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Handbook of food science and technology Volume 3 Food biochemistry and technology 1st Edition Jeantet
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Preface
This book describes biochemistry, physiology, and food science of kokumi substance as an enhancer of koku. Kokumi substance is one of the taste-related koku-enhancers. The de inition of koku is described in a book entitled Koku in Food Science and Physiology (Springer Nature LLC, 2019). In this book, koku is de ined as total sensations that are sensed through taste, smell (odor), and texture. The fundamental elements of koku were proposed as complexity, mouthfulness, and lingeringness (continuity).
As described before, kokumi substance is one of the taste-related koku-enhancing substances. Originally, the word kokumi was made by combining “koku” and “-mi” which means taste in Japanese. Kokumi substance is de ined as a taste-related substance which modi ies the basic tastes and sensory characteristics like complexity, mouthfulness, and lingeringness (continuity) when added to foods although it is tasteless itself at the concentration tested. In this book, biochemical, physiological and sensory studies on various kokumi substances containing γ-glutamyl-peptides, α-peptides, and lipid-related compounds are described.
I hope that information provided in this book shall give an outlook of the de inition of “kokumi substance,” as an enhancer of koku, and can be a concise starting book for all interested in biochemistry, physiology, and food science of kokumi substances.
Motonaka Kuroda Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
Contents
Part I General Concept
1 Koku Perception and Kokumi Substances
Toshihide Nishimura
2 Kokumi Substance as an Enhancer of Koku: Its De inition
Motonaka Kuroda
Part II Kokumi γ-Glutamyl-Peptides
3 Biochemical Studies on Kokumi γ-Glutamyl Peptifdes
Motonaka Kuroda
4 Kokumi Substances from Garlic; Discovery of Glutathione (GSH; γ-Glu-Cys-Gly) as a Kokumi Substance
Yoichi Ueda and Motonaka Kuroda
5 Kokumi Substances in Soybean Seeds
Masayuki Shibata and Yasuki Matsumura
6 Kokumi Substances in Thai-Fermented Freshwater Fish, “Pla-ra”
Preecha Phuwapraisirisan, Apiniharn Phewpan, Panita Ngamchuachit, Kannapon Lopetcharat, Chirapiphat Phraephaisarn, Corinna Dawid, Thomas Hofmann and Suwimon Keeratipibul
7 Identi ication and Quanti ication of the Kokumi Peptide, γ-GluVal-Gly, in Foods
Motonaka Kuroda and Toshimi Mizukoshi
8 Mechanism for Perceiving Kokumi Substances: Involvement of Calcium-Sensing Receptor (CaSR) in the Perception of Kokumi Substances
Motonaka Kuroda
9 Molecular Mechanism of Enhancement in Basic Tastes by Kokumi Substances: A Potent Calcium-Sensing Receptor (CaSR) Agonist, γ-Glutamyl-Valinyl-Glycine, Ampli ies Sweet-Induced ATP
Secretion Via Cell-to-Cell Communication in a Mouse Taste Bud
Yutaka Maruyama
10 Enhancement of Combined Umami and Salty Taste by Glutathione in the Human Tongue and Brain
Tazuko K. Goto, Andy Wai Kan Yeung, Hiroki C. Tanabe, Yuki Ito, Han-Sung Jung and Yuzo Ninomiya
11 γ-Glutamyl-Valyl-Glycine (γ-Glu-Val-Gly) and Glutathione (γGlu-Cys-Gly) as Kokumi Substances in Rodents
Takashi Yamamoto
12 Effects of the Potent Kokumi Peptide, γ-Glutamyl-Valyl-Glycine, on Sensory Characteristics of Foods and Beverages
Motonaka Kuroda
13 Perceptual and Nutritional Impact of Kokumi Compounds
Ciaran Forde and Markus Stieger
Part III Amino Acids, α-Peptides, and Their Related Kokumi Substances
14 Amino Acids, α-Peptides, and Their Related Kokumi Substances
Motonaka Kuroda
Part IV Lipid-Related Kokumi Substances
15 Biochemical Studies on Lipid-Related Kokumi Substances
Motonaka Kuroda
16 Involvement of GPR120 in Perception of Fatty Oral Sensations in Humans
Naoya Iwasaki, Seiji Kitajima and Motonaka Kuroda
Part V Future Prospect
17 Overview and Future Prospects of Studies on Kokumi Substances
Motonaka Kuroda
Contributors
Corinna Dawid
Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Freising, Germany
Ciarán Forde
Sensory Science and Eating Behaviour, Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Tazuko K. Goto
Oral Diagnosis and Polyclinics, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
Thomas Hofmann
Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Freising, Germany
Yuki Ito
Mitsubishi Shoji Foodtech Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
Naoya Iwasaki
Institute of Food Sciences and Technologies, Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
Han-Sung Jung
Oral Biosciences, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
Faculty of Nutrition, Kagawa Nutrition University, Sakado, Saitama, Japan
Toshihide Nishimura
Email: nishimura.toshihide@eiyo.ac.jp
Abstract
The perception of “Koku” in food has been associated with deliciousness, but its de inition has been vague, leading to its ambiguous usage. In recent years, efforts have been made to clarify the de inition of koku perception. It has been discovered that koku perception encompasses the overall sensory experience of taste, aroma, and texture and can be objectively described in terms of three elements: complexity, mouthfulness, and lastingness. Additionally, certain substances have been identi ied as enhancers of koku perception.
This paper provides a de inition of koku perception and explains the three elements based on this de inition and the substances that enhance koku perception. Furthermore, it explores the role of kokumi substances in koku perception.
1.1 De inition of “Koku Perception”
The term “Koku” is commonly found on the packaging of various food products such as curry, cup noodles, coffee, cocoa, mayonnaise, cocktails, and kimchi. However, the exact perception that the word
“Koku” refers to has been unclear due to the lack of a precise de inition. In many cases, “Koku” has been used interchangeably with “deliciousness” because people often associate it with the enjoyment of delicious food. However, this is not entirely accurate, as “Koku” is not used to describe fresh foods like fruits, vegetables, or sashimi (raw ish). It is more commonly associated with foods prepared through simmering, aging, fermentation, or those containing fats or oils.
1.1.1 Koku Perception by Foods
The palatability of food is subjectively determined by various sensory experiences derived from taste compounds, aroma compounds, and the food’s structure (Fig. 1.1). Taste perception involves the ive basic tastes: sweet, bitter, sour, salty, and umami, which are triggered by taste compounds. Aroma plays a crucial role in food perception and is experienced through olfaction. There are two types of aroma sensations: orthonasal aroma, perceived before food enters the mouth, and retronasal aroma, perceived during putting food in mouth or after chewing. The latter, released from the food in the mouth, signi icantly in luences the palatability of food. Textural sensations, such as the softness of meat or the creaminess of a sauce, are detected by the somatic senses. Koku perception is a result of the combined effects of taste, aroma, and texture. Therefore, koku perception is objectively de ined as the perception induced by these factors. To objectively evaluate koku perception, it can be assessed based on three fundamental elements: complexity, mouthfulness, and lastingness (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3) (Nishimura 2019).
Fig. 1.1 Factors involved in food palatability
Fig. 1.2 Elements in taste and koku attributes
Fig. 1.3 The de inition of Koku
1.1.2 “Koku” and “Deliciousness” Are Not
Synonymous
A study on the etymology of the word “koku” reveals two possible roots: one meaning “thickness” and the other referring to the ripeness of grain in Chinese. However, the speci ic meaning of “Koku” in the context of food perception in Japan has remained unclear. It is important to note that “Koku” and “deliciousness” are not synonymous. While some foods may be rich and delicious, not everyone considers richness to be synonymous with deliciousness. Conversely, some foods can be delicious even without being rich. The association of the term “complexity (richness)” with the lavor of food is rooted in people’s subjective experiences. When a food has a strong lavor, some individuals may perceive it as “too strong” or “too rich,” while others may ind it lacking in lavor if it is not rich enough. In many cases, people describe food as “delicious” when it exhibits a level of koku perception that suits their preferences, leading to the misconception that “Koku” and “deliciousness” are equivalent. However, an objective examination reveals that koku perception does not always correspond to deliciousness.
1.1.3 De inition of “Koku Perception”
While fresh foods like fruits, vegetables, and sashimi (raw ish) are not typically associated with richness of lavor, the term “Koku” is commonly used for foods that have undergone long cooking processes, aging, fermentation, or those containing fats or oils. Koku perception is elicited by a combination of taste, aroma, and texture stimuli resulting from the composition and structure of the food. For instance, miso soup is considered a Koku food, but when miso is dissolved in hot water without umami seasoning, the soup’s lavor and lastingness are weak. However, when umami seasoning is added, the overall lavor becomes stronger, more expansive, and more persistent, enhancing the sense of full-body; that is “Koku perception.” Pinching one’s nose while eating curry rice or stew, which are typically associated with koku and deliciousness, weakens the lavor due to the reduction in the unique aroma’s complexity, persistence, and mouthfulness. Based on previous indings, the author de ines koku perception as complexity,
mouthfulness, and lastingness resulting from taste, aroma, and texture components.
1.2 Three Elements Involved in “Koku Perception”
Just as there are ive basic tastes such as sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami, the three elements of koku perception are de ined as “complexity,” “mouthfulness,” and “lastingness.” These elements are collectively referred to as “basic Koku” (Fig. 1.2). Each element has its own intensity of perception, similar to how taste intensity evaluated. For instance, tonkotsu (pork bone) ramen is renowned for its lingering and enduring rich lavor. On the contrary, light soy sauce ramen has a lavor that fades quickly. Hence, there are objective strengths and weaknesses in the persistence of koku perception. Now, let’s explore how each of these factors arises.
1.2.1 Complexity in Koku Perception
When food or its ingredients undergo heat treatment, aging, or fermentation processes, a wide variety of tasting and aromatic substances are produced, resulting in a sense of complexity (richness) in the food (Fig. 1.4). These processes trigger the production of diverse taste and aroma compounds through intrinsic enzymes in the food ingredients, chemical reactions between substances, and the action of microorganisms. The intensity of complexity is believed to be determined by the type and quantity of these substances, which can be controlled by the duration of heat treatment, aging, and fermentation processes. The longer the processing times, the stronger the complexity of the foods with koku (Koku foods). The complexity of a Koku food is closely linked to its characteristics. However, assessing the intensity of complexity through sensory evaluation or compound analysis can be challenging. Therefore, it is proposed to evaluate the intensity of complexity based on the processing period or time in the production of Koku foods.
Fig. 1.4 Formation of complexity in koku attributes of foods
1.2.2 Mouthfulness in Koku Perception
Mouthfulness refers to the intensity of sensation derived from the complex stimuli produced by heating processes, aging, and fermenting of foods. In general, the longer the respective processing times, the stronger the mouthfulness, as well as the complexity, of the Koku food. When a Koku food with abundant stimuli is consumed, the overall sensation is perceived more intensely as these stimuli spread throughout the oral cavity. And despite the presence of numerous compounds in Koku foods, many of them exist below their threshold levels. These compounds are also believed to enhance mouthfulness and are referred to as “Kakushi-aji” in Japan. In cases where the mouthfulness of certain Koku foods is weak, compounds with an enhancing effect on mouthfulness can be added to intensify the perception. Kokumi substances such as allin of garlic, PeCSO (propenylcysteine sulfoxide) of onions, and Maillard peptides, at below their threshold levels, have been found to enhance the intensity of mouthfulness in Koku foods. These compounds are extracted from food stuffs and produced during processing.
1.2.3 Lastingness in Koku Perception
Lastingness refers to the sensation of unique stimuli from a food persisting in the mouth for an extended period. Lastingness in koku perception can arise from taste, aroma, or texture stimuli. However, if these stimuli linger for too long, they may be perceived as “undelicious” or “persistent,” negatively impacting the overall deliciousness of the food. Appropriate intensity in lastingness contributes to the deliciousness of Koku foods. Lastingness can be objectively evaluated by measuring the duration of the stimulus remaining in koku perception. Substances that contribute to lastingness in Koku foods can be naturally produced or extracted from food materials. They can also be added during cooking or food processing. Now, umami compounds and lipids have been identi ied as substances that enhance lastingness in Koku foods, increasing their perceived intensity.
1.3 Substances Involved in Each Element of Koku Perception
1.3.1 Substances Involved in the Complexity of Koku Perception
The substances contributing to the complexity of koku perception are extracted from food ingredients during cooking. They can also be produced through chemical reactions during heating and the action of microorganisms during aging or fermentation processes. These substances include taste compounds such as free amino acids, peptides, organic acids, saccharides, and more. Additionally, aroma compounds play a signi icant role in expressing the characteristics of foods, and there are also compounds that contribute to viscosity. Hence, a wide range of compounds are involved in the complexity of koku perception and the overall characteristics of Koku foods.
1.3.2 Substances Involved in the Mouthfulness of Koku Perception
In general, the longer the processing times in heating, aging, or fermentation, the stronger the intensity of both mouthfulness and complexity in Koku foods. This is because the substances in foods increase during extended processing, resulting in higher amounts of many substances in the inal product compared to the initial ingredients. The increase in substances intensi ies the overall sensation in Koku foods, leading to a stronger perception of mouthfulness. In cases where the intensity of mouthfulness in Koku foods appears to be weak, it can be enhanced by adding substances that enhance mouthfulness. As described before, various substances have been reported to enhance the intensity of mouthfulness, such as umami substance, allin from garlic, and trans-S-propenyl- -cysteine sulfoxide (PeCSO), Maillard peptides, and certain aroma components like phthalides found in celery.
The miso soup (50 g/L) without seasonings showed us very weak sensation in the space of our oral cavity, while it has the characteristic lavor and complexity of miso soup. The addition of umami substances to this miso soup can enlarge the intensity of spread of lavor sensation in our oral cavity without changing its characteristic lavor. Yamaguchi et al. reported that umami substances had the effect of lavor enhancer of foods when they were added to foods (Yamaguchi and Kimizuka 1979). Recently, Nishimura et al. examined the mechanism of lavor enhancement by the addition of umami substances to foods. The analysis using model chicken extract clari ied that the addition of monosodium glutamate to the extract made the sensation of retronasal aroma 2.5 times higher than no addition (Nishimura et al. 2016b) (Fig. 1.5). This effect became higher; the concentration of added MSG was higher until 0.3%. The addition of MSG at over 0.3% made the sensation of retronasal aroma of the extract weaker, while the intensity of umami taste became stronger. Therefore, umami substances have the strong effect of the mouthfulness in koku perception by enhancing lavor, especially retronasal aroma.
Fig. 1.5 Effects of umami substance on the intensity of aroma sensation using a lavored solution
Other than umami substances, there have been reports for the substances involved in mouthfulness of the koku perception. In 1990, Ueda et al. (Ueda et al. 1990) found that the addition of a water extract of garlic to soups enhanced the sensation of continuity (lastingness), mouthfulness, and thickness (complexity) in soups. It was also found to have this enhancement effect when it was added to the umami solution composed of 0.05% monosodium glutamate and disodium inosinate. The key compounds in a water extract of garlic were clari ied to be allin, S-methyl- -cysteine sulfoxide, and γ- -glutamyl-S-allyl- -cysteine. Furthermore, the addition of alliin at 0.05% (w/v), which had not any aroma and taste, was reported to have the enhancement effect of the soups. Ueda et al. (Ueda et al. 1994) also clari ied that PeCSO or its γglutamyl peptide (γ-Glu-PeCSO) enhanced the sensation of lastingness, mouthfulness, and complexity in the umami solution by its addition at a concentration of 0.02% (w/v). It is also reported that these compounds at this concentration did not cause any aroma and taste in the umami solution.
Kuroda et al. (Kuroda et al. 2013) also discovered kokumi peptide, γ- -glutamyl- -valyl-glycine (γ-EVG), from soy sauce, raw scallop, and processed scallop products. Then these kokumi peptides were perceived through a calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) (Ohtsu et al. 2010). However, there is no clari ication of the mechanisms for the sensation of mouthfulness and lastingness by the binding kokumi peptides to CaSR. Dunkel et al. (Dunkel and Hofmann 2009) have reported that addition of nearly tasteless aqueous extract isolated from beans to a model chicken broth enhanced the sensation of mouthfulness and complexity and successively induced long-lasting savory taste on the tongue. They clari ied γ- -glutamyl- -leucine, and γ -glutamyl- -cysteinyl-β-alanine as key molecules and called them kokumi peptides. Then, they have clari ied that γ- -glutamyl peptides such as γ-glutamyl-Glu, γ-glutamyl-Gly, and so on found in Gouda cheese were key compounds enhancing mouthfulness and lastingness of the matured cheese.
Ogasawara et al. (Ogasawara et al. 2006a,b) have found that Maillard peptides with a molecular weight of 1000–5000 from soybean paste enhanced the sensation of lastingness and mouthfulness of lavor in the umami solution and consomme soup when these peptides were added to these solutions. Maillard peptides, which increased during fermentation in the production process of long-ripened miso, were thought to be key substances to enhance the characteristic lavor of miso. Kurobayashi et al. (Kurobayashi et al. 2008) have reported that the addition of three phthalides, such as sedanenolide, 3-nbutylphthalide, and sedanolide, to broth enhanced the umami intensity as well as complexity of chicken broth when these phthalides were added to the broth at a concentration that no distinct orders were detected by sensory evaluation.
1.3.3 Substances Involved in the Lastingness of Koku Perception
Lastingness refers to the sensation of complex stimulation remaining in the oral cavity for an extended period in koku perception. Lastingness in Koku foods is not solely a result of mouthfulness enhanced by abundant stimuli; speci ic substances play a role in creating lastingness.
Umami substances and lipids have already been identi ied as substances that exhibit this effect (Fig. 1.6).
Fig. 1.6 Visualization of mouthfulness and lastingness in Koku perception
Umami substances themselves leave a sensory stimulus in koku perception. For example, pork sausages with different levels of umami substances were found to have varying degrees of lavor lastingness, with products containing higher levels of umami substances exhibiting stronger lastingness. Fats and oils, despite being tasteless and odorless, also play a role in creating lastingness. They bind nonspeci ically to the lavor and aroma components of other ingredients when cooked (Fig. 1.7). In foods that contain a signi icant amount of fats and oils, the persistence of taste and aroma is perceived during consumption as the aroma gradually releases into the oral cavity from the fats and oils present (Nishimura et al. 2016a; Nishimura and Egusa 2019). This may explain why foods with fats and oils are often perceived as delicious. Overall, koku perception encompasses the three elements of complexity, mouthfulness, and lastingness, as visualized in the igure. The expression “Strong Koku perception with long-lastingness” or “Weak perception with short-lastingness” is recommended to be on the packaging of Koku foods. Utilizing this de inition in the development of Koku foods and cooking foods can be bene icial in food production and cooking.
Fig. 1.7 Effect of addition of 0 05% β-sitosterol on the sensory characteristics of Chinese soup
1.4 Kokumi Substances Enhancing the Intensity of Koku Perception
Even after proposing a de inition of “koku,” food packages and information in food-related magazines worldwide continue to use different words to describe it, such as kokumi, koku-taste, koku- lavor seasoning, and others related to koku. All these words are thought to be associated with the deliciousness of foods. However, it is possible that each term is not used correctly, which can confuse consumers. In particular, “kokumi taste” is often used as a synonym for koku, even though it has a completely different meaning and should not be used alone. There is a signi icant reason why “kokumi” is used instead of “koku perception.”
As described in the later chapter, in 2010, the receptor protein (CaSR) to which glutathione and γ-glutamylvalylglycine (γ-EVG) bind was identi ied (Kuroda et al. 2013), and these kokumi substances enhance the intensity of taste in koku foods. Therefore, the term
“kokumi” is often used interchangeably with “koku perception.” However, it is important to note that “kokumi” or “kokumi taste” is different from “koku perception” and should not be used as a synonym for it. This is because kokumi substances have an enhancement effect on koku perception only when added to food or solutions at concentrations below their threshold levels (Fig. 1.8). To summarize, kokumi substances such as glutathione and γ-EVG are the enhancer of koku perception in Koku foods. Therefore, these substances should be referred to as “kokumi substances” or “kokumi peptides” rather than “kokumi taste” or “kokumi perception” to avoid confusion with the broader concept of koku perception.
Fig. 1.8 Kokumi substances enhance koku perception
References
Dunkel A, Hofmann T (2009) Sensory-directed identi ication of b-alanyl dipeptides as contributors to the thick-sour and white -meaty orosensation induced by chicken broth J Agric Food Chem 57:9867–9877
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Kurobayashi Y, Katsumi Y, Fujita A, Morimitsu Y, Kubota K (2008) Flavor enhancement of chicken broth from boiled celery constituents. J Agric Biol Chem 56:512–516
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Kuroda M, Kato Y, Yamazaki J, Kageyama N, Mizukoshi T, Miyama H, Eto Y (2013) Determination of γ-glutamyl-valyl-glycine in scallop and processed scallop products using high pressure liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Food Chem 141:823–828
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Nishimura T (2019) De inition of “Koku” Involved in Food Palatability. In: Nishimura T, Kuroda M (eds) Koku in food science and physiology Springer, pp 1–16 [Crossref]
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Nishimura T, Egusa AS, Nagao A, Odahara T, Sugise T, Mizoguchi N, Nosho Y (2016a) Phytosterols in onion contribute to a sensation of lingering of aroma, a koku attribute. Food Chem 192:724–728 [Crossref][PubMed]
Nishimura T, Goto S, Miura K, Takakura Y, Egusa AS, Wakabayashi H (2016b) Umami compounds enhance the intensity of reteronasal sensation of aromas from modek chicken soups. Food Chem 196:577–5835
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Ueda Y, Sakaguchi M, Hirayama K, Mijajima R, Kimizuka A (1990) Characteristic lavor constituents in water extract of garlic. Agric Biol Chem 54:163–169
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Yamaguchi S, Kimizuka A (1979) Psychometric studies on the taste of monosodium glutamate. In: Filer LJ Jr et al (eds) Glutamic acid: advances biochemistry and physiology Raven Press, New York, pp 35–54
2. Kokumi Substance as an Enhancer of Koku: Its De inition
Motonaka Kuroda1
(1)
Institute of Food Research and Technologies, Ajinomoto Co., Inc., Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
Motonaka Kuroda
Email: motonaka.kuroda.ab4@asv.ajinomoto.com
Abstract
As describe in Chap. 1, Koku is de ined as total sensations that sensed through taste, smell (odor), and texture. The fundamental elements of koku were proposed as complexity, mouthfulness, and lingeringness (continuity). Koku-enhancing substances are divided into three groups: taste-related substances, smell-related ones, and texture-related ones. Taste-related koku-enhancing substances consist of tastants and tastemodulators. Regarding koku-enhancing tastants, monosodium glutamate (MSG), an umami substance, was reported to enhance the thickness, complexity, continuity, and mouthfulness when added to various kinds of soups. Similarly, sugar and salt (NaCl) have been reported to enhance these characters when added to foods. Among the taste-modulating substances, the substances which enhance basic taste and lavor characters such as complexity, mouthfulness, and lingeringness when added to foods although they were tasteless at the concentration tested are referred to kokumi substances. In this chapter, the actions of smell (odor)-related koku-enhancing substances are introduced. Phthtalide compounds identi ied in celery were reported to enhance the thick and lasting lavors when added to chicken broth. Rotundone identi ied in fruits and spices enhanced the intensities of
complex lavor when added to fruits- lavored beverages. Regarding the texture-related koku-enhancing substances, the additional effect of glycogen to reconstituted scallop extract was described, and indicated that it enhanced the continuity, complexity, fullness and mildness.
2.1 Classi ication of Koku-Enhancing Substances
Koku is de ined as total sensations that are sensed through taste, smell, and texture. It has been reported that there are various koku-enhancing substances. Figure 2.1 reveals the classi ication of various kokuenhancing substances. Koku-enhancing substances are divided into three groups: taste-related substances, smell-related ones, and texturerelated ones.
Fig. 2.1 Classi ication of koku-enhancing substances
2.1.1 Taste-Related Koku-Enhancing Substances
Taste-related koku-enhancing materials consist of tastants and tastemodulating substances. Yamaguchi et al. (Yamaguchi and Kimizuka 1979) investigated the effects of several tastants on the lavor of foods using a scoring method from 25 to 50 accessors. They reported that the addition of monosodium glutamate (MSG), one of umami substances, enhanced continuity, mouthfulness, and thickness when added to various kinds of soup such as beef consomme, chicken noodle soup, and
chicken cream soup (Fig. 2.2), although aqueous MSG solution does not elicit such sensations. Yamaguchi et al. (Yamaguchi and Kimizuka 1979) also reported that salt (NaCl) enhanced the continuity, mouthfulness, and thickness when added to reduced-salt (0.2% w/w) beef consomme (Fig. 2.3), and sugar enhanced the continuity, mouthfulness, and thickness when added to Bavarian cream (Fig. 2.4). These results suggest that umami, salty, and sweet tastants can act as koku-enhancing substances. There have also been several studies on taste-modulating koku-enhancing substances. The substances which modify the basic tastes and lavor characteristics such as complexity, thickness of taste, continuity, and mouthfulness are proposed to be called kokumi substances (Ueda et al. 1990). Ohsu et al. (Ohsu et al. 2010) reported that kokumi γ-glutamyl peptides are perceived by calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR). Therefore, kokumi substances consist of CaSR agonists and others.
Fig. 2.2 Additional effect of (A) 0.2% monosodium glutamate (MSG) and (B) twice amount of beef broth on beef consomme. The sensory evaluation was performed by a
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syphilis of, 1003
Brain-cortex, syphilis of (see Syphilitic Affections of Nerve-centres ).
Brain, gross appearances of, in brain tumors, 1050
Brain-tire, treatment of, 358
Breathing, hysterical, 245
Bright's disease as a cause of intracranial hemorrhage and apoplexy,
930
Bromate of potassium, use of, in epilepsy,
501
Bromide of nickel, use of, in epilepsy,
500
Bromide of potassium, use of, in acute simple meningitis,
721 in acute spinal meningitis, 752
in chronic cerebral meningitis,
in concussion of spine,
in hæmatoma of the dura mater,
in hystero-epilepsy,
in insanity,
in melancholia,
in tetanus, 558 in tumors of the brain, 1068
Bromides, use of, in alcoholism, 642 , 645 , 646 in cerebral anæmia, 789 hyperæmia, 773
in spinal sclerosis, 905 , 906 in the opium habit, 674 , 676 in tubercular meningitis, 736 in vertigo, 427
Bronchi, disorders and lesions of, in chronic alcoholism, 608
Cachexia, alcoholic, characters, 616
Caffeine, use of, in migraine, 1232 in neuralgia, 1229
Caisson disease, a form of spinal hyperæmia, 804
Calabar bean, use of, in tetanus, 557 in tetanus neonatorum, 565
Cancer of the brain, 1049
Cannabis indica, habitual addiction to, 667 use of, in alcoholism, 645 in brain tumors, 1068
in cerebral anæmia,
788 , 789 in migraine, 413 , 415 , 1232 in the opium habit, 676 in tetanus, 557
Capillary cerebral embolism,
Capsicum, use of, in alcoholism, 642
Carbuncles, as a cause of thrombosis of cerebral veins and sinuses, 985
Caries of teeth, as a cause of neuralgia, 1229 , 1233
Caries of temporal bone, as a cause of tubercular meningitis, 725
Carotids, ligation of, as a cause of cerebral anæmia,
Definition and synonyms,
Diagnosis, 334 from apoplexy and intoxication, 336 from epilepsy,
