PREFACEAND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
MypartnerGerdaandIareblessedwithtwochildrenwhowerenotgreat sleepersasbabies,theyoungeststillisn’t.Inthespringof2015Ifound myself,yetagain,outandaboutpushingmybabyboyaroundthestreets ofourhometownwhilehenappedpeacefullyinthepram.Oneofour regularroutestookuspastachurchonthemainstreetintotownthathasa billboardofsortsfacingtheroadwithwhichitinformspassingtrafficof pithypassagesfromtheBible.Onthisparticulardaytheselectionwas Isaiah46:10: “Imakeknowntheendfromthebeginning,fromancient times,whatisstilltocome.” Thefullverseincludestheline: “Isay, ‘My purposewillstand,andIwilldoallthatIplease’ . ” TheNewLiving Translationofthepassageisbothlesslyricalandlesscryptic,inarather forthrightmanneritdeclares: “OnlyIcantellyouthefuturebeforeiteven happens.EverythingIplanwillcometopass,forIdowhateverIwish.” Idon’toftentaketoomuchnoticeofthesepassages,oratleast,Idon’t dwellonthemfortoolong.Itrynotto,anyway.Iusuallyhaveabrief argumentinmyhead,takingupbothsidesofthedebate,winit,andthen moveon.ItisfairtosaythatonthisoccasionIhavebeenunsuccessfulin movingonsoquickly,forithaspromptedmetositdownandwriteabook onbeginnings,ends,whathappensinbetween,andthemeaning,ifanything,ofhistory.Theideathatanyone,ofthisworldoranother,cannot onlyknowbutalsoshapethefutureisbothintriguingandenticing.Most peoplearecomfortablewithacertainamountofroutineandcertaintyin theirlife.Thesuncomesupeachmorningandthensetsagaininthe evening.Thetrainpullsintothestationatasettimeandthenpullsouta fewminuteslater.Peoplegivethemselvesjustenoughtimetogetacoffee
orwhatevertheyfancywithoutfearofmissingthetrainandbeinglatefor work.Wearereassuredbythefactthatwhenapassengerplanetakesoffit landsagainasscheduled,and99.99percentofthetimethatisthecase. Whenitdoesnotworkoutthatway,asinthecaseofMalaysianAirlines flight370(MH370)inMarch2014,thereisadesperateneedtoknow what did happen.Notknowingisnotanacceptableoption,andnotjust forthefamiliesofthevictims.
Mostpeoplewouldliketothink,atleasttoacertainextent,thatweare themastersofourowndestiny.IforonedonotliketheideathatIama pawninsomeoneorsomethingelse’sgame,movingmearoundasthey wish.Byandlarge,manyormostofusdohaveextensivecontroloverour dailylives,theminutiaeofourdailyroutines.Thebillboardoutsidethe churchIusedtopushmysonpastandthesubjectofthisbook,theideaof universalhistory,bothdenypeopleandpeoplesacertainamountof agency.Inessence,theideaofuniversalhistoryholdsthatallpeoples canbesituatedinthenarrativeofhistoryonacontinuumbetweena startandanendpoint;allaredestinedtotravelthesamepaththrough historyandarrive,soonerorlater,atthesameendpoint,modernity.The ideaofuniversalhistorydeniespeoplesagency,itdeniesthemachoiceof paththroughhistory,anditdeniesthemasayinthedestination.
Thereisstillgreatdiversityinourworld,andthat,inprinciple,isagood thing.Wemightnotlikesomeoftheformsthatdiversitytakes,butit seemsprudenttofollowthesentimentattributedtoVoltairebyEvelyn BeatriceHallinthephrase: “Idisapproveofwhatyousay,butIwill defendtothedeathyourrighttosayit.”1 Itisaconcern,however,that diversityisdiminishing,particularlysocialandculturaldiversity.The LinguisticSocietyofAmerica,forinstance,reportsthatpresentlyabout “5,000to6,000languagesarespokenintheworld,butacenturyfrom now,thenumberwillalmostcertainlyfalltothelowthousandsoreventhe hundreds.Morethanever,communitiesthatwereonceself-sufficient find themselvesunderintensepressuretointegratewithpowerfulneighbors, regionalforces,orinvaders,oftenleadingtothelossoftheirownlanguagesandeventheirethnicidentity.”2 Whoknowsjusthowmany thousandsoflanguageshavealreadydisappeared.Theshrinkingparametersofwhatispermissibleinshapingagoodsocietyarealsoimpinging ondiversity.Whensocietiesorcommunitiesarerequiredtoconformtoa particularpoliticalandinstitutionalarchitecture,whennormsofbehavior, guidingphilosophies,andunderlyingvaluesaresimilarlyhomogenized,it
cannothelpbuthaveanimpactonthemicrolevel,theminutiaeofdaily routine.
Thisbookdealswithquestionsofgrandtheory,thephilosophyof history,itssubjectmatterrequiresacertainlevelofabstraction.Atthe sametime,however,onecannothelpbutdrilldowntoamorepractical leveltoseewhatthepotentialimplicationsmightbe.Forinstance, myhomeland,Australia,isofficiallyamulticulturalsociety,Australia’s MulticulturalPolicystates:
TheAustralianGovernmentisunwaveringinitscommitmenttoamulticulturalAustralia.Australia’smulticulturalcompositionisattheheartofour nationalidentityandisintrinsictoourhistoryandcharacter.
MulticulturalismisinAustralia’snationalinterestandspeakstofairness andinclusion.Itenhancesrespectandsupportforcultural,religiousand linguisticdiversity.ItisaboutAustralia’ssharedexperienceandthecompositionofneighborhoods.Itacknowledgesthebenefitsandpotentialthat culturaldiversitybrings.
Australia’smulticulturalpolicyembracesoursharedvaluesandcultural traditions.ItalsoallowsthosewhochoosetocallAustraliahometherightto practiceandshareintheirculturaltraditionsandlanguageswithinthelaw andfreefromdiscrimination.
Australiaisamulticulturalnation.Inall,since1945,sevenmillionpeople havemigratedtoAustralia.Today,oneinfourofAustralia’s22million peoplewerebornoverseas,44percentwerebornoverseasorhaveaparent whowasandfourmillionspeakalanguageotherthanEnglish.Wespeak over260languagesandidentifywithmorethan270ancestries.Australiais andwillremainamulticulturalsociety.3
Despitemulticulturalismbeingoffi cialpolicy,thereareveryreallimits onhowdifferentoneispermittedtobe:theconstructionofmosques havebeenopposedanddeniedplanningapprovalbylocalgovernments; somemembersofthefederalparliamentwouldliketobanthewearingof theburqaandthe niqab ;same-sexmarriageremainsahotlycontested issueandisunlikelytobelegislatedanytimesoon;thereisoppositionto foreigninvestmentandownershipofAustralia’ sinfrastructure,particularlyChineseownership.Manypeoplesimplyarguethatmulticulturalism doesnotwork,itisafailedexperiment.Thefactthatuniversalistand assimilationisttendencieslienottoofarbeneaththesurfaceisnot entirelysurprisinggiventhat,priortoof fi ciallybecomingapluralist
multiculturalsociety,upuntilth e1960sAustraliawascommittedtoa policyofassimilation.
ThepolicyofassimilationmeansintheviewofallAustraliangovernments thatallAboriginesandpart-Aboriginesareexpectedeventuallytoattainthe samemanneroflivingasotherAustraliansandtoliveasmembersofasingle Australiancommunityenjoyingthesamerightsandprivileges,acceptingthe sameresponsibilities,observingthesamecustomsandinfluencedbythe samebeliefs,hopesandloyaltiesasotherAustralians.4
Ofcourse,thosecustomsandbeliefswerenotthoseofAboriginalpeoples; likeourinstitutionsandsystemofgovernmentmorebroadly,they reflectedAustralia’sBritishheritage.Sotootoday,thereisconsiderable pressureonmigrantsto “fitin,” toassimilate.
SowhileIliveinwhatisofficiallyapluralistmulticulturalsociety,like manyotherWesterners,onecannothelpbutbeconcernedbythegrowing riseofassimilationistsentiments,andnotjustonthemarginsofsociety. TheAustralianFederalelectionofJuly2016sawthereturnasapolitical forceofpopulist figuresandpartiessuchasPaulineHanson’sOneNation onthebackofanti-immigrationandanti-Islamiccampaigning.The BritishdecisioninJune2016toexitorBrexitfromtheEuropean Union,largelyonthegroundsofregainingnationalsovereignty,which formanymeansrestrictingimmigrantsfromEasternEuropeandfurther afield,isdrivenbysimilarhomogenizingsentiments.Giventherefugee crisis flowingfromtheongoinghumanitarianchaosinSyria,similarsentimentsaredrivingtheriseofanti-immigrationpoliticalpartiesacrossmuch ofEurope.TheelectionofDonaldTrumpinthe2016UnitedStates presidentialelection,onthebackofapromisetobuildawalltokeepout LatinAmericansandputtingafreezeontakinginMuslimmigrants,can beseenasdrivingtheunofficialAmericanmottoof EPluribusUnum,or OutofMany,One,furtherandfurtherawayfromtheoriginalideaofa happycoexistencebetweenindividualityandunityandclosertotheideaof a “meltingpot” whereall-comersblendin;darenotstandoutfromthe crowd.
Thecentralsubjectofthisbook,theideaofuniversalhistory,was toucheduponinmybook, TheEmpireofCivilization:TheEvolutionof anImperialIdea (UniversityofChicagoPress,2009).Forsometimeit wasatopicthatIwasinterestedinrevisitinginalittlemoredetail.In additiontothetimelyappearanceofabillboardoutsideofalocalchurch,
ataroundthesametimemycolleagueBrettBennettandhismentorand friend,A.G.(Tony)Hopkins,organizedaworkshopatWesternSydney Universityonthe “NatureofGlobalHistory.” ForBrett,beinganenvironmentalhistorian,the “nature” elementoftheworkshopwasquite literal,whereasTony,beinganeconomichistorian,wasmoreinterested inthehistoryofglobalizationmoregenerally.Thepaperspresented rangedacrossthesethemes,withtitleslike “BiologicalIntroductionsand Invasions:AlfredCrosby,HisCriticsandaNewSynthesis,”“TheMythof thePeasantintheGlobalOrganicFarmingMovement,”“Religionas GlobalandNatural:LineagesandParadoxes,”“Nature,Knowledgeand Civilization:ConnectingtheAtlanticandPacificWorldsinthe Enlightenment,” and “TheAverageNativeandtheIncommensurable Native:SomeEpisodesintheQuantificationofIndigenousPeoples.” Tryingto fitinwiththetheme,myownpresentationwastitled “GlobalizationandthePersistenceofUniversalHistory.” Thepapers presentedattheworkshopweredestinedforaspecialissueof Itinerario: InternationalJournalontheHistoryofEuropeanExpansionandGlobal Interaction,withthethemeofnaturebeingthecommonthreadrunning throughthepapers.
Wearingmanyadministrativehatswithintheuniversityatthetime,not tomentionsufferingfromsleepdeprivationthankstotheaforementioned poorsleeper,Isomehowmissedthememoaboutthenaturethemeand reallydidnothavethetime,ormaybeeventheinclination,toskewmy paperinsuchadirection.Ithereforeoptedoutofplacingthepaperinthe journalspecialissue.Nevertheless,Iammostgratefultotheparticipantsat theworkshopfortheirthoughtfulcomments,whichremainedintheback ofmymindasIsetaboutexpandingonthetopicofuniversalhistoryin thisbook.ThankyoutoGregBarton,BrettBennett,DavidBurchell, TonyHopkins,SarahIrving,TamsonPietsch,TimRowse,andIanTyrell. Iamalsogratefultothereviewerwhomadeaseriesofverythoughtfuland helpfulcomments,including,rathersubtly,remindingmeofsomeofmy ownearlierwork,allofwhichhavebeenthoughtthroughcarefullyand actedupon.ThankstoChrisRobinson,ElaineFan,andJohnStegnerat PalgraveMacmillanwhohavehelpfullyguidedmeandthebooktopublicationinwhatIhavetosayisaveryshortspaceoftimefromproposalto publication.
Finally,thankstomyfamilyfortheirunconditionalloveandsupport throughthickandthin.Myagingparentshavenotbeenwellthispastyear, buttheyalwaystakeagenuineinterestinwhatIamworkingon.Ihave
beenmostfortunatethroughoutmyacademiccareertohavehadthelove andsupportofmywonderfulpartnerGerda;wenotonlyuseeachotheras soundingboardsforideas,butalsoasacaptiveaudiencefortheoccasional ventingoffrustrations.Throughoutthewritingprocessourbeautiful daughterElkehaskeptaskingmeifIhave finishedmybookyet;even thoughitisonlyashortbook,shecannotunderstandwhyitshouldtake mesolong,andwhydoesn’tithaveasmanypicturesasmylastone.Elkeis adamantthatherfavoritebooksdidn’ttakesolongtowrite.Shemight makeagoodeditoroneday.Whilehemighthavebeensleepingaswe walkedpastthechurch,ourgorgeousandcharminglittleboy,Lucien, remainsaninspiration;hemightinterruptmysleepeverynight,butI wouldn’thaveitanyotherway.Myhopeisthatourchildrenwillstillhave lotsofchoiceswhentheygrewupandarefreetochoosetheirownpath throughlifeandhistory.Idedicatethisbooktothem.
NOTES
1.SeeS.G.Tallentyre, TheFriendsofVoltaire (London:JohnMurray,1906), pp.198–199.S.G.TallentyrewasthepseudonymofEvelynBeatriceHall.
2.LinguisticSocietyofAmerica, “EndangeredLanguages” at http://www. linguisticsociety.org/content/endangered-languages
3.AustralianGovernment, ThePeopleofAustralia:Australia’sMulticultural Policy (CommonwealthofAustralia,DepartmentofSocialServices,2013)at https://www.dss.gov.au/our-responsibilities/settlement-and-multicul tural-affairs/publications/the-people-of-australia-australias-multiculturalpolicy
4.CommonwealthofAustralia,ParliamentaryDebates(Hansard),Houseof Representatives,April20,1961,p.1051.
IntheBeginning
Abstract JohnLocke’sclaimthat “inthebeginningalltheworldwas America” istakentomeanthatallpeoplesliterallyemergedinastateof nature.TheEnlightenmentideaofuniversalhistoryideaholdsthatall peoplescanbesituatedinthenarrativeofhistoryonacontinuumbetween thatstartandanendpoint,whatwecallcivilization.Therelatedideaof teleologicalhistorymaintainsthatthepassageofhistoryhasdirectionand purpose,historyisheadingtowardaparticularends.Thischapterexplores thethinkingbehindtheseideasandwhattheymeanforhumankind.
Keywords Enlightenment JohnLocke America Stateofnature Teleologicalhistory
“ThusinthebeginningalltheWorldwas America, ” sosaidJohnLocke. ThisfamouspassagefromLocke’s SecondTreatiseofGovernment isgenerallyinterpretedasmeaningthatallpeoplesoftheearth,nomatterwhat stagetheyhavedevelopedorprogressedto,originallybegantheirexistenceinthesameunrefinedstateofnatureastheNativeAmericansofthe NewWorld.ThecontextinwhichLockemadethisstatementdoesnot explicitlysetoutsuchanargument;itwasinfactadiscussionabout propertyandtheacquisitionofpropertyrights.Afterstatingthat “inthe beginningalltheworldwas America, ” Lockewenttoadd, “andmoreso
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thanthatisnow;fornosuchthingas Money wasanywhereknown.Find outsomethingthathaththe UseandValueofMoney amongsthis Neighbours,youshallseethesameManwillbeginpresentlyto enlarge his Possessions. ”1 TheinferencethatLockewasmakingthepointthatall peoplesemergedinthesameunpolishedstateofnatureisentirelyvalid andremainsbothrelevantandinterestingtoconsiderationsofhumankind’spurposehereonearth.
Inlinewiththisinterpretation,inhisstudyofAdamSmith,Gavin Kennedymakesthepointthat “JohnLockedeclaredthat ‘inthebeginning alltheworldwas America’,anditwaseventuallyrealisedthateveryhuman societyhadlivedthelifeofthehuntermodeofsubsistenceatsomepointin itshistory.The ‘rude’ societiesofAmerica,therefore,wereaveritable themeparkonthelivesofEurope’sdistantancestors.”2 Exploringthe passagealittlefurtherinthecontextofthehistoryandfutureofliberalism, AlanWolfewrites, “TosaythatinthebeginningalltheworldwasAmerica istoclaimthatfreedomandequalitywouldbecomeforcestoopowerfulto resist.That,inturn,becamethesinglemostinfluentialcomponentof liberalism:thedominant,ifnotalwaysappreciated,politicalphilosophy ofmoderntimes.ThreecenturiesafterLockewrotehismasterpiece,liberalismoffersthebestguidenotonlytoourowntimes,buttothefutureas well.” Liberalism,alas,holdstheanswerstomanyoftheworld’sproblems, forithasalready “solvedmanyoftheproblemsitwasaskedtoaddress” whilespreading “itsinfluencearoundtheworld,notthroughcoercion,but becauseofitsuniversalappeal.”3
AroundacenturyandaquarterafterthepublicationofLocke’s Two Treatises,GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegeldeliveredaseriesoflectureson thephilosophyofhistoryattheUniversityofBerlin.Earlyoninthe lectureshestated, “Itistheaimoftheinvestigatortogainaviewof theentirehistoryofapeopleoracountry,oroftheworld,inshort, whatwecall UniversalHistory.”4 Hegelwentontodeclare, “Americais thereforethelandofthefuture,where,intheagesthatliebeforeus,the burdenoftheWorld’sHistoryshallrevealitself.” Headdedalittlefurther onthatit “isforAmericatoabandonthegroundonwhichhithertothe HistoryoftheWorldhasdevelopeditself.”5
Byatwistoffateandtiming,Americaisseen,then,asboththe beginningandtheendofhistory.Whileotherunimprovednativepeoples wouldsubsequentlybeencounteredaftertheEuropeandiscoveryofthe Americas,symbolicallyatleast,Americawasseenasboththestartingpoint forhumankindandthepotentialforwhatwemightallbecome.Theidea
thatlinksthestatementsofLockeandHegel,thebeginningandtheend, istheideaofuniversalhistory.Inessence,theideaofuniversalhistory meansthatallpeoplessharethesamehistory,itcontendsthatallpeoples fromunrefinednativestopolishedaristocrats,fromthedevelopingnations ofsub-SaharanAfricatotheaffluentstatesoftheWest canbesituatedin thenarrativeofhumanhistoryonacontinuumbetweenastartandanend point;allaredestinedtotravelthesamepaththroughhistoryandarrive, soonerorlater,atthesameendpoint,modernity.
Interestingly,thefoundingfathersoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica mighthavehappilytakenonsucharesponsibleroleinshowingtheway forward.TheinfluenceofthelikesofMontesquieu,JohnLocke,and WilliamBlackstoneonthedraftersoftheConstitutioniswellknown, buttheymightalsohavebeenawareofemergingthinkinginEurope aboutideasofprogressandperfection,suchasthatproposedbyAnne RobertJacquesTurgot.6 ThepreambletotheConstitutionoftheUnited Statesdeclares, “WethePeopleoftheUnitedStates,inOrdertoforma moreperfectUnion,establishJustice,insuredomesticTranquility,provideforthecommondefence,promotethegeneralWelfare,andsecure theBlessingsofLibertytoourselvesandourPosterity,doordainand establishthisConstitutionfortheUnitedStatesofAmerica.” Indiscussing thefamousphrase, “toformamoreperfectUnion,” PeterandNicholas Onufhighlighthow “fewphrasesaremorefamiliarandlessthesubjectof argument,orevenexamination.Ifsomethingis ‘perfect,’ howcanitbe improved?” Astheyargue,the “ideaofrelativeperfection,ofperfectionas acomparativecondition,mayseempuzzlingwhenwestoptothinkabout it,andthewordsthemselvesanempty flourish.Yettotheauthorsofthe ConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,theideathatperfectioncomesin degreeswasimmediatelyintelligible.” Whenthiswas “appliedtothe union,itprovidedthemwithaconceptionofhistoricaldevelopmentand thusateleologicalcontextwithinwhichtowork.”7 Inmuchthesame vein,whencampaigningforthepresidencyin1998,SenatorBarack Obamasimilarlystated, “Thisunionmayneverbeperfect,butgeneration aftergenerationhasshownthatitcanalwaysbeperfected.”8
The “conceptionofhistoricaldevelopment” andthe “teleologicalcontext” inwhichitplaysoutiswhatthisbookisallabout.Sincethemiddle oftheeighteenthcentury,theideaofuniversalhistoryhasremained remarkablypersistentandresilientinWesternpoliticalthought. Chapter2 outlinespreciselywhatuniversalhistorymeansandwhereit originatesfrom.Itdemonstrateshowithasbeeninterpretedandappliedin
anumberofslightlydifferingways.Despitetheincreasingprevalenceof alternativestermssuchasworldhistoryandglobalhistory,theideaof universalhistoryhaspersisted,inpartbecauseoftheuniquephilosophical andteleologicalmeaningattributedtoitbythinkerssuchasTurgotand FriedrichvonSchiller. Chapter3 takesafurtherlookattheideaofprogressivehistoryandthephilosophyofhistorymoregenerally.Itoutlines thecloserelationshipbetweentheideaofuniversalhistoryandtheideaof progressinWesternpoliticalthought.Centraltotheideaofprogressare tworelatedcomponents:the firstisthatthehumanspeciesuniversally progresses,albeitatdifferentrates,fromanoriginalprimitiveorchildlikecondition,throughsavagery,throughbarbarism,andculminatesatthe apexofprogressinthestatusofcivilization.Thesecondcomponentholds thathumanexperience,bothindividualandcollective,iscumulativeand future-directed,withthespecificobjectivebeingtheongoingimprovementoftheindividual,thesocietyinwhichtheindividuallives,andthe worldinwhichthesocietymustsurvive. Chapter4 examinesthemeansand mechanismsbywhichhistorymaybeshapedandtheideasunderlyingsuch processes,suchasdevelopmentdiscourseandthedrivetomakemodernity happenthroughprogramsofdevelopmentormodernization. Chapter5, the finalchapter,concernstheendstowardwhichhistoryisthoughttobe heading:itasks,doeshistoryreallyhaveapurpose?Orisitallpartoftrying to findmeaninginlifeinasecularsociety.
In TheIdeaofHistory,R.G.Collingwoodobservedthat “Eschatology isalwaysanintrusiveelementinhistory.” Hecontendsthatthe “historian’sbusinessistoknowthepast,nottoknowthefuture;andwhenever historiansclaimtobeabletodeterminethefutureinadvanceofit happening,wemayknowwithcertaintythatsomethinghasgonewrong withtheirfundamentalconceptionofhistory.Further,wemayknow exactlywhatitisthathasgonewrong.” Collingwoodwentontoargue:
Theyhavehypostatizedtheuniversalintoafalseparticularsupposedtoexist byitselfandforitself,andyetinthatisolationtheystillconceiveitas determiningthecourseofparticularevents.Theuniversal,beingthusisolatedfromthetemporalprocess,doesnotworkinthatprocess,itonlyworks uponit.Thetemporalprocessissomethingpassive,shapedbyatimeless forceworkinguponitfromwithout.9
NotallhistorianshaveheededCollingwood’sadvice,andevenfewersocial scientists,philosophers,andeveneconomists,havebeenlesshesitantthan
historianstolookintothecrystalballandseethefuture,perhapsevenwith supposedlygreaterclarityandlessequivocationthantheyviewthepast. Despitethecritiquesandskeptics,theideaofprogressiveuniversalhistory hasremainedpersistentoverthepasttwoandhalfcenturiesormore,strangely persistent.
Theprimaryconcernaboutthepersistenceofuniversalhistoryand whatitmeansformanyofitssubjectshasbeenforcefullyarguedby JohnGray:
ThecoreprojectoftheEnlightenmentwasthedisplacementoflocal, customaryortraditionalmoralities,andofallformsoftranscendental faith,byacriticalorrationalmorality,whichwasprojectedasthebasisof auniversalcivilization.Whetheritwasconceivedinutilitarianorcontractarian,rights-basedorduty-basedterms,thismoralitywouldbesecularand humanist,anditwouldsetuniversalstandardsfortheassessmentofhuman institutions.ThecoreprojectoftheEnlightenmentwastheconstructionof suchacriticalmorality,rationallybindingonallhumanbeings,and,asa corollary,thecreationofauniversalcivilization.10
AsGraygoesontoargue, “justasthecategoryof civilization isacentral elementintheEnlightenmentproject,sotheideaof auniversalhistoryof thespecies isintegraltoit.”11
Theideaofuniversalhistorystillhasitsmanychampions;inthefaceof whathedescribesasan “attack” from “elitegroups,[suchas]cultural relativists,post-colonialists,Foucault-inspiredNewHistoricists,and deconstructionists,” RicardoDuchesne,forinstance,goestogreat lengths,538pagestobeprecise,todefend “thepossibilityofuniversal history.”12 Thisalonemakesitatopicworthrevisiting.
NOTES
1.JohnLocke, TwoTreatisesofGovernment (NewYork:NewAmerican Library,1965),p.343,bookII,para.49.Italicsinoriginal.
2.GavinKennedy, AdamSmith:AMoralPhilosopherandHisPolitical Economy (BasingstokeandNewYork:PalgraveMacmillan,2010),p.63.
3.AlanWolfe, TheFutureofLiberalism (NewYork:Vintage,2010),pp.3–4.
4.GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegel, ThePhilosophyofHistory,trans.J.Sibree (NewYork:DoverPublications,1956),p.4.Italicsinoriginal.
5.Hegel, ThePhilosophyofHistory,pp.86–87.
6.SeeAnneRobertJacquesTurgot, “APhilosophicalReviewoftheSuccessive AdvancesoftheHumanMind,” in TheTurgotCollection:Writings,Speeches, andLettersofAnneRobertJacquesTurgot,BarondeLaune,ed.David Gordon(Auburn,AL:LudwigvonMisesInstitute,2011),pp.320–343.
7.PeterOnufandNicholasOnuf, FederalUnion,ModernWorld:TheLawof NationsinanAgeofRevolutions,1776–1814 (Madison,WI:Madison House,1993),p.30.
8.BarackObama, “AMorePerfectUnion(TheRaceSpeech),”National ConstitutionCenter,Philadelphia,PA(March18,2008)at http://consti tutioncenter.org/amoreperfectunion/
9.R.G.Collingwood, TheIdeaofHistory (Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress, 1961),p.54.
10.JohnGray, Enlightenment’sWake:PoliticsandCultureattheCloseofthe ModernAge (LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995),pp.185–186.
11.Gray, Enlightenment’sWake,p.188.Italicsinoriginal.
12.RicardoDuchesne, TheUniquenessofWesternCivilization (Leidenand Boston:Brill,2011),p.17.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Collingwood,R.G.1961. TheIdeaofHistory.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. Duchesne,Ricardo.2011. TheUniquenessofWesternCivilization.Leidenand Boston:Brill.
Gray,John.1995. Enlightenment’sWake:PoliticsandCultureattheCloseofthe ModernAge.LondonandNewYork:Routledge. Hegel,GeorgWilhelmFriedrich.1956. ThePhilosophyofHistory,trans.J.Sibree. NewYork:DoverPublications.
Kennedy,Gavin.2010. AdamSmith:AMoralPhilosopherandHisPolitical Economy.BasingstokeandNewYork:PalgraveMacmillan. Locke,John.1965. TwoTreatisesofGovernment.NewYork:NewAmerican Library.
Obama,Barack.2008.AMorePerfectUnion(TheRaceSpeech).Philadelphia, PA:NationalConstitutionCenter,March18,2008. http://constitutioncen ter.org/amoreperfectunion/.AccessedNovember8,2016. Onuf,Peter,andNicholasOnuf.1993. FederalUnion,ModernWorld:TheLawof NationsinanAgeofRevolutions,1776–1814.Madison,WI:MadisonHouse. Turgot,AnneRobertJacques.2011.APhilosophicalReviewoftheSuccessive AdvancesoftheHumanMind.In TheTurgotCollection:Writings,Speeches, andLettersofAnneRobertJacquesTurgot,BarondeLaune,ed.DavidGordon, 320–343.Auburn,AL:LudwigvonMisesInstitute. Wolfe,Alan.2010. TheFutureofLiberalism.NewYork:Vintage.
CHAPTER2
UniversalHistory
Abstract Despitetheadventoftermssuchasworldhistoryandglobal history,theideaofuniversalhistoryhasremainedremarkablypersistentin Westernpoliticalthoughtsincethemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury.The large-scalehistoriesrepresentedbythesetermsareindicativeofhumankind’sdesireandeffortsto findconnectionsandmeaninginthemyriadof people,places,andeventsthatmakeuphumanhistory.Thischapter outlinesthevariationstoeachapproach,withaparticularfocusonthe keythinkersandphilosophicalunderpinningsassociatedwiththeideaof universalhistory.
Keywords Historiography Philosophyofhistory
AnneRobertJacques Turgot FriedrichvonSchiller
HISTORIESOFTHE WORLD
EverysooftentheH-NetWorldHistorylistthrowsupadiscussion-cumdebateoverthemeritsorotherwiseofdifferentterminology:Whatisthe differencebetweenworldhistoryandglobalhistory?Whichismore appropriate?Aretheyeffectivelythesamething?Whataboutbighistory? Whataboutuniversalhistory?Onesuchdiscussionoverthecompeting claimsofglobalhistoryversusworldhistoryversusuniversalhistorywent
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alongthelines:Well,giventhatthereisa JournalofWorldHistory (UniversityofHawaiiPress)anda JournalofGlobalHistory (Cambridge UniversityPress),eachwithitsownslightlydifferent raisond’être,andno JournalofUniversalHistory,thenthatprettymuchspeaksforitself.Which istrue,inthatthereisno JournalofUniversalHistory,andfromJanuary 2017thereisalsoa JournalofBigHistory.Buttheideaofuniversalhistory isnotsoreadilyrelegatedtohistory,sotospeak,fortherearealsojournals suchas HistoryandTheory andthe JournalofthePhilosophyofHistory, whicharefullofarticlesprobingtheprosandconsofthekindofuniversal historythatisthesubjectofthisbook.Moreover,astheGoogleBooks NgramViewercharthighlights(Fig.2.1),whilethetermworldhistory hastakenoffsincearoundtheendoftheFirstWorldWar,andwhile globalhistoryhasappearedontheradarinthelatetwentiethcentury,the termuniversalhistoryhasbeenwithusinaconsistentfashionforthebest partofthreecenturies.AsIwillexplain,inlightoftheunderlyingviewof thehistoryofourworldanditsoccupantsencapsulatedintheideaof universalhistory,ithasbeenstrangelypersistent.
Ashighlightedbefore,universalhistoryisoneamongarangeofnot necessarilycompeting,butslightlydifferentcognatetermsthathavebeen usedinthegeneral fieldofhistoryasitgoesaboutcapturinganddocumentingthepastonagrandscale.AsBruceMazlishpointsout,someof themanytermsthathavebeenadoptedinclude “regionalhistory,universalhistory,ecumenicalhistory,eschatologicalhistory,comparativehistory,world-systemhistory,macrohistory,bighistory,worldhistory,and globalhistory;and,indeed,nownewglobalhistory.”1 Itis,indeed,
0.000160%
0.000140% 0.000120% 0.000100% 0.000080% 0.000060% 0.000040% 0.000020% 0.000000% 16501700175018001850190019502000
Universal history Global history World history
Fig.2.1 Relativefrequencyoftheterms “universalhistory,”“worldhistory,” and “globalhistory” inEnglish-languagetexts,1650–2008
Source:GoogleBooksNgramViewer http://books.google.com/ngrams
somethingofafeast.Whateverthedifferencesinterminology,ithasbeen arguedthattheseapproachestohistory “sharethepurposeofofferinga constructionofandthusaguidetoameaningful ‘world’ . ”2 Ofthese historiesofourworld,andinsomecasesouruniverse,universalhistory isthoughttobethe “oldestandmostpersistentformofworldhistory making.”3 ItissaidtodatebackasfarastheGreekhistorianEphorus (c.400–330BCE),4 whocompiledamulti-volumeuniversalhistorythat coveredmanycenturies.
Amanualforschoolspublishedintheearlynineteenthcenturysought toteachstudentsthat “historyisuniversalorparticular:theformertreats thetransactionofallmankind,beginningwiththecreationoftheworld; thelattertreatsofthetransactionsofindividualtribes,orstates,beginning withtheirearliestappearanceaspoliticalsocieties.”5 Accordingtoatleast onemorerecentdetailedstudyofthetopic, “universalhistorywasagenre ofitstime” that “providedaviewofhistorywhichwascapableofgivingan accountoftheentirenewworldopenedupbytheconquestsofAlexander, ofincorporatingtheexperiencesof barbaroi assomethinglessthanexotic, andofprovidingthereaderwithasenseofunitywithindiversity.”6
Anotheraccountexplainsthat “universalhistory,asitsnameimplies, attemptstodeliveramoreencompassingstudyofthepastthanother morenarrowly-focusedhistories.Thedistinctiveclaimoftheuniversal historian,inGraeco-Romanantiquityandbeyond,hasbeentoprovide anaccountofhistorywhichprovidesthebroadestpossibleviewofthepast withintheconfinesofasinglework.”7 Inessencethen,formany,key distinguishingfeaturesofuniversalhistoryasopposedtoothermore narrowlyconfinedhistoriesareitsambitiousscopeintermsofbreadth anddepth,bothtemporallyandspatially:fromthe “creationoftheworld” toyesterday,takinginallcornersofourworldanditspeoples.
Thisaccount,however,doesnotsatisfyall,foruniversalhistoryis thoughttohaveatleastfourmeanings: “first,acomprehensiveand perhapsalsounifiedhistoryoftheknownworldoruniverse;second,a historythatilluminatestruths,idealsorprinciplesthatarethoughtto belongtothewholeworld;third,ahistoryoftheworldunifiedbythe workingsofasinglemind;andfourth,ahistoryoftheworldthathas passeddownthroughanunbrokenlineoftransmission.”8 Thedefinitions outlinedfurtherabove,whatIwillcallatraditionalaccountofuniversal historyforwantofabetterterm,arebestcapturedbymeaningsoneand three,theyrefertolarge-scaleoftenmulti-volumehistoriesoftheknown world,quiteoftencompiledbyasolitaryauthortoilingawayfordecades,
releasinganewvolumeeverysooften.Somewell-knownexamplesofsuch historiesinclude:Jacques-BénigneBossuet’s DiscourseonUniversal History ofthelateseventeenthcentury,9 Voltaire’s EssayonUniversal History,theManners,andSpiritofNations:FromtheReignof CharlemaigntotheAgeofLewisXIV, 10 GeorgWeber’s Outlinesof UniversalHistoryfromtheCreationoftheWorldtothePresentTime, 11 IsraelClareSmith’sheavilyillustratedeight-volume LibraryofUniversal History:ContainingaRecordoftheHumanRacefromtheEarliest HistoricalPeriodtothePresentTimeEmbracingaGeneralSurveyofthe ProgressofMankindinNationalandSocialLife,CivilGovernment, Religion,Literature,ScienceandArt, 12 andLeopoldvonRanke’s UniversalHistory:TheOldestHistoricalGroupofNationsandtheGreeks. 13 Assomeofthemorelengthytitlesindicate,theyareinessencean attempttocaptureinsomedetailthesignificantevents,people,andplaces thathaveshapedthecourseofhistory;muchlikelaterencyclopediasof worldhistorysoughttodo.TheexistenceoftextssuchasWilson’s A ManualofUniversalHistoryandChronologyfortheUseofSchools (1835) isagoodindicatoroftheprominenceofthisstyleofuniversalhistory.Texts likethiswereaccompaniedbychartssuchas Adams’ SynchronologicalChart ofUniversalHistory,anearlyseven-meter,or23-foot-longchartshowing almost6,000yearsoflargelybiblicalhistory,datingfrom4004BCEtothe timeofitspublicationinthelate-nineteenthcentury.14 Asseenin Fig.2.2, Colton’s StreamofTime,orChartofUniversalHistory similarlybeginswith thetimeofCreationin4004BCEupuntilitspublicationin1842.Atthe footofthechartisanoteexplainingthat “EachNationisrepresentedbya streamwhichisbrokeninuponor flowsonundisturbedasitisinfluenced bytheaccessionofTerritoryortheremainingatPeace.”15 Theboardgame, Wallis’sNewGameofUniversalHistoryandChronology,originallypublishedin1814withAdamandEvedepictedinthe firstoftheoutertilesand GeorgeIVasPrinceRegentatthecenterofthespiralisasimilartool intendedtoeducateplayersabouthistory’skeypeopleandevents.16 The gamedepictedin Fig.2.3 isanupdatededitionfromaround1840with five additionalplayingspacesthatdepictWilliamIVandQueenVictoria,the marriageofQueenVictoria,andarailwaythatisrunningthroughan embankment.17 Despitetheemergenceofthetermworldhistory,in theearlytwentiethcenturytheteachingofuniversalhistorywasstill prominent,asevidencedbyGuyDetrickofAda,OhiointheUnited States, filingapatentfora “ChartforTeachingUniversalHistory” on November1,1920.Thepatentapplication,awardedonFebruary14,1922,
Fig.2.2 J.H.Colton’sstreamoftime,orchartofuniversalhistory,publishedin 1842
Fig.2.3 Wallis’snewgameofuniversalhistoryandchronology,issuedin1840
includedachart “coveringtheperiodfromthe firsttotheeighthcentury” and another “coveringtheperiodtothesixteenthcentury” . 18
Universalhistoriesofthiskindarenotexactlydeadandburied,overrun bythemultitudeofhistoriesoftheworldasidentifiedbyMazlish.Tothe contrary,defining “universalhistoryastheattempttounderstandthepast atallpossiblescales,uptothoseofthecosmology,” DavidChristian “predict[s]thatin fiftyyears’ time,allhistorianswillunderstandthatitis possibleandfruitfultoexplorethepastonmultiplescales,manyextending farbeyondBraudel’s longuedurée,byreachingbacktotheoriginsofour species,theoriginsoftheearth,andeventheoriginsofthecosmos.”19
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