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Coping with Lack of Control in a Social World Marcin Bukowski

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CopingwithLackofControlinaSocialWorld

CopingwithLackofControlinaSocialWorldoffersanintegratedviewofcutting-edge researchontheeffectsofcontroldeprivationonsocialcognition.Thebookintegratesmultimethodresearchdemonstratinghowvarioustypesofcontroldeprivation,relatednotonlyto experimentalsettingsbutalsotoreal-lifesituationsofhelplessness,canleadtoavarietyof cognitiveandemotionalcopingstrategiesatthesocialcognitivelevel.Thecomprehensive analysisinthisbooktacklesissuessuchas:

Cognitive,emotionalandsocio-behavioralreactionstothreatstopersonalcontrol Howsocialfactorsaidincopingwithasenseoflostorthreatenedcontrol

Relatinguncontrollabilitytopowerlessnessandintergroupprocesses

Howlack-of-controlexperiencescaninfluencebasicandcomplexcognitiveprocesses

Thisbookintegratesvariousstrandsofresearchthathavenotyetbeenpresentedtogether inaninnovativevolumethataddressestheissueofreactionstocontrollossinasociopsychologicalcontext.Itsfocusoncopingasanactivewayofconfrontingasenseof uncontrollabilitymakesthisaunique,andhighlyoriginal,contributiontothefield.Practicing psychologistsandstudentsofpsychologywillbeparticularlyinterestedreaders.

MarcinBukowski,LecturerandResearcher,InstituteofPsychology,JagiellonianUniversity, Poland.

ImmoFritsche,ProfessorofPsychology,LeipzigUniversity,Germany.

AnaGuinote,ProfessorofPsychology,UniversityCollegeLondon,UK.

MirosławKofta,ProfessorofPsychology,UniversityofWarsaw,Poland.

CurrentIssuesinSocialPsychology

SeriesEditor:ArjanE.R.Bos

CurrentIssuesinSocialPsychologyisaseriesofeditedbooksthatreflectthestateoftheartof currentandemergingtopicsofinterestinbasicandappliedsocialpsychology.

Eachvolumeistightlyfocusedonaparticulartopicandconsistsofseventotenchapters contributedbyinternationalexperts.Theeditorsofindividualvolumesareleadingfiguresin theirareasandprovideanintroductoryoverview.

Exampletopicsinclude:self-esteem,evolutionarysocialpsychology,minoritygroups,social neuroscience,cyberbullyingandsocialstigma.

Self-Esteem

EditedbyVirgilZeigler-Hill

SocialConflictwithinandbetweenGroups

EditedbyCarstenK.W.DeDreu

PowerandIdentity

EditedbyDenisSindic,ManuelaBarretandRuiCosta-Lopes

Cyberbullying:Fromtheorytointervention

EditedbyTrijntjeVöllink,FrancineDehueandConorMcGuckin

CopingwithLackofControlinaSocialWorld

EditedbyMarcinBukowski,ImmoFritsche,AnaGuinote,andMirosławKofta

CopingwithLackofControlinaSocial World

Firstpublished2017 byRoutledge

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©2017selectionandeditorialmatter,MarcinBukowski,ImmoFritsche,AnaGuinote& MirosławKofta;individualchapters,thecontributors

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AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

Names:Bukowski,Marcin,editor.|Fritsche,Immo,editor.|Guinote,Ana, 1963–editor.

Title:Copingwithlackofcontrolinasocialworld/editedbyMarcin Bukowski,ImmoFritsche,AnaGuinote&MiroslawKofta.

Description:1Edition|NewYork:Routledge,2016|Series:Current issuesinsocialpsychology|Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index.

Identifiers:LCCN2016015428|ISBN9781138957923(hardback)| ISBN9781138957930(paperback)|ISBN9781315661452(ebook)

Subjects:LCSH:Control(Psychology)|Socialpsychology.

Classification:LCCBF611.C6772016|DDC155.9/2dc23

LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2016015428

ISBN:978-1-138-95792-3(hbk)

ISBN:978-1-138-95793-0(pbk)

ISBN:978-1-315-66145-2(ebk)

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Listofcontributors

CopingwithLackofControlinaSocialWorld:Anintroduction

MarcinBukowski,ImmoFritsche,AnaGuinoteandMirosławKofta

Part1

Cognitive,emotional,andsocio-behavioralreactionstouncontrollability

1Fromcopingtohelplessness:Effectsofcontroldeprivationoncognitiveandaffective processes

MarcinBukowskiandMirosławKofta

2Themotivationforcontrol:Lossofcontrolpromotesenergy,effort,andaction

KatharineHGreenaway,MichaelCPhilipp,andKatherineRStorrs

3Ironiceffectsofneedforclosureonclosed-mindedprocessingmode:Theroleof perceivedcontroloverreducinguncertainty

MałgorzataKossowska,MarcinBukowski,andSindhujaSankaran

4Uncontrollabilityintheclassroom:Theintellectualhelplessnessperspective

KlaraRydzewska,MarzenaRusanowska,IzabelaKrejtz,andGrzegorzSedek

Part2

Sociallygroundedresponsestoperceivedlackofcontrol:Fromcompensationtoactive coping

5Compensatorycontroltheoryandthepsychologicalimportanceofperceivingorder BastiaanT.RutjensandAaronC.Kay

6Perceiveduncontrollabilityasacopingresource:Thecontrol-servingfunctionofenemies

anduncertainty

DanielSullivanandSheridanAStewart

7Givinginandgivingup:Accommodationandfatalisticwithdrawalasalternativesto primarycontrolrestoration

JosephHayes,MikePrentice,andIanMcGregor

8Extendingcontrolperceptionstothesocialself:Ingroupsservetherestorationofcontrol JanineStollberg,ImmoFritsche,MarkusBarth,andPhilippJugert

9Copingwithidentitythreatstogroupagencyaswellasgroupvalue:Explicitandimplicit routestoresistance

SoledaddeLemus,RussellSpears,JolienvanBreen,andMaïkaTelga

Part3

Uncontrollability,powerlessness,andintergroupcognition

10Thinkingupandtalkingup:Restoringcontrolthroughmindreading

SusanT.Fiske,DanielL.Ames,JillianK.Swencionis,andCydneyH.Dupree

11Accentuationoftendingandbefriendingamongthepowerless AnaGuinoteandJorisLammers

12Theemotionalsideofpower(lessness)

KaterinaPetkanopoulou,GuillermoB.Willis,andRosaRodríguez-Bailón

13Uncontrollability,reactance,andpower:Powerasaresourcetoregaincontrolafter freedomthreats

ChristinaMühlberger,EvaJonas,andSandraSittenthaler

Index

Contributors

DanL.Ames,UniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,USA

MarkusBarth,UniversityofLeipzig,Germany

MarcinBukowski,JagiellonianUniversity,Poland

SoledaddeLemus,UniversityofGranada,Spain

CydneyH.Dupree,PrincetonUniversity,USA

SusanT.Fiske,PrincetonUniversity,USA

ImmoFritsche,UniversityofLeipzig,Germany

KatharineH.Greenaway,TheUniversityofQueensland,Australia

AnaGuinote,UniversityCollegeLondon,UKandLeadershipKnowledgeCentre,Nova SchoolofBusinessandEconomics,Portugal

JosephHayes,AcadiaUniversity,Canada

EvaJonas,UniversityofSalzburg,Austria

PhilippJugert,UniversityofLeipzig,Germany

AaronC.Kay,DukeFUQUASchoolofBusiness,USA

MirosławKofta,UniversityofWarsaw,Poland

MałgorzataKossowska,JagiellonianUniversity,Poland

IzabelaKrejtz,SWPSUniversityofSocialSciencesandHumanities,Poland

JorisLammers,UniversityofCologne,Germany

IanMcGregor,UniversityofWaterloo,Canada

ChristinaMühlberger,UniversityofSalzburg,Austria

KaterinaPetkanopoulou,UniversityofGranada,Spain

MichaelC.Philipp,MasseyUniversity,NewZealand

MikePrentice,UniversityofSalzburg,Austria

RosaRodríguez-Bailón,UniversityofGranada,Spain

MarzenaRusanowska,JagiellonianUniversity,Poland

BastiaanT.Rutjens,UniversityofAmsterdam,TheNetherlands

KlaraRydzewska,SWPSUniversityofSocialSciencesandHumanities,Poland

SindhujaSankaran,JagiellonianUniversity,Poland

GrzegorzSedek,SWPSUniversityofSocialSciencesandHumanities,Poland

SandraSittenthaler,UniversityofSalzburg,Austria

RussellSpears,GroningenUniversity,TheNetherlands

SheridanA.Stewart,StanfordUniversity,USA

JanineStollberg,UniversityofLeipzig,Germany

KatherineR.Storrs,TheUniversityofQueensland,Australia

DanielSullivan,TheUniversityofArizona,USA

JillianK.Swencionis,PrincetonUniversity,USA

MaïkaTelga,UniversityofGranada,Spain

JolienvanBreen,GroningenUniversity,TheNetherlands

GuillermoB.Willis,UniversityofGranada,Spain

Anintroduction

Theneedforpersonalcontrolisoneofthemostcriticaldimensionsofpeople’slivesLosinga job,havinghealthproblems,experiencingthedeathofalovedonearejustsomeofthemost vividsituationsthatmakeusrealizethedeleteriousconsequencesoflosingcontroloverour lives.Whereassomeoftheseinstancesinvolvepeople’sindependentabilitytoachievewhat theywant,suchasperformingwellonataskorprotectingtheirhealth,manyinstancesof havingorlosingcontrolareinherentlylinkedtothesocialcontext.Asahighlyinterdependent socialspecies,humans’personalcontrol,beitofalargeorsmallscope,varietyandintensity, mightbejeopardizedinnearlyallsocialcontexts:atschool,inthefamily,atwork,orin politicallife.

Atthesametime,beingunitedincollectivesorgroupshashelpedhumansdevelopa tremendousmasteryoftheirphysicalenvironments(e.g.,livingincommunitiesregardlessof weatherconditions,travellingtothemoon)andapossibilitytostudythefoundationsoftheir veryexistence.Ironically,thesecollectivevehiclesofhumanagencycanalsobeseriously threatened.Putdifferently,thecomplexityofhumanrelationsandpersonalmotivescanaffect people’ssenseofcontrolinmultipleways.Individualactorsandgroupscanincreaseone another’ssenseofcontrol(e.g.,byfacilitatingjointprojectsorprovidingstrengthinnumbers), decreasecontrol(e.g.,byinducingpowerlessnessorsocialinequalitiesthatforcemembership indisadvantagedgroups)orrestorecontrol(e.g.,when,aftercontrolloss,friendsandmembers ofgroupsprovideasenseofsafetyorsecurity).Giventheimportanceofthesocialcontextfor individualcontrol,severalquestionsarise,suchas:Whataretheantecedentsofcontrolgains andlossesinsocialcontexts?Howdoeslackingcontrolshapethewaysindividualsthink,feel, andact?Andwhatarethecopingmechanismsdeployedbyindividualswhencontrolislost? TheaimofthisbookistoaddresstheseissuesByprovidingaconcertedefforttounderstand controlinsocialcontexts,thisbookaimstocontributetoabetterunderstandingofoneofthe fundamentalhumanneeds–theneedforcontrol–anditsroleinthedynamicsofsocial relationsandhumansocialcognition.

Pastandpresentofcontrolresearch

Whatispersonalcontrol?

Personalcontrolhasbeendefinedastheextenttowhichapersoncanproducedesired outcomesandpreventundesiredones(Antonovsky,1979;Gurin,Gurin,&Morrison,1978; Skinner,1996).Whenpeoplethinkthattheycanachievesuchdesiredends,theyhavepersonal control,alsolabeledsometimesasperceivedcontrolorsenseofcontrol(Abeles,1991;Gurin& Brim,1984).Inthisunderstanding,controlinvolvestheselfasagent,whoisfocusedon introducingchangesinthesocialorphysicalenvironmentwithher/hisbehaviorsasthemeans toachievethisgoal(Skinner,1996).Thisbasicdefinitionemphasizeseffectivenessindealing withtheenvironment,changingthesurroundingstofittheneedsoftheindividual(Rothbaum, Weisz,&Snyder,1982)Inthissense,personalcontrolresemblesthenotionofgeneralselfefficacy(Bandura,1997)andreferstosuchconstructsasneedforautonomy,competence,or masteryasdifferentpossiblesourcesofmotivationforpersonalcontrol.Nowadays,however, psychologistspreferabroaderconceptualizationofthisconstruct.Theybelievethatpeoplecan restoreormaintaincontrolnotonlythroughdirectactiontendenciesbutalsoinindirectways, whentheyaccommodatetoenvironmentalconstraintsinordertosatisfytheirneeds(Landau, Kay,&Whitson,2015;Rothbaumetal.,1982).

Whathappenswhencontrolovertheenvironmentisthreatened?Mostprobably,people becomeinvolvedinrestorationorrepairofcontrol,whichcouldmanifestineffortstochange theenvironment,butalso,asrecentlystressed,inattemptstoadjusttheselftothe environmentifthelatterisseenasunchangeable(Landauetal.,2015;Rothbaumetal.,1982; Thompson,Sobolew-Shubin,Galbraith,Schwankovsky,&Cruzen,1993)Asthisvolume demonstrates,people’sstruggleswithperceivedlackofcontrolresultinanimpressive diversityofresponses,rangingfromaction,approachtendency,andengagement,through compensatoryreinterpretationsofsituationsandtheself,towithdrawal,avoidance, helplessness,andrelinquishmentofcontrol.

Originally,inspiredbylearnedhelplessnesstheory,researchonthepsychological consequencesofuncontrollabilityfocusedonexploringmentaldeficitsinducedbylackof control,andontheimplicationsthisknowledgehasforunderstandingdepressivedisorders (Hiroto&Seligman,1975;Seligman,1975).Quiteearly,however,WortmanandBrehm(1975) realizedthat–dependingontheseverityanddurationofcontroldeprivation–eithercoping orwithdrawal/escape(helpless-like)responsesbecomemorelikely.Furtherresearch,inline withWortmanandBrehm’sintuitions,revealedthewholecomplexityofhumanpsychological responsetolossofcontrol.Nowadays,studentsofcontroldeprivationnolongerportray peopleaspassivevictimsofuncontrollability,butasactiveagentstryingtoregainthreatened controlbywhatevermeansavailable.Ofcourse,aswillbeshown,researcherswouldnotdeny

thatcontroldeprivationmayresultinhelplessnessanddepression.However,theevidence discussedinthisbookshowsthatgettingintoastateofmentalpassivityandwithdrawalfrom activecopingisthelast,ratherthanthefirst,humanpsychologicalresponsetolossofcontrol. Evenalongstandingthreattocontrol(suchaswhenrealizingtheinevitabilityofone’sown death)maystillleadtocompensatoryorsymbolicresponses.Also,researchersassumethat,in ordertoexplainwhichparticularresponsetolackofcontrolemerges,onemusttakeinto considerationthespecificityofmediatingcognitive,emotional,andmotivationalprocesses.

Socialdimensionsofcopingwithlackofcontrol

Howdowecopewithlackofcontrol?Thiscrucialquestionhasalreadybeenaddressedby researchrootedinclinical,developmental,personality,ormotivationalpsychology(Brehm, 1966;Burger,1992;Langer,1975;Mikulincer,1994;Skinner,1995).Foralongtime,however, thisresearchlineaddressedtheindividualpersonandtheinterplayofinternalcognitive, affective,andmotivationalprocessesengenderedbythreattocontrol.Eventhoughitistrue thatpersonalcontrol,aswellascontroldeprivation,isexperiencedbytheindividual,inthis bookweturnreaders’attentiontothefactthatpersonalcontrolisdeeplyembeddedinthe socialcontext.Thesocialenvironmentseemstobeacriticalfactorthatallowsusto understandtheemergenceofuncontrollabilityperceptionsandtheirsubsequentmanagement. Thecurrentbookexamineshowthesocialcontextcanaffectone’ssenseofpersonalcontrol, aswellashowlosingpersonalcontrolaffectshowindividualsfeel,think,andactinrelationto theirsocialenvironment.Inparticular,wefocusonthreatenedpersonalcontrol,andtherole otherpeopleandgroupsplayinarousingfeelingsofcontrollossaswellasinthewaysof copingwiththesefeelings.

Controlinasocialworld

Webelievethatanimportantgapinearlierresearchoncontroldeprivationwasthatitfailed toconsiderthesocialcontext(withthenotableexceptionofstudiesonpowerlessness;e.g.,see Guinote,2010;Smith,Jostman,Galinsky,&vanDijk,2008;Weick,Guinote,&Wilkinson,2011; Wilkinson,Guinote,Weick,Molinari,&Graham,2010).However,withinthepasttwodecades agrowingbodyofresearchunravelstheimportanceofsocialdeterminantsandconsequences ofperceivedlackofcontrol(e.g.,Fiske&Dépret,1996;Fritscheetal.,2013;Kay,Gaucher, Napier,Callan,&Laurin,2008;Landauetal,2015;Pittman&D’Agostino,1989;Whitson& Galinsky,2008).Thisresearchshowsthatlackofpersonalcontrolhasprofoundimplications forpeople’ssocialcognitionandbehavior.Theexperienceofpersonalcontrolisaffectednot onlybysocialcomparisonswithmoreorlesspowerfulothers(Festinger,1954),butalsobythe factthathumansarehighlyinterdependent,anddependencycreatestheseedsforcontrol

gainsandloss(Emerson,1962;Fiske&Berdahl,2007).Theserecentadvancementsinsocial psychologicalresearchhighlightanumberofdimensionsinwhichthesocialcontextcanbe relevantforthestudyofpersonalcontrol,itslossanditsrestoration.Allthesedimensionsare carefullyanalyzedinthisbook.

First,thecognitive,affective,andmotivationaleffectsofcontrollossonhowweperceive andunderstandotherpeoplearestudied.Followingexperienceofcontrolloss,ourperceptions ofpeoplesubstantiallychange.Partly,thischangeisduetopurelycognitivedemandsthat control-deprivingsituationsimposeonourminds(e.g.,controldeprivationresultsinmental overloadanddeficitoffreecognitiveresources,seeKofta&Sedek,1998)Atthesametime,it isawell-establishedfindingwithintheliteratureonmotivatedsocialcognitionthatin cognitivelydemandingcircumstancespeoplearelikelytoprocessinformationinastrategic way,aimedatrestoringtheirdeprivedneeds(Fiske&Taylor,2008;Kunda,1999).Inthisbook, webridgethosetwoperspectivesbyexaminingwhatsituationalfactorsrelatedtocontrolloss caninhibitorenhancestrategicandgoal-directedcognitionandaction.

Thisleadsustothesecondsocialdimensionforpersonalcontrol:strategicperceptionof otherpeopleandsocialgroupsdrivenbythemotivetorestoreorcompensateforathreatened senseofcontrol.Ashasbeenrecentlydemonstrated,avarietyofstrategiesallowsperceivers toregaincontrol,suchasself-definitionintermsofagenticingroups(Fritscheetal.,2013; Greenawayetal.2015),ortocompensateforcontrolloss,suchasheavyrelianceonorderprovidingbeliefsandideologies(social,religious),searchforindividualorcollectiveallies,but alsoblamingpowerful,individual,orcollectiveenemies(Kayetal.,2008;Rutjens,van Harreveld,&vanderPligt,2013;Sullivan,Landau,&Rothschild,2010;Whitson&Galinsky, 2008).

Athirdimportantdimensiononwhichtheinteractionbetweenthesocialcontextanda senseofpersonalcontrolisanalyzedinthisbookrelatestothenotionofsocialpower.The experienceofcontroldeprivationemergesnotonlyasaconsequenceofone’sowndeficient abilitiesandlackofcompetenceinfulfillingpersonalgoals,butalsoduetothefactthatother people(e.g.,superordinates,membersofahigherstatusgroup)havesocialpoweroverone’s life.Moreandmorestudiesconsistentlyshowthatbeinginasubordinateposition dramaticallychangesthewaywethinkandact(e.g.,makesusreluctanttousecategorical perception,makesusendorsemoreegalitarianvaluesandlifegoalsthanpowerful counterparts,etc.;Guinote,Cotzia,Sandhu,&Siwa,2015).

Thus,inourbookwetakeasocio-motivationalperspectiveandhighlightthefundamental roleofthinkingaboutotherpeople,andaboutoneselfinreferencetothem,asawayof dealingwithlackofcontrol.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheimpressivetraditionofresearchon controldeprivationasanindividualexperiencewillbeignored.Instead,thechaptersinthis volumearedeeplyrootedinprevious,experimentalresearchoncontrolmotivationby examininghowcognitiveandaffectivechangesinducedbyuncontrollabilitycaninfluencethe

waywethinkaboutothersandemotionallyreacttothem.Inparticular,wewillreviewnew findingssuggestingthat,whendeprivedofpersonalcontrol,peopledeliberatelyor automaticallyseekouteffectivecognitiveandbehavioralstrategiesthathelpthemtoregain controlandfeelingsofmastery.Humanactionsaimedatrestoringpersonalcontrolwillbe analyzedfromtheagenticpointofview,emphasizingtheactiveroleofthepersoninthe copingprocesswhenfacedwithuncontrollability(see,e.g.,Kofta,Weary,&Sedek,1998). However,wewillalsoshowhowsuchcopingefforts–particularlywhenrepeatedlyfailingto restorecontrol–mightinfactresultingrowingcognitiveandaffectivemalfunctioningand behavioraldisruption

Bookcontents

Inthisvolume,weareparticularlyinterestedinstudyingcomplexanddynamicreactionsto controllossinvarioussocialcontexts,relatedtointerpersonalaswellasintergroupprocesses. Thisperspectiveallowsustobringbasicresearchoncontrolmotivationintouchwithsuch importantsocialinstancesofuncontrollabilityasbeingconfrontedwithunexpectedandhighly threateningeventsinthesocialworld(eg,unemployment,terroristattacks,etc),lacking socialpower,beingamemberofalow-statusand/orstigmatizedgroup,livinginpoverty, experiencinghelplessnessinthecourseofschoollearning,beingsubordinateinan organization,orbeingatargetofdiscrimination(deLemus,Spears,vanBreen,&Telga, Chapter9,thisvolume;Fiske,Ames,Swencionis,&Dupree,Chapter10,thisvolume;Guinote &Lammers,Chapter11,thisvolume;Rydzewska,Rusanowska,Krejtz,&Sedek,Chapter4, thisvolume;Mühlberger,Jonas,&Sittenthaler,Chapter13,thisvolume;Sullivan&Stewart, Chapter,6,thisvolume).Oursocialworldcreatesanearlyinfinitenumberofoccasionsin whichpersonalcontrolmightbethreatenedortotallyeliminated.

Analyzingexperiencesofcontrollossinsocialsettingsnotonlyallowsustoidentifythe real-lifecontextinwhichittypicallyemergesandreconstructtheexperiencedynamics,but alsotorecognizethewaysofcopingtypicalforthosesettingsInterestingly,people’sresponses tocontrollossinsocialcontextsmaythemselveschangethesocialcontext,suchas,for instance,increasingpeople’sinclinationtosocialconflictwhenpowerfulenemiesor conspirationalactorsareblamedformisfortunes(Sullivan&Stewart,Chapter6,thisvolume) orwhenpeoplepraisetheiringroupswhilederogating(e.g.,ethnic)outgroups(Stollberg, Fritsche,Barth,&Jugert,Chapter8,thisvolume).Atthesametime,personalcontrolloss seemstodrivepeople’sreadinesstobuildupfriendshipnetworks(Guinote&Lammers, Chapter11,thisvolume),tobeanactivepartincollectiveendeavorsorsocialmovements (Stollbergetal.,Chapter8,thisvolume)ortoresistsocialinequality(deLemusetal.,Chapter 9,thisvolume).Moreover,placingbothappraisalsofandresponsestolackingcontrolinreallifesocialcontextshelpsustobetterunderstandthecriticalmoderatorsthatdeterminethe strategyofcopingpeoplearelikelytochoose

Inthisbook,wefocusonthreemainthematicareas.Firstly,weexplorecognitive, emotional,andsocio-behavioralreactionstoperceiveduncontrollability(i.e.,theeffectsof variousstatesofuncontrollabilityoncognitiveperformanceandsocialinformationprocessing strategies).Then,wefocusonvarioussociallygroundedresponsestocontroldeprivation,such ascompensatoryoractivecoping,bothservingthefunctionsofcontrolmaintenanceor restoration(theeffectsofcontrollossonperceivingothersandthinkingaboutindividualsand groupsaremainlyconsideredinthispart).Finally,werelatethenotionofuncontrollabilityto

issuesofpowerlessnessandintergroupcognitionbystudyinghowpowerlessorsubordinate peoplethinkaboutothersandwhatemotionsguidetheirthoughtsandactions(i.e.,theroleof groupmembershipandidentificationincombatingfeelingsofuncontrollabilityand uncertainty,butalsothesocialimplicationsofuncontrollabilityandpowerlessnessare examinedinthispart).

Letusnowbrieflyintroducethemajorideasandfindingsdiscussedbytheauthorsinthis volume.Inthefirstsection–Cognitive,emotional,andsocio-behavioralreactionsto uncontrollability–thetypesofbasicpsychologicalresponsespeopleexhibitafterbeing controldeprivedarediscussed

Inthefirstchapter,entitled“Fromcopingtohelplessness:Effectsofcontroldeprivationon cognitiveandaffectiveprocesses”,BukowskiandKoftaanalyzevarioustypesofcognitiveand emotionalreactionstolack-of-controlexperiences.Theauthorsproposethatcopingand helplessnessperspectivescannolongerbeseenascompetitiveviewsofreactionstocontrol loss,butactuallyaddressdifferentstagesofconfrontationwithuncontrollability(copingin earlystages,helplessnessinthelatestage).Theyarguethatimpairmentofinformation processingafterexposuretouncontrollabilityis,paradoxically,duetothefactthatpeopleare cognitivelyactive(continueproblem-solvingattemptsinanobjectivelyuncontrollable situation).Prolonged,intense,cognitivecopingaimingatcontrolrestorationcanresultin growingbehavioraluncertainty(i.e.,uncertaintyabouthowtoact)andcognitivedeficitsata basic,attentionallevelofinformationselection,aswellasatamorecomplex,reasoninglevel ofinformationintegrationintomeaningfulmentalmodels.

Greenaway,PhilippandStorrs,inthesecondchapter,entitled“Themotivationforcontrol: Lossofcontrolpromotesenergy,effort,andaction”,reviewup-to-dateresearchthatprovides evidenceforenhancedmotivationtorestorecontrolfollowingrelativelyshort-lasting exposuretocontroldeprivation.Individualsbecomeinitiallyenergizedbylossofpersonal controlbutafteranextendedperiodofexposuretocontrol-deprivingsituationspeoplecan becomelistlessandpassive,asdescribedbyearlyworkonlearnedhelplessness.Greenaway andcolleaguesalsopointoutsomeimportantsocialconsequencesofthefindingthatlossof controlfacilitateseffortfulpursuitofpersonalgoals:insuchcircumstances,peopleincreasingly focusonachievingtheirpersonalgoalsattheexpenseofsocialgoals(suchaskeepingor buildingpositiveinterpersonalorintergrouprelationships)Thus,insomecircumstances,goal competitionbetweenone’sownandsocialgoals,inducedbylossofcontrol,mightleadto increasedprejudicetowardsoutgroupsandotherformsofsocialaggression.

Kossowska,Bukowski,andSankaraninChapter3–“Ironiceffectsofneedforclosureon closed-mindedprocessingmode:Theroleofperceivedcontroloverreducinguncertainty”–analyzecircumstancesinwhichpeoplewhoarechronicallymotivatedtoreduceuncertainty anduseclosed-minded,effortlesscognitivestrategiesbecomepronetoapplymoreopenmindedandeffortfulwaysofthinking.Theauthorsarguethatperceivedcontroloverreducing

uncertaintyplaysakeyroleindeterminingthewaypeoplewillreacttosituationsthat disconfirmtheirexpectations(aboutthemselvesorabouttheworld).Kossowskaetal. demonstratethatwhenpeoplearehighlymotivatedtoreduceuncertainty(i.e.,havehighneed forclosure),butfeelthattheycannotreduceit(i.e.,havenocontrol)theymightabandontheir dominant,effortlesscognitivestrategiesandachievecertaintyviamoreeffortfuland deliberativeinformation-processingstrategies.Thisextendspreviousresearchthatdeemedthe latterstrategiestobetypicalforpeoplewithlowneedforclosure.

Chapter4,entitled“Uncontrollabilityintheclassroom:Theintellectualhelplessness perspective”,byRydzewska,Rusanowska,Krejtz,andSedekaddressestheissueof uncontrollabilityandintellectualhelplessnessinanapplied,educationalcontext.Theirresearch showsthatfaultyteachingpromotesdevelopmentofintellectualhelplessness,andthatthe phenomenonitselfiscontext-dependent(e.g.,helplessnessinmathclassesappearstobe unrelatedtohelplessnessinnativelanguageclasses).Importantly,itsdetrimentaleffectson mathachievementremainsignificantaftercontrollingformathanxiety.Also,thesestudies showthatevenchronicallyhelplessstudentsarenottotallypassive,butfrequentlyengagein active“survivalstrategies”,whichonlysimulateunderstandingofthelessoncontent(suchas acquiescingwhennewmaterialispresented,ortalkingathighspeedabouteverythingthat popstomindinresponsetotheteacher’squestion).

Inthenextsection,Sociallygroundedresponsestocontroldeprivation:Fromcompensation toactivecoping,theroleofthesocialcontext(otherindividuals,ingroups,andoutgroups)asa resourcethatcanhelppeopletocopewithasituationthatthreatenspersonalcontrolis discussed.

InChapter5,“Compensatorycontroltheoryandthepsychologicalimportanceof perceivingorder”,RutjensandKayfocusonthefunctionofcompensatorycontrol.Incontrast tothemajorityofresearchersviewingcompensatorycontrolstrategiesasindirectwaysof satisfyingabasicneedforpersonalcontrol,theauthorsarguethatcompensatorycontrol effortsfollowingpersonalcontrolthreat(e.g.,throughendorsementofexternalagentsof controlsuchasGodorgovernment)ultimatelyhelptoregainorderandmeaninginthe perceivedworld.Tosupporttheirview,theauthorsrefertoseveralfindingsfromtheirown laboratoryshowingthat:(a)personalcontrolandperceivedexternalcontrol(e.g.,ofpowerful socialandspiritualagents)operateinahydraulicfashion;(b)primingrandomnessincreased bothmotivationtoexertpersonalcontrolandbeliefinacontrollingGod;(c)affirmationof order(thatdoesnotinvolveexternalagents)appearstobesufficientfordownregulating threatstocontrol.

InChapter6,entitled“Perceiveduncontrollabilityasacopingresource:Thecontrol-serving functionofenemiesanduncertainty”,SullivanandStewartdiscussthemeaningandadaptive functionsofcontrol-relatedexperiencesfromtheperspectiveofcultural-existential psychology.Theyassumethat,followingthreat,peopleeitherengageindenial,orin

projectionofanxietyontotheexternalworld(e.g.,bysearchingforanexternalsourceoftheir misfortunes).Incontrasttoexistingliterature,whichfocusesonthecompensatoryroleof benevolentexternalagents,theauthorsarguethatmakingmalevolentagents(e.g.,personal andpoliticalenemies,conspiringgroups)salientmightalsoregainasenseofpersonalcontrol. Thishappensbecauseidentifyingaparticularfocalenemyallowspeopletoreduceanxiety resultingfromperceptionsoftheworldasasourceofamultitudeofunpredictableand uncontrollablehazards(andsohelpstoimposemeaningandstructure).Theauthorsreview severalstudiesfromtheirownandotherlaboratoriesinsupportofthisview.

Hayes,PrenticeandMcGregorinChapter7,“Givinginandgivingup:Accommodationand fatalisticwithdrawalasalternativestoprimarycontrolrestoration”,discusstheinterplay betweenprimaryandsecondarycontrol,mostlyinthecontextofthefundamentalPiagetian distinctionbetweenassimilationandaccommodation.Theyproposethatsecondarycontrol mightbeahighlyeffective,avoidance-orientedresolutionofthreatenedprimarycontrol,its essencebeingachangeinone’sownbeliefsandknowledgestructuresinaccordancewith situationaldemands(accommodationprocess).Theypresentevidencethat–following mortalitysalience–participantswithlow(butnothigh)self-esteemaccommodatedtheir beliefsinaccordwithevidenceinconsistentwiththeirworldview.However,accommodation goingtoofar(resultinginchangingaperson’score,notonlyherorhisperipheralbeliefs) appearedtobenolongereffectiveincopingwiththeterrorofdeath.

InChapter8,entitled“Extendingcontrolperceptionstothesocialself:Ingroupsservethe restorationofcontrol”,Stollberg,Fritsche,Barth,andJugertpointtothefactthatpeople developnotonlypersonalbutalsogroupidentities(Tajfel&Turner,1979).Whendeprivedof personalcontrol,anindividualmaythereforeregainasenseofanagenticselfbypursuing sharedingroupgoalsanddefiningtheselfintermsofanagenticingroup.Insteadof representingacaseofvicarious(secondary)control,theyargue,ingroupidentification, ingroupbias,andconformitywithingroupnormsmayinfactbeexpressionsofprimary controleffortsatthegrouplevel.Theauthorsdiscusshowmechanismsofsecondaryvicarious controlthroughexternalagents(Kayetal.,2008)canbeempiricallydistinguishedfrom processesofextendedprimarycontrolthroughtheingroup.Theyconcludethat,sofar,the presentfindingsdonotallowforaclear-cutjudgmentofwhichspecificprocess–compensatorycontrolorgroup-basedcontrol–isinvolved,callingforfutureresearch

DeLemus,Spears,vanBreen,andTelgainChapter9,“Copingwithidentitythreatsto groupagencyaswellasgroupvalue:Explicitandimplicitroutestoresistance”,focusonthe psychologicalrootsofsocialresistance,understoodasagroup’soppositiontosocietal circumstancesthatperpetuatesocialdisadvantageandlowstatusofgroupmembers.The authorsarguethatthreatstosocialidentitycannotbereducedtoquestioninggroupvalue(as manysocialpsychologistsseemtoassume),becausetheysimultaneouslythreatencollective agency(abilityofthegrouptochangetheirfate).Lowingroupstatusimplieslackofpower

andcollectiveself-efficacy,thatistosay,deprivationofcontrolatthegrouplevel.Butata moresubjectivelevel,groupmembersareabletoexertpsychologicalcontrolasaresistance strategy.Therefore,threatstogroupidentity(e.g.,whenstereotypicalexpectationsastoa woman ’straditional,inferiorsocialrolearemadesalient)couldprovokeresistancenotonlyat theexplicitlevel(e.g.,supportforcollectiveactions),butalsoimplicitly(e.g.,activating ingroupbias).Theauthorsdescribeaseriesofexperimentalstudiessupportingtheir predictionsaboutimplicitresistance,anddiscussthemintermsoftheirimplicationsforgroup agency.

Inthelastsectionofthebook,calledUncontrollability,powerlessness,andintergroup cognition,thewayspeoplepsychologicallycopewithlackofcontrolareanalyzedinthe contextofoutcomedependency,power,oreconomicandsocialstatusrelations.

Fiske,Ames,Swencionis,andDupreeinChapter10,entitled“Thinkingupandtalkingup: Restoringcontrolthroughmindreading”,addressthehypotheticalroleofpredictabilityand controllabilitymotivesinoutcome-dependencycontexts.Theauthorsanalyzeasymmetrical dependency,withspecialfocusonthepsychologyofthosesubordinated(withrelativelylow statusandpower).Inanimpressiveseriesofstudies,theauthorsshowthatbeingsubordinated resultsinmorevigilancetoahigh-status(power-holding)personandbetterencodingof diagnostic(inconsistent)information,processespresumablyinserviceofregaining predictabilityandcontroloverthepartner’sbehavior.However,whennocontrolrestorationis possible,thenpeopleswitchtodefensivedistortion:theytendtodiscountnegative informationaboutthepower-holdersandfocusontheirbenign,positivetraits.

InChapter11,“Accentuationoftendingandbefriendingamongthepowerless”,Guinote andLammersfocusonhowpowerlesspeoplecopewithlack-of-controlexperiencesinvarious socialcontexts.Typically,thepowerless,incontrasttothedynamicpowerful,areseenas sociallyinactive.However,theauthorsshowthatthepsychologicalstateofpowerlessness triggersmultifacetedanddynamicsocialstrategiesthatservetheadaptationofindividuals. Thatis,thepowerlessturntoothersinordertoformstrongersocialbonds,increasetheir communalfocus,anddisplaymoreprosocialbehavior,aremoregenerous,andshowmore adherencetosocialnorms.Theauthorsconcludethattheprioritiesofthepowerlessareto achieveadetailedandcomplexunderstandingofthesocialworld,tohelpothers,andtocreate sociallysharedbeliefsthatensurefairnessHere,thesearchforcommunionandsocial coordinationarethecopingmechanismsthatcanhelpanindividualtorestorecontrol.

InChapter12,“Theemotionalsideofpower(lessness)”,Petkanopoulou,Willis,and Rodríguez-Bailónfocusontheemotionsofpowerlesspeopleandtheirsocialfunctions.The authorsarguethatemotionsmainlyservetwobroadsocialfunctionsthatarecrucialfor people’sinteractions:asocialdistancingfunctionandanaffiliativefunction.Whereassome emotions,suchassadness,shame,andguilt,helppeopletogetclosertoothersandaffiliate withthem,others,suchasangerandpride,createsocialdistanceandpromotecompetitionfor

status.Powerlessnessismostcommonlyassociatedwiththeexperienceandexpressionof affiliativeemotions,suchassadnessandguilt.However,asshownbytheauthors,whenpower differencesareillegitimate,thenpowerlessindividualscanalsodisplaysocialdistancing emotionssuchasanger.Theirfunctioninthiscaseistoregainrelativepowerorstatus. Eventually,approach-relatedemotionslikeangercouldalsoleadpowerlesspeopletoenhance theirpersonalsenseofcontrol.

Mühlberger,Jonas,andSittenthalerinChapter13,entitled“Uncontrollability,reactance,and power:Powerasaresourcetoregaincontrolafterfreedomthreats”,beginwiththe observationthatindividualswholackcontroltrytoregainitbyrelyingondiversestrategies thatoftenhaveadefensivenature.Further,theyproposethatpowercanbeconceptualizedas aresourcethatenablespeopletoregaincontrolbecauseitprovidesasenseofefficacy, freedom,andcontrol.Inotherwords,individualswhoarethreatenedbycontrollossbutfeel powerfulmanagetofreethemselvesfromthenegativeeffectsofthisthreatandengagein informationprocessingrelevanttotheirdesiredgoals.Theauthorspresentresearchfromtheir ownlab,revealingthatifpeople’ssenseofcontrolisthreatenedbuttheystillfeelpowerful andhavethenecessaryresourcestoattaintheirgoals,theyareabletorefrainfrombehaving inadefensiveandhostilewayandinsteadadapttothenewsituationinamoreflexible manner.

Summingup,thisvolumebringstogetherdifferentperspectivesontheissueofhowpeople copewithfeelingsofuncontrollabilityintheirsociallivesThevarietyoftheoretical approachesandempiricalfindingsseemstobuildacoherentpictureofapersonwho,when facedwithhisorherowninabilitytocontrolimportantaspectsoftheenvironment,seeks effectivesocialandcognitivestrategiesthateitherhelptocompensateortoregainasenseof controlthroughtheself.Wehopethatthisbooknotonlyletsusbetterunderstandhowsocialpsychologicalfactorsdeterminethewaypeoplecopewithlackofcontrol,butalsoreveals howpeople’sdesireforcontrolshapestheirsocialenvironments.

Acknowledgments

Wewouldliketothanktheauthorsofthisvolumefortheircommitment,hardwork,and mostimportantly,theirthought-provokingandinspiringcontributions.Wearealso thankfulforthefinancialsupportofthePolishNationalScienceCentre(grantsDEC2011/01/D/HS6/00477andDEC-2014/15/B/HS6/03755)andtheDedalusTrust(grant 520180F67),whichenabledthisjointprojectandeditorialwork.

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Part1

Cognitive,emotional,andsocio-behavioral reactionstouncontrollability

Fromcopingtohelplessness

Effectsofcontroldeprivationoncognitiveandaffectiveprocesses

MarcinBukowskiandMirosławKofta

Authornote

WorkonthischapterwassupportedbygrantsawardedbythePolishNationalScience Centre(NCN)toMarcinBukowski(DEC-2011/01/D/HS6/00477)andtoMirosławKofta (DEC-2014/15/B/HS6/03755).

WewouldalsoliketothankJaninaPietrzakforhervaluablehelpwithlanguageediting. Contact:marcin.bukowski@uj.edu.pl

1.Facinguncontrollability:Helplessnessorcoping?

Individualstrivingstoexert,maintain,orrestoreasenseofpersonalcontroloverthe environmenthavelongbeenconsideredtobeacoreandbasictypeofmotivation(Bandura, 1977;Burger,1992;DeCharms,1968;Skinner,1996;White,1959).Earlyresearchonthecontrol motiveinhumanswasparticularlyfocusedonhowcontroldeprivationaffectscognitiveand emotionalfunctioning(e.g.,Hiroto&Seligman,1975;Seligman,1975).Inhisseminalwork, Seligman(1975)proposedthatprolongedandstableexperiencesofuncontrollability (operationalizedasresponse-outcomenon-contingency)resultinthelearnedhelplessness syndrome,includingcognitivedeficits(understoodastheinabilitytodetectnew contingencies),adepressedmood,andtheinabilitytopursueimportantgoals.Sincethen, numerousstudieshaveshownthatalackofcontingencybetweenactionandoutcomeresults indeteriorationofperformanceandaffectivedisruption(e.g.,Hiroto&Seligman,1975;Kofta &Se˛dek,1989;Tennen,Drum,Gillen&Stanton,1982).ExtendingSeligman’soriginal framework,SedekandKofta(1990;seealsoKofta&Sedek,1998)developedtheideathat prolonged,inefficientinvestmentofcognitiveeffortisacriticalaspectofuncontrollable situations,leadingtotheemergenceofcognitiveexhaustion.Inthismentalstate,aperson showscognitivedeficitsinproblemsolvingandavoidancelearningassociatedwithanegative

mood.Inspiredbythistheoreticalidea,subsequentstudiesinvestigatedthesecognitivedeficits atthelevelsofbasicprocessesofselectiveattention,aswellasofreasoningandtheformation ofmeaningfulmentalmodels(Kofta,1993;Kofta&Sedek,1998;Ric&Scharnitzky,2003;von Hecker&Sedek,1999).Severalcognitivemalfunctionsobservedinthislineofexperimental researchappeartobesharedbypeoplesufferingfromclinicaldepressionorwithelevated depressivemood(e.g.,vonHecker&Sedek,1999;Kofta&Sedek,1998;McIntosh,Sedek, Fojas,Brzezicka-Rotkiewicz,&Kofta,2005).Also,verymuchinlinewiththesefindings, Hertelandhercolleagues(e.g.,Hertel,2000;Hertel&Hardin,1990;Hertel&Rude,1991) showedthatmemorymalfunctioningindepressivepatientsisnotduetolimitedcognitive resources,buttolackofcognitiveinitiative,i.e.,deficitsoffocalattentiontorelevantstimuli. Onceattention-directingstimuliwereintroducedtoexperimentalinstructions,memory deficitsofdepressiveparticipantsdisappeared.1

Incontrasttoresearchrootedinthelearnedhelplessness/depressiontradition,inother theoreticalframeworks,lackofpersonalcontrolisfrequentlyseenasachallenge,mobilizing peopletoregaincontrol(Brehm,1966;Pittman&Pittman,1980;Wortman&Brehm,1975).In thislineofstudies,ratherthanviewinghumansasvictimsofuncontrollability,researchers considerpeopletobeactiveagentswhocopewithloss-of-controlexperiencestoregain controlandfulfilltheirneeds.Brehm’sreactancetheory(1966)assumedthatthreatto freedomsactivatesamotivationalprocesscalledreactance,whichdrivespeopletoengagein behaviorsaimedattherestorationofthosethreatenedfreedoms.Furtherresearchon reactancemotivationrevealedthatmoderatelevelsofuncontrollabilityevokenegative emotionalstates(suchasanger)butsimultaneouslyincreasemotivationtosucceedand improveperformance(Brehm&Brehm,1981;Miron&Brehm,2006;Wortman&Brehm, 1975).Whendiscussingthenatureofthemobilizationphaseoftheresponsetolossofcontrol, wewillanalyzeinthischaptervariouswaysofcopingwithuncontrollabilityUndoubtedly, oneofthemostimportantdistinctionsisthatbetweenproblem-focusedandemotion-focused coping(Lazarus&Folkman,1984;seealsoSkinner,1996).Somestrategiesemployedto manageuncontrollabilityareaimedatchangingthesituation,whereasothersaimatdealing withone’sownemotionalreactionstoit.Inthedomainofresearchonlearnedhelplessness,a fine-grainedanalysisofvariouscopingstrategieswasdonebyMikulincer(1994),whomakesa distinctionbetweenseveralstrategiesofcopingwithcontrolloss,includingproblemsolving, reappraisal,avoidance,andreorganization(revisionofself-schemas).

Control-regainingeffortsalsomanifestatthelevelofsocialinformationprocessing:control deprivationhasbeenshowntoincreasethetendencytobemoreaccurateinjudgmentsandto useamoresystematicprocessingstyle(Pittman&Pittman,1980).PittmanandD’Agostino’s (1989)explanationwasthatcontroldeprivationexperiencescallintoquestiontheadequacyof one ’sbeliefsandunderstandingofthewaythingswork.Inresponse,controlmotivationgrows andchangesthemodeofinformationprocessingsoastosupportrestorationofcontrol.

Overall,thefindingsfromthislineofresearchsuggestthatlackingcontrolcanimprove cognitiveperformance(oratleast,canprovokeprocessesthatimmunizeusagainstthe deleteriouseffectsofuncontrollability).Wewillrefertothesefindingsinmoredetailfurther on(Bukowski,deLemus,Lupiáñez,Marzecova,&Gocłowska,2016;Mikulincer,Kedem,& Zilcha-Segal,1989;Ramirez,Maldonado,&Martos,1992).

Otherlinesofresearchthatalsoconceptualizelossofcontrolasachallengeareincreasingly popularintheareaofintergroupandpoliticalcognition.Thefirstlineshowsthatthe experienceofcontrollossislikelytoinstigatecompensatoryprocesses(secondarycontrol) thathelptorestorethethreatenedsenseofcontrolbyregainingaperceptionofstructure, order,coherence,andmeaninginthesurroundings.Thisprocessallowsresearcherstoaccount bothforillusorypatterningofphenomenologicalfieldandforvarioustypesofcognitive shortcutsandbiases,suchasbeliefinconspiraciesorsuperstitions,thatemergeafterloss-ofcontrolexperiences(Fastetal.,2009;Kayetal.,2010;Sullivanetal.,2010;Whitson&Galinsky, 2008).Thesecondlineshowsthatlackofcontrolcanalsostimulatepeopletoendorseand supportingroups,andthisprocessmightleadtoethnocentricaswellaspro-social consequences(Fritsche,Jonas,&Kessler,2011).Thegroup-basedcontrolmodel(Fritscheetal., 2013),assumingthatthreatstopersonalcontrolpromoteactionsatthecollectivelevelaimed attherestorationofprimarycontrol(seealso:Stollberg,Fritsche,Barth,&Jugert,Chapter8, thisvolume),constitutesyetanotherwayofexplaininghowpeoplereacttocontrolloss.

Thus,fourdifferentlinesoftheorizingandresearch–reactancetheory,controlmotivation framework,compensatorycontrol,andgroup-basedcontrolmodels–commonlyassumethat apersondeprivedofcontrolisactivelysearchingformeaningfulcausalrelationsand contingenciesintheenvironmentinordertoregainasenseofcontrol.

Thequestionariseshowtocometotermswithapparentlyconflictingviewsonthe consequencesofcontroldeprivation:onepointingtohelplessness(demobilization)effects,the othertocoping(mobilization)effects.Weproposethattheseseeminglyincompatible approachescanbecombinedintoacoherenttheoreticalmodel.Drawingontheseminalwork ofWortmanandBrehm(1975),wetakeadynamicalapproachtocontroldeprivationand assumethatshortexposuretouncontrollabilityislikelytoprovokevarioustypesofcoping attempts,whereasonlylong-termuncontrollabilityresultsindisengagementandhelplessness. Also,weassumethatinitiallyadaptivechangesincognitiverespondingengenderedbylackof control(e.g.,switchingtoamoreflexibleandopen-mindedinformation-processingstyle)can ultimatelyleadtocognitiveandemotionaldeficitswhencontrol-restorationattempts,evenif repeated,appearfutile.Finally,wepostulatethatthemajorprocessaccountingforbothcoping activityand–afterenduringcontactwithuncontrollablesituations–cognitiveandbehavioral deteriorationismountingbehavioraluncertainty–thedirectconsequenceoflong-lasting, inefficientattemptstocognitivelycopewithanuncontrollablesituation.

Inthischapter,wewillfirstanalyzehowlackofcontrolaffectscognition.Todothat,we

introducethenotionofbehavioraluncertaintyasamajorprocessaccountingforshiftsaway fromactivecopingwithuncontrollablesituationstomentalandbehavioraldisengagement anddecreasedmood,observedafterprolongedconfrontationwithuncontrollability.Further on,weanalyzehowcopingwithbehavioraluncertaintymanifestsatdifferentlevelsof informationprocessing(informationselection,cognitivestructuring,causalknowledge formation).Importantly,welookattheseprocessesinthecontextofdifferentphasesof controldeprivation(theirconsecutiveemergencedependingonthelength,intensity,and stabilityoftheloss-of-controlexperience).Finally,weconsiderhowuncontrollabilityaffects emotionalprocessesandhowtheseprocessesinturnmodifythecourseofinformation processingand(inter)groupjudgment.

2.Control-deprivationeffectsoncognitionandaffect

Whenconfrontedwithanuncontrollablesituationinanimportantdomain,peopleseemlikely toengageinintensecognitiveeffort,becausetheytrytounderstandwhatisgoingon(“Why can’tIdoit?”)andgeneratevarioushypothesesabouthowtosolvetheproblem.Wepropose thatthemostimmediateconsequenceofalack-of-controlexperienceisincreasedbehavioral uncertainty.Thishypotheticalprocessmayexplainbothvigorousattemptstorestorecontrol duringearlyconfrontationwithuncontrollability,aswellasdeteriorationofperformanceand decreasedmood,emergingafterprolongedcontrolloss.

Behavioraluncertainty

Uncertaintyisamultifacetedconcept;theexperienceofuncertaintymayemergeinrelationto theworldortotheself,maybepermanentortransient,mayrefernotonlytosomethingin thefuturebutalsotosomethingthatalreadyhappened(e.g.,Hogg,2000;Swann,2012;Weary &Edwards,1996).Behavioraluncertainty,wepropose,isexperiencedwhenapersonstrives towardagoalbutappearsunabletoreachitdespiterepeatedattempts.Suchbehavioral uncertaintyhasthreedistinctfeatures:first,itreferstoactioninthenearfuture;second,as longasapersonisinanuncontrollablesituation,itcannotbereduceddespitetrying;thirdand perhapsmostimportantly,ittendstograduallyincreaseoverthecourseofprolonged exposuretouncontrollability.

Howandwhydoesitemerge?Somedegreeofuncertaintyaccompaniesanygoal-oriented, novelbehavior(wemustfindorconstructanadequateactionprogramtoreduceinitial uncertaintyabouthowtoachieveagoalbeforewemovetosuccessfulaction,seee.g., Gollwitzer&Kinney,1989).Aninherentfeatureofanuncontrollablesituationis,however, lackofcontingencybetweenbehaviorandoutcome(e.g.,Kofta&Se˛dek,1989;Maier& Seligman,1976).Asaconsequence,systematicandvalidfeedbacktothegeneratedhypotheses

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INDEX

Administration, 86.

All-year school, 76, 77.

“Application” work, 23, 52, 72, 73, 93.

Art-studios and work, 24, 28, 46.

Auditorium, 26, 50, 92, 111, 138.

Bluffton, 9, 10, 76, 162.

Board of Education, 10, 86.

Botany work, 29, 46

“Boyville,” 137.

Burris, Dean W. P., 149, 164, 175.

Chemistry work, 29, 127.

Chicago, 8, 20, 21, 199.

“Clearing-house for children’s activities,” 52.

Commercial studies, 30, 48, 49.

Community center, 83.

“Complete school,” the, 17, 18.

Departmental teaching, 87

Dewey, Prof. John, 19, 35, 132, 140, 144, 176.

Director of Industrial Work, 87.

Domestic science, 30, 47.

Duplicate-school plan, 64, 78

Economy, 79, 80, 201.

Emerson School, 13, 14, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25, 27, 30, 74, 80, 87, 116, 128, 137, 138, 145, 166.

English work, 115, 139, 140.

Enrollment, 181.

Ettinger plan, 157.

Evening school, 81, 82.

Executive principal, 86.

Expenditures, 179.

“Expression” work, 113.

Extra-curricular activities, 139.

Farm, school, 136.

Fernandez, Mrs. Alice Barrows-, 147, 159.

Financing of schools, 6.

Foreigners in Gary, 5.

Froebel School, 13, 14, 18, 20, 23, 25, 31, 45, 51, 74, 133, 145, 166.

Gardens, school, 22.

Gary, 3-8, 57, 145

Gymnasiums, 22

Helper or observer system, 86, 100, 108, 122, 173.

History work, 27, 116.

Industrial shops, 30, 44, 45, 133.

Jefferson School, 13, 23, 30, 33, 54, 65, 80, 81, 147, 162.

Laboratories, science, 29.

Laundry, 30.

Libraries, school, 25.

Manual training, 40.

Montessori method, the, 153.

Museum, school, 24, 121.

New York City, 8, 12, 18, 33, 55, 61, 146, 147, 157, 160, 162, 174, 182

Observer or helper system, 86, 100, 108, 122, 173.

“Peak-loads,” 63, 64.

Pestalozzi School, 13.

Physics work, 29, 125.

“Platoon” system (duplicate-school), 64.

Playgrounds, 20, 141, 199.

Pottery-shop, 30, 45

Printery, 30, 45, 124.

Programs, 66, 69, 70, 73, 74, 191, 194, 195, 198.

Promotion, 102.

Public utility, 58

Register teacher, 97.

Religious instruction, 53, 54, 160.

Saturday school, 38, 104, 133.

School bank, 48.

School community, 37, 40, 44, 48, 52, 55.

School day, 95.

School desks, 27.

School-gardens, 22.

School libraries, 25.

School store, 49.

School zoo, 22.

Science work, 29, 46, 122.

Self-government, 137.

Shops, industrial, 30, 44, 45, 133.

Shopwork, 156.

Special activities, 15, 74.

“Street-and-alley time,” 38, 75.

Students’ Council, 138.

Studios, art, 24, 28, 46.

Supervisors of instruction, 86

Swimming-pools, 22.

Teachers, 91, 149.

Teachers’ assistants, 99.

Teacher-workmen, 41, 87.

Terman, Prof. Lewis, 19.

Trade schools, 44.

Training-school for teachers, 96.

Truancy, 156.

Unit school plant organization, 88.

U.S. Steel Corporation, 1, 2, 3, 145.

Updegraff, Dr. Harlan, 141.

Vacation school, 38.

Vocational guidance, 110.

Vocational training, 41, 156, 169.

Wirt, Superintendent William, 9, 10, 17, 28, 33, 39, 43, 52, 58, 59, 76, 77, 81, 84, 90, 101, 146, 158, 160.

Workmen-teachers, 41, 87

“X” and “Y” schools, 64, 69.

Y.M.C.A., 37, 53, 55, 146.

Zoölogy work, 29, 46, 124

Transcriber’s Notes:

Missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected.

Typographical errors were silently corrected. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book.

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