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Conductors Semiconductors Superconductors An Introduction to Solid State Physics Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics Rudolf P. Huebener
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AlexAmato • ElvezioMorenzoni
IntroductiontoMuonSpin Spectroscopy
ApplicationstoSolidState andMaterialSciences
Alex Amato
Laboratory for Muon Spin Spectroscopy
Paul Scherrer Institute
Villigen PSI, Switzerland
Elvezio Morenzoni
Laboratory for Muon Spin Spectroscopy
Paul Scherrer Institute
Villigen PSI, Switzerland
ISSN 0075-8450
Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-031-44958-1
ISSN 1616-6361 (electronic)
ISBN 978-3-031-44959-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 031- 44959- 8
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Preface
This book describes the use of polarized positive muons as local spin probes of matter. The method is called μSR, which stands for muon spin rotation, relaxation, or resonance. Implanted and stopped in matter, the polarized muons provide information at atomic scale about the physical and chemical properties of the material under investigation. The seeds of the μSR method were planted in 1957 in the seminal paper by Garwin et al. (Physical Review (1957) 105, 1415), who discovered that the decays of the muon and the pion (the muon’s parent particle) violate parity conservation. With great foresight, they predicted the possibility “that polarized positive and negative muons will become a powerful tool for exploring magnetic fields in nuclei, atoms, and interatomic regions”.
This prediction has come true especially for the positive muon. The μSR technique is now applied to the study of virtually all types of materials in the solid, liquid, and gas phases. Systems studied include metals, insulators, magnetic and the expanding new classes of superconductors and topological materials, semiconductors, organic materials, and even biological samples. The development of a beam of tunable very low-energy muons has made it possible to investigate, in addition to the traditional bulk samples, thin films, multilayers, and heterostructures, so that the specific questions arising from reduced dimensions or the juxtaposition of different materials can be addressed.
In the last decades since the 1970s and 1980s, when the μSR method gained importance and its use increased enormously, there has been a not too large number of books exclusively covering the μSR technique. For many years, the last in the three-volume series edited by W. Hughes and C.S. Wu (Muon Physics, Academic Press, 1975) and especially the book by A. Schenck (Muon Spin Rotation Spectroscopy, Adam Hilger Ltd, 1985) have served as reference books. These books were followed by the monograph by V.P. Smilga and Yu. M. Belousov (The Muon Method in Science, Nova Science Publishers, 1994), which focuses more on theoretical aspects, and by the book of K. Nagamine (Introductory Muon Science, Cambridge University Press, 2003), which includes sections on applied muon science as well as an introduction to μSR. The book by A. Yaouanc and P. Dalmas de Réotier (Muon Spin Rotation, Relaxation and Resonance, Oxford University Press, 2011) is the most recent monograph about μSR, but also more than 10 years old. Although rich in experimental information, it emphasizes the theoretical aspects, giving a detailed and coherent description of the theoretical tools used to understand
and analyze the μSR spectra and extract the physical information. Complementary to the above textbooks, there are graduate school proceedings on μSR, in which chapters, written by a large team of specialists, have been compiled into a book. Such books have appeared regularly: Muons and Pions in Materials Research,J. Chappert and R.I. Grynszpan eds., North-Holland, 1983; Muon Science: Muons in Physics, Chemistry, and Materials, S. Lee, S. H. Kilcoyne and R. Cywinski eds., Institute of Physics Publishing, 1999; and most recently Muon Spectroscopy. An Introduction, S. J. Blundell, R. De Renzi, T. Lancaster and F. L. Pratt eds., Oxford University Press, 2022. They reflect very well the evolution of μSR and its use over time. This evolution is also well represented in the Proceedings of the International μSR Conference, held every 3 years or so after the first one in 1975 in Rorschach, Switzerland. In addition, there are books dealing with specific applications of μSR such as in chemistry (which we do not cover in this book), and several review articles on specific topics. These are mentioned in the book where appropriate.
Parts of the book have evolved from a one-semester course for last year’s undergraduate and graduate students with the generic title “Physics with Muons: from Atomic Physics to Condensed Matter Physics” (but with a focus on μSR), taught at the ETH and the University of Zurich by EM until 2017 and then continued at the University by AA. While roughly maintaining the structure of the lectures, the book represents a major expansion and improvement. It contains much more discussion, details, new examples, and figures (mostly newly drawn), so that its material goes beyond a one-semester course.
In the first part of the book, Chaps. 1–4 follow the logical sequence of steps in a μSR experiment, i.e., description of the muon properties relevant to μSR, generation of polarized muon beams at proton accelerators (Chap. 1, which also contains a brief historical look), muon implantation and thermalization in the sample (Chap. 2), experimental setup of a μSR measurement (Chap. 3), and analysis of the muon polarization data (Chap. 4).
In the second part of the book, Chaps. 5–8 discuss the application of the μSR technique to extract key physical information in the major fields: magnetism (Chap. 5), superconductivity (Chap. 6), study of semiconductors with muonium (the bound μ+ -electron atom) as hydrogen isotope (Chap. 7), thin-film physics with lowenergy muons (Chap. 8). In the final part of the book, we cover two aspects that go beyond μSR but are still closely related. First, in Chap. 9, the use of negative muons for μ SR experiments and, more important and topical, the spectroscopy of muonic atoms and its use in applied sciences are presented. In the last chapter, the role of the muon as an elementary particle in particle physics is briefly described. In particular, the theoretical understanding of the decay properties of the muon, on which the μSR technique is based, is elucidated. Seven appendices provide information that we feel is either complementary or too lengthy for the main text. At the end of the book, problems (with solutions) have been added to test comprehension and to acquire practical familiarity with the material.
Our principal aim for this book was to provide a tutorial self-contained introduction to μSR by showing how and what kind of physical information can be extracted through a μSR experiment, by presenting illustrative examples of experiments.
We emphasize the connection to the experiments rather than giving an overview of the μSR research in a particular field or discussing in depth specific physical questions. We are well aware that there are many other interesting and topical μSR experiments, which would have deserved to be selected as examples. We apologize to the researchers whose contributions we have not mentioned. The literature on μSR is now very extensive and broad and, to avoid overloading the book, we could include only a few examples.
Prerequisites for a profitable reading of the book are basic knowledge of condensed matter physics, quantum mechanics, and familiarity with mechanics and electromagnetism (and for Chap. 10 special relativity) at a level which is achieved in the final year of an undergraduate physics program. To facilitate understanding, we have made extensive use of cross-reference links, which are particularly efficient in the electronic version. The book is intended not only for students, but also for researchers in other fields who want to use the μSR technique or understand μSR results for their research, and last but not least, for practitioners.
The book has benefited indirectly from discussions with current and former colleagues at the Laboratory for Muon Spin Spectroscopy at the Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen, Switzerland, and with many colleagues from other institutions with whom we have collaborated. There are too many to mention here; instead, we refer to the author lists of the publications that we have co-authored and that are cited in the book. We are grateful to Toni Shiroka and Zaher Salman for their comments and suggestions after visioning the book or parts of it. We would also like to thank Ms. Lisa Scalone for her editorial assistance and for her patience in waiting for this work to be completed.
Villigen PSI, Switzerland Elvezio Morenzoni August 2023 Alex Amato
3.4Measurement
3.4.1Zero
6
5.4Incommensurate
5.5Dynamics of
5.6Magnetic Response in the Paramagnetic or Diamagnetic State: The Knight-Shift
5.6.1Paramagnetism of the Conduction Electrons: Fermi Contact Term Knight-Shift
5.6.2Knight-Shift in Materials with Local Moments
5.6.3Determination of the Muon Stopping Site
5.6.4Angular Dependence of the Knight-Shift
5.6.5Nonlinear
5.7Depolarization
5.7.1Classical
5.7.2Influence of the Quadrupolar Interaction on the
6.1Concepts
6.1.1The
6.1.2Type-I
6.1.3The
6.1.4Energy
6.2Vortex
6.2.1Principle
6.2.3Coherence
6.6Spontaneous
6.7Study
Physical Constants, Symbols and Abbreviations
The following tables summarize the values of fundamental physical constants and quantities, the definition of the most important symbols, and the acronyms/abbreviations used in this book.
For the fundamental physical constants, we have used the current (2018) values recommended by the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), E. Tiesinga et al., Rev. Mod. Phys. (2021), 93, 025010, which can also be found on the website of the National Institute of Standards and Technology USA (NIST) https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html. These values are also used to calculate quantities not listed by CODATA (e.g., γμ , γ T Mu ...). Frequency of vacuum muonium ν0 is taken from W. Liu et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. (1999), 82, 711. The muon lifetime is from the Particle Data Group (2022) R. L. Workman et al., Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics (2022), 2022, 083C01.
We define the g -factors ge ,gμ ,..., gyromagnetic ratios γe ,γμ ... and the Larmor angular frequencies ωμ ,ωe ... as positive quantities and take into account the opposite sign of the positive muon and electron values with a plus or minus sign when necessary.
The units are expressed in SI, except for atomic or particle properties such as energy, momentum, or mass, which are expressed in eV, eV/c, and eV/c2 , respectively. Spin is always meant in units of h, i.e., dimensionless. In Chap. 10 and related Appendix G dealing with aspects of particle physics, we use natural units (h = c = ε0 = 1).
Some symbols have different meanings depending on the context. For example, (i) A is used for the atomic mass number/atomic weight and for a generic hyperfine coupling constant; (ii) α is used for the fine structure constant, for the ratio Δ(0)/kB Tc characterizing a superconductor, and as a fitting parameter of μSR spectra to account for different solid angles and efficiencies of positron detectors of a μSR spectrometer; and (iii) λ is the exponential relaxation rate and the magnetic penetration depth. We have retained these multiple definitions to conform to the most common use of these symbols in the literature. It should always be clear from the context which definition applies.
We use the term magnetic field instead of magnetic induction (or magnetic flux density) and this for macroscopic averaged values as well as for values at microscopic scale (e.g., for Bμ ).
Values of Important Physical Constants (Grouped by Subject)
Symbol
a0 = 4πε0 h2 me e 2 = h me cα
Definition
Value (SI or eV-units)
Bohr radius (nucleus mass = ∞)
5.29177210903(80) × 10 11 m
c Speed of light (in vacuum) 299,792,458 ms 1
e Elementary charge (electron charge magnitude) 1.602176634 × 10 19 C
h Reduced Planck constant 1.054571817 × 10 34 Js
kB
ke = 1 4πε0
NA
=
Boltzmann constant 1.380649 × 10 23 JK 1
Coulomb constant
8.9875517923(14) × 109 kgm3 s 2 C 2
Avogadro constant
6.02214076 × 1023 mol 1
Rydberg energy (H atom with nucleus mass = ∞) 13.605693122994(26) eV α = 1 4πε0 e 2 hc
ε0
μ0
ν
Ф0
Fine structure constant
7.2973525693(11) × 10 3 1/137.035999084(21)
Vacuum electric permittivity
8.8541878128(13) × 10 12 Fm 1
Vacuum magnetic permeability 1.25663706212(19) × 10 6 NA 2
Hyperfine frequency (splitting) of the free muonium ground state 4,463,302,776(51) Hz
Magnetic flux quantum 2.067833848 × 10 15 Wb
τμ Muon lifetime 2.1969811(22) × 10 6 s
mμ Muon mass
105.6583755(23) MeVc 2 1.883531627(42) × 10 28 kg
mμ me
Muon-electron mass ratio
206.7682830(46)
mμ mp Muon-proton mass ratio 0.1126095264(25)
μμ = gμ μ μ B Iμ
Muon magnetic moment
4.49044830(10) × 10 26 JT 1
Symbol Definition
μ μ B = e h 2mμ
gμ
γμ = μμ hIμ = gμ e 2mμ = gμ μ μ B h
μμ
μp
μμ
μe
γ T Mu = γe γμ 2
me
μe = ge μB S
μB = e h 2me
ge
γe = μe hS = ge e 2me = ge μB h
mp
mp me
μp
μNM = e h 2mp
μp
μNM
mn
μn
μn
μNM
Value (SI or eV-units)
Muon Bohr magneton
4.48521889(10) × 10 26 JT 1
Free muon g -factor
2.0023318418(13)
Muon gyromagnetic ratio
8.51615457(19) × 108 rads 1 T 1
2π × 135.538810(3) MHzT 1
Muon-proton magnetic moment ratio
3.183345142(71)
Muon-electron magnetic moment ratio
4.83636198 (11) × 10 3
Low-field gyromagnetic ratio of triplet Mu mF =±1
2π × 13,944.706 MHzT 1
Electron mass
0.51099895000(15) MeVc 2
9.1093837015(28) × 10 31 kg
Electron magnetic moment
9.2847647043(28) × 10 24 JT 1
(Electron) Bohr magneton
9.2740100783(28) × 10 24 JT 1
Free electron g -factor
2.00231930436256(35)
Electron gyromagnetic ratio
1.76085963023(53) × 1011 rads 1 T 1
2π × 28,024.9514242(85) MHzT 1
Proton mass
938.27208816(29) MeVc 2
1.67262192369(51) × 10 27 kg
Proton-electron mass ratio
1836.15267343(11)
Proton magnetic moment
1.41060679736(60) × 10 26 JT 1
Nuclear magneton
5.0507837461(15) × 10 27 JT 1
Proton magnetic moment to nuclear magneton ratio
2.79284734463(82)
Neutron mass
939.56542052(54) MeVc 2
1.67492749804(95) × 10 27 kg
Neutron magnetic moment
9.6623651(23) × 10 27 JT 1
Neutron magnetic moment to nuclear magneton ratio 1.91304273(45)
Important Symbols
Symbol
A (A)
A0
A(t)
AMu = hω0 = hν0
Definition
Generic symbol for hyperfine coupling constant (or tensor) (energy unit)
Initial experimental asymmetry
Asymmetry spectrum or function
Hyperfine coupling in free muonium
B (Local) magnetic field vector (generic)
Bc
Bc1
Bc2
Bcont,fd
Bdem
Bdip (rμ )
Bext
Bext
BF.cont
BLor
Bμ
Bμ
Ee +
E max e + ∼ = mμ c 2 2
Ekin ,Eμ
Thermodynamic critical field
Lower critical field
Upper critical field
RKKY enhanced magnetic contact field vector
Demagnetizing field vector
Dipolar field vector at muon site rμ
Externally applied magnetic field vector (by convention ˆ z-axis)
Absolute value of Bext
Fermi magnetic contact field vector
Lorentz field vector
Local magnetic field vector probed by the muon
Absolute value of Bμ
Energy of a muon decay positron
Maximum energy of a decay positron
Kinetic and total energy of a muon
EF Fermi energy
En,μ =− mμ Z 2 e 4 (4πε0 )2 2n2 h2
f(Bμ ) or f(B)
fm (Bμ ) or fm (B)
Iμ
Energy of the level n of a muonic atom with atomic number Z
Distribution of vector Bμ or B
Distribution of the field modulus
Muon spin vector and operator (in units of h)
Iμ Muon spin (in units of h)
ˆ I α Muon spin 4-vector
IN
Nuclear spin vector and operator (in units of h)
IN Spin quantum number of a nucleus
js Supercurrent vector
k wave vector in reciprocal space
Kexp Experimental relative frequency shift (Knight shift)
Kμ Muon Knight shift
� Mean free path
M Magnetization vector
MS
Saturation magnetization vector
Symbol
mIμ
mS
m∗
mμ = mμ mA mμ + mA
n↑ /n↓
ne = n↑ + n↓
nsc
P(t)
P(t) = P(t) · ˆ n
Px (t)
Pz (t)
q
R
Rp
rn,μ = 4πε0 h2 n2 mμ Ze 2
rs = 1 a0 ( 3 4πne ) 1 3
Definition
Muon spin quantum number
Electron spin quantum number
Effective carrier mass
Reduced mass in a muonic atom with mass number A
Electron density with spin parallel/antiparallel to the quantization direction (e.g., applied magnetic field direction)
Density of conduction electrons
Density of superconducting carriers, superfluid density
Polarization vector of the muon ensemble
Projection of the polarization vector along the direction of observation ˆ n
Transverse polarization function
Longitudinal polarization function
Charge of a particle (with sign)
Total range of a particle in matter[gcm 2 ]
Projected range: projection of R into direction of incoming particle[gcm 2 ]
Radius of an orbit with quantum number n in a muonic atom with atomic number Z
Electron density parameter: radius occupied by one conduction electron in units of a0
S Electron spin vector and operator (in units of h)
S Electron spin
S =− dE dx
Energy loss (or mass stopping power)[MeVcm2 g 1 ], x [gcm 2 ] mass per unit area
Tc Critical temperature
TC Curie temperature
TN Néel temperature
Tf or Tg
Freezing or glass temperature
v Velocity of a particle or relative velocity between two inertial frames of reference
vF Fermi velocity
ˆ z Unit vector along z direction
α = Δ(0) kB Tc
Parameter of the α -model
α Fit parameter of the experimental asymmetry
β Fit parameter of the experimental asymmetry (generally β ≡ 1)
β Stretch parameter of the stretched exponential function
β = v c
〈ΔB 2 μ 〉
Ratio of velocity over the speed of light
Standard deviation of Bμ , field width
Δ(T, k) or Δ(T, φ) or Δ(T ) Superconducting gap function
ΔRp
ε = Ee + E max e +
Projected range straggling (FWHM)
Scaled decay positron energy
Symbol Definition
ϵ Detector efficiency
γ = 1 1 (v 2 /c 2 )
Lorentz factor
γ α (α = 0, 1, 2, 3), γ 5 γ -matrices
κ = λ ξGL
λ
λL
λT
Ginzburg-Landau parameter
Exponential depolarization rate
Longitudinal depolarization rate
Transverse depolarization rate
λ Magnetic penetration depth
λL
μμ = gμ μ μ B Iμ
μe = ge μB S
μj
μN,j
ν = 1 τc
νμ = ωμ 2π
ξBCS
ξGL
ρsc ≡ nsc m∗
London magnetic penetration depth
Muon magnetic moment vector and operator
Electron magnetic moment vector and operator
Electronic magnetic moment vector and operator at site j
Nuclear magnetic moment vector and operator at site j
Fluctuation rate
Muon spin precession frequency [Hz]
BCS coherence length
GL coherence length
Superfluid density
σ Pauli matrices σx ,σy ,σz
σ Gaussian depolarization rate
σN Gaussian depolarization rate by nuclear moments
τc
Fluctuation/correlation time
ϕ Initial muon spin phase
ωμ = γμ Bμ or γμ Bext
Angular frequency of the muon spin precession (Larmor precession, [rads 1 ]) in the local field Bμ or in the applied field Bext
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Symbol Definition
AF Antiferromagnetism
at% Atomic percent
BCS Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (theory)
BNL Brookhaven National Laboratory
BSCCO Bismuth Strontium Calcium Copper Oxide, generic formula Bi2 Sr2 Can 1 Cun O2n+4+x ,mostly n = 2
CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research
CODATA Committee on Data for Science and Technology
DFT Density Functional Theory
DMS Dilute Magnetic Semiconductors
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
FLL Flux-Line Lattice
FNAL Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab)
FWHM Full Width at Half Maximum
FM Ferromagnetism
GKT Gaussian Kubo-Toyabe (function)
GL Ginzburg-Landau (theory)
HWHM Half Width at Half Maximum
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
LF-μSR Longitudinal Field Muon Spin Rotation/Relaxation/Resonance
LKT Lorentzian Kubo-Toyabe (function)
LSCO Lanthanum Strontium Copper Oxide, La2 x Srx CuO4 (214)
Mev Million events (recorded in an experiment)
MIXE Muon Induced X-ray Emission
ML Machine Learning
μSR Muon Spin Rotation/Relaxation/Resonance
NC Nuclear Capture
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
PIXE Proton or Particle Induced X-ray Emission
ppb
ppm
Parts per billion
Parts per million
PS Polystyrene
PSI Paul Scherrer Institute
QCP Quantum Critical Point
Symbol Definition
QED Quantum Electrodynamics
QFT Quantum Field Theory
QPT Quantum Phase Transition
QSL Quantum Spin Liquid
rms Root mean square
RAL Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
RE Rare Earth
RKKY Ruderman-Kittel-Kasuya-Yosida (interaction)
SCA Strong Collision Approximation
SCR Self-Consistent Renormalization (theory)
SRO Strontium Ruthenate, Sr2 RuO4
SM Standard Model of particle physics
SMM Single Molecule Magnet
SμS Swiss Muon Source
STP Standard Temperature and Pressure
TF-μSR Transverse Field Muon Spin Rotation/Relaxation/Resonance
TRIM.SP Transport and Range of Ions in Matter (Monte Carlo Program)
TRIUMF TRI-University Meson Facility
TRSB Time-Reversal Symmetry Breaking
UHV Ultra-High Vacuum
V-A Vector minus Axial (interaction)
wTF Weak Transverse Field
wt% Weight percent
XRF X-Rays Fluorescence
YBCO Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide, YBa2 Cu3 O7 δ or YBa2 Cu3 O6+x (also known as Y123)
ZF, LF, TF Zero, Longitudinal, Transverse applied Field Bext
ZF-μSR Zero Field Muon Spin Rotation/Relaxation/Resonance
Fundamentals
In the Muon Spin Rotation/Relaxation technique (μSR), positive polarized muons produced at an accelerator, are implanted in a sample where they thermalize and act as a local spin or magnetic probe of the compound under study.
Since its discovery in the 1930’s, see Sect. 1.2, the muon has played an important role in particle physics, see Chap. 10. On the other hand, condensed matter or materials scientists are generally less familiar with the unstable1 muon than with the electron, neutron, and proton, which are the constituents of an atom. However, the specific properties of the muon make it an excellent spin probe and, although unstable, the only elementary particle other than the electron/positron, that is used as a probe of matter.
In this chapter, after a brief historical overview, we introduce the properties of the muon and describe how these particles produced at an accelerator can be manipulated to form a polarized beam that can be implanted in a sample.
1.1The Muon as Elementary Particle
The muon (μ) is one of the few elementary particles. It has unit electric charge and spin 1/2 (fermion). It is a charged lepton, that does not participate in the strong interaction and is one of the fundamental fermions of the Standard Model2 (SM) of particle physics, which describes the electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions and is very successful (although not complete) in predicting a wide range of experimental results. Note that the negative muon (μ ) is the particle, while the positively charged muon (μ+ ) is by definition the antiparticle (Fig. 1.1).
1 The muon is present in nature in the cosmic rays and is therefore less exotic than other unstable particles.
2 For a comprehensive description of the Standard Model, see, e.g., Thomson (2013).
A. Amato, E. Morenzoni, Introduction to Muon Spin Spectroscopy, Lecture Notes in Physics 961, https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 3- 031- 44959- 8_1
Fig. 1.1 The 12 fundamental spin 1/2 fermions and the 4 fundamental bosons (integer spin) of the Standard Model of particle physics. Yellow shaded regions indicate which bosons couple to which fermions
1.2A Brief History of the Muon
The history of the muon discovery is interesting because it exemplifies how science progresses step by step, small or big, sometimes in the wrong direction, but always testing accumulated knowledge against new observations and hypotheses. Here we summarize the timeline of milestones associated with the discovery and identification of the muon leading to its eventual use as a magnetic microprobe.
1785 Charles Augustin Coulomb finds that electroscopes3 can discharge spontaneously by the action of the air.
1879 William Crookes shows that the rate of spontaneous discharge decreases as the pressure in a gas discharge tube decreases. This indicates that the discharge is due to the ionization of the air.
1896 Henri Becquerel discovers natural radioactivity. This triggers interest in the origin of the spontaneous electrical discharge previously observed in the air. The obvious hypothesis is that the discharge is
3 The electroscope is an instrument used to detect the presence and sign of static electric charges via the Coulomb force.
caused by the radioactive materials on Earth, although this is difficult to prove.
1899 Julius Elster and Hans Geitel find that surrounding a (gold leaf) electroscope with a thick metal box reduces its spontaneous discharge. From this observation, they conclude that the discharge is due to highly penetrating ionizing agents outside of the container.
1909–1910 Theodor Wulf performs experiments with precise electroscopes that detect natural sources of radiation on the ground. Wulf takes his electroscope to the top of the Eiffel Tower to test whether the radiation is coming from the Earth or from above. He finds that the radiation intensity is slightly lower at the top of the Eiffel Tower. Because of absorption, if the radiation is coming from the Earth, the intensity should be much lower at the top. However, the results are not conclusive.
1910 Albert Gockel arranges the first balloon flights with the purpose of studying the properties of penetrating radiation. He measures the levels of ionizing radiation up to an altitude of 3000 meters and concludes that the ionization does not decrease with altitude and therefore cannot have a purely terrestrial origin. He also introduces the term “cosmic radiation” (kosmische Strahlung).
1907–1911 Domenico Pacini observes that underwater the ionization is significantly lower than at the sea surface. For these measurements, he immerses an electroscope about three meters deep into the sea near Livorno, Italy. This demonstrates that part of the ionization itself must be due to sources other than terrestrial radioactivity. Pacini concludes that “... sizable cause of ionization exists in the atmosphere, originating from penetrating radiation, independent of the direct action of radioactive substances in the ground.” (De Angelis 2010).
1911–1912 Victor Hess makes charge measurements from balloons up to an altitude of 5.2km. He measures an increasing charge with increasing altitude (Fig. 1.2).
1913 The results by Hess are confirmed by the young Werner Kolhörster in subsequent flights up to 9.2km.
1924–1926 Millikan first questions the existence of cosmic rays after a flight over Texas up to 15km (the results were obscured by the latitude geomagnetic effect4 ). “We conclude, therefore, that there exists no such penetrating radiation as we have assumed ” (Russel et al. 1924).
4 Since the interstellar charged particles approaching at the level of the equator must travel in a direction perpendicular to the Earth’s magnetic field, they are deflected by the Lorentz force, and only very energetic particles reach the Earth. The low-energy particles will have a spiral trajectory around the field line and will be directed toward the Earth’s poles. Also, near the poles, incoming particles have a higher probability that their trajectory will be along the magnetic field lines and therefore not affected by the Lorentz force.
Fig. 1.2 Victor F. Hess, center, departing from Vienna, circa 1911. Picture: V. F. Hess Society, Echophysics, Schloss Pöllau, Austria
Using unmanned balloons to perform experiments at even higher altitudes, Millikan completely changes his mind and coins the term ‘cosmic rays’. “ all this constitutes pretty unambiguous evidence that the high-altitude rays do not originate in our atmosphere, very certainly not in the lower nine-tenths of it, and justify the designation ‘cosmic rays’ ” (Millikan & Cameron 1928).
Millikan’s move to take the credit for the discovery provokes an angry response by Hess (1926): “ The recent determination by Millikan and his colleagues of the high-penetrating power of high-altitude radiation has been an occasion for American scientific journals such as ‘Science’ and ‘Scientific Monthly’ to propose the name ‘Millikan Rays’. Since his work is merely a confirmation and extension of the results obtained by Gockel, myself and Kolhörster from 1910 to 1913 using balloon borne measurements of the rays, this appellation should be rejected as it is misleading and unjustified ”.
1927 The geomagnetic effect on the cosmic rays is discovered by Clay et al. (1934) (Fig. 1.3).
1933 First picture of a muon track (originally misidentified as a byproduct of a nuclear explosion) in a Wilson cloud chamber5 by Kunze (1933) (Fig. 1.4).
1936 V. Hess receives the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the cosmic radiation.
1936 Discovery of the muon by C. Anderson and S. Neddermeyer using a cloud chamber at an altitude of 4300m on Pikes Peak, Colorado (Anderson & Neddermeyer 1936; Neddermeyer & Anderson 1938). They name it “mesotron” (Anderson & Neddermeyer 1938) (i.e., intermediate particle, with mass between electron and proton). The muon, however, is initially misinterpreted as the so-called Yukawa’s particle, proposed to mediate the nuclear force (Yukawa 1935). The muon is so unexpected that its discovery led I. I. Rabi6 to say “who ordered that?”.
5 A cloud chamber is a device for detecting the path of ionizing particles. In a container a volume of saturated water or alcohol vapor is made supersaturated by sudden adiabatic expansion. An energetic charged particle ionizes the gas molecules leaving a trail of ionized particles. The resulting ions act as condensation centers, forming small droplets that are visible as a “cloud” track persisting for several seconds. The tracks are characteristic for different particles.
6 I. I. Rabi received in 1944 the Nobel Prize for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance in molecular beams.
1941 B. Rossi and D. B. Hall determine the muon lifetime to be τμ = 2.4(3) × 10 6 s (Rossi & Hall 1941).
1945–1947 Conversi et al. (1947) measure the lifetimes of positive and negative muons. The lifetimes are too long for strongly interacting particles. It turns out that the Yukawa’s particle is actually the pion.
1946 Discovery of the pion by C. F. Powell et al. (Lattes et al. 1947) studying the cosmic rays with special photographic emulsions at highaltitude. It decays primarily into a muon and a muon neutrino, see Sect. 1.4.1.
1956 Lee and Yang (1956) predict that any process governed by the weak interaction should lead to a violation of the parity. The 1957 Nobel Prize in Physics is jointly awarded to them.
Between Christmas of 1956 and New Year, National Bureau of Standards (NBS) scientists led by Columbia University Prof. C. S. Wu (Wu et al. 1957) confirm that the emission of beta particles from cobalt-60 nuclei oriented with a strong magnetic field is asymmetric.
1957 R. Garwin et al. observe the parity violation in weak decay of the muon (Garwin et al. 1957).7 This work is followed a few months later by one of Friedman and Telegdi (1957), who also discuss the possible formation of muonium (μ+ e bound state) as a plausible cause of muon spin depolarization. The paper of Garwin et al. already lists the main muon properties, which are also essential for its use as a
7 The muons were produced at the Nevis Columbia Cyclotron, Columbia University, New York, USA.
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Title: The bedbug
Its relation to public health, its habits and life history, and methods of control
Creator: United States. Public Health Service
Release date: November 27, 2023 [eBook #72238]
Language: English
Original publication: Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924
Credits: Charlene Taylor, Donald Cummings, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BEDBUG ***
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TREASURY DEPARTMENT
UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE
HUGH S. CUMMING, S G
THE BEDBUG
ITS RELATION TO PUBLIC HEALTH, ITS HABITS AND LIFE HISTORY, AND
METHODS OF CONTROL
REPRINT No. 626
FROM THE PUBLIC HEALTH REPORTS
D 10, 1920 (Pages 2964–2970) [Revised edition, 1924]
WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1924
THE BEDBUG.[1]
Its Relation to Public Health, its Habits and Life History, and Methods of Control.
[1] Reprint from the Public Health Reports, vol 35, No 50, December 10, 1920, pp. 2964–2970.
The bedbug is one of the numerous insects which have been suspected of conveying disease to man. Compared with such insect pests as mosquitoes, lice, and fleas, however, its rôle is decidedly a minor one. It has been claimed that the bedbug can take up the microparasites of European relapsing fever, plague, and possibly leprosy, along with the blood of men or animals suffering from these diseases. It is also possible that in rare instances the bedbug may transmit plague or European relapsing fever to man. On the other hand, there is no convincing evidence that the bedbug is the usual and ordinary insect transmitter of these or any other diseases at present known to us.
If the bedbug acts as a transmitter of disease, it apparently does so by the accidental carriage of disease elements on the mouth parts; but this occurs only under the most favorable conditions. These would require, first, the presence of great numbers of microparasites on the skin or in the blood of a man or animal sick with some disease transmissible to man by subcutaneous inoculation; second, it would probably be necessary that there should be many bugs biting in order that one or more of them should bite some healthy person within a rather short space of time after these insects had fed on the infected individual.
In actual practice these conditions would be found only in the most filthy and insanitary surroundings and would call for drastic measures to exterminate all vermin. It is, of course, possible that under unsettled conditions where sick and well are crowded together
with no facilities for cleanliness, bedbugs might act as transmitters of septicemic diseases. Experience has shown that under such grossly insanitary conditions such insects as fleas and lice appear to be and are far more dangerous as carriers of disease. Special measures for their extermination should be taken. Added precautions for the examination of bedbugs under these conditions would probably not be justified by the results.
Notwithstanding the minor rôle which must be assigned the bedbug as a carrier of disease, its presence is an offense against sanitary decency. Its bites are quite poisonous to some people and its odor is most disagreeable; and every effort should be made to keep all dwellings, hospitals, ships, and other premises free from these disgusting insects.
Dr. L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, and consultant United States Public Health Service, has permitted the quotation of the following passages from Farmer’s Bulletin No. 754, by C. L. Marlatt, which gives an authoritative account of the habits, life history, and the means of control of these insects.
“General Characteristics.
“The bedbug belongs to the order Hemiptera, which includes the true bugs or piercing insects, characterized by possessing a piercing and sucking beak. The bedbug is to man what the chinch bug is to grains or the squash bug to cucurbs. Like nearly all the insects parasitic on animals, however, it is degraded structurally, its parasitic nature and the slight necessity for extensive locomotion having resulted, after many ages doubtless, in the loss of wings and the assumption of a comparatively simple structure. Before feeding, the adult is much flattened, oval, and in color is rust red, with the abdomen more or less tinged with black. When engorged, the body becomes much bloated and elongated and brightly colored from the ingested blood. The wings are represented by the merest rudiments, barely recognizable pads, and the simple eyes or ocelli of most other true bugs are lacking. The absence of wings is a most fortunate
circumstance, since otherwise there would be no safety from it even for the most careful of housekeepers. Some slight variation in length of wing pads has been observed, but none with wings showing any considerable development has ever been found.
“Habits and Life History.
“The bedbug is normally nocturnal in habits and displays a certain degree of wariness, caution, and intelligence in its efforts at concealment during the day. Under the stress of hunger, however, it will emerge from its place of concealment in a well-lighted room at night, so that under such circumstances keeping the gas or electric light burning is not a complete protection. It has been known under similar conditions to attack human beings voraciously in broad daylight. It usually leaves its victim as soon as it has become engorged with blood and retires to its normal place of concealment, either in cracks in the bedstead, especially if the latter be one of the wooden variety, or behind wainscoting, or under loose wall paper; and in these and similar places it manifests its gregarious habit by collecting in masses. It thrives particularly in filthy apartments and in old houses which are full of cracks and crevices, in which it can conceal itself beyond easy reach. As just noted, the old-fashioned, heavy, wooden-slatted bedsteads afford especially favorable situations for the concealment and multiplication of this insect, and the general use in later years of iron and brass bedsteads has very greatly facilitated its eradication. Such beds, however, do not insure safety, as the insects are able to find places of concealment even about such beds, or get to them readily from their other hiding places.
“The bedbug takes from 5 to 10 minutes to become bloated with blood, and then retires to its place of concealment for 6 to 10 days for the quiet digestion of its enormous meal, and for subsequent molting, or reproduction if in the adult stage.”
“The eggs hatch in a week or 10 days in the hot weather of midsummer, but cold may lengthen or even double this incubation period or check development altogether. The young escape by
pushing up the lid-like top with its projecting rim. When first emerged, they are yellowish white and nearly transparent, the brown color of the more mature insect increasing with the later molts.”
“Unfavorable conditions of temperature and food will necessarily result in great variation in the number of generations annually and in the rate of multiplication, but allowing for reasonable checks on development, there may be at least four successive broods in a year in houses kept well heated in winter.”
“Food and Longevity.
“Under normal conditions the food of the common bedbug is obtained from human beings only, and no other unforced feeding habit has been reported. It is easily possible, however, to force the bedbug to feed on mice, rats, birds, etc., and probably it may do so occasionally in nature in the absence of its normal host. The abundance of this insect in houses which have long been untenanted may occasionally be accounted for by such other sources of food, but probably normally such infestation can be explained by the natural longevity of the insect and its ability to survive for practically a year, and perhaps more, without food.”
“Influence of Temperature.
“As a messmate of human beings in dwelling houses, the bedbug is normally protected from extreme cold and is known to be an abundant and serious pest far north. In fact, it is often more troublesome in north temperate latitudes than farther south. This may be accounted for partly by the fact that the bedbug is very sensitive to high temperatures, and a temperature of 96° to 100° F. or more, accompanied with a fairly high degree of humidity, results in the death of large numbers of the bugs. The mature or partly mature bedbugs can stand comparatively low temperatures, even below freezing, for a considerable period. The eggs and newly hatched larvæ, however, succumb to a temperature below freezing, if this
condition is prolonged for from 15 days to a month. The feeding and developing activity of the insect practically ceases at 60° F., the insect remaining quiescent and in semihibernation at temperatures below this point. The most favorable temperatures for activity are between 60° and 98° F. The activity of the insect is controlled entirely by temperature and food supply, and, therefore, in heated houses the insect may remain active throughout the winter. There is some protection in winter, therefore, in sleeping in cold bedrooms.”
“The Bite of the
Bedbug.
“The bite of the bedbug is decidedly poisonous to some individuals, resulting in a slight swelling and disagreeable inflammation. To such persons the presence of bedbugs is sufficient to cause the greatest uneasiness, if not to put sleep and rest entirely out of the question. With others, however, who are less sensitive, the presence of the bugs may not be recognized at all, and, except for the occasional staining of the linen by a crushed individual, their presence might be entirely overlooked. The inflammation experienced by sensitive persons seems to result chiefly from the puncture of the skin by the sharp piercing setæ which constitute the puncturing element of the mouth parts, as there seems to be no secretion of poison other than the natural fluids of the mouth.
“The biting organ of the bedbug is similar to that of other insects of its order. It consists of a rather heavy, fleshy under lip (the only part ordinarily seen in examining the insect), within which lie four threadlike hard filaments or setæ which glide over one another with an alternating motion and pierce the flesh. The blood is drawn up through the beak, which is closely applied to the point of puncture, and the alternating motion of the setæ in the flesh causes the blood to flow more freely.
“To allay the irritation set up by the bite of the bedbug, peroxide of hydrogen or dioxygen may be used with good results.
“Tincture of iodine either at ordinary or double strength is also a good counterirritant for use in cases of flea, mosquito, bedbug, and
other insect bites, but should be used with caution on the tender skin of small children and on those who are affected with or disposed to eczemic disorders.”
“Natural Enemies of the Bedbug.
“Living always in houses as it does and being well concealed, the bedbug is not normally subject to much if any control by natural enemies. Certain other household insects, however, do occasionally prey upon the bedbug, as, for example, the house centipede and the common little red house ant. Such enemies, however, are of very small importance and yield little, if any, effective control except under very exceptional circumstances.”
“Remedies.
“Undoubtedly the most efficient remedy for the bedbug is to fumigate the infested house or rooms with hydrocyanic-acid gas. This gas will penetrate into every crevice in the house or room where the bedbugs conceal themselves and has an immediate effectiveness which gives it an important recommendation, especially when the infestation is considerable or of long standing. This method of fumigation should be intelligently employed, as the gas is deadly poisonous.” Five ounces of potassium cyanide per 1,000 cubic feet of space should be employed; exposure, one hour.[2] Ten ounces per 1,000 cubic feet would be better.
[2] Creel, R. H., and Faget, F. M., Cyanide Gas for the Destruction of Insects, with Special Reference to Mosquitoes, Fleas, Body Lice, and Bedbugs: Public Health Reports, June 9, 1916, pp. 1464–1475; Reprint No. 343.
“The fumes of burning sulphur are also a very efficient means of control where the conditions are such that this method can be used, readily destroying the insect in all stages, including the egg. The treatment is inexpensive compared with the use of hydrocyanic-acid gas and offers much less risk of danger to human beings. There is, however, a considerable risk of injury to household fabrics,
furnishings, and wall papers from the strong bleaching quality of sulphur fumes. This danger will be somewhat diminished if the fumigation can be done at a time when the room or house is thoroughly dried out, as in winter by a furnace or other heating system. Further precautions should be taken by removing all metallic surfaces from the room or building, or by protecting them with a coating of vaseline.”
Four pounds of sulphur are recommended for each 1,000 cubic feet of space, and the building should be closed for the treatment for at least five or six hours. “Sulphur candles may be used where available, or the sulphurous gas or fumes can be generated by burning the sulphur in a dish placed in the center of the room, and for protection set within a larger vessel. Thoroughgoing precautions must be taken to prevent accidental overflowing or the starting of a fire, and after the fumigation the house should be given a thorough airing.
“Other gases have been experimented with, such as formalin and the vapors of benzine, naphthalene, and camphor, but these gases are of little value. Similarly, insect powders are of little value, largely from the difficulty of getting them into the crevices and other places of concealment of the insects.
“The old-fashioned household remedies referred to below are effective enough, though at a greater cost of time and personal effort. They will, however, be often of much service in the case of slight or recent infestations, or where the employment of more poisonous and troublesome gases is objected to or is impracticable. Of these simple methods of control perhaps the most efficient is in very liberal applications of benzine or kerosene, or any other of the lighter petroleum oils, introduced with small brushes or feathers, or by injecting with syringes into all crevices of beds, furniture, or walls where the insects may have concealed themselves. Corrosive sublimate is also of value, and oil of turpentine may be used in the same way. The liberal use of hot water, wherever it may be employed without danger to furniture, etc., is also an effectual method of destroying both eggs and active bugs.[3] A 5 per cent solution of compound solution of cresol (liquor cresolis compositus)
in kerosene forcibly applied with a large plant sprayer is effective if frequently applied.
[3] “A remedy for the bedbug has been devised by Mr. R. H. Pettit (‘Notes on two insecticidal agents,’ 10th Rpt. Mich. Acad. Sci., p. 159–160, 1908) as a substitute for hydrocyanic-acid gas and sulphur, and is reported to have proved very successful The preparation of this insecticide and its application are described as follows:
“Alcohol is drawn through pyrethrum in a funnel until the powder is well washed and a large part of the resinous principle extracted. To do this, the powder is placed in a large funnel with filter-plate and a layer of cotton wool at the bottom. An aspirator is attached and the alcohol is at first slowly and later rapidly sucked through six or eight times, during which operation it becomes highly colored To this liquid as a basis, are added several oils to give permanence to the application Both alcohol and pyrethrum evaporate so quickly that it was thought best to carry in some heavier volatile oils whose effects would last several days or even weeks The formula when completed stands as follows:
“To the extract made by washing 400 grams of pyrethrum with 2,000 c. c. of strong alcohol, are added
50 grams gum camphor.
150 c. c. cedar wood oil.
25 grams oil citronella.
25 grams oil lavender.
“The application is best made with a large-sized atomizer, one holding a pint or more and working with a piston instead of a rubber bulb * * * To obtain the best results, repeat the treatment after about two weeks We have tried this mixture repeatedly and with uniformly gratifying results Usually one application, if thoroughly made, put a period to the complaints, about eight to ten ounces being required in an average sleeping room The odor remains some little time in a room, but is not disagreeable to the average person
“This remedy can be readily prepared by a pharmacist in any drug store.”
“Various bedbug remedies and mixtures are for sale, most of them containing one or another of the ingredients mentioned, and these
are frequently of value. The great desideratum, however, in a case of this kind, is a daily inspection of beds and bedding, particularly the seams and tufting of mattresses, and of all crevices and locations about the premises where these vermin may have gone for concealment. A vigorous campaign should, in the course of a week or so at the outside, result in the extermination of this very obnoxious and embarrassing pest.”
“Temperature control.—The possibility of temperature control is indicated in the discussion elsewhere of the effect of temperature on this insect. A temperature maintained below freezing for 10 or 15 days destroys the eggs, and this temperature continued for 15 days to a month will destroy the newly hatched young. It may be, therefore, that if infested houses in cold climates should be opened up and allowed to remain at a temperature well below freezing for a considerable period, all eggs and the young, and possibly most if not all of the adults, would be exterminated. This method of control might perhaps be practicable at least in the case of summer houses in the North which are left untenanted in the winter.
“The maintaining of high temperatures may be an even more efficient method of control. The activity of the bedbug is at its greatest between 60° and 70° to 75°. As indicated elsewhere, in a temperature of 96° to 100° F., accompanied with a high degree of humidity, newly hatched bedbugs perish within a few days, and, if this temperature is raised to 113° F., in a few minutes.[4] A temperature of 113° will also destroy the eggs, and with these higher temperatures the item of humidity is not apparently important.”
[4] E An account of successful use of live steam to eradicate bedbugs in bunkhouses, as practiced by a lumber company in Oregon, was published in Public Health Reports, Nov 28, 1919, pp 2713–2714 In that instance steam pipes were tapped, after closing all doors and windows, and a temperature of 160° F. was held for approximately 3 hours. The officials of the company stated that 2 months after the steaming no signs of bedbugs had been found.
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Transcriber’s Notes:
Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.
Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved
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