Challenge of Communication
Bradford J. Hall
Patricia O. Covarrubias
Kristin A. Kirschbaum
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Title:Amongcultures:thechallengeofcommunication/BradfordJ Hall,PatriciaCovarrubias,andKristinA Kirschbaum
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Contents
Preface Acknowledgments
1 What Is Meant by Intercultural Communication? Culture System Historically Shared Symbolic Resources Make Our World Meaningful Selection Organization Evaluation Communication Interdependent Situational
Intercultural Communication
Intercultural Communication as a Field of Study
Hazards of Intercultural Study
Oversimplification
Overgeneralization
Exaggeration
Benefits of Intercultural Study
Personal Empowerment
Freedom from Ignorance
Productive Relationships
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
2 What Is the Relationship between Communication and Culture? Manifestations of Culture
Worldviews
Individualism/Collectivism
Ascription/Achievement
Egalitarian/Hierarchical
Good/Evil
Mastery/Adaptive
Social Lubricant/Information
High Context/Low Context
Polychronic/Monochronic
Final Thoughts on Worldviews
Values
Norms
Two Perspectives on the Culture Communication Connection Monolithic Force
Reflexive Force
Sense-Making
Situational
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
3 How Can We Learn about Our Own and Others’ Cultures?
The Learning Process Need Precedent
The Etic/Emic Distinction
Hymes’ SPEAKING Framework: An Etic Grid
Scenes Participants Ends Acts (Substance and Sequence)
Keys
Instrumentalities
Norms
Genres
Narratives
Narrative Teaching Functions
The Way the World Works
Our Place in the World
How to Act in the World
How to Evaluate What Goes On in the World
Interpreting Narratives
Ritual
(Mis)impressions about the Nature of Rituals
Just the Same Thing Over and Over
Outdated, Hypocritical, and Meaningless
Reserved for Specialized Settings
Engaged in by Those Less Sophisticated Than I
Recognizing Rituals around Us
The Worth of Rituals
Social Dramas
Key Terms
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
4 How Is Culture Related to Our Identities?
Identity
Social and Personal Identities
Expectations Related to Ourselves and Others
Role Expectations
Language Expectations
Communication’s Relationship to Identity
Reflective
Constitutive
Pathways to Identity
Avowal
Ascription
Reactive
Proactive
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
5 Where Can We Look to Explain Verbal Misunderstandings?
Verbal Communication and Context
Contextual Frames
Frames and Expected Forms of Communication
Frames Evoking and Assuming Informal Rules
Frames Evoking and Assuming Identities
Verbal Communication: Structure and Content
Quality
Idioms
Quantity
Silence
Elaborated and Restricted Codes
Relevance
Forms of Address
Questions and Answers
Manner
Code-Switching
Gratuitous Concurrence
Terms of Address
Pronouns
Honorifics
Face Considerations
Direct/Indirect Communication
Language and Thought
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
6 Where Can We Look to Explain Nonverbal Misunderstandings?
Roles of Nonverbal Communication
Repetition
Contradiction
Substitution
Accentuation
Complementary
Regulation
Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Kinesics
Facial Expressions
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Body Movements
Five Functions
Emblems
Illustrators
Affect Displays
Regulators
Adaptors
Proxemics
Space Touch
Paralanguage
Silence
Silence and Socio-Cultural Identities
Silence and Social Relationships
Silence and Conflict
Other Forms of Nonverbal Communication
Living Environment
Clothes
Food
Smell
Time
Intercultural Listening and Nonverbal Communication
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
Answers to Facial Expression Test and to Intercultural Kinesic Cues Quiz
7 Why Do So Many People Get Treated Poorly?
Stereotypes
Categorization
Fundamental Attribution Error
Five Points of Variance
Direction
Intensity
Specificity
Consensus
Accuracy
Ethnocentrism
Concern/Indifference
Involvement/Avoidance
Enjoyment/Intolerance
Prejudice
Forms of Prejudice
Blatant
Conceit
Symbolic
Tokenism
Arm’s Length
Rationalizing Narratives of Prejudice
Morally Better
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Personally Afflicted
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Social Pressure
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Their Turf
Story Line Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
System Abuse
Story Line
Examples
Rationalizing Reasons
Functions of Prejudice
Utilitarian
Social Status
Ego-Defensive
Value-Expressive
Easy Knowledge
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
8 How Can We Manage Conflict in Intercultural Settings?
Cultural Approaches to Conflict
Avoiding
Accommodating
Competing
Compromising
Collaborating
Types of Intercultural Conflict
Object Conflicts
Relationship Conflicts
Priority Conflicts
Intergroup Conflict
Group Membership and Communication
Visual Distinctiveness
Oral Distinctiveness
Assignment of Representative Role
Large Differences in the Relative Numbers of Group Members
Assumptions That Our Values Are Different
Lack of Shared Interpersonal History
Perceived Simplicity of Our Communication Need
Perceived Competition
Group Membership and Conflict
Ingroup Bias
Fears Surrounding Intergroup Communication
Tangible Harm or Loss
Negative Evaluation by Ingroup
Negative Evaluation by Outgroup
Negative Self-Evaluation
Origins of Intergroup Conflict
Histories
Greek View
Turkish View
Dividing up the Pie: Competition and Power
Strategies for Managing Intercultural and Intergroup Conflict
Appropriate Conditions for Successful Contact
Joint Goals
Supportive Social Climate
Equal Status
Variety of Contexts
Desire for Contact
Recognizing Reasonableness
Factoring in Face
One Final Point to Ponder: Forgiveness
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
9 How Can We Succeed in Our Intercultural Travels?
Hierarchy of Human Needs
Acculturation
The U-Curve Model
Honeymoon
Crisis
Recovery
Adjustment
The Hero’s Journey: Osland’s Model of Working Abroad
Call to Adventure
In the Belly of the Whale
The Magical Friend
Road of Trials (Paradoxes)
Ultimate Boon and Return
Surprise and Sense-Making Model
Change
Contrast
Surprise
Sense-Making
Attribute Meaning
Update Expectations
Select Behavioral Approach
Kim’s Adaptation Model
Personal Communication
Predisposition
Environment
Social Communication
Intercultural Transformation
Returning Home: Readapting to Our Own Cultural Community
Reverse Culture Shock
Change in Self and Others
Unrealistic Expectations
Lack of Appreciation in Home Community
Final Thoughts on Cultural Transitions
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
10 How Does Culture Impact Applied Contexts?
Environmental Communication
Environmental Communication as a Symbolic Resource for Making Sense of Our World
Environmental Communication as a Place of Conflict
Environmental Communication as Gendered
Environmental Communication in the Context of Ecotourism
Environmental Communication as Inherently Cultural
Healthcare and Intercultural Communication
Differing Cultural Expectations
Specific Applications of Cultural Communication in Healthcare
Sensitivity to Cultural Communication Considerations in Healthcare
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication in Healthcare
Organizational Leadership and Intercultural Communication
Social-Scientific Approach: Dimensions of Intercultural Leadership Success
Interpretive Approach: Leadership and Sense-Making in Intercultural Settings
Case Studies
Case Study ‘Take-away’ Messages
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
11 What Diversity Exists in the Study of Intercultural Communication?
Major Perspectives in Intercultural Communication
Interpretive Perspective
Critical Perspective
Social-Scientific Perspective
Popular Culture
Easily Accessed
Commercial
What We Believe and What We Should Believe Who We Are and Who We Should Be
Popular Cultural Artifacts
Real Icons
Imagined Icons
Real Celebrities
Imaginary Celebrities
Critical Perspectives on Popular Culture and the Media
Social-Scientific Perspectives on Popular Culture and the Media
Impact of the Media on Culture
Impact of Culture on the Media
Culture as an Intervening Variable
Summary
Reflection Questions
Activities
12 Can Judgments of Right and Wrong Be Made When Dealing with Other Cultures?
Ethics
General Perspective
Six Golden Approaches
Golden Purse
Golden Mean
Golden Public
Golden Law
Golden Consequence
Golden Rule
Ethics and Communication
Constraint
Empowerment
Ethics and Culture
Universalism
Relativism
Critique
Efforts to Find Universal Ethics That Acknowledge the Relativistic Nature of Cultures
Ethical Principles for Intercultural Relations
Effort to Understand
Teachable Attitude
Mutual Legitimacy
Dialogue
Considering Context
Peaceful Disagreement
Nonviolence
Truth and Openness
Loving Relationships
Intercultural Marriage Microcosm
Good Motives for the Marriage
Common Goals
Sensitivity to Each Other’s Needs
A Liking for the Other’s Culture
Flexibility
Solid, Positive Self-Image
Spirit of Adventure
Ability to Communicate
Commitment to the Relationship
Sense of Humor
Nature of Love
Summary
Reflection Questions Activities
Index
Preface
BRAD
AsIapproachedthewritingofthisthirdedition,Idecideditwouldbeagoodideatoinclude co-authors that could give a fresh perspective on what had been written in the past and expand on what previous editions had covered. After making this decision, I asked two individuals who I respect both as people and scholars, Patricia Covarrubias and Kris Kirschbaum, to join me in this effort and they both graciously accepted the invitation. Their contributions have been invaluable and I have greatly appreciated working with them and theirpatiencewithmethroughoutthisprocess.
This last year ’ s elective cycle in the United States involving Hillary Clinton and Donald Trumpinadditiontotheinternationalstrugglesthatareongoinghighlightthegreatneedfor cultural understanding. A lack of knowledge about and empathy for others facilitates the objectification of them that can lead us to ignore the common humanity we share, making it easytoviewoursocialrelationsintermsofacompetitionwheregreedandmisunderstandings rule the day Misunderstandings all too easily lead to distrusting and hating other communities, which creates cycles of emotional, social, economic, and physical violence that injure the quality of life for us all. Although these problems are easy to see on a grand scale and may seem beyond our power to change, these grand problems are built upon the small actionsandinteractionsthateachofusengagesindaily Althoughitisimportanttoworkon the large problems of our day, I believe it is just as important to work on the seemingly small challenges that arise in our individual lives. I hope this book will aid you in this endeavor. Intercultural communication is an emotional experience and writing this book is an act of
Intercultural Interaction: An Exercise in Serendipity
Intercultural experiences for me have always been marked by serendipity. Serendipities are unexpected finds or discoveries that eventually turn out to be both pleasant and stimulating. To me the field of intercultural communication has always been ripe with serendipities. The study of intercultural communication inherently involves exposure to different ways through which meaning is produced among and across communities. What better seed could there be to grow serendipities? When I was still very young, I was essentially planted in a field which forced interaction with many Native Americans. Some of my early experiences with this group of people were surprising, but as I sorted through them and continued the interaction, I developed not only a taste, but a love for these new perspectives. Later when I lived in Europeforacoupleofyears,Icontinuedtohavethesesurprisingbutstimulatingexperiences andwasevenintroducedtothetermserendipity,whichInowusetodescribethem.
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I suspect that for many of us it was just such serendipitous occurrences that helped our interest in culture and intercultural interactions to grow. Discovering the unexpected and then, despite any initial frustration, finding the new understanding acquired through that discovery to be sweet and stimulating can be a great motivator for cultivating those opportunitiesinthefuture
It is my hope that each of you in your own lives and in working with this text will also harvest serendipity. For, although by its very definition we cannot control or predict its exact occurrence, we can encourage it by our involvement in and attention to a culturally diverse world. I encourage you to share with others, as I have tried to do in this book, the serendipitiesthatoccurinyourownlives
PATRICIA
As an immigrant to the United States from Mexico, for me, cultural and intercultural communication have meant much more than learning about and enacting abstract concepts and practices. Since the age of eight, my everyday life has involved confronting multiple and divergentworlds.Alongtheway,theseworldshaveclashedonoccasionbecausethewaysthat some people in the United States do life was/is very different from the one I left in my
original homeland. Moreover, I have had the privilege of living in and visiting several states in this country, traveling to various places around the world (Turkey, Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Germany), and spending 18 months living and working in France. So my personal experience has meant that daily, whether in the United States or abroad, I have had to negotiate the reality that other people’s lives are informed by worldviews, values, attitudes, emotions, and rules for communicating that are similar to as well as radically different from the ones with which I was raised. To give you an example, although I have livedintheUnitedStatesforseveraldecades,tothisdayIstrugglewithtreatingeldersinthe same manner as young persons If an elder enters a room and I am sitting down I immediatelystandup,andIusehonorificstoaddresstheelderratherthanusingafirstname as is acceptable by many people here. The respectful treatment of elders is a value that was taught to me from an early age and continues to serve as a deeply felt Mexican cultural practicethatItriedtopassontomyson Iamnotnecessarilysayingthatonecultureisbetter thananother;but,rather,thateachcultureoffersadifferentpossibility
Intercultural Communication as Possibility
What I appreciate most about the study of cultural and intercultural communication is the fact that it offers myriad valuable, accessible, and useful possibilities for understanding one another,fordevelopingfriendships,andforenjoyingpeacethroughourculturaldifferences.
You and we know that cultural differences can be used as a possibility for distinguishing ourselvesfromothersinaffirminganddisconfirmingways.Especiallyinmomentsofconflict, differencescanbringustoassert,“Iamnotlikeyou!”Inextremesituations,wemightuseour differences to set up divisions, disenfranchisements, and oppressions at all levels of our existence. However, we also know that being aware of and understanding others’ cultural differencescanalsoserveaspowerfulmeansforachievingaffirmativesocialends.Inmoments of friendship and rapprochement we might be prompted to say, “We have more in common than I thought” One of the advantageous aspects about difference is that it can mean introducing into our lives alternative ways of speaking and not speaking, eating, dressing, managing conflict, using time, engaging nature, and making human connections, among other possibilities. Again, to give you an example, prior to my research into communicative silence, I thought that the absence of talk meant something was wrong among interactants; that communication was empty and should be filled with words the sooner the better.
p.xviii
Studying communicative silence has taught me a new way for appreciating it and for integrating it into my own life. Now I realize that silence can help us communicate in ways other than through words I’ve learned that silence can help shape identities, and can help us construct communal connectedness and continuity And I’ve learned that silence can help people protect their cherished cultures. In my college classrooms, my students are often astonished, although not always pleased, by how long I can stand in silence waiting for them tothinkthroughandrespondtoquestionsduringgroupdiscussions.AndIhavelearnedtosit still and listen to the sounds nature uses to communicate This is not a skill I developed in childhood where the clamor of Mexico City traffic was more familiar. Without question, my own life and my intercultural agility have been richly enhanced through the possibility of hearingsilencedifferently.
Itisbeyondevidentthatourcontemporaryworldisgivingwaytomuchpainfulpossibility. Our planet is hosting bloody wars on every continent, routinely tolerating mass attacks on innocent civilians, generating thousands of homeless refugees, and producing countless disenfranchised people at all levels of society Still, intercultural communication bears the promise of alternative outcomes. We have unprecedented opportunities for using our knowledge, skills, and will to shape a better world; we can do this one intercultural conversation at a time Through the concepts, explanations, questions, suggested activities, resources, and especially the personal narratives presented in this book, we offer useful tools tohelpyouachievemoreproductiveinterculturalrelationships.Itisourwayofofferingyoua newpossibility.
KRIS
Likemyco-authors,Ihavehadthegoodfortunetotravelandliveinothers’countries.Those opportunitieshelpedmerecognizethewealthofdiverseculturesthatmakeeachofuswhowe are.WhenIwasfirstintroducedtothestudyofinterculturalcommunicationincollege,Iwas amazed! It seemed like the observations I had made throughout my life were shared and explained by others. I felt like I had discovered a new section in the library with new information to explore. I was and still am excited to travel the journey of intercultural communication.
Ihavealsocometorealizethattherearemulticulturalinfluencesthatareregionallyaswell
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as nationally situated. I grew up in Southern California in the 1960s and 1970s. As a young person I moved with my family to the Midwest. That move produced a huge culture shock forme Ratherthansunshineandbeaches,Iwasconfrontedbycoldanddampweather Iwas also surrounded by people with ideas and behaviors that were much more conservative than whatIhadexperiencedasachild.
I returned to Southern California in my teens and realized that even within that region there were cultural differences. In my teens and 20s I lived in a different neighborhood than where I grew up and again learned the cultural nuances of my new environment. These experiences in my early life helped me learn about being curious about differences, and keeping an open mind in order to travel the path of exploration, rather than isolation That senseofadventurehasbeenfoundationalinmystudiesofinterculturalcommunication.
AsanadultIlivedfor10yearsinthreeverydifferentgeographicalandculturallocations I livedandworkedforthreeyearsinAbuDhabi,oneoftheUnitedArabEmirates,threemore yearsinManhattan,inNewYorkCity,andanotherthreeyearsinthestateofQuintanaRoo in Mexico. In all of these locations, I learned about languages, appropriate behavior, and other features of intercultural communication that are covered in our textbook In a nutshell, I learned the difference between assimilation and acculturation. I am a better person because of the diversity I have been so fortunate to experience in my life. I say “better” since I feel more curious than ever about different ways of thinking, acting, and communicating that I encounter on a regular basis It is ingrained in me to say and think “how interesting” when I meetsomeonewithdifferentcustomsanddifferentwaysofapproachingtheworld Ilovethe feeling of adventure I experience as I take new journeys of exploration in the world of interculturalcommunication.
My hope for you as a student and reader of this textbook is that you will experience that curiosity I have. I hope that you too will come to enjoy learning about new cultures, new patterns of communication, and new ways of engaging with the world and people around you Welcometothenewsectionofthelibrary!
WHAT HAS CHANGED AND WHAT HAS NOT IN THIS EDITION
The most apparent change in this edition includes a brand new chapter overviewing three specific contexts in which intercultural communication plays a vital role, including
communication in and about environmental issues, healthcare, and leadership within organizational settings. Many of the conflicts in our day center around the environment, our different understandings of the environment, and how we approach issues related to our environment The new chapter helps to reveal many of the cultural differences that can lead tomisunderstanding andconflict. Healthcare is also amajor areaof concernfor most people. Therearemanydifferentapproachestogainingandmaintaininggoodhealth.Understanding cultural differences in the way we approach issues surrounding healthcare is essential in helping all communities to work together for a greater good In a world beset with problems in a wide variety of increasingly multicultural organizations, it is useful to understand different perspectives on what constitutes effective leadership. Each culture has a unique way of perceiving and enacting leadership in various organizational settings. Understanding these differencescanhelpusfunctionmoreeffectivelyinanyorganizationalendeavor
Inaddition,thereareaseriesofnewandupdatedexamplesdealingwithmanyoftheissues that have been covered in the past However, one thing that has not changed with the updated examples and stories is the overall narrative perspective the book adopts This text is groundedintheideathatpeoplemakesenseoftheirworldthroughaprocessofchoosingand telling narratives to themselves and others. One of the basic communicative forms through which we as humans understand our own and others’ lives is narrative By narratives we refer toanydiscoursewhichexpressesactionsthatoccurovertimeandarerelatedtosomepointof concern. Thus, even when we are telling others about what seem like ordinary experiences in our lives, we are telling stories or narratives. We as humans are at heart storytellers. Indeed, consciously or unconsciously, we are often engaged in choosing among competing narratives. Theveryqualityofourlivesisthusinseparablefromthequalityofourstories pxxi
In keeping with this belief, this text is unusually full of narratives or stories. Each chapter beginswithanarrative,andavarietyofnarrativesareinterwoventhroughoutthetext Instead ofsimplygivingexamples,likeAfricanAmericansarepolychronic,wetryasmuchaspossible to share a story that illustrates this and other related concepts. We believe this is a more effective way to learn about these concepts because the stories provide not only illustrative examples, but a context upon which discussion and analysis may be based. We hope that the many narratives we include in the text encourage you to remember and be more aware of related stories in your own lives. We always love to listen to and learn from good stories, so pleasefeelfreetocontactusandshareanyofyourownstories.
OVERVIEW OF THE BOOK
The text has a variety of features that make it accessible to students As noted above, one of themainfeaturesofthetextisthatitisfullofnarrativesthatcanbeusedbothasillustrations ofconceptsanddiscussionstarters.Thetextincludesvariousactivitiesthatstudentscandoas part of reading the text, such as the self-assessments in terms of students’ worldviews and nonverbal self-knowledge tests. The text also includes other activity ideas at the end of each chapter that are meant to provide ideas that the student or instructor may use to expand the learningprocess. Eachstudentandeachclassmay only use afew ofthese activities, butthere are a variety of activities from which to choose. Some of them may need to be modified to betterfittheindividualneedsofthestudents.Thetextalsoincludesreflectionquestionsboth within the chapters and at the end of each chapter Aside from personal reflection, these questions may be used as part of a class discussion, or students may be asked to respond in writingtoonespecificreflectionquestionfromeachchapter.
Eachofthechapterheadingsisphrasedinaquestionformatbecauselearningisstimulated and aided through the asking of questions. Learning to ask quality questions is an important part of any educational process. The chapter questions come from a combination of what we feel are important questions to ask to get a solid introduction into the field of intercultural communication, and from areas with which our students have shown a particular concern overtheyears.Forexample,wehavefoundstudentstobeparticularlyinterestedintheethical issues addressed in Chapter12. To give a summary of the overall text, we briefly review each ofthechapterquestionsandprovideanideaofthewaywegoaboutansweringthem
Chapter 1: What Is Meant by Intercultural Communication? There are hundreds of definitions of culture and communication in scholarly literature and just about as many strugglesoverwhichdefinitionsarebest Thisisbecausetheabilitytodefinewhatisorisnot covered in a concept is very powerful Definitional work is also a very important step in our efforts to organize our knowledge in a useful and memorable way. It is very difficult to deal meaningfully with a concept if we do not at least have a rough understanding of what is meant by it This chapter does not directly concern itself with which definitions are best It does, however, lay an important foundation for understanding the concepts and issues that willbeconsideredthroughouttherestofthetext.
Chapter2:WhatIstheRelationshipbetweenCommunicationandCulture?Givenabasic
understanding of terms such as communication, culture, and intercultural, one of the next logical steps is understanding how and to what extent they connect to each other. This question also allows us to further explore some of the basic concepts in the field, such as worldviews,norms,andvalues,whichmaybeconsideredinanyspecificcontext
Chapter3:HowCanWeLearnaboutOurOwnandOthers’Cultures?Manyintroductory textsdonotdealwiththisissue,ordosoverybriefly However,wefeelstronglythathowwe learn about a topic influences what we can learn. We hope that our students will want to learn about others outside of the classroom setting and continue learning after the course is over. With this in mind, we introduce communicative forms, such as narratives and rituals, that can help us learn about others without having an advanced degree An added benefit of thischapteristhatitallowsstudentstounderstandhowtheyhavebeenlearningcultureallof theirlives.
Chapter 4: How Is Culture Related to Our Identities? If we cannot connect the idea of culture to ourselves, we believe it will have little lasting value in our lives. We first review what is encompassed by the term identity, including discussions of different levels of identity in our lives and the role of power in identity negotiation We also consider the role of communicationintheformationofidentitiesandpathwaysthatleadtoourvariousidentities.
Chapter 5: Where Can We Look to Explain Verbal Misunderstandings? The frustrations that arise from misunderstandings, even when we think we have been very clear, are at the heart of many people’s desire to study intercultural communication. This chapter focuses on the issues related to verbal misunderstandings. We consider the context of our speech, the structure of our speech, and the content of our speech, providing resources for the confused and frustrated to use in sorting out what has gone wrong We also address issues related to face maintenance during these misunderstandings. Finally, we discuss the relationship betweenlanguageandthoughtandtheimplicationsthishasforourunderstandingofculture. pxxiii
Chapter 6: Where Can We Look to Explain Nonverbal Misunderstandings? In this chapter we focus on nonverbal communication misunderstandings. We examine not only the relationship of nonverbal and verbal communication, but also the functions of nonverbal communication in different communities The chapter reviews research on a wide variety of different forms of nonverbal communication, including kinesics, paralanguage, proxemics, andspecificitems,suchasfood,clothes,andsmell.
Chapter7:WhyDoSoManyPeopleGetTreatedPoorly?Itdoesn’ttakeanoverlycareful observer to realize that in many intercultural settings people are often treated very poorly. Some communities or types of people seem to be targeted for frequent mistreatment This chaptertriestogobeyondtheusualdiscussionsofethnocentrism,stereotyping,andprejudice to better understand why these things exist even when people agree that they are bad. We discuss the distinctions between these three different areas in terms of their forms and functions in society. We spend more time than is usual with issues of prejudice in terms of howpeoplejustifyandacceptprejudiceintheirlives Thetextdealswiththeseareasinaway that avoids the usual defensive responses that these discussions can provoke and tries to help readers make personal discoveries and decisions about their own personal experiences with prejudice,stereotyping,andethnocentrism.
Chapter 8: How Can We Manage Conflict in Intercultural Settings? Conflict will happen in intercultural interactions. Given that assumption, in this chapter we explore what distinguishes intercultural conflict from other forms of conflict and discuss different types of intercultural conflict We also examine issues of fear, competition, power, and history in relation to intergroup conflicts that are so often connected to intercultural settings. Finally, we discuss and illustrate a variety of resources that people may adopt to manage intercultural conflictsinpositiveormutuallysatisfactoryways Weconcludebyconsideringaconceptthat isimportanttodealingpositivelywithanyformofconflict:forgiveness
Chapter9:HowCanWeSucceedinOurInterculturalTravels?Many,ifnotmost,people will have the experience of traveling to different cultural communities at some point in their lives.Thisexperiencecanbeacriticalincidentininterculturalrelations,affectinggenerations of people. This chapter reviews four of the major models of acculturation and how they may be used to improve our intercultural travels We also spend some time dealing with the often difficultprocessofreturninghomefromourinterculturaltravels
Chapter10:HowDoesCultureImpactAppliedContexts?Interculturalcommunicationis always occurring in specific contexts that go beyond the cultural differences involved in the interaction. In this chapter we examine three specific contexts that relate to common concerns we find in the world today. First, we examine communication about the environment. Second, we explore cultural differences and implications related to healthcare. The third and final context to consider in this chapter is tied to the practice of leadership in various organizational contexts. Understanding the culturally different ways of approaching thesecontextsandhowwemaycommunicateinandaboutthemprovidesausefulfoundation
forinterculturalinteractionsinthesecontexts.
Chapter 11: What Diversity Exists in the Study of Intercultural Communication? This chapter begins with an overview of the three main theoretical perspectives that exist in the fieldofinterculturalcommunicationtoday:interpretive,critical,andtraditional.Thetextasa whole is largely written from an interpretive perspective so we spend a bit more time on the critical and traditional, or social scientific, approaches To deepen this discussion, we use research surrounding the media in intercultural settings as well as popular culture to provide examplesofthedifferenttypesofworkandapproachesthatexistintheinterculturalfield.
Chapter 12: Can Judgments of Right and Wrong Be Made When Dealing with Other Cultures?Thischapterdealswiththeissuesofethicsandbuildinginterculturalcommunities. Various approaches to ethics and judgments of what is right and wrong or good and bad are discussed in detail. In addition, we propose three ethical principles which we argue are especiallyimportantininterculturalsettings