinión como mejor lo entendía. Llegada que le fué su

vez á nuestro hombre,—y usted, le dijo sacudiéndole del brazo el que á su lado tenía, ¿qué piensa?—Sí, ¿cuál es su opinión de usted?, preguntaron todos á un tiempo; á cuya pregunta contestó despertando y todo despavorido el confitero: ¡¡¡mi opinión, sí, mi opinión, señores, es de que Dios nos asista!!! En cuyo voto imitaba el confitero la rara discreción del padre Froilán Díaz, confesor de Carlos II.

Eso mismo opino yo, Andrés mío, por ahora, y mientras no vea levantarse en masa á la nación para ahogar de una vez y para siempre el monstruo que en el norte nos devora, en vez de entretenerse en cuestiones secundarias y en rencillas personales, de las cuales debiera el país hacer justicia, como del orgullo mezquino y de la loca vanidad de sus dueños.—Tu amigo,—Fígaro.

FIN DEL TOMO SEGUNDO

PARIS. ÉDOUARD BLOT, IMPRIMEUR, RUE BLEUE, 7

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