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Pricing done right the pricing framework proven successful by the worlds most profitable companies 1st Edition Smith
“Business Guides on the Go” presents cutting-edge insights from practice on particular topics within the felds of business, management, and fnance. Written by practitioners and experts in a concise and accessible form the series provides professionals with a general understanding and a frst practical approach to latest developments in business strategy, leadership, operations, HR management, innovation and technology management, marketing or digitalization. Students of business administration or management will also beneft from these practical guides for their future occupation/careers.
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Preface
Te Pricing Compass is a comprehensive guide to pricing strategies and tactics for product managers and pricing practitioners. It provides a pragmatic check on pricing maturity, addressing the reasons why pricing fails, what good pricing looks like, and how pricing concepts are applied.
Tis book covers a broad spectrum of pricing topics governing diferent stages of a business, including determining the starting point of the pricing journey, identifying unique selling propositions, disclosing willingness to pay (WTP), conducting efective customer profling, improving promotions, and managing distribution from a pricing standpoint.
In addition, this book examines the importance of price increase campaigns, the woes of price wars, dynamic pricing, and behavioral pricing vs. value pricing. It also goes over the concept of price elasticity and how to navigate complex pricing situations.
Readers will fnd useful pricing tools and techniques in this book, such as the KANO model, the pricing sandbox, the ABCD analysis, systematic product categorization, and the promotion toolkit. By understanding the diferent aspects of pricing and implementing efective strategies, businesses of all stages can navigate the challenges of pricing and achieve sustainable success in today’s competitive market.
Tere is a solution to every pricing puzzle!
Frankfurt, Germany
Jan Y. Yang
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
List of Figures
Fig. 5.6 Te relationship between purchase value and gross proft margin 97
Fig. 5.7 Distributer pricing journey—the GBB model 98
Fig. 5.8 Distributor price waterfall 102
Fig. 6.1 Te three phases of a pricing journey 130
List of Equations1
1 Pricing Is Not What You Think
Price is everywhere. However, people usually do not think about pricing until the moment that they are compelled to do so. Product managers and pricing practitioners, most of all, have the pleasure of pricing encounters.
So how to price it? Most likely, you might entertain thoughts such as:
Let us check how much others are charging for similar products.
If I want to make a proft, I will have to charge at least $250.
If the customer does not use my service, she would have to pay the other guy $50. Terefore, $40 should be a good deal for her.
Because the rent is much higher at the airport, a cup of cappuccino could cost 40% more.
What a hot day today! I can easily charge a 20% premium for the iced lemonade.
Our factory is running at capacity. We should raise the price by at least 10%. I do not know how much it should sell for. Let us try $100 and see how it goes.
J. Y. Yang, Te Pricing Compass, Business Guides on the Go, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52060-0_1
1
J. Y. Yang
Te list goes on.
All the abovementioned thoughts share one commonality that lies at the core of any pricing approach—i.e., a pricing decision is made relative to some sort of reference. Te pricing reference would vary from case to case. It could be competition, cost, an alternative solution, location, time, or capacity utilization, as the statements above exemplify. In the worst case that you do not have any suitable reference to work with, you will have to create your own through a price experiment (see the last statement above: “let us try $100”).
Putting a number to a product or service is not rocket science. Te challenge that puzzles product managers, entrepreneurs, and other pricing practitioners has to do with how to fnd the right price.
From a pricing consultant’s perspective, pricing is often a journey without a predefned roadmap. We may still arrive at the destination, by mere chance. However, there is a risk that we go astray or get stranded on that journey. It is human nature to shun uncertainties. Running an enterprise comes down to taking calculated risks while reducing uncertainty. A pricing compass is needed.
1.1 Pricing Is Not Just About the Price
Many of us do not understand that pricing is more than just fnding a price. First, the concept of price per se can be misleading. Te price does not exist. In fact, the concept of price is profound and multidimensional. Although you may not realize it right away, a plethora of elements constitute the socalled price: price tags, promotions, discounts, rebates, exclusive ofers, coupons, surcharges, and even taxes. Price is a universe in its own right.
Te fnal bill you pay in the end may deviate signifcantly from what is written on the price tag, depending on which elements mentioned above come into play and what kind of role they assume.
In this light, pricing would mean a process to identify the price elements that lead to the net price that a customer would ultimately pay in exchange for what they want. Tis sounds about right but is not complete yet.
In fact, the word “pricing” is a misnomer, as it only tells the half of the story.
Two thousand years ago, an ancient Roman would refer to both price and value as “pretium” (Simon, 2015). From a semantic standpoint, the Chinese characters for price (Jia Ge) and value (Jia Zhi) are likewise strikingly similar. If price and value are so entangled, then pricing should relate not only to fnding price but also to fnding value. Price and value are two sides of the same coin.
1.2 Strategic or Tactical
Te word pricing suggests that pricing tackles price. In fact, to achieve a decent price, you need to have an in-depth understanding of what your customer values and how you fulfll that demand (how well relative to your competition, to be precise). In this sense, pricing should be both strategic (concerning value proposition and creation) and tactical (concerning value extraction).
I recall numerous meetings with my clients who asserted that pricing was tactical and functional. In fact, not all companies have a dedicated pricing function, especially small- and medium-sized companies. I have been trying hard to preach that pricing is of strategic importance, as it deals with value management and strategic positioning in essence. Admittedly, I often fail.
Over the years, I have seen business owners and management teams fall short to recognize the importance of pricing until they have paid a high price for their ignorance. Te CEO of an irrigation equipment manufacturer shared with me the following story.
Our company designs and manufactures high-end irrigation equipment. It was two years ago when the competition became so heated that I felt forced to fght back. Terefore, I made the call to cut the prices by 20%. It did not pan out well for us. It is a decision that I regret to date. What happened after the price reduction was a nightmare. Our staf slacked of, as they thought it was legitimate to make compromises following the price cut. As a result, complaints about product and service quality piled up swiftly, while sales remained sluggish. In the end, the pricing decision left us with disgruntled customers, reputational damage, and much less profts.
J. Y. Yang
To make things even worse, we have not been able to reinstall the original price level since then. Te price cut turned out to be an ugly scar. I swear that I will never do it again.
1.3 A Pragmatic Check on Pricing Maturity
Is there an uncomplicated way to tell whether a company is good at pricing? Yes, we can assess the pricing maturity of a company by using a set of indicators. I include a pragmatic checklist (see Table 1.1) so that the readers can perform a quick self-assessment by themselves. It works as follows: for each statement that is true, you receive one point; if it is partially true, you have null; should one statement do not apply to
Table 1.1 Pricing maturity self-assessment
# Do the following statements apply to your frm?
1 Price positioning is clearly defned with reference to the corporate strategy
2 Price image perceived by customers is line with target price positioning
3 You do not base your pricing decisions purely on cost or competition
4 Customers’ use cases are clearly understood and serve as the foundation for product development
5 Price (value) drivers are identifed and serve as the foundation for product differentiation
6 You conduct market research and data analysis on a regular basis to gain customer insights
7 You understand the importance of pricing to your company’s fnancial results
8 You do the math based on price elasticity
9 You have a Plan B should a pricing decision go wrong
10 You regularly monitor pricing performance and take action as needed
11 There is a clear pricing process in place, as well as defned roles and responsibilities
12 All else being equal, the sales and pricing team is incentivized to achieve higher prices
your company at all, one point will be subtracted accordingly. Te total score will give you a sense of how good your company is at pricing.
As a rule of thumb, pricing maturity can be classifed into fve categories (see Table 1.2). Check out how well your company fares. Experience shows that assessments from distinct functions within one company could vary by a wide margin.
Te description of the statements in the checklist should be selfexplanatory. Nonetheless, I fgure that it is necessary to elaborate on the terminology price driver, which is interchangeable with value driver in this book. I use the latter in the following example.
During the Q&A session of a pricing training, a participant sought advice on how to defend their prices in the face of intensifying competition.
He: “I think we deserve a higher price than competitors because we ofer much better service.”
I: “Fair enough. Please elaborate a bit more on what you mean by ‘better.’”
Tis is the moment when he started stuttering. Finally, he summarized:
“We have got more service staf.”
I: “Good to know. But so what? How does it beneft your customers? Can you quantify the beneft in a way?”
Table 1.2 Pricing maturity ratings
J. Y. Yang
Te conversation went on for a couple of more rounds before he sat down quietly (sadly).
My last piece of advice for him was to rethink whether he really needed to keep such a large service staf.
Now what does this episode above have to do with value drivers?
Well, value drivers are like building blocks of a Lego set. You need to pick the right ones to do it right—that is according to the manual in the box. Analogically, each of your customers would have their own idea of what their ideal product should comprise—a kind of manual.
A competent product manager would not build the Lego the way she or he feels like. Instead, they strive to discover the manual frst, fnding the right value drivers, and then start building the actual thing.
Beware that value drivers govern the entire user experience and thus are not limited to physical attributes. For example, value drivers of an electric vehicle could include brand, range, horsepower, exterior and interior design, in-cabin equipment, infotainment, autonomous driving, customer service, warranty, etc. Register the concept of value drivers. We will revisit it in the following chapters.
1.4 Summary
• Te concept of price is profound and multidimensional.
• Price and value are two sides of the same coin.
• To achieve a decent price, you need to have an in-depth understanding of what your customer values and how well you fulfll that demand relative to your competition.
• Pricing should be both strategic (concerning value proposition and creation) and tactical (concerning value extraction).
• Pricing maturity assessment (Table 1.1) helps you assess the pricing maturity of your company.
2
There Is a Solution to Every Pricing Puzzle
Pricing is a puzzle. Many companies struggle with pricing decisions; others try to do something without knowing what is right for them; and many more wonder what happened only when bad pricing decisions backfred. Before we continue, we need to defne what a pricing failure is.
Pricing Failure Defnition
Obtaining suboptimal results (e.g., revenue, proft, market share) as a result of a poor pricing decision.
2.1 When and Why Pricing Fails
Compared to other business functions, pricing has one distinctive disadvantage, namely, that the outcome of pricing work is subject to many unknowns:
How would customers react?
How would competitors react?
How would our own sales team react?
How would our cost structure change over the next year?
How would the macroeconomy develop in the next 24 months?
Te list of questions goes on…
In the face of so many open questions, the complexity and uncertainty around pricing speaks volumes. Te ultimate question for a business is to be or not to be at the mercy of the invisible hand. For the very reason that pricing is an intricate mechanism, exceptional care needs to be taken. Tere is no panacea for all pricing ills. As in treatment of all human diseases, the root cause needs to be found at the frst step.
According to my observation, there are four capital sins that lead to pricing failures.
2.1.1 Ignorance
Symptoms:
• Te pricing function is nonexistent.
• “We follow the market price.”
• “Te price is determined by the cost.”
Pricing is not understood or misunderstood. Price is not actively managed because the management believes that price need not to be managed. Ignorant managers resort to two main sources when determining the price.
Te frst is the so-called market price. Market price is a basic economic concept and refers to the price at which assets, products, and services are bought and sold. It is determined considering the rate at which the product is demanded and supplied. In short, it shows the afordability level of customers, refecting the cost they are ready to pay for their purchases, which increases or decreases the demand for the same in the marketplace (Wallstreetmojo Team, 2023). Nice and neat. However, as with all other economic concepts, managers need to enjoy it with a pinch of salt in the real world.
First, the market price is ephemeral. In perfect competition, supply and demand change constantly, while the market price changes over time. It is difcult to peg to something that is constantly changing; in less perfect competition, each supplier has sort of uniqueness to ofer, eventually translating into a price advantage.
Second, we tend to fnd quasi-market prices in commodities markets, in which there is trivial diference in the products or services being ofered. Commodity is, however, a management failure. Tere is always a way to diferentiate from competitors. If one succeeds in product diferentiation, then they ought to defne their own market price, as a new market niche is born.
Costing information is the second main source that businesses use to determine the price. In fact, cost-plus pricing prevails at numerous companies, especially manufacturing companies, where costing information is readily available. Rules of thumb are frequently applied—so statements are circulating around like:
8–10 times cost is way to go in premium apparel business. 25% margin is the industry norm.
We make a proft as long as we can cover the cost.
Te popularity of cost-plus pricing is understandable because costs appear tangible. However, it just gives you a false sense of security. Costs are of a matter of fact, nothing more, nothing less. Costs are a valid reference for making pricing decisions. Te challenge in cost-plus pricing lies in how to fnd the right Plus, which cost-plus pricing proponents often ignore or downplay.
2.1.2 Arrogance
Symptoms:
• Te pricing function exists but lacks substance.
• “We know all pricing drills.”
• “We have read all pricing literature that is available on the market.”
J. Y. Yang
While ignorance implies not knowing what you do not know, arrogance means not knowing what you know. Te latter tends to do more harm.
Arrogant clients are difcult to work with. Tey often claim to have a pricing function in place and act according to the book (not this book unfortunately). In most situations, the pricing function is often far from functioning.
As mentioned earlier, pricing resembles an intricate mechanism, very much as in a mechanical watch. For it to work properly, the mainspring must be wound periodically; the clockwork needs to be cleansed and calibrated once a while. Analogically, pricing competence is not meant to be built for good; pricing muscles need to be trained regularly to stay in a decent shape. Arrogance guarantees a foreseeable shelf time of pricing capability whose substance erodes with the elapse of time.
It is, therefore, a big red fag when someone claims that their company knows everything about pricing and does everything about right, even though there is a slim chance that it might be true.
Te other day, I was chatting with a client about the application of conjoint analysis in an upcoming market research for them. Briefy, conjoint analysis works by asking customers to rate varied product concepts. When a company understands how its customers value its products or services’ features, it can use these insights to develop its pricing strategy (Stobierski, 2020). Conjoint is an intricate exercise and belongs to my favorite pricing topics. I usually have an enjoyable time exchanging ideas with practitioners on conjoint. However, this conversation turned out to be somehow diferent.
Te gentleman at the other side of the table was CMO at a promising mobility startup. He genuinely showed no interest in what kind of conjoint work we did. In the meantime, he asserted that his team did already whatever we had to ofer. Well, as the proverb goes, you can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink. Nothing is left to be said. At that time, I would not know that the rising star would fle for bankruptcy within the next 24 months. I could have known better.
Another form of arrogance manifests itself in the deceptive notion of pricing literacy. Te CEO of a multi-billion-dollar company took pride in having his pricing team familiarize themselves with all pricing books
2 There Is a Solution to Every Pricing Puzzle
available on the market. I had the chance to take a peep at the reading notes which summarized all pricing frameworks including some of mine. On the one hand, I felt fattered; on the other hand, I felt irritated—it would be too easy to learn a trade by just reading!
Later, I got to learn the head of pricing at that company, who confded her dilemma to me: the more she reads up on the pricing subject, the more she tends to disagree with the CEO on how pricing should be managed at their company. One of their recent conversations went like this:
She: “Value-based pricing is the way to go. All leading companies in our industry apply a sort of value-based pricing.”
He: “Well noted. I fully support value-based pricing. However, I just do not think whether it is the right moment for us to switch to value-based pricing, considering we are facing such heated competition at the present. Let us stick to competition-driven pricing for now.”
She: “Hm… fne. However, how do we should we set the price relative to competition?”
He: “Good question! It is exactly your job to fgure it out.”
She was like… “How can I?”
I can tell she is clearly overwhelmed. However, if the big boss is not buying (investing) into it, what can she do? I do feel for her.
Arrogance is so deadly!
2.1.3 Imprudence
Symptoms:
• CEO is CPO.
• “Pricing is in line with our brand positioning.”
• “Te price could be $10 lower or higher.”
If you have not heard of CPO, it means Chief Pricing Ofcer. Few organizations have this position dedicated to pricing on the executive management team. We revisit the topic in greater detail in Chap. 6. For now, it sufces to know that it is usually a blessing that the CEO (Chief
J. Y. Yang
Executive Ofcer) at a company assumes the role of CPO. Tis means that pricing has received due attention from top management. However, there is also an unwanted side efect—pricing is “stuck” on a strategical level, i.e., without digging into the nitty-gritty details—which can have an enormous impact on the pricing outcome.
We have learned that pricing is both strategic and tactical. A CEO is charged with steering the company strategically. In this role, CEOs will/ should not have time to take care of the operational side of pricing. Te moment they falsely believe that they have full control over pricing, pricing will get out of hand.
Statements such as “Pricing is in line with our brand positioning” are right and important, speaking to the artistic nature of pricing. In addition, pricing must be as analytical and quantitative as possible. At the end of the day, a number needs to be determined. A price ballpark is good to know. However, it is a job unfnished.
Te CEO of a cosmetic company once introduced to me his so-called pricing approach 2.0 with great enthusiasm. His company used to apply cost-plus pricing. In a casual chat previously, I explained to him the drawbacks of cost-plus pricing and exchanged a few thoughts on how to make better pricing decisions. Obviously, he took my advice to heart. By the way, he is an uncrowned CPO at his company. Te executive committee will convene about pricing-related topics. In the end, it is he who makes all the pricing decisions.
Now without further due, let me explain what is his pricing approach 2.0. Under the premise that his brand is a leading brand in its market niche, their products can be priced in the same league as prestigious imported brands. Tus far so good. He went on:
We have this new generation of product coming up, which has four times the volume of one efective ingredient compared to a similar product from a renowned French brand. We had already decided to price it at $498, which is lower than the French brand but will yield a decent margin. We were all wonderfully comfortable with it.
I wanted to ask him what a decent margin is, but I did not want to interrupt him. He continued:
I realized that there was untapped price potential after listening to you the other day. I managed to convince the management team and the board of directors and raised the retail price to $598 in the last minute. We ended up with a price higher than our competitive benchmark, which was an unprecedented move in our company’s history. Te board was very skeptical, to say the least.
It has been a couple of months since the product launch. Te sales reports came in as expected. Tanks to your advice, we have made at least $5 million more in revenue and proft!
What a pleasant surprise! I was amazed at the speed that he moved things around/forward and wished I could partake in the success fnancially. Joke aside, I was happy that he took my indirect advice—I did not recommend a $100 price adjustment after all. I could not either. More information and analysis would be required to make a pricing recommendation.
On the one hand, I can understand that he had to act fast to stick to the original launch plan; on the other hand, I fear that the pricing approach 2.0 that he proudly presented will not entail any analytical components in the future either.
I attempted to urge him to think about how much more value the “overperformance” in that efective ingredient would bring to customers. Te resulting value-added should determine the product’s “premiumness.” Instead of $5 million, he could have made an extra $10 million. I do not believe I succeeded in the end. He appeared to be quite content with the $5 million pricing windfall.
2.1.4 Indecisiveness
Symptoms:
• Nobody makes the call.
• “What if competitors follow suit?”
• “What if we missed the sales target?”
J. Y. Yang
Te plan is silver, and the action is golden. All good pricing decisions need to be implemented. Te last sin of pricing is indecisiveness, or the lack of determination to take actions.
Some leaders make a move as soon as they make up their minds. I like speed demons whole-heartedly. Pricing consultants or any consultants are enablers, as we only analyze and make suggestions. Good clients are doers who make suggestions come true. Te CEO of the abovementioned cosmetic company is a case in point. Without doers our work is worthless, and we are valueless.
I also have a fond memory of the CEO of a SaaS1 company. We were in the middle of a price optimization project, for which he was the main sponsor. In the interim report readout, we pointed out a proft leakage caused by some legacy pricing issues. Tat meeting went well. Everybody left the conference room with a happy face.
Te next day I bumped into the CEO in the hallway. He saluted me and casually mentioned that he had instructed the IT department to resolve the pricing issues we identifed. In addition, it was done as we spoke. I was shocked:
Did you just do that?
Why not? Your analysis made sense to me. You also showed us that the potential risks were limited. I do not see any reason to procrastinate.
Me on the inside: “well done…”
So here is the thing. In most cases, a price adjustment is not risk-free. Nevertheless, the size of the risk can be calculated or simulated in diferent scenarios, as best-in-class companies routinely do. If the beneft outweighs the risk, it will be only rational to go for it. We should keep in mind the time value of pricing measures (see Fig. 2.1).
Te time window of pricing measures comes and goes. Unless you have pricing superpower, there are two and only two right moments to touch upon pricing. Te frst is when you launch a new product to the market; the second is when something new comes into play—be it an upgrade of your own product, a new competitor’s product, change in
Fig. 2.1 Time value of pricing measures
Year w/ pricingmeasures w/o pricing measures Revenue/profit potentialthrough pricingmeasures
customers’ sentiment, etc. In both situations, time is precious good. If a time window of pricing measures is missed, the lost revenue/proft potential will never be recouped.
Te cure for the last sin “indecisiveness” is exceptionally obvious— look at the numbers—numbers do not cheat. Tere is no return without risk.
In sum, I cannot decide which sin is the worst of all. Tey are all bad and harmful. In contrast, what does good pricing look like?
J. Y. Yang
2.2 What Does Good Pricing Look Like
Tere are a few signs that bode well for good pricing.
1. Good pricing starts from the top.
We often say that pricing belongs to the board room, by which we mean that top management should make it clear that pricing is of strategic importance and must be treated seriously.
Te leaders should have in-depth knowledge about the relevance of pricing for the fnancial results of the company. Good leaders are unambiguous and talk numbers. Tey can tell you immediately how a 10% price increase or decrease would impact their business. Tis is the kind of pricing leadership that we need.
2. Good pricing is teamwork.
Pricing permeates every corner of the organization. It takes a team to make pricing work; diferent minds across departments must work together and bring in perspectives and know-how.
Pricing belongs to the board room. For management to make informed decisions, the pricing team must have proper preparation of numbers and insights—the marketing facts, so to speak.
Te marketing facts are twofold. On the inside, they would include product specs, price history, costing information, sales targets, etc.; on the outside, they would include information on competitors’ products, costs, pricing, and sales strategy and insights into customers’ preferences and purchase behavior, etc. As you can see, information must be collected from diferent stakeholders. Te process can be time-consuming and messy. Te pricing leader at a company will have to be a good networker. Otherwise, it will not fy.
3. Good pricing is thorough.
As previously stated, good pricing necessitates marketing facts. Te more knowledge you have, the more probable it is that you will make an informed conclusion.
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RED-BREASTED SNIPE.
S N , G .
PLATE CCCXXXV. A S W .
On our arrival at the mouths of the Mississippi, on the first of April 1837, I observed large flocks of this species on their way eastward. They were still in their winter plumage, and it was pleasing to see in how short a period that garb was changed, as we had opportunities of observing during our progress. At Grande Terre, on the 4th, several having reddish feathers scattered over their lower parts were procured. On the 13th, at Cayo Island, the change of colour was very considerable in some specimens, which I found to be old birds, while the younger were quite grey above, and white beneath. At Derniere Isle on the 16th, several were shot in as fine plumage as that represented in my plate, and few, even of the younger birds, were without some of the markings peculiar to the summer dress. Their numbers were exceedingly great, and continued without diminution until we reached Galveston Bay in Texas, on the 26th of the same month. How far they proceed beyond that place to spend the winter I am unable to say; but their range over North America is known to be very extensive, as they have been found on the Columbia River on the western coast, on the borders of the great northern lakes, and over the whole extent of the Fur Countries, from the time of their appearance in spring until that of their return southward in autumn.
Although much more abundant along the coast, and in its vicinity, the Red-breasted Snipe is not uncommon in many parts of the interior, especially in autumn, and I have procured many individuals along the muddy margins of lakes, more than three hundred miles in a direct line from the sea. Its migratory movements are performed with uncommon celerity, as many are observed along the coast of New Jersey early in April, and afterwards on the borders of the arctic sea, in time to rear young, and return to our Eastern and Middle Districts before the end of August.
This bird exhibits at times a manner of feeding which appeared to me singular, and which I repeatedly witnessed while at Grande Terre in Louisiana. While watching their manner of walking and wading along sand-bars and muddy flats, I saw that as long as the water was not deeper than the length of their bills, they probed the ground beneath them precisely in the manner of the American Snipe, Scolopax Wilsoni; but when the water reached their bodies, they immersed the head and a portion of the neck, and remained thus sufficiently long to satisfy me that, while in this position, they probed several spots before raising their head to breathe. On such grounds as are yet soft, although not covered with water, they bore holes as deep as the soil will admit, and this with surprising rapidity, occupying but a few moments in one spot, and probing as they advance. I have watched some dozens at this work for half an hour at a time, when I was completely concealed from their view. Godwits, which are also borers, probe the mud or moist earth often in an oblique direction, whilst the Woodcock, the Common Snipe, and the present species, thrust in their bills perpendicularly. The latter bird also seizes many sorts of insects, and at times small fry, as well as the seeds of plants that have dropped into the water. Dr R informs us that “individuals killed on the Saskatchewan plains had the crops filled with leeches and fragments of coleoptera.”
The flight of this bird is rapid, strong, and remarkably well-sustained. When rising in large numbers, which they usually do simultaneously, they crowd together, are apt to launch upwards in the air for a while, and after performing several evolutions in contrary directions, glide towards the ground, and wend their way close to it, until finding a suitable place, they alight in a very compact body, and stand for a moment. Sometimes, as if alarmed, they recommence their meandering flight, and after a while return to the same spot, alighting in the same manner. Then is the time when the gunner may carry havoc amongst them; but in two or three minutes they separate and search for food, when you must either put them up to have a good shot, or wait the arrival of another flock at the same place, which often happens, for these birds seldom suffer any of their species to pass without sending them a note of invitation. It is not at all uncommon to shoot twenty or thirty of them at once. I have been present when 127 were killed by discharging three barrels, and have heard of many dozens having been procured at a shot. When wounded and brought to the water, they try in vain to dive, and on reaching the nearest part of the shore, they usually run a few steps and squat among the grass, when it becomes difficult to find them. Those which have escaped unhurt often remain looking upon their dead companions, sometimes waiting until shot at a second time. When they are fat, they afford good eating, but their flesh is at no time so savoury as that of the common American Snipe.
The cry of this species when on wing is a single and rather mellow weet. When on the ground I have heard them emit a continued guttural rolling sound, such as is on certain occasions given out by the species last mentioned. Their call-note resembles the soft and pleasing sound of a whistle; but I have never heard them emit it while travelling. Nothing is known respecting their breeding, and yet there can be little doubt that many of them must rear young within the limits of the Union.
By the Creoles of Louisiana the Red-breasted Snipe is named “Becassine de Mer,” as well as “Carouk.” In South Carolina it is more abundant in the autumnal months than in spring, when I should think they fly directly across from the Floridas toward Cape Hatteras, as my friend Dr B informs me that he never saw one of them in spring in the vicinity of Charleston.
S , Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 658. Lath. Ind. Ornith vol ii p 723
S , Gmel. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 658. Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 724. Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 330.
R - S , Wilson, Amer. Ornith. vol. vii. p. 48, p. 58, fig. 2. Summer.
S , N Y G , Richards and Swains Fauna Bor -Amer vol ii p 398
B or R B S , Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 181.
Adult Male in summer. Plate CCCXXXV. Fig. 1.
Bill twice as long as the head, subulate, straight, compressed for more than half its length, depressed towards the end. Upper mandible with the dorsal line declinate at the base, then straight, at the end slightly arched, that part being considerably enlarged, the ridge convex, towards the end flattened, the sides with a narrow groove extending to near the tip, the edges soft and obtuse or flattened, the tip narrowed but blunt. Nostrils basal, linear, very small. Lower mandible with the angle extremely long and narrow, the sides nearly erect, with a longitudinal groove, the edges flattened and directly meeting those of the upper mandible, the extremity enlarged, the tip contracted and rather blunt.
Head rather small, oblong, narrowed anteriorly, the forehead elevated and rounded. Neck rather short. Body rather full. Legs of moderate length, slender; tibia bare below, scutellate before and
behind; tarsus with numerous scutella before, smaller ones behind, and reticulated sides; toes very slender, free, with numerous scutella above, flattened and slightly marginate beneath; first very small and elevated, third with its claw scarcely so long as the tarsus, lateral toes nearly equal, the outer connected with the middle by a web. Claws small, slightly arched, compressed, rather acute.
Plumage very soft, blended, rather dense, on the fore part of the head very short. Wings long, narrow, pointed; primaries rather broad, tapering to an obtuse point, the first longest, the rest rapidly graduated; secondaries broad, obliquely terminated, with the inner web projecting beyond the outer; the inner much elongated, one of them reaching to half an inch of the tip of the wing when it is closed. Tail moderate, nearly even, the middle feathers a little longer, of twelve rounded feathers.
Bill dark olive. Iris reddish-hazel. Feet light yellowish-olive, claws black. Upper parts brownish-black, variegated with light brownishred, the feathers being margined and the scapulars obliquely barred with that colour. Hind part of back, upper tail-coverts and tailfeathers, light reddish-buff, obliquely barred with black, the bars on the tail seven or eight, and its tip white. Wing-coverts and secondaries greyish-brown, margined with greyish-white; the secondary coverts tipped with white, the quills tipped and obliquely banded with the same; alula, primary coverts and quills brownishblack, the shaft of the first quill white. From the base of the bill to the eye, and surrounding it, a dull reddish-white band; loral space dusky;. All the lower parts dull orange-red, with streaks and spots of black, more numerous along the sides, and on the tail-coverts.
Length to end of tail 10 1/4 inches, to end of wings 10, to end of claws 11 1/2; extent of wings 18 1/8; wing from flexure 6 1/8; tail 2 1/2; bill along the ridge 2 1 1/2/8; along the edge of lower mandible 2 1/2/8;
bare part of tibia 1/2; tarsus 1 2 1/2/8; middle toe and claw 1 1 1/2/12; hind toe and claw 3 1/2/8. inner toe and claw 1; outer toe and claw
7 1/2/8. Weight 3 1/4 oz.
Adult in Winter. Plate CCCXXXV. Fig. 2.
The bill, iris, and feet as in summer. Upper part of head and hind neck dusky grey, with which the feathers of the fore part of the back, scapulars and wing-coverts are margined, their central parts being brownish-black. A white band from the bill over the eye; margins of eyelids also white. Hind part of back and tail barred with dusky as in summer. Quills as in summer, the inner marked with grey in place of brownish-red. Loral space, cheeks, and sides of the neck, pale grey; throat and lower parts white; the sides, axillary feathers, and lower tail-feathers, barred with dusky; lower wing-coverts dusky, edged with white, and having a central streak of the same. Individuals exhibit great differences in the length of the bills and tarsi.
On the upper mandible internally are three series of minute papillæ which become larger on the palate. While the upper mandible is flat beneath, the lower is deeply concave, and its crura elastic and capable of being separated near the base to the distance of threefourths of an inch. The tongue, which is 2 1/4 inches long, and of a
slender form, carinate beneath, with the tip pointed, lies in the deep hollow of the lower mandible, and being deeply concave above, leaves a vacant space, by which, when the bill is immersed in the mud and the tips separated, the food-passes along. The œsophagus is 4 3/4 inches long, 1/4 inch in diameter, and nearly uniform. The proventriculus, a, b, c, is bulbiform, its diameter 6 twelfths. The stomach, c, d, e, f, is an oblong gizzard of moderate strength, with the lateral and inferior muscles decided, the tendons large, its length 1 inch, its breadth 8 twelfths. The epithelium is dense, tough, with numerous longitudinal rugæ, and of a reddish colour. The contents of the stomach were very small hard hemispherical seeds and vegetable fibres. The intestine, f, g, h, 19 1/2 inches long, its diameter 3 twelfths in its upper part; the cœca 1 3/4 inch long, and from 1 to 2 twelfths in diameter, with the extremity obtuse.
The trachea is wide, flattened, 3 1/2 inches long, 2 3/4 twelfths broad at the top, gradually diminishing to 2 twelfths; the rings about 130. The contractor muscles are very thin, the sterno-tracheal slender; and there is a pair of inferior laryngeal. The bronchial half rings are about 25.
YELLOW-CROWNED HERON.
A , L .
PLATE CCCXXXVI. A Y .
The Yellow-crowned Heron, which is one of the handsomest species of its tribe, is called “Cap-cap” by the Creoles of Lower Louisiana, in which country it is watched and shot with great eagerness, on account of the excellence of its flesh. It arrives about New Orleans toward the end of March, and departs in the middle of October. On arriving, they throw themselves among the thickets along the bayous, where they breed. Like the Night Heron, this species may be enticed near by imitating its cries, when it approaches, cutting many curious zigzags in the air, and alights close by. It is a curious circumstance that when passing over several gunners placed on the watch for them, they dive toward the ground if shot at and missed, and this they do several times in succession, according to the number of shots. It is in the evening and at dawn that they are chiefly obtained. They are said not to travel in boisterous weather, or when there is thunder; and I have heard the same stated with regard to the Night Heron.
In some parts of the Southern States, this species is quite abundant, while in the intermediate tracts it is seldom or never met with. Thus, in the Floridas, I found great numbers on a bayou near Halifax River, but afterwards saw none until I reached one of the keys, more than two hundred miles distant, and farther south, where it was breeding
in society. The first of these flocks I saw in winter, the other on the 22d of May. Again, while proceeding toward the Texas, we saw a few on an island in Bay Blanche, but met with none afterwards until we reached Galveston Island, where they were plentiful. They seldom advance eastward far beyond North Carolina, and I am not aware of any having been seen farther than New Jersey. On the other hand, they are not generally found on the Mississippi beyond Natchez, although stragglers may sometimes be seen farther up.
This species is by no means entirely nocturnal, for I have seen it searching for food among the roots of mangroves at all hours of the day, and that as assiduously as any diurnal bird, following the margins of rivers, and seizing on both aquatic and terrestrial animals. Whilst at Galveston, I frequently saw a large flock similarly occupied. When they had satisfied their hunger, they would quietly remove to some safe distance toward the middle of an island, where, standing in a crouching posture on the ground, they presented a very singular appearance. That they are able to see to a considerable distance on fine clear nights, I have no doubt, as I am confident that their migratory movements are usually performed at such times, having seen them, as well as several other species, come down from a considerable height in the air, after sun-rise, for the purpose of resting and procuring food.
The flight of the Yellow-crowned Heron is rather slow, and less protracted than that of the Night Heron, which it however somewhat resembles. When in numbers, and surprised on their perches, they usually rise almost perpendicularly for thirty or forty yards, and then take a particular direction, leading them to some well-known place. Whenever I have started them from the nest, especially on the Florida Keys, they would sneak off on wing quite low, under cover of the mangroves, and fly in this manner until they had performed the circuit of the island, when they would alight close to me, as if to see whether I had taken their eggs or young.
When on the ground, they exhibit little of the elegance displayed by the Louisiana, the Reddish, the Blue, or the White Herons; they advance with a less sedate pace, and seldom extend their neck much even when about to seize their food, which they appear to do with little concern, picking it up from the ground in the manner of a domestic fowl. Nor are they at all delicate in the choice of their viands, but swallow snails, fish, small snakes, crabs, crays, lizards, and leeches, as well as small quadrupeds, and young birds that have fallen from their nests. One which was killed by my friend E H , Esq., on the 19th of April 1837, on an island in the Bay of Terre Blanche, about 4 o’clock in the evening, was, when opened next morning, found to have swallowed a terrapin, measuring about an inch and a half in length, by one in breadth. It was still alive, and greatly surprised my companions as well as myself by crawling about when liberated.
This species places its nest either high or low, according to the nature of the place selected for it, and the abundance of food in the neighbourhood. In the interior of swampy woods, in Lower Louisiana, I have found the nests placed on the tops of the loftiest cypresses, and on low bushes, but seldom so close together as those of many other Herons. On the Florida Keys, where I have examined more of these tenements than in any other part, I found them either on the tops of mangroves, which there seldom attain a greater height than twenty-five feet, or on their lowest branches, and not more than two or three feet from the water. In the Carolinas, they usually resort to swamps, nestling on the bushes along their margins. The nest is similar to that of other Herons, being formed of dry sticks loosely put together, a few weeds, with at times a scanty lining of fibrous roots. The eggs are generally three, never, in as far as I have seen, more, of a pale blue colour, inclining to green, thin-shelled, and averaging two inches in length by an inch and three and a half eighths in their greatest breadth. The young seldom remain in the nest until able to
fly, as is the case with those of some other species, but usually leave it to follow their parents along the shores. If scared from the nest, they scramble along the branches with considerable agility, and hide whenever an opportunity occurs. I have given the figure of a young bird procured in October.
The differences between the periods at which this bird breeds in different latitudes, correspond with those observed with respect to other species of the same tribe. Thus, eggs and young may be procured on the Florida Keys six weeks sooner than in South Carolina, although two broods are usually raised in both districts, the birds frequently removing from one place to another for the purpose. The beautiful slender plumes on the head and back generally fall off soon after incubation commences, although I have on a few occasions found the male still bearing these ornaments when the female was sitting on her second set of eggs. When the young are just able to fly I have found them good eating, but the old birds I never relished.
When wounded, the Yellow-crowned Heron defends itself vigorously with its claws, the scratches inflicted by which are severe, and also strikes with the bill. If not brought to the ground, in a place where the trees are close and thickly branched, it is difficult to obtain them without a second shot, for they scamper quickly from one twig to another, and are very soon out of reach.
W complains that the name “Yellow-crowned” should be given to this species, and this would almost induce me to suppose that he had never seen one in the breeding season, when the white of the head is strongly tinged with yellow, which however disappears at the approach of autumn, when the bird might with all propriety be named the White-crowned Heron.
The adult bird represented in the plate was shot by my friend Dr B , a few miles from Charleston, while I was in his company;
and the drawing of the plant was made by his amiable sister-in-law, M M .
A , Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 268.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 690. Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 306.
Y - H , A , Wils Amer Ornith vol viii p 26, pl 65, fig 1 Adult
W - H , Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 52.
Adult Male in spring plumage. Plate CCCXXXVI. Fig. 1.
Bill a little longer than the head, strong, straight, moderately compressed, tapering. Upper mandible with the dorsal line slightly arched and declinate, the ridge broad, convex, the sides bulging, the edges sharp and overlapping, the tip slender, with a distinct notch. Nasal depression wide, with a broad shallow groove extending towards the end of the mandible; nostrils basal, oblong, pervious. Lower mandible with the angle very long and narrow, the dorsal line straight and sloping upwards, the sides sloping outwards and flat, the edges sharp, obscurely serrulate, the tip slender
Head large, oblong, compressed. Eyes large. Neck long. Body slender, much compressed. Feet long, moderately stout; tibia bare at its lower part, with reticular angular scales; tarsus covered anteriorly for more than half its length with scutella, over the rest of its extent with angular scales; toes long and rather slender, with numerous scutella above, flat beneath, marginate; hind toe stout, fourth a little longer than second, third much longer. Claws of moderate size, arched, compressed, acute, that of middle toe beautifully pectinate on the inner edge.
Plumage loose, soft, and blended; feathers on the upper part of the head lanceolate and acuminate, those on the occiput very long, linear, forming a pendant crest, which however is capable of being
erected; on the sides of the neck oblong, and directed obliquely backwards; on the fore part of the back ovate-oblong; on the lower part generally very long and loose. Between the scapulæ are two longitudinal series of very elongated feathers, with loose margins, the longest extending far beyond the end of the tail. Wings long, of great breadth, rounded; the primaries broad and rounded, the third longest, the second and fourth nearly equal, the first half an inch shorter than the longest, the rest slowly graduated; secondaries very broad, rounded, the inner elongated, some of them nearly as long as the outer primaries when the wing is closed. Tail short, even, of twelve broad, rounded feathers.
Bill black. Iris reddish-orange; margins of eyelids and bare space in front of the eye, dull yellowish-green. Tibia, upper part of the tarsus, its hind part, and the soles, bright yellow; the scutella and scales, the fore part of the tarsus, the toes, and the claws, black. Upper part of the head pale reddish-yellow in front, white behind, of which colour are most of the elongated crest feathers, as well as an oblong patch extending from the corner of the mouth, beneath, to behind the ear. The rest of the head, and a small portion of the neck all round, bluish-black; that colour extending nearly half-way down the neck behind. The rest of the neck all round, as well as the upper and lower surface of the body, light greyish-blue; the feathers of the fore part of the back, and wings, having their central parts bluish-black, which is also the case with the elongated loose feathers, the dark part margined with bluish-white. Alular, primary coverts, and primary quills, dark bluish-grey; secondaries and tail-feathers of a lighter tint.
Length to end of tail 23 1/2 inches, to end of wings 25, to end of loose feathers 30, to end of claws 30 1/4, to carpal joint 12 1/4; extent of wings 43 1/2; bill along the ridge 2 7/8, along the edge of lower mandible 4; width of gape 1 1/4; depth of bill at base 7 1/2/8; wing from
flexure 12 1/2; bare part of tibia 2 1/4; tarsus 4 1/8; middle toe 2 1/2, its claw 3/8; outer toe 1 7/8, its claw 2 1/2/8; inner toe 1 3/4, its claw 2 1/2/8; hind toe 1, its claw 5/8; tail 5. Weight 1 lb. 9 oz.
The Female resembles the male, but is somewhat smaller.
The Young in October. Plate CCCXXXVI. Fig. 2.
Bill greenish-black, the lower and basal part of the lower mandible greenish-yellow, as are the eyelids and bare space before the eye.
Iris pale orange. Legs and feet dull yellowish-green, the scutella and scales in front, as well as the claws, dusky. Upper part of head and hind neck, black, longitudinally marked with somewhat triangular elongated white spots; sides of the head and neck pale dull yellowish-brown, streaked with darker; the upper parts light grey tinged with brown, the feathers edged with yellowish-white, and tipped with a triangular spot of the same; the primaries and their coverts with the tail darker, margined with dull white. The fore part of the neck, and all the lower parts, dull yellowish-grey, each feather with its central part dark greyish-brown; lower tail-coverts unspotted.
Length to end of tail 23 1/2, to end of claws 29 1/2; extent of wings 40.
Weight 1 lb. 7 oz.
Adult Male from South Carolina.
The upper mandible is slightly concave, with a median prominent ridge, the palate convex with two ridges; the posterior aperture of the nares linear, with an oblique papillate flap on each side; the lower mandible deeply concave. The tongue is of moderate length, measuring 1 3/4 inch, emarginate at the base, trigonal, flat above, tapering to a point. The œsophagus, which is 12 inches long, gradually diminishes in diameter from 1 1/2 inch to 1 inch. The proventriculus is 1 1/2 inch long, its glandules cylindrical, forming a
complete belt, the largest 3 twelfths long. The stomach is roundish, 2 inches in diameter, compressed; its muscular coat thin, and composed of large fasciculi; its tendinous spaces nearly 1 inch in diameter; its inner coat even, soft, and destitute of epithelium. There is a small roundish pyloric lobe, 4 twelfths in diameter; the aperture of the pylorus is extremely small, having a diameter of only half a twelfth. The intestine is long and very slender, 6 feet 3 inches in length, its diameter at the upper part 3 twelfths; diminishing to 2 1/4 twelfths, for about a foot from the extremity enlarged to 5 eighths; the rectum 6 1/4 inches long; the cœcum 5 twelfths long, 1 1/2 twelfth in diameter at the base, tapering to 1 twelfth, the extremity rounded. The stomach contained fragments of crustacea.
The trachea is 8 1/2 inches long, cylindrical; the rings 154, and ossified; its diameter at the top 5 1/2 twelfths, diminishing in the space of an inch and a half to 3 twelfths, and so continuing nearly to the end, when it contracts to 2 1/2 twelfths. The last rings are much extended, and divided into two portions, the last transverse half ring arched, and 5 twelfths in length. The bronchi are in consequence very wide at the top, gradually taper, and are composed of about 25 half rings. The contractor muscles are very feeble; the sternotracheal slender; a pair of inferior laryngeal muscles inserted into the first bronchial ring.
AMERICAN BITTERN.
A , W .
PLATE CCCXXXVII. M F .
It never was my fortune to have a good opportunity of observing all the habits of this very remarkable bird, which in many respects differs from most other Herons. It is a winter resident in the Peninsula of the Floridas, as well as many of the keys or islets which border its shores. But the greater number of individuals which pass over the United States, on their way northward, in March, come from places beyond our southern limits. During my residence in Kentucky, I never saw or heard of the occurrence of one of them; and although I have killed and assisted in killing a considerable number at various times of the year, I never heard their booming or love-notes; or, if I have, I did not feel assured that the sounds which reached my ears were those of the American Bittern. This may probably appear strange, considering the many years I have spent in searching our swamps, marshes, and woods. Yet true it is that in all my rambles I had not the good fortune to come upon one of these birds sitting on its eggs either among the grass or rushes, or on the branches of low bushes, where, I have been informed, it builds.
In Lower Louisiana, it is called the “Garde Soleil,” because they say it will stand on one foot for hours, with its eyes, or one of them at least, fixed on the orb of day, and frequently spread out its wings, in the manner of Cormorants and Vultures, to enjoy the heat, or
perhaps the gentle breeze. There it is seldom obtained in spring, but is a regular autumnal visitant, appearing early in October, and frequenting the marshes both of fresh and salt water, where many remain until the beginning of May. It is then common in the markets of New Orleans, where it is bought by the poorer classes to make gombo soup. In almost every other part of the United States it is commonly called the “Indian Pullet,” or “Indian Hen.”
Although in a particular place, apparently favourable, some dozens of these birds may be found to-day, yet, perhaps, on visiting it tomorrow, you will not find one remaining; and districts resorted to one season or year, will be found deserted by them the next. That they migrate by night I have always felt assured, but that they are altogether nocturnal is rather uncertain, for in more than half a dozen instances I have surprised them in the act of procuring food in the middle of the day when the sun was shining brightly. That they are extremely timid I well know, for on several occasions, when I have suddenly come upon them, they have stood still from mere terror, until I have knocked them down with an oar or stick. Yet, when wounded, and their courage is raised, they shew great willingness to defend themselves, and if in the presence of a dog, they never fail to spread out to their full extent the feathers of the neck, leaving its hind part bare, ruffle those of their body, extend their wings, and strike violently at their enemy. When seized they scratch furiously, and endeavour to bite, so that, unless great care be taken, they may inflict severe wounds.
I never saw one of them fly farther than thirty or forty yards at a time; and on such occasions, their movements were so sluggish as to give opportunities of easily shooting them; for they generally rise within a few yards of you, and fly off very slowly in a direct course. Their cries at such times greatly resemble those of the Night and Yellowcrowned Herons.
My friends, Dr B and Mr N , have both heard the lovenotes of this bird. The former says, in a letter to me, “their hoarse croakings, as if their throats were filled with water, were heard on every side;” and the latter states that “instead of the búmp or böomp of the true Bittern, their call is something like the uncouth syllables of ’pump-aū-gàh, but uttered in the same low, bellowing tone.”
Dr B procured, on the 29th April 1833, about forty miles from Charleston, individuals, in the ovaries of which he found eggs so large as to induce him to believe that they would have been laid in the course of a single week. Some others which were procured by him and myself within nine miles of Charleston, on the 29th of March, had the eggs extremely small.
While at Passamaquody Bay, at the eastern extremity of the United States, I was assured that this species bred in the vicinity; but I saw none there, or in any of the numerous places examined on my way to Labrador and Newfoundland. In neither of these countries did I meet with a single person who was acquainted with it.
In few other species of maritime or marsh birds have I seen so much difference of size and weight, even in the same sex. Of about twenty specimens in my possession, scarcely two correspond in the length of the bills, legs, or wings. The plate before you was engraved from a drawing made by my son J W .
A B , A , Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. vii. p. 35, pl. 65, fig. 3.
A , Ch Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p 307
A B , Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 60.
A B , A , Richards. and Swains. Fauna Bor.Amer. vol. ii. p. 374.
Male. Plate CCCXXXVII. Fig. 1.
Bill longer than the head, moderately stout, straight, compressed, tapering to the point. Upper mandible with its dorsal line straight, towards the end slightly convex and declinate, the ridge broad and rather rounded at the base, gradually narrowed to the middle, then a little enlarged, and again narrowed to the point, the sides bulging, towards the margin erect, the edges sharp, towards the end obscurely serrated, the tip narrow, with a distinct notch or sinus on each side. Nasal groove oblong, with a long depressed line in front; nostrils sub-basal, linear, longitudinal. Lower mandible with the angle very long and extremely narrow, the dorsal line ascending and slightly convex, the sides flattened and sloping outwards, the edges sharp, direct, obscurely serrulate, the tip extremely slender.
Head small, oblong, much compressed. Neck long. Body slender, much compressed. Legs longish, stout; tibia bare for about an inch, reticulated all round, the scales on the hind part larger; tarsus roundish, with numerous large scutella before, reticulated behind with angular scales; toes very long, slender, marginate, the fourth and third connected by a short web, not reaching the second joint of the former; first toe large, second longer than fourth, all covered with numerous large scutella above; claws long, slender, tapering, slightly arched, that of hind toe much larger and more arched.
Eyelids, and a large space before the eye, bare. Plumage loose, soft, and blended; hind part of neck in its whole length, and a large space on the fore part of the breast without feathers, but covered, those on the neck being directed obliquely backwards. Wings rather short, broad, convex; primaries broad, rounded, the first pointed, shorter than the third, which is slightly exceeded by the second, the rest slowly graduated; secondaries very broad, rounded, the inner elongated so as slightly to exceed the primaries when the wing is closed. Tail very short, rounded, of ten feathers.
Bill dull yellowish-green, the ridge of the upper mandible brownishblack, of a lighter tint toward the base. Bare space before the eye
brown; eyelids greenish-yellow; iris reddish-yellow. Feet dull yellowish-green; claws wood-brown. Upper part of the head brownish-grey; a streak of pale buff over the eye to behind the ear; a dusky streak from the posterior angle of the eye; the cheek and an oblique band to the middle of the neck light brownish-yellow; beneath which is a dusky brown line from the base of the lower mandible, continuous with a gradually enlarged band of black, which runs along the side of the neck; the upper parts yellowish-brown, patched, mottled, freckled, and barred with dark brown; alula, primary coverts, and most of the quills, deep bluish-grey, approaching to black; the tips of all these feathers light reddishbrown, dotted with bluish-grey. The fore part of the neck white above, yellowish-white beneath, the throat with a middle longitudinal line of yellowish-brown spots; on the rest of the neck each feather with a light brown central mark edged with darker, the rest of the lower parts dull yellowish-white, most of the feathers marked like those on the neck.
Length to end of tail 27 inches, to end of wings 26 1/2, to carpal joint
17, to end of claws 32 3/4; extent of wings 45; wing from flexure 13 1/4; tail 4 3/8; bill along the ridge 3 3/8, along the edge of lower mandible 4 1/2; breadth of mouth 1; depth of bill at base 3/4; bare part of tibia 1; tarsus 3 5/8; hind toe 1 3/4, its claw 1 1/2; middle toe 3 3/8; its claw 1; outer toe 2 5/8, its claw 7 1/2/8; inner toe 2 1/4, its claw 7/8.
Weight 1 lb. 7 oz.
Female. Plate CCCXXXVII. Fig. 2.
The Female resembles the male, but is somewhat smaller with the colours duller.
Length to end of tail 26 1/4 inches, to end of wings 25 1/2, to end of claws 27 3/4; extent of wings 42 1/2; wing from flexure 12 1/4. Weight
