Contract Formation: Law and Practice
2nd Edition Michael P. Furmston
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Preface
Michael Furmston, Greg Tolhurst
From: Contract Formation: Law and Practice (2nd Edition)
Michael Furmston, Gregory Tolhurst
Content type: Book content
Published in print: 20 October 2016
Product: International Commercial Law [ICML]
ISBN: 9780198724032
Practical problems about contract formation continue to trouble lawyers, professionals, and the courts A good example is RTS Flexible Systems Ltd v Molkerei Alois Muller [2010] UKSC 14 where on undisputed facts the High Court, Court of Appeal, and Supreme Court came to three different answers We have sought to incorporate these cases into the text
The major change in the book is the introduction of a chapter on consideration. We left this out of first edition because although of great conceptual importance, practical problems with consideration are much rarer. We now think this was wrong but we have exercised selfrestraint in the detail of the treatment.
Unfortunately the decision of the High Court of Australia in Crown Melbourne Ltd v Cosmopolitan Hotel (Vic) Pty Ltd [2016] HCA 26, was handed down too late to be included in the text The judgments make some important remarks as regards Australian law on certainty in contract formation (Chapter 11, and 12 55ff), estoppel (3 64ff, 13 55ff, 14 26), and the extent to which certain formation issues involve questions of fact or questions of law (1 20ff, 9 07ff, 10 05)
Angie Choo Kum Woon has continued to provide invaluable support to Michael Furmston as has Khalilah Kamaruddin since his move to Sunway University.
Michael Furmston and Greg Tolhurst
August 2016
Copyright © 2017 All rights reserved
Powered by PubFactory
Contents Summary
From: Contract Formation: Law and Practice (2nd Edition) Michael Furmston, Gregory Tolhurst
Content type: Book content
Published in print: 20 October 2016
Product: International Commercial Law [ICML]
ISBN: 9780198724032
Table of Cases xiii
Table of International Treaties, Conventions, and Other Instruments xlv
Table of European Union Legislation xlvii
Table of National Legislation xlix
1 Formation and the Concept of Agreement 1
2. Offers and Invitations to Treat 10
3. Termination and Revocation of Offers 26
4 Acceptance 65
5. Auctions and Tenders 138
6. Problems of Intention and Consideration in Online Transactions * 149
7 Letters of Intent 174
8 Practical Aspects of Letters of Intent 192
9. Conditional Contracts 197
10 Denial of Legally Binding Effect 254
11 Certainty and Completeness 287
12. Consideration 345
13 Is There a Duty to Negotiate in Good Faith? 392
14 PreContractual Liability 429 Index 439
Footnotes:
* Chapter 6 was written by Eliza Mik
Copyright © 2017. All rights reserved. Powered by PubFactory
Contents
From: Contract Formation: Law and Practice (2nd Edition) Michael Furmston, Gregory Tolhurst
Content type: Book content
Published in print: 20 October 2016
Product: International Commercial Law [ICML]
ISBN: 9780198724032
Table of Cases xiii
Table of International Treaties, Conventions, and Other Instruments xlv
Table of European Union Legislation xlvii
Table of National Legislation xlix
1 Formation and the Concept of Agreement
A. Introduction 1.01
B The Objective Theory of Contract and Formation 1 07
C. The Concept of Agreement 1.17
D. Contract Formation: An Issue of Fact or Law? 1.20
2 Offers and Invitations to Treat
A. General Considerations 2.01
B Identifying an Offer 2 14
What constitutes an offer 2.14
Requirements of a valid offer 2.21
Commitment 2 22
Certainty of terms 2.32
Specified addressees 2.39
Conclusion 2 45
C. Communication of Offer 2.51
3 Termination and Revocation of Offers
A. Termination 3.01
Introduction 3 01
Lapse of time 3.02
Delay in the communication of an offer 3.11
Death of the offeror or offeree 3.14
Failure of a contingency 3.16
Rejection and counteroffer 3 18
B. Revocation of Offers 3.26
General rule 3 26
Need for communication 3 27
Practical problems with the general principle 3.31
Circumventing the general principle 3.38
Estoppel and the protection of reliance 3 64
The twocontract approach 3.74
Modification of the rules applying to unilateral contracts 3.79
(p. viii) 4. Acceptance
A Introduction 4 01
B. Objective Theory 4.04
C. Manner of Acceptance 4.09
Prescribed manner of acceptance 4 09
No prescribed manner of acceptance 4 17
Acceptance by conduct 4.19
Time of acceptance 4 23
D. Who May Accept an Offer? 4.27
E. Offeree Must Accept with Knowledge of the Offer 4.30
F Offeree Must Intend to Accept Offer 4 33
G. Correspondence with Offer 4.40
H. Acceptance Must Be Unequivocal 4.52
I Acceptance Must Be Communicated 4 54
Introduction 4.54
Offeror waiving need for communication 4.57
J Silence and Acceptance 4 62
K. Instantaneous Communications and the Postal Acceptance Rule 4.91
Instantaneous communications 4 91
The postal acceptance rule 4 99
L. Standard Form Contracting and the ‘Battle of the Forms’ 4.122
The ‘battle of the forms’ defined 4 122
The application of contract law principles to a battle of the forms 4.123
A different approach? 4.134
Conclusions 4 138
5. Auctions and Tenders
A Auctions 5 06
B. Reserve Prices 5.10
C. Tenders 5.19
6. Problems of Intention and Consideration in Online Transactions
A Introduction 6 01
B. Intention and Consideration 6.07
C. Is There an Offer? 6.13
Another challenge to objectivity hypertext 6 14
What are the contents of the offer/contract? 6 15
D. Is There Acceptance? 6.20
Method of acceptance 6 21
Effectiveness of acceptance 6.27
(p ix) 7 Letters of Intent
A. Cases Where the Letters of Intent Do Not Create a Contract 7.17
B Cases Where Letters of Intent Do Create a Contract 7 26
C Cases Where the Letters of Intent Have Some Legal Effect 7 58
Letters of intent followed by performance 7.58
D Letters of Comfort 7 60
E. Agreements Imposing Obligations as to the Course of the Negotiations 7.68
8 Practical Aspects of Letters of Intent
A. Letters of Intent Some Practical Considerations 8.01
B Possible Ways of Delaying Legal Effect of Letters of Intent 8 07
C Letters of Intent and Partially Completed Negotiations 8 11
D. Agreements to Negotiate in Good Faith 8.16
E Refusal to Negotiate 8 18
F Starting Work 8 20
9. Conditional Contracts
A. Introduction 9.01
B. The ‘Construction’ of ‘Subject to’ Clauses 9.07
C ‘Subject to Contract’ 9 15
Introduction 9.15
The legal effect of a ‘subject to contract’ provision 9.16
No intention to be bound 9 22
Intention to be immediately bound and to perform when the time for performance accrues 9 42
Intention to be immediately bound but performance is suspended until a formal contract is executed 9.55
Intention to be immediately bound but contract to be replaced with a more formal document 9 61
D. ‘Subject to Finance’ 9.65
Introduction 9 65
The efficacy of ‘subject to finance’ clauses 9 67
The obligations of the buyer 9.78
E. Other ‘Subject to’ Clauses 9.91
The obligations of the parties 9.96
F. Time for the Occurrence of Contingency 9.114
G. Waiver 9.116
H The Consequences of the Failure of a Condition 9 134
(p. x) 10. Denial of Legally Binding Effect
A Intention to Contract 10 01
Introduction 10.01
The use of presumptions 10.02
The presumptions and threshold intention 10 13
Consideration and intention to contract 10.18
Family and social agreements 10.20
Commercial agreements 10 34
B. Letters of Comfort 10.59
11 Certainty and Completeness
A. Introduction 11.01
Formation and the relevance of certainty and completeness 11 01
Intention to contract 11.05
Overriding concern and principle 11.06
B Uncertainty 11 14
Introduction 11.14
Uncertain terms and illusory terms 11 20
Uncertainty and ambiguity 11 21
C. Incompleteness 11.30
D Agreements to Agree and Agreements to Negotiate 11 33
Agreements to agree 11.33
Agreements to negotiate 11.59
E. Methods by Which the Courts and the Parties Resolve Uncertainty and Incompleteness 11.78
Introduction 11.78
Standard of reasonableness 11 84
External standard 11 94
Performance and reliance 11.100
Terms of the contract 11 104
Terms to be implied in fact, law, or custom 11 118
Severance 11.124
12 Consideration
A. Introduction 12.01
B History 12 03
Early history 12.03
The eighteenth century 12.12
C. Function and Definition 12.17
D. Adequacy of Consideration 12.19
E Nominal Consideration 12 22
F Consideration Must Be Sufficient 12 30
G. Consideration Must Be Referable to the Promise 12.36 (p. xi) H. Consideration Must Move From the Promisee (But Not Necessarily to the Promisor) 12.48
I Past Consideration is Not Consideration 12 53
J. Consideration Must Not Be Illusory 12.55
K. Performing Existing Legal Duties 12.62
Duties imposed by law 12 62
Contractual duties 12.68
Promise to perform contractual duty to third party 12.75
L. Part Payment of a Debt is Not Consideration for a Promise to Discharge Debt 12.79
M. Exceptions to the Consideration Rules 12.83
N Estoppel 12 91
The meaning of estoppel 12.91
Types of estoppel 12.92
Promissory estoppel 12 95
13. Is There a Duty to Negotiate in Good Faith?
A Introduction 13 01
The issue 13.01
The genesis of the duty of good faith 13.10
Content of the duty 13 15
B. The Role of Good Faith 13.18
Introduction 13 18
The preservative function 13 21
Precontractual liability 13.36
C Conclusion 13 92
14. PreContractual Liability
A. Liability in Contract 14.02
B. Quantum Meruit 14.05
C Estoppel 14 12
Index 439 (p. xii)
Copyright © 2017 All rights reserved Powered by PubFactory
Table of Cases
From: Contract Formation: Law and Practice (2nd Edition)
Michael Furmston, Gregory Tolhurst
Content type: Book content
Published in print: 20 October 2016
Product: International Commercial Law [ICML]
ISBN: 9780198724032
8 Parriwi Road Pty Ltd v Raffan [1970] 2 NSWR 431; aff’d [1970] 2 NSWR 428 3.02
29 Equities Ltd v Bank Leumi (UK) Ltd [1986] 1 WLR 1490 9.102
A to Z Bazaars (Pty) Ltd v Minister of Agriculture (1975) (3) SA 468 4 106, 4 115, 4 116
ABB Engineering Construction Pty Ltd v Abigroup Contractors Pty Ltd [2003] NSWSC 665 9.20
Abbott v Lance (1860) 2 Legge 1283 3 83, 3 85–3 88
Abdul Rashid Abdul Maiid v Island Golf Properties Sdn Bhd [1989] 3 MLJ 376 2.25
Aberfoyle Plantations Ltd v Cheng [1960] AC 115 9 07, 9 76, 9 92, 9 94, 9 114, 9 116, 9 134, 13 31
Abu Dhabi National Tanker Co v Product Star Shipping Ltd (The Product Star) (No 2) [1993] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 397 9 99
AC Controls v British Broadcasting Corp (2002) 89 Con LR 52 7.32
Accounting Systems 2000 (Developments) Pty Ltd v CCH Australia Ltd (1993) 114 ALR 355 13 52
Ackroyd v Smithies (1886) 54 LT 130 3.21
Action Engineering v Martin Marietta Aluminium, 670 F 2d 456 (1982) 9 88–9 90
Adam Opel GmbH v Mitras Automative (UK) Ltd [2008] EWHC 3205 (QB) 12.70
Adamastos Shipping Co Ltd v AngloSaxon Petroleum Co Ltd [1959] AC 133 11.06
Adams v Lindsell (1818) 1 B & Ald 681, 106 ER 250 3 29, 4 99–4 102, 6 33
Administration of the Territory of Papua and New Guinea v Leahy (1961) 105 CLR 6 10.12
Adnunat Pty Ltd v Olivetti Concrete Lifting Systems Pty Ltd [2009] FCA 499 1 19, 4 83
Affiliated Realty Corp Ltd v Sam Berger Restaurant Ltd (1973) 42 DLR (3d) 191 4.106
AGC (Advances) Ltd v McWhirter (1977) 1 BPR 9454 5.17
Agrabele, The See Gebr Van Weelde Scheepvaartkantor BV v Compania Naviera Sea Orient SA
Ailakis v Olivero (No 2) [2014] WASCA 127, (2014) 100 ACSR 524 10.04, 12.76
Air Great Lakes Pty Ltd v KS Easter (Holdings) Pty Ltd (1985) 2 NSWLR 309 1.09, 9.07, 9.09–9.11, 9.56, 10.06, 10.07, 11.08, 13.26
Air Studios (Lyndhurst) Ltd v Lombard North Central Plc [2012] EWHC 3162 (QB), [2013] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 63 3 24, 4 42, 9 42
Airways Corp of New Zealand Ltd v Geyserland Airways Ltd [1996] 1 NZLR 116 1.10, 4.21
Aiton Australia Pty Ltd v Transfield Pty Ltd (1999) 153 FLR 236 11 63
AjarTech Ltd v Stack [2012] EWCA Civ 543 2.26, 6.08
Ajayi v RT Briscoe (Nigeria) Ltd [1964] 1 WLR 1326 12.104, 12.108
Akers v J B Sedberry Inc, 39 Tenn App 633, 286 SW 2d 617 3 03
Akron Tyre Co Pty Ltd v Kittson (1951) 82 CLR 477 4.26
Alan Estates Ltd v WG Stores Ltd [1982] Ch 511 9 92, 9 98
Albion Sugar Co Ltd v William Tankers Ltd (The John S Derbyshire) [1977] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 457 9.91, 9.92, 11.59, 13.34
Albrecht Chem Co v Anderson Trading Corp, 298 NY 437, 84 NE 2d 625 (1949) 4.42, 4.63, 4.85, 4.140
Aldwell v Bundey (1876) 10 SALR 118 3 83
Alexander v Rayson [1936] 1 KB 169 12.20
Allcars Pty Ltd v Tweedle [1937] VLR 35 11 20, 11 98
Allen v Carbone (1975) 132 CLR 528 1.20, 1.21, 9.08, 9.22, 11.102
Allen v Sir Alfred McAlpine and Sons Ltd [1968] 2 QB 229 4.65
Alliance Bank Ltd v Broom (1864) 2 Drew & Sm 289, 62 ER 631 12 88
Alliance Manufacturing Co v Foti, 146 So (2d) 464 (1962) 4.83, 4.85
Allied Marine Transport Ltd v Vale do Rio Doce Navegacao SA (The Leonidas D) [1985] 1 WLR 925 4 62, 4 67, 4 77, 4 79, 4 82, 12 87, 12 90(p xiv)
Alpenstow Ltd v Regalian Properties Plc [1985] 1 WLR 721 9.22, 9.49, 9.51, 9.52
Amalgamated Investment & Property Co Ltd v Texas Commerce International Bank Ltd [1982] QB 84 13.59
Amalgamated Television Services Pty Ltd v Television Corp Ltd [1970] 3 NSWR 85 11 06, 13 27
AMCI (OI) Pty Ltd v Aquila Steel Pty Ltd [2009] QSC 139 11.62
American Airlines Inc v Hope [1973] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 233 11 40
American Broadcasting Companies Inc v Wolf, 52 NY 2d 394, 420 NE 2d 363 (1981) 11.69
Ammons v Wilson & Co, 176 Miss 645, 170 So 227 (1936) 4 85, 4 86, 4 89
Amoco Minerals Australia Co v Commissioner of State Taxation (WA) (1978) 8 ATR 719 3.43
Ampol Ltd v Caltex Oil (Australia) Pty Ltd (1986) 60 ALJR 225 11.07
Anaconda Nickel Ltd v Tarmoola Australia Pty Ltd (2000) 22 WAR 101 9 20, 10 08, 11 05, 11 07, 11 11, 11 102, 11 103
Anangel Atlas Compania Naviera SA v IshikawajimaHarima Heavy Industries Co Ltd (No 2) [1990] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 526 4.53, 11.06, 12.36, 12.70, 12.80, 13.27
Anderson v London Fire and Emergency Planning Authority [2013] EWCA Civ 321 2 26
Anderson Trading Corp, 298 NY 437, 84 NE 2d 625 (1949) 4.140
André & Cie SA v Marine Transocean Ltd (The Splendid Sun) [1981] 1 QB 694 4 70, 4 75, 4 79
Andrews v Calori (1907) 38 SCR 588 4.05
AngloRussian Merchant Traders Ltd and John Batt & Co (London) Ltd, Re [1917] 2 KB 679 9.100, 13.77
Anictomatis v NTA [2008] NTSC 28 9 92
ANM Trading Pty Ltd v Commissioner of Business Franchises [1996] 2 VR 312 9.93, 9.135
Anson v Trump [1998] 1 WLR 1404 6 34
Antclizo, The. See Food Corp of India v Antclizo Shipping Corp; Antclizo Shipping Corp v Food Corp of India (No 2)
Antclizo Shipping Corp v Food Corp of India (No 2) (The Antclizo) [1992] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 558 11.59
Antwerpen, The See Glebe Island Terminals Pty Ltd v Continental Seagram Pty Ltd
Aotearoa International Ltd v Scancarriers A/S [1985] 1 NZLR 513 2.12, 2.13, 11.65, 11.119, 11.120, 11.122
Appleby v Johnson (1874) LR 9 CP 158 4 52
Appleson v H Littlewood Ltd [1939] 1 All ER 464 10.47
AR Kitson Trucking Ltd v Rivtow Straits Ltd [1975] 4 WWR 1, (1975) 55 DLR (3d) 462 4.130
Arcadian Phosphates Inc v Arcadian Corp, 884 F 2d 69 (1989) 10 08
Armstrong v WellingtonManawatu Railway Co Ltd (1885) NZLR 3 SC 442 3.22
Arnold Palmer Golf Co v Fuqua Industries Inc, 541 F 2d 584 (1976) 9 29, 9 34, 11 77
Arrale v Costain Civil Engineering Ltd [1976] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 98 12.42
Ash Street Properties Pty Ltd v Pollnow (1987) 9 NSWLR 80 13 25
Ashton v Pratt [2015] NSWCA 12, (2015) 88 NSWLR 281 10.04, 11.05, 11.96
Associated Alloys Pty Ltd v ACN 001 452 106 Pty Ltd (in liq) (formerly Metropolitan Engineering and Fabrications Pty Ltd) (2000) 202 CLR 588 11.21
Associated British Ports v Ferryways NV [2009] EWCA Civ 189 7 63, 10 65
Associated Midland Corp Ltd v Bank of NSW (1984) 51 ALR 641 4.58
Assuranceforeningen Gard Gjensidig v International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund [2014] EWHC 369 (Comm), [2014] 2 CLC 699 2 26, 10 14, 10 34
Astra Trust Ltd v Adams and Williams [1969] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 81 9.93, 9.94, 9.101, 9.116, 13.31, 13.34
ATCO Controls Pty Ltd v Newtronics Pty Ltd [2009] VSCA 238, (2009) 25 VR 411 4.21, 10.65, 11.05, 12.43
Atkins v Hill (1775) 1 Cowp 284, 98 ER 1088 12 16
Atlantic Baron, The. See North Ocean Shipping Co Ltd v Hyundai Construction Co Ltd
Atlantic Computers Plc, Re [1995] BCC 696 10 65
Atlantic Marine Transport Corp v Coscol Petroleum Corp (The Pina) [1992] 2 Lloyd’s Rep 103 9.38
Atlas Trading Corp v SH Grossman Inc, 169 F 2d 240 (1948) 9 107, 9 109
AttorneyGeneral v Barker Bros Ltd [1976] 2 NZLR 495 1.18, 11.06, 11.07, 11.79
AttorneyGeneral of Belize v Belize Telecom Ltd [2009] 2 All ER 1127 11.84(p. xv)
AttorneyGeneral of Hong Kong v Humphreys Estate (Queen’s Gardens) Ltd [1987] AC 114 9 118, 13 14, 13 59
Attrill v Dresdner [2013] EWCA Civ 394, [2013] 3 All ER 607 10.03
Austotel Pty Ltd v Franklins Selfserve Pty Ltd (1989) 16 NSWLR 582 3 66, 11 55, 13 08, 13 59
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd v Frost Holdings Pty Ltd [1989] VR 695 11.03, 11.30, 11.118, 11.119, 11.123, 13.27
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd v Karam (2005) 64 NSWLR 149 12.72
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd v Westpac Banking Corp (1988) 164 CLR 662 13 64
Australian and International Pilots Association v Quantas Airways Ltd [2008] FCA 1972 9.61
Australian Broadcasting Corp v XIVTH Commonwealth Games Ltd (1988) 18 NSWLR 540 1 20, 9 08, 10 10, 10 11, 11 03, 11 09
Australian Energy Ltd v Lennard Oil NL [1986] 2 QdR 216 1.20, 1.21, 11.21, 13.26
Australian European Finance Corp Ltd v Sheahan (1993) 60 SASR 187 10 65
Australian Football League v Carlton Football Club Ltd [1998] 2 VR 546 11 21
Australian Goldfields NL v North Australian Diamonds NL [2009] WASCA 98, (2009) 40 WAR 191 11.86
Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Edwards (2005) 220 ALR 148 9 53
Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Fortescue Metals Group Ltd [2011] FCAFC 19, (2011) 81 ACSR 563, (2011) 274 ALR 731 2.26, 9.22, 11.03
Australian Woollen Mills Proprietary Ltd v Commonwealth (1955) 93 CLR 546 2 15, 10 12, 12 36, 12.39, 12.43, 12.45
Australis Media Holdings Pty Ltd v Telstra Corp Ltd (1998) 43 NSWLR 104 11 63
Automatic Fire Sprinklers Pty Ltd v Watson (1946) 72 CLR 435 9.01
AV Pound & Co v MW Hardy & Co Inc [1956] AC 588 9 100
Aviet v Smith & Searle Pty Ltd (1956) 73 WN (NSW) 274 6.34
Axelsen v O’Brien (1949) 80 CLR 219 11 105, 11 108
Aycock v Vantage Management Co, 554 SW 2d 235 (1977) 11.54
B Seppelt & Sons Ltd v Commissioner for Main Roads (1975) 1 BPR 9147 1.20, 1.22, 4.47, 4.53
Bahr v Nicolay (No 2) (1988) 164 CLR 604 9 56
Baird Textiles Holdings Ltd v Marks & Spencer Plc [2001] EWCA Civ 274, [2002] 1 All ER (Comm)
737 3.65, 11.86, 11.92, 12.113
Baker v Taylor (1906) 6 SR (NSW) 500 3 19
Bal v Van Standen [1902] TS 128 4.107
Baldwin v Icon Energy Ltd [2015] QSC 12 11 66, 13 82
Balfour v Balfour [1919] 2 KB 571 6.08, 10.09, 10.20, 10.21, 10.23, 10.24, 10.27, 10.31, 10.33
Ballantyne v Phillott (1961) 105 CLR 379 12.89
Ballas v Theophilos (No 2) (1957) 98 CLR 193 3 03, 3 10, 3 40, 4 52, 4 53
Bank of Credit & Commerce International SA v Ali [2002] 1 AC 251 12.86
Bank of New Zealand v Ginivan [1991] 1 NZLR 178 7 66, 10 65
Bank of New Zealand v Simpson [1900] AC 182 11.02, 11.17
Bank of Nova Scotia v Hellenic Mutual War Risks Association (Bermuda) Ltd (The Good Luck) [1992] 1 AC 233 13.45, 13.90
Banks v Williams (1912) 12 SR (NSW) 382 4 27, 4 56
Banque Brussels Lambert v Australian National Industries Ltd (1989) 21 NSWLR 502 7.64, 10.35, 10.65, 10.66, 10.68, 13.08, 13.26, 13.95
Banque Financière de la Cité SA v Westgate Insurance Co Ltd [1991] 2 AC 249 13 45, 13 90
Banque Keyser Ullmann SA v Skandia (UK) Insurance Co Ltd [1990] 1 QB 665; aff’d sub nom Banque Financière de la Cité SA v Westgate Insurance Co Ltd [1991] 2 AC 249 13.90
Banque Paribas v Citibank NA [1989] 1 NKH 329 3.30
Barba v Gas & Fuel Corp of Victoria (1976) 136 CLR 120 12 31
Barber v Crickett [1958] NZLR 1057 9.65, 9.76, 9.83
Barbudev v Eurocom Cable Management Bulgaria EOOP [2012] EWCA Civ 548, [2012] 2 All ER (Comm) 963 2 27, 10 10, 11 34(p xvi)
Barker v Caird (1876) 14 SCR (NSW) 358 3.26
Barrett v IBC International Ltd [1995] 3 NZLR 170 1 18, 11 34, 11 39, 11 41
Barrick v Clark [1951] SCR 177 3 03
Barrier Wharfs Ltd v W Scott Fell & Co Ltd (1908) 5 CLR 647; aff’d (1908) 5 CLR 647 1.20, 4.05, 9.08, 9.15, 9.24, 9.35, 9.40, 11.05, 11.102
Barry v Davies [2000] 1 WLR 1962 3 93, 5 16
Bastard v McCallum [1924] VLR 9 3.20, 4.42
Batt v Onslow (1892) 13 LR (NSW) Eq 79 4 56
Baugham v Rampart Resources Ltd (1995) 4 BCLR 3d 146, (1996) 124 DLR (4th) 252 3.42, 4.11
Baulkham Hills Private Hospital Pty Ltd v GR Securities Pty Ltd (1986) 40 NSWLR 622; aff’d (1986) 40 NSWLR 631 9.20, 9.62
Baumgartner v Meek, 126 Cal App 2d 505, 272 P 2d 552 (1954) 3 94, 3 99
Bawitko Investments Ltd v Kernels Popcorn Ltd (1991) 79 DLR (4th) 97 11.62
Bayerische Vereinsbank Aktiengesellschaft v National Bank of Pakistan [1997] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 59 9 01
Beaton v McDivitt (1987) 13 NSWLR 162 3.88, 10.18, 12.32
Beattie v Fine [1925] VLR 363 11 20
Beconwood Securities Pty Ltd v Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd [2008] FCA 594, (2008) 246 ALR 361 10.69
Beer v Bowden [1981] 1 WLR 522 11.55, 11.119
Bellamy v Debenham (1890) 45 Ch D 481; aff’d [1891] 1 Ch 412 4 05
Belle River Community Arena Inc v WJC Koffmann Co Ltd (1978) 20 OR (2d) 447 4.43
Beneficial Finance Corp Ltd v Multiplex Constructions Pty Ltd (1995) 36 NSWLR 510 4 11, 13 08
Benourad v Compass Group Plc [2010] EWHC 1882 9.122
Bentworth Finance Ltd v Lubert [1968] 1 QB 680 9.92
Bernstein v Felske, 533 NYS 2d 538 (1988) 11 70
Bernuth Lines v High Seas Shipping Ltd (The Eastern Navigator) [2006] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 537 3.27
Bettancourt v Gilroy Theatre Co, 120 Cal App 2d 364, 261 P 2d 351 (1953) 11 16, 11 99
Bigg v Boyd Gibbons Ltd [1971] 1 WLR 913, [1971] 2 All ER 183 2.16, 4.53, 11.45
Biotechnology Australia Pty Ltd v Pace (1988) 15 NSWLR 130 11 06–11 08, 11 20, 11 86, 11 99, 12 55, 12 56, 13 27, 13 69
Birkett v James [1978] AC 297 4 65
Birmingham and District Land Co v London and North Eastern Railway Co (1888) 40 Ch D 268 12.100
Bishop v Taylor (1968) 118 CLR 518 11 03, 11 23, 11 55
Bishop & Baxter Ltd v AngloEastern Trading & Industrial Co Ltd [1944] 1 KB 12 11.97
Blackpool & Fylde Aero Club Ltd v Blackpool BC [1990] 1 WLR 1195 3 51, 5 25, 10 34, 13 75, 13 91
Blair v Western Mutual Benefit Association [1972] 4 WWR 284 4.33, 4.54, 4.56, 10.46
Blankenstein, The. See Damon Cia SA v HapagLloyd International SA
Blanton Enterprises Inc v Burger King Corp, 680 F Supp 753 (1988) 9 38
Blazely v Whiley (1995) 5 Tas LR 254 11.118
Blomley v Ryan (1956) 99 CLR 362 13 42
Bloom v American Swiss Watch Co [1915] App D 100 4.30
Bloom v Averbach [1927] SCR 615, 3 DLR 721 11 02
Bonnewell v Jenkins (1878) 8 Ch D 70 9 22, 9 23, 9 42
Booker Industries Pty Ltd v Wilson Parking (Qld) Pty Ltd (1982) 149 CLR 600 9.100, 9.110, 9.135, 11.30, 11.34, 11.68, 11.105, 11.109–11.111, 13.28, 13.69, 13.82
Boord v Boord (1866) SALR 58 10.37
Boreland v Docker [2007] NSWCA 94 4 42
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Axil, n. L. axilla, little armpit; the angle formed between the upper side of a leaf and the stem or branch to which it is attached.
Azalea, n. The name of a plant. The “swamp honeysuckle” is not a honeysuckle, but is an azalea.
B.
Barb, n. L. barba, a beard; a tuft of hairs; a sharp point projecting backward from the point of a fish hook or arrow or any other sharp-pointed instrument. The barb prevents the instrument from being readily withdrawn.
Bark, n. The outer covering of the stems and roots of woody plants.
Beak, n. The bill of a bird; the long, projecting point in the fruit of the geraniums.
Bloodroot, n. An early spring flower. A pretty, delicate, white flower opens on a stem that comes up from the ground, and the roots, when wounded, yield a blood-red sap.
Boer, n. D. boer, a farmer; a peasant; the name of the Dutch colonists of South Africa. They are principally farmers and cattle raisers. They have had many difficulties with the English settlers, in some of which blood has been shed.
Bract, n. L. bractea, a thin plate of metal; gold-leaf. Used of small, usually thin, leaf-like parts, and often found near a flower or flower cluster.
Bulb, n. L. bulbus, a bulbous root; an onion; the name of the underground, scale-covered part of hyacinths, etc.
C.
Cactus, n. From a Greek word meaning “a prickly plant”; a group of plants which usually grow in dry places and have prickles or thorns instead of leaves. The prickly pear grows wild in northern latitudes, and others, such as the night-blooming cereus, are often seen in hothouses.
Callous, a. L. callosus, hard-skinned, thickened and hardened. Applied to a hard place on the skin, usually the result of friction.
Calyx, n. From a Greek word meaning “to cover”; the outer set of envelopes which form the perianth of a flower. If the perianth has but one set of envelopes it is called the calyx.
Capillary attraction, n. The force which causes liquids to disperse through fabrics or tissues. If one end of a towel be placed in a bowl of water, the whole towel will be wet in course of time.
Carbon, n. L. carbo, a coal; a substance very widely distributed and existing under various forms. Coal is one form of carbon, graphite another, the diamond a third. One atom of carbon combined with two of oxygen form carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide, n. A heavy gas, found as an impurity in the air. It is breathed out by animals and plants, and absorbed and used as a food by plants.
Castor oil, n. The oil obtained from the seeds of the castor-oil plant. Used as a medicine and also in dyeing cotton certain colors.
Cell, n. L. cella, a small room; a case or cup in which something is held, as anther cell, ovary cell, honeycomb cell; also the protoplasmic particles of which plants and animals are built up.
Candelabrum, n. L. candela, a candle; a candle stick; any branched candlestick. A candelabrum rests on a post, while a chandelier is suspended. Candelabra is the plural.
Chasm, n. From a Greek word meaning “a yawning hollow”; a wide, deep cleft.
Chlorophyll, n. From two Greek words meaning “light green” and “leaf,” leaf-green; the green coloring matter of vegetation.
Columbine, n. L. columba, a dove; a flowering plant which gets its name from the fancied resemblance of its petals and sepals to the heads of doves round a dish.
Complexity, n. L. com, together, plectere, to weave; formed by a combination of simple things.
Convolvulaceæ, n. The name of a family of plants to which belong the morning-glory and bindweed.
Cornucopia, n. L. cornu, horn, copia, plenty; horn of plenty.
Corolla, n. L. corolla, a little crown; a garland; the floral envelope within the calyx, very often bright colored.
Cotton-seed oil, n. An oil expressed from the seeds of the cotton plant and, when purified, used instead of olive oil.
Crete, n. An island to the south of Greece.
Crocus, n. An early spring flower.
Cross-fertilization, n. The fertilization of the ovules of one flower by the pollen of another.
Cross-fertilized, a. Fertilized by the pollen from another plant.
D.
Dew, n. The moisture of the air when condensed on any cold surface. Dew does not fall; it is formed wherever moisture in the air comes in contact with a substance colder than the air. Hence there may be dew on the under as well as the upper side of a leaf.
Dissolve, v. L. dis, apart, solvere, loose; to separate the solid particles of a body in a liquid; to melt. Sugar dissolves in water.
Double flowers, n. All those whose petals are numerous. Sometimes the stamens are changed into petals, as in double roses, and sometimes even the pistils have become petals.
Evaporation, n. The conversion of a solid or liquid by heat into vapor. Most often used in reference to the conversion of water into vapor. The warm air of summer causes a rapid evaporation of water from the leaves of plants.
F.
Fayal, n. One of the Azores Islands, west of Portugal.
Ferns, n. A division of flowerless plants.
Fertilize, v. L. fertilis, fruitful; to make fruitful or productive, in the flower, by introducing the pollen to the ovule, enabling them in union to become a seed.
Filament, n. L. filum, a thread; the stem of an anther, often thread-like in form, though it varies greatly; any thread-like part.
Flower, n. L. flos, a flower; the part of a plant consisting of pistil, stamens, corolla, and calyx. Sometimes the corolla is wanting; sometimes both calyx and corolla are wanting. Since pistils and stamens are the most important part of the flower, an organ containing them only is called a flower. Sometimes a flower consists of only stamens or only pistils, as in some kinds of maple.
Force pump, n. A pump in which a liquid is moved by pressure behind instead of being lifted, as is the case in the ordinary pump.
Fossil, n. Animal or vegetable forms which have been long buried in the earth and so preserved; the forms or traces of animal or vegetable structures which have been preserved in rock.
Fruit, n. The matured ovary and all it contains or is incorporated with. Sometimes the calyx forms part of the fruit, as in the apple.
G.
Gamopetalous, a. From two Greek words meaning “marriage” and “leaf” or “petal”; having the petals united or grown together. Where a flower has the corolla in the form of a tube it is called gamopetalous. Several petals are believed to be united into one piece.
Geranium, n. From a Greek word meaning “crane’s bill”; the name of a plant, so called because of the long, projecting beak of the seed-vessel.
Gland, n. Certain cells upon or near the surface of a plant that secrete, or take from the sap, certain substances. The nectary is a gland that secretes a sweet juice.
Great pyramids of Egypt, n. Three large pyramids at Ghizeh, near Cairo, in Egypt. The largest one is the largest work of man’s hands in the world. The pyramids are very interesting structures, and are probably the tombs of the ancient rulers of Egypt.
Guard cells, n. The curved cells that guard the entrance to the stomata, or breathing pores, of leaves.
H.
Hairs, n. Fine, thread-like outgrowths from the skin of plants or animals.
Halberd-shaped, a. Shaped like a halberd, or old-time battle-ax. The bases of certain leaves are called halberd-shaped from their form.
Hawthorne, n. A small tree with thorny stems. The fruit consists of small bright red berries called “haws.”
Heart, n. The principal organ for the circulation of the blood in man and other animals.
Hercules, n. In Greek and Roman mythology, a mighty hero, the god of strength and courage. He performed many feats of strength, chief among which are those known as the twelve labors of Hercules.
Honeycomb cells, n. The wax cells made by bees for storing the honey.
Hyacinth, n. The name of an early spring flower; also of a precious stone.
Hydrogen, n. From two Greek words meaning “water producing.” It is a very light, invisible gas, and when chemically united to oxygen, two parts of hydrogen to one of oxygen, the result is water.