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Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy Robert Rocco Cottone Phd
Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Robert Rocco Cottone
Vilia M. Tarvydas
Michael T. Hartley
Fifth Edition
Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Robert Rocco Cottone, PhD, CFT, is University of Missouri Curators’ Distinguished Professor in the Department of Education Sciences and Professional Programs and a Certified Family Therapist. Dr. Cottone is a licensed professional counselor (LPC) in Missouri, and a licensed psychologist in Missouri and Arizona. He has served on the American Counsleing Association (ACA) Ethics Task Force that produced the 2005 revision of the ethics code. He chaired the American Rehabilitation Counseling Code of Professional Ethics revision task force in 2000 and has published extensively on matters of professional ethics and ethical decision making in counseling and psychology. Dr. Cottone is a Fellow of the ACA and the author of several books, including Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy, published by SPC.
Vilia M. Tarvydas, PhD, CRC. (Ret.), is Professor Emerita and former Chair of the Rehabilitation and Counselor Education Department at The University of Iowa. She has served as President of the National Council on Rehabilitation Education, the American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, and the American Association of State Counseling Boards. She has published extensively on ethics, ethical decision making, and professional governance and standards and has chaired the ACA and CRCC Ethics Committees. She chaired the CRCC Code Revision Taskforce that wrote the 2010 CRCC Code of Professional Ethics, and was a member of the ACA Code Revision Task Force that wrote the 2005 ACA Code of Ethics, and has been a member of the ACA Ethics Appeals Committee. In July, 2019 she completed a 5 year term on the Board of Directors of the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP), where she served as Vice-Chair. Dr. Tarvydas is the lead editor of the SPC publication, The Professional Practice of Rehabilitation Counseling and has contributed to several other SPC publications.
Michael T. Hartley, PhD, CRC, is an associate professor and faculty chair of the Counseling Program, Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies at the University of Arizona. His research has focused on professional ethics, and has 30 peer reviewed journal articles and 10 book chapters focused on the intersection of professional ethics with social justice and digital technology. He is the co-editor of the SPC book, The Professional Practice of Rehabilitation Counseling. Dr. Hartley served on the taskforce to revise the 2017 Code of Ethics for the Rehabilitation Counselor Certification (CRCC). Having served in variety of leadership roles over the years, including the CRCC ethics committee, Dr. Hartley recently served as treasurer of the Arizona Counseling Association (AzCA) and president of the American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA).
Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
First Springer Publishing edition 2016; subsequent edition 2021.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Cottone, R. Rocco, editor. | Tarvydas, Vilia M., editor. | Hartley, Michael T., editor.
Title: Ethics and decision making in counseling and psychotherapy / Robert Rocco Cottone, Vilia M. Tarvydas, Michael T. Hartley, editors.
Description: Fifth edition. | New York, NY : Springer Publishing Company, LLC, [2022] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
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Contributors xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
PART I OVERVIEW OF ETHICS AND DECISION MAKING IN COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
1. Introduction to Ethical Issues and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy 3
Introduction 3
Defining Ethics 4
Professional Ethics Versus Legally Mandated Ethics 8
Ethics Governance 12
Decision Making Skills 16
Conclusion 17
References 18
2. The Mental Health Professions and Counseling Specialties 19
Introduction 19
Counseling and Psychology: Two Closely Related But Now Distinct Mental Health Professions 20
Licensing and Credentialing in the Mental Health Professions 21
Counseling 21
Psychiatry 25
Psychology 27
Marriage and Family Therapy 28
Psychiatric Nursing 29
Social Work 30
Conclusion 32
References 32
3. Value Issues in Counseling 35
Introduction 35
Values 36
Morals, Ethics, and Values 38
Values in Counseling: Historical Perspective 40
Values of Counselors and the Counseling Relationship 41
Values, Cultural Worldviews, and Multiculturalism 44
Values Clarification 44
Values Conflict Resolution 46
Strategies for Counselors 48
Conclusion 50
References 51
4. Ethical Decision Making Processes 53
Introduction 53
Ethical Judgment 54
A Review of Ethical Decision Making Models 55
Theoretical or Philosophical Models of Individual Choice 56
Quantification as a Means to Individual Choice 56
Practice-Derived Models of Individual Choice 57
Models of Relational Influence 57
Empirical Findings on Models or Premises 60
Willingness or Resoluteness as a Factor in Decision Making 60
The Tarvydas Integrative Decision Making Model of Ethical Behavior 61
Conceptual Origins 61
Themes and Attitudes 63
Stages and Components 64
Practicing the Tarvydas Integrative Model 69
The Theoretical Contribution of the Tarvydas Model 70
Cottone’s Social Constructivism Model of Ethical Decision Making 71
Applying the Social Constructivism Model of Ethical Decision Making 72
“Objectivity in Parentheses” 72
Conflicting Consensualities 74
The Interpersonal Process of Negotiating, Consensualizing, and Arbitrating 75
Response to a Challenge 76
The Social Constructivism Process of Ethical Decision Making 77
“A Truth” Versus “The Truth” 78
How the Social Constructivism Model Interfaces with Multiculturalism 78
Concluding Words About the Social Constructivism Model 80
Conclusion 80
References 81
5. Introduction to Ethical Principles in Counseling 85
Introduction 85
Importance of Ethical Principles to Mental Health Professions 86
The Principles 88
Respect for Autonomy 88
Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 89
Justice 90
Fidelity 91
Veracity 92
Principles, Challenges to the Principles, and Codes of Ethics 94
6. Introduction to Ethical and Legal Standards in Counseling and Psychotherapy 97
Introduction 97
The Relationships Between Ethics and the Law 98
Ethical and Legal Standards in Mental Health Practice 100
Confidentiality and Privacy 100
Privileged Communication 104
Counselor Roles and Relationships With Clients and Other Involved Parties 109
Informed Consent 117
Professional Responsibility 120
Competence 124
Decision Making in Context 127
Conclusion 128
References 128
PART II ETHICAL AND LEGAL CHALLENGES ACROSS MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONS
7. Clinical Mental Health Counseling 135
Michael T. Hartley, Brian Clarke, and Vilia M. Tarvydas
Introduction 135
History of Clinical Mental Health Counseling 136
Credentialing and Clinical Mental Health Counseling 136
Independence of Clinical Mental Health Counselors 137
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 138
Issues of Significance to the Specialty 140
Professional Differentiation 141
Managed Care and Third-Party Insurance 142
Assessment and Diagnosis of Mental Disorders 143
Competence to Provide Clinical Mental Health Counseling 145
Informed Consent and Professional Disclosure 147
Privacy and Confidentiality in Mental Health Counseling 148
Duty to Warn and Exceptions to Confidentiality 150
Roles and Relationships With Clients 150
Professional Responsibility and Interdisciplinary Collaborations 151
Cultural Diversity and Social Justice 153
Decision Making in Context 154
Conclusion 155
References 156
8. School Counseling 161
Dawnette Cigrand, Erin E. Binkley, and Donna A. Henderson
Introduction 161
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 161
The School Counselor’s Role 164
Clients 164
Counseling Process 164
Group Work 165
Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation 166
Ethical and Legal Issues 167
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 167
Confidentiality 167
Privileged Communication 176
Informed Consent 177
Informing and Facilitating Consent 177
Client Autonomy 177
Roles and Relationships With Clients 178
Potentially Detrimental Relationships 178
Values 178
Counselor Competence 179
Counselor Competency, Skill Monitoring and Wellness 179
Competence and Technology 180
Code Comparisons 181
ASCA Position Statement on Confidentiality 181
Employer Policy and Expectations 182
Code Comparisons 182
Issues of Diversity 183
Decision Making in Context 184
Decision Making in Context 185
Conclusion 188
References 188
9. Couple, Marital, and Family Counseling 195
Introduction 195
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 196
Ethical and Legal Issues 197
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 197
Informed Consent 198
Roles and Relationships with Clients 199
Responsibility 201
Values 202
Counselor Competence 203
Code Comparisons 204
Issues of Diversity 205
Decision Making in Context 206
Conclusion 207
References 207
10. Rehabilitation Counseling 209
Michael T. Hartley, Vilia M. Tarvydas, and Toni A. Saia
Introduction 209
History of Rehabilitation Counseling 210
Credentialing and Rehabilitation Counseling 211
Diversification of Rehabilitation Counseling 212
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 214
Issues of Significance to the Specialty 215
Professional Differentiation 216
Advocacy and Empowerment 217
Forensic and Indirect Assessment 218
Competence 218
Informed Consent and Assent 220
Privacy and Confidentiality 222
Roles and Relationships 224
Primary Responsibility and Collaboration 225
Cultural Diversity and Social Justice 226
Decision Making in Context 227
Conclusion 230
References 230
11. Addictions Counseling 235
Michael Esteban Gerald
Introduction 235
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 236
Brief History of Addictions Treatment in America 236
Contemporary Addictions Treatment 237
Substance Abuse Counseling: A Profession or a Specialty? 238
Counselor Competency 240
Setting Issues 241
Counseling Adolescents and Minors 242
Ethical and Legal Issues 243
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 243
Informed Consent 245
Roles and Relationships with Clients 248
Responsibility 250
Values 251
Code Comparisons 251
Issues of Diversity 252
Ethical Decision Making in Context 253
Conclusion 253
References 254
12. Career Counseling 257
Mark Pope and Vilia M. Tarvydas
Introduction 257
Defining the Specialty, Setting, and Clients 258
Specialty 259
Settings 259
Clients 260
Issues of Significance to the Specialty 261
Ethical and Legal Issues 261
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 261
Roles and Relationships With Clients 263
Informed Consent 264
Professional Responsibility 265
Values 265
Counselor Competence 266
Career Counseling Competencies 268
Ethical Standards and Code Comparisons 269
Issues of Diversity 269
Individual Versus Collectivist Cultures 270
Assessment of Culturally Diverse Populations 270
Gay and Lesbian Clients 271
Decision Making in Context 271
Conclusion 272
References 273
13. Group Counseling 277
Introduction 277
Defining the Specialty, Settings, and Clients 278
Issues of Significance to the Specialty 279
Ethical and Legal Issues 280
Confidentiality and Privileged Communication 280
Informed Consent 283
Roles and Relationships With Clients 285
Responsibility 285
Values 287
Counselor Competence 288
Code Comparisons 289
Issues of Diversity 289
Decision Making in Context 290
Conclusion 292
References 292
PART III ORGANIZATIONAL, ADMINISTRATIVE, AND TECHNOLOGY ISSUES
14. Ethical Climate 297
Introduction 297
Organizational Culture 298
Culture 298
Ethics and Organizational Culture 299
Organizational Climate and Ethical Climate 300
Accountability to the Organization and Decision Making 303
Impaired Professionals 304
Burnout and Job Stress 305
Boundary and Harassment Issues in Employment and Supervision 307
Substance Abuse 308
Mobbing 309
Whistle-Blowing 310
Conclusion 313
References 314
15.
Office and Administrative Practices 317
Introduction 317
The Layout of the Office 318
Fee Setting, Billing, and Collections 319
Agreements With Nonprofessional Staff Members 323
Advertising 323
Credentials 324
Maintenance of Records and Files 325
Communications With Other Professionals 326
Disagreements With Employers or Supervisors 327
Conclusion 328
References 329
16. Ethics of Counseling Supervision 331
Michael T. Hartley and Camelia Shaheed
Introduction 331
Defining the Role and Setting of Clinical Supervision 334
Competence and Clinical Supervision 336
Multiple Roles and Relationships in Supervision 337
Evaluation and Feedback in Supervision 339
Gatekeeping and Documentation in Supervision 340
Diversity and Cultural Competence in Supervision 341
Informed Consent and Supervision Contracts 342
Privacy and Confidentiality in Supervision 344
Online Supervision 344
Legal Issues in Supervision 345
Ethical Decision Making 346
Conclusion 347
References 347
17. Technology Ethics and Distance Counseling 351
Michael T. Hartley, David B. Peterson, and Catherine Fennie
Introduction 351
Counseling and the Digital Revolution 353
Evolution of Counseling Technology 354
Competence and Distance Counseling 358
Informed Consent and Distance Services 359
Privacy and Confidentiality in the Digital Age 360
Virtual Boundaries in the Digital Age 362
Professional Conduct and e-Professionalism 364
Access and Accessibility 365
Computer-Assisted Assessment 366
Benefits of Computer-Assisted Test Administration 366
Limitations of Computerized Administration 367
Computer-Generated Assessment and Interpretation 368
Conclusion 368
References 368
PART IV CONCLUSION
18. The Ethical Professional Counselor and Psychotherapist 377
Introduction 377
Consequences of a Breach of Ethics for the Mental Health Professional 378
Consequences of a Breach of Ethical Standards for the Client 379
Filing a Complaint to a Licensure Authority 379
The Development of the Ethical Mental Health Professional 380
Decision Making in Context 382
Conclusion 382
References 382
Appendix: Internet Resources 385
Index 387
Contributors
Erin E. Binkley, PhD, LPC, NCC, Assistant Professor, Department of Counseling, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Dawnette Cigrand, PhD, MA, Associate Professor and Chair, Counselor Education Department, Winona State University, Winona, Minnesota
Brian Clarke, MA, LAC, NCC, PhD Student/Graduate Teaching Assistant, Counselor Education and Supervision, University of Arizona, Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies, College of Education, Tucson, Arizona
Robert Rocco Cottone, PhD, CFT, Counselor, Educator, University of Missouri Curators’ Distinguished Professor, University of Missouri St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
Catherine Fennie, MA, CRC, Graduate of the University of Arizona, Therapist at Cope Community Services, Tucson, Arizona
Michael Esteban Gerald, PhD, LMHC, CRC, Assistant Professor, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
Michael T. Hartley, PhD, CFT, Associate Professor and Faculty Chair, Counseling Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
Donna A. Henderson, PhD, Professor Emeritus, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Mark Pope, EdD, Curators’ Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Department of Education Sciences and Professional Programs, University of Missouri-St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri
David B. Peterson, PhD, LCP, HSP, CRC, Professor, Coordinator, Rehabilitation and Clinical Counseling, Los Angeles, California
Toni A. Saia, PhD, MA, Adjunct Faculty, Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
Camelia Shaheed, MA, PhC, LPC, CRC, Instructor and Field Experience Coordinator, The University of Arizona, Department of Disability and Psychoeducational Studies, College of Education, Tucson, Arizona
Vilia M. Tarvydas, PhD, CRC, Professor (retired), University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa.
Preface
We welcome you to the fifth edition of Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
This text is a major revision of the prior edition, providing continuity to faculty who have used the book in teaching courses on ethics in counseling, but with notable changes and additions. The new edition has a distinct and timely focus on counseling as a profession. A new section provides material that not only applies to mental health practice generally, but it applies specifically to specialty practice with chapters specifically titled and focused on counseling specialties.
The format of the book is changed a bit. Many of the early chapters are updated versions of those that appeared in the earlier edition. For example, we kept chapters addressing the mental health professions, values in counseling, decision making, ethical principles, ethical standards, technology, ethical climate, and office/administrative practices. These chapters are foundational to ethical practice of the profession and provide solid building blocks to the more advanced perspectives discussed in other chapters.
The chapters on specialty practice are lively and contemporary overviews of these practice areas in counseling that reflect more recent trends to increased differentiation of these areas of practice. They are written by authorities in their respective areas to assure that the perspective is consistent with that of that particular area of counseling. Recent developments in the field have led some separate specialties to establish independent organizations, ethical codes, and enforcement mechanisms. As a result each specialty has its own chapter to allow for an extended discussion of the unique aspects of the field that provide clarity to understanding the particular ethical issues and standards that apply in each specialty. In this section, the specialty areas recognized by CACREP are included and the Instructor Manual provides some information of how topics covered in this text relate to the accreditation standards of counseling and the CACREP specialties. The specialities addressed are: mental health counseling; school counseling; couple, marital, and family counseling; rehabilitation counseling; addictions counseling; career counseling; and group counseling. The specialty chapters address historical issues in the development of the specialty and ethical and legal standards that apply to the specialty. Importantly, each specialty chapter can stand alone and be purchased and used in courses that address specialty issues (for instance, foundation courses in clinical mental health, school, or couples/marital/family counseling). This format frees the reader or the instructor to read (or to assign) specific specialty chapters that are important to the educational program. Not all counselor education programs address all of the specialties presented in this book, but many specialized topics do need coverage to prepare counselors to meet challenges in diverse issues in general practice. This book is broad in its coverage of the most practiced specialties in mental health practice, and provides an efficient and effective overview of the broad scope of particular areas addressed in counseling.
We are proud to welcome Michael T. Hartley to authorship of this text. Michael is a leader in the counseling profession, and his knowledge, skill, and experience has helped to refine this text in ways that will be appreciated by readers. He has been instrumental to the updating and reformatting of this edition.
Robert Rocco Cottone
Vilia M. Tarvydas
Michael T. Hartley
Qualified instructors may obtain access to supplements, including an Instructor's Manual, PowerPoints, and a Test Bank, by emailing textbook@springerpub.com
A supplementary CACREP Standards Grid is available at connect.springerpub.com/ content/book/978-0-8262-3529-2
Acknowledgments
We are very appreciative of Springer Publishing and our editor, Rhonda Dearborn, and our assistant editor, Mehak Massand, for the support and encouragement we received throughout the process of producing Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy, Fifth Edition. This book represents a continuing relationship with Springer Publishing, and we are very happy and proud to be associated with the team at Springer.
We owe special thanks to the contributors to this edition, as their contributions have enhanced the current version. Special thanks to Donna A. Henderson, Mark Pope, Michael Gerald, Dawnette Cigrand, Erin Binkley, Catherine Fennie, Camelia Shaheed, Brian Clarke and Toni Saia. We also thank David Peterson for again helping with the technology chapter, as his contribution to that chapter is valuable and comprehensive. Also, a special thanks goes to Deb Crawford and Brittany Murphy, as they were assigned to assist in the development and production of this book at the University of Missouri—St. Louis. Their work was invaluable and highly appreciated.
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM R. ROCCO COTTONE
We have learned over the years that relationships (professional, social, familial) are so important to everything that we do. This book is no exception. We are so fortunate to be affiliated with universities that afforded us the time and resources to complete this work. At the University of Missouri—St. Louis, special thanks to the Department of Education Sciences and Professional Programs. Also, to the Cottone family, special thanks to Rocco’s wife, Molly, and to his children (Christopher, Kristina, Maria, Torre, and Cristiana) for their love, support, and patience through the process. Also, the students at the University of Missouri—St. Louis have been supportive and helpful in providing feedback and constructive criticism of the prior editions, which we embraced as we revised this version of the text.
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM VILIA M. TARVYDAS
At the University of Iowa, special appreciation is extended to Noel Estrada-Hernandez, Department Executive Officer of the Department of Rehabilitation and Counselor Education, and our Dean Dan Clay who has supported the ambitions and good projects of this Emerita faculty member. The students in the Master’s and doctoral courses on ethics at UI, and doctoral students who were affiliated with the University of Iowa Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Ethics (I-DARE) deepened the quality and relevance of this work. The passion and friendship of my colleagues who served on the CACREP Board of Directors have provided inspiration, standards, and hope for the future of the profession of counseling have been invaluable. Most importantly, gratitude is extended to the Tarvydas-Sauerberg family members who have been patient, loving and supported continued work on the scholarship in ethics despite distractions from their needs and concerns.
SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS FROM MICHAEL T. HARTLEY
At the University of Arizona, thoughtful and caring colleagues, students, and staff have continued to inspire high-quality scholarship such as this book. Special thanks to Brian Clarke, Catherine Fennie, Tonia Saia, and Camelia Shaheed, students and former students who made substantial contributions as chapter authors to this edition. It was an honor to be invited by R. Rocco Cottone and Vilia Tarvydas to collaborate on this seminal text, and I am humbled by their extensive knowledge and expertise on ethics and ethical decision making. Thank you for the support, encouragement, and feedback throughout the process. Finally, a work such as this would not be possible without the support of the entire Hartley-Mapes clan. In particular, Aimee Mapes and Mason Hartley were gracious and loving, providing words of encouragement and support when it was needed most. I would be lost without the two of you.
Finally, we wish to express how grateful we are for the durable, intellectually stimulating, generous, patient, encouraging, and understanding long-term professional relationship and friendship that the authors have shared over the years. It has nurtured important personal and intellectual development contributing to good work, good life, and good ethics over the years.
And to our students and our readers, thank you for allowing us the opportunity to enter your professional world through our work. You continue to inspire and motivate us. We hope the book will be a useful and thought-provoking addition to your academic and professional library.
I
Overview of Ethics and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
Introduction to Ethical Issues and Decision Making in Counseling and Psychotherapy
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
● Understand ethical terminology and define an ethical dilemma.
● Distinguish philosophical ethics and morality from professional ethics and morality.
● Distinguish professionally mandated ethics from legally mandated ethical standards.
● Explain the importance of professional organizations, especially those that define and enforce ethical standards.
● Define the terms licensure, certification, and accreditation, and identify acceptable certification and accreditation bodies in counseling, psychology, and marital/family therapy.
● Explain the system of ethics governance in counseling.
● Define the skills necessary to become a professional decision maker.
INTRODUCTION
Aside from the study of theories of counseling and psychotherapy, there is probably no other area of study that is more related to the everyday practice of counseling that than the area of professional ethics. (The term counseling is used as a generic term to represent counseling and psychotherapy. Likewise, the term counselors is used to also include psychotherapists, regardless of their professional training.) Counselors frequently are confronted with ethical dilemmas. An ethical dilemma is a circumstance that stymies or confuses the counselor because: (a) there are competing or conflicting ethical standards that apply, (b) there is a conflict between what is ethical and moral, (c) the situation is such that complexities make application of ethical standards unclear, or (d) some other circumstance prevents a clear application of standards. When counselors are faced with an ethical dilemma, they must be alert to ethical and legal standards. They must be educated as to what is considered acceptable and competent counseling practice. They should be educated about the ethical nuances involved in practice with special populations or in various types of specialty practice. They must have a sense of their own morals and values and how those morals and values interplay with professional standards. Counselors must know how to recognize ethical dilemmas, so that they may make informed and ethical decisions. In
day-to-day practice, this means that from the very beginning of each case counselors must act in a way that is ethically sensitive.
The primary goal of this textbook is to help you to become ethically sensitive—so that you know when you face a dilemma—and, importantly, to give you direction on how to handle the dilemma in a professional way. This textbook should greatly expand your knowledge of ethics in counseling and psychotherapy. As a result of reading the text, you should learn ways to make ethical decisions. Practicing counselors make many decisions throughout any single day of practice. By studying decision making processes and models, your decisional power should be enhanced. So the intent of this text is to give you, the reader, the knowledge to understand professional ethics and the means to make wise professional decisions when faced with an ethical challenge.
Ethical standards are the rules that apply to any professional practice, including the professional practice of counseling. Ethical standards do not arise in a vacuum. They derive from the judgments of individuals who are members of established and respected professional associations, such as the American Counseling Association (ACA), the American Psychological Association (APA), and the American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT). These professional associations act much like the guilds of old, representing individuals of related professional interests. The focus of this text is on the profession of counseling and its specialty areas of practice. However, information about the professional organizations and practices of related professions will be presented to build a better understanding of the standards and areas of expertise of related professionals with whom counselors often interact in their work. Not only do professional organizations provide a meeting ground for practitioners, educators, and researchers, they also play a political role in advocating for the profession. These organizations must communicate to many audiences that the represented professionals are competent, needed, and guided by standards (e.g., ethical codes) that act to minimize or to prevent harm to the individuals they serve. A profession without enforceable ethical standards is a questionable profession. Therefore, counselors must be alert to political and professional issues in counseling, psychology, and the other mental health professions.
This text focuses on ethical and professional issues in counseling and its related specialty areas of practice. Part I introduces ethical and professional issues, presents definitions and case-related scenarios, and introduces the reader to value issues and decision making processes. Two ethical decision making models are described in detail to enhance your understanding of the processes involved. Ethical principles, and ethical and legal standards are introduced and defined. Part II addresses specialty practices in counseling, since there are sometimes differing or additional codes of ethics that apply to specialty practice. Specific chapters address the following counseling specialties: clinical mental health counseling; school counseling; couples, marital, and family counseling; rehabilitation counseling/clinical rehabilitation counseling; addictions counseling; and career counseling. Part III presents current challenges in the field, including ethical climate, office and administrative practices, supervision, and technology. Finally, Part IV reviews the role of the counselor as an ethical practitioner, including the counselor’s duties and responsibilities in ethically compromising circumstances. This text provides the professional counselor and psychotherapist with more than a cursory review of ethical issues; its purpose is to instill ethical responsibility through informed practice.
DEFINING ETHICS
The terminology related to ethics is sometimes confusing because the technical definitions used by philosophers and the definitions used by the lay public and mental health professionals do not match perfectly. Ethics in philosophy generally refers to theories about what is acceptable behavior. When the term philosophical ethics is used, it implies a discussion of theory. Many theories are related to ethics, and the behaviors that are defined as “good” or “right” that derive from one theory may be quite different than those that derive from another theory. For
example, Friedrich Nietzsche, a 19th-century German philosopher, developed an ethics theory of “evolutionary naturalism,” wherein right and wrong result from what is naturally selected (following Darwin’s theory of evolution). What is “weak” in terms of survival is not valued by a literal interpretation of Nietzsche’s (1888/1968a; 1891/1968b) work. In The Antichrist, Nietzsche (1888/1968a) stated: “The weak and the failures shall perish. . . . And they shall even be given every possible assistance” (p. 570). Immanuel Kant’s (undated/1949) “categorical imperative” stands in contrast. In his view, the decision maker must consider that the decision may become a universal standard—even applying to the decision maker. Kant’s “categorical imperative” has been reduced to the golden rule—do unto others as you would have others do unto you. Consider how a person with a serious disability would view these two philosophies. By one philosophy, the disabled person would be viewed as dispensable; by the other philosophy, the person may be viewed as valuable. In some ways, what is good according to Nietzsche’s theory is in conflict with Kant’s. So what is right or valuable by one theory may not be right or valuable by another theory. Ethical theory ultimately directs interpretation of what is “good” or “bad.” These examples demonstrate that philosophical ethics is theoretical. The study of philosophical ethics shows that what is defined as a “good act” clearly derives from the theoretical orientation.
In the discipline of philosophy, the term morality stands in contrast to ethics. Morality relates more to the application of ethical philosophy. Johnson (1999) made it clear, when philosophers are talking about morals, they are talking about action—morals are in the realm of practice. Ethics in philosophy relates to theories. Someone can be moral if they follow an ethical theory. Philosophers therefore talk about people being “moral,” and they talk about ethics related to theories that define right and wrong.
So, in philosophy, when an act is in question, it is a moral question. Whether the act is considered moral depends on the ethical theory that is applied.
Outside of philosophical circles, ethics and morality are intermixed and difficult to distinguish (Johnson, 1999). This is especially true when considering the professional ethics of counselors and psychotherapists. In fact, the philosophical definitions just described almost seem at odds with the application of these terms in professional ethics. One often hears the term professional ethics, meaning that a practitioner is acting according to standards of practice defined as acceptable by the profession. (Remember, “actions” in philosophy were reserved for “morals.”) The term “moral” often implies that a person has a firm philosophical foundation, sometimes based on religious dogma or standards. In common parlance, when one says someone has morals, it means the person is guided by higher principles. So, in common usage, the terms “ethics” and “morals” are almost used to mean the opposite of what is acceptable in the academic discipline of philosophy.
For clarity, ethics and morality can be divided into four classes. The definitions are as follows:
● Philosophical ethics—the theoretical analysis of what is “good,” “right,” or “worthy.”
● Professionally mandated ethics or “ethics”—acceptable or good practice according to agreed-upon rules or standards of practice established by a profession, as in counseling, psychology, or marriage/family therapy.
● Philosophical morality—assessment of actions of a person against a theory in philosophical ethics. Philosophical morality always refers to an act.
● Morality—the principles that guide an individual, sometimes deriving from a religious standard; sometimes referred to as moral principles.
In this text, the terms ethics and morality are addressed more often than are their philosophical alternatives. This is a text on professional ethics and practice, and, although reference is made to philosophical ethics and philosophical morality, the focus is clearly on the applied practice of ethics in counseling and psychotherapy.
To further clarify the use of these terms, consider the following examples. What is ethical (even legal) practice in medicine may be immoral by certain religious standards (e.g., where
abortion may be legal in a jurisdiction, it may be immoral to a physician who is a practicing Roman Catholic). What is ethical in counseling practice also may be immoral by certain religious standards. For example, counseling a couple about divorce, when one’s religion holds that marriage is a sacrament. In professional practice in the United States, ethics is separated from morality at the level of professional and legal directives. Consider the situation presented in Questions for Reflection 1.1 to assist in exploring your moral positions. Professional and legal standards tend to correspond to what is ethical. However, individual professionals may choose not to separate the moral from the ethical; for example, some physicians may refuse to perform abortions on moral grounds. See Box 1.1 to read a statement by a mental health provider who made a serious ethical error.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION 1.1 Clarification of Morals Exercise
What are your morals? As part of the self-exploration process that is critical to anticipating how you will handle ethical dilemmas, take a few minutes to define and assess some of your basic moral principles—those principles that guide you broadly in your daily life. Consider also that these moral principles may translate to specific actions as you are faced with difficult choices as a counselor. For example, what is your stand on abortion? Is it guided by a religious standard? Would you counsel someone considering an abortion? Consider another moral issue: the taking of another person’s life. What is your moral stance? Is it ever justifiable to take another person’s life? If you believe taking a life can be justified, under what circumstances is it justified? Under what conditions would you counsel a client who has taken someone’s life in a way that you do not believe is justifiable? Consider sexual relations outside of marriage. Are they acceptable or unacceptable? Does your religion guide you on this matter? Would you “keep the secret” from a spouse while counseling a person who admits, without remorse, to an extramarital sexual relationship? Attempt to define several guiding and absolute principles that influence you in your dayto-day life. What are the foundations of these beliefs? Finally, consider circumstances that would modify your stance.
BOX 1.1 Ethical Errors: Serious and Painful—A Letter From a Counselor Accused of Serious Ethical Misconduct
I remember the day all too well. It was the worst day of my professional life. “My God! What have I done?” Panic surged through my body. My mind raced with worry on the day my boss confronted me with my worst nightmare. He informed me that a former client of mine had accused me of the most serious of ethical violations. Specifically, I was being accused of having a detrimental relationship with this client—a sexual relationship. My boss had tears in his eyes as if he was saying, “Please tell me it isn’t true.” But, I could not deny the truth. I had been denying the truth for 10 months. It was time to come clean and try to salvage what little integrity I had left. This is my story. It is serious and extraordinarily painful. I hurt many people. My behavior was completely irresponsible. I have lived through it, and I keep what I did in front of me as a teaching tool. I can never forget what I did, or I may become vulnerable again. It doesn’t really matter what is known
(continued)
BOX 1.1
Ethical Errors: Serious and Painful—A Letter From a Counselor Accused of Serious Ethical Misconduct (continued )
intellectually about ethical errors. Anyone can read and understand that there are certain things that must not be done, and there are many gray areas as well. But what happens when the human, vulnerable side surfaces? What happens when buttons get pushed and countertransference issues arise? I hope what happens is that the truth is faced, that a boss or trusted colleague is consulted, or that personal counseling is undertaken. I didn’t face the truth. As a result, I had to talk to a lawyer, to an ethics committee, and to my insurance company. I lost my job, my license, and lots of money. This was certainly an expensive lesson. What I did was wrong. My punishment was deserved.
What I gained from this ordeal was something very important: I gained myself. I’m sure most students of counseling and most practicing professionals have heard the many reasons why people pursue counseling professionally, including meeting one’s own personal needs. This was certainly true for me. My need was to be needed. Therefore, I’ve been vulnerable to needy clients. When clients were hurting, I wanted to rescue and take care of them. I knew this prior to acting out, but I didn’t know how strong this need was and how I could lose myself and my professional boundaries.
One of the many ironies is that I could see what was happening. I remember reviewing the ethical guidelines concerning potentially detrimental relationships. I even informed my spouse that I was attracted to a client prior to acting out. But I was blinded by needs. I needed help, but was ashamed to ask for it. My denial took over and deception began. I held this shameful secret inside. My strong word of caution: Don’t keep secrets. Secrets have powerful and destructive energy.
All counselors will be faced with ethical dilemmas throughout their careers. There are no simple answers and no complete guidebook to inform how to respond to the many difficult and ambiguous situations. Experience is a great teacher, but it cannot help with every possible concern. Furthermore, experience often teaches the hard way, by giving the test first, followed by the lesson.
There is little guidance to help those who have been cited for ethical misconduct or legal wrongdoing. A legal specialist for psychologists and counselors informed me that approximately 50% of mental health professionals will face some ethical or legal hardship during the course of their careers. How does one prepare for this behaviorally and emotionally? It is all too easy to say, “Just don’t make any ethical mistakes.” This statement is unrealistic and naive. Like shadows, mistakes lurk in the darkness and catch a person off guard, when one is most vulnerable.
If for some reason you are accused of some wrongdoing, whether you are guilty or not, it will most likely shock your system. Be prepared for an emotional roller coaster. Get help, but be cautious. Get a lawyer if necessary; inform your insurance company if your lawyer recommends that you do so (make sure you carry insurance); and be careful about what you tell friends, family, and colleagues. By all means, talk to a therapist if you are personally struggling.
I experienced a plethora of emotions. That dear old question, “How did it make you feel?” certainly became real for me. I was angry at my client, at first, for turning me in; after all, my client was a willing participant who encouraged my involvement. My denial was still strong for the only person I should have been angry at—myself. A client places a counselor in an authority position whether welcomed or not. I abused my position. I should have been angry at myself for allowing this to happen.
(continued)
BOX 1.1 Ethical Errors: Serious and Painful—A Letter From a Counselor Accused of Serious Ethical Misconduct (continued )
Once I was able to accept complete responsibility for what I did, I could begin to grieve. Those were extraordinarily tough days. I had to endure many losses. I experienced many days of depression. For months I was completely ashamed of myself as a human being and could not imagine ever counseling again. Eventually, I realized that although I did a terrible thing, I was not a terrible person. I was a counselor who let personal issues get in the way of my professional responsibilities. Today I am very remorseful for what I did, and I am fortunate that I received a great deal of support when I began to tell the truth.
Not all people forgave me for what I did, and I understand this. I am very sorry for my behavior and I wish I could make amends to all those who suffered. I have developed many resources to help me personally, especially when I’m feeling stressed and overwhelmed, and I use my resources rather than just talk about them. I encourage all counselors to do the same. My resources are personal therapy, a 12-step program, my spouse, and a personal accountability program. It is very easy for counselors to talk and to listen, but more difficult for them to do their own personal work. Frankly, I believe that many counselors are compulsive about their jobs while neglecting themselves personally. Regardless, counselors owe it to their clients, to their profession, to their families, and most of all, to themselves, to take care of themselves.
Well, that is my story. I wouldn’t wish it upon anyone. I have to live with myself every day knowing what I did. Sometimes it is very difficult and painful for me. But it is important for me to keep my pain and my story in front of me. I need to remind myself of what I did so I can prevent myself from ever doing it again. Mistakes are best prevented by taking an honest accounting of one’s life and one’s situation. Be alert to “red flags,” and consult supervisors, colleagues, friends, or a therapist if personal needs begin to blind you to your professional responsibilities.
I wish you well on your journey.
PROFESSIONAL ETHICS VERSUS LEGALLY MANDATED ETHICS
Now that the terms ethics and morals have been clarified, a distinction also must be drawn between what is considered “professional” ethics and “legally mandated” ethics. In the United States, professionals such as counselors and psychotherapists are directed and bound by the ethical standards of the professional organization or organizations to which they belong. Most counselors are members of the ACA. Psychologists will likely have membership in the APA. Likewise, marriage/family therapists align with, and follow the ethical dictates of, the AAMFT. The ACA is the professional organization for counselors that provides a forum to address their educational, professional, and personal needs. Both the ACA and the APA have divisions devoted to specialty interests. For example, two divisions of the ACA are the American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA) and the National Career Development Association (NCDA). Rehabilitation counselors and career counselors attend the ACA conference and also attend meetings and professional presentations sponsored by their respective specialty groups. The APA is similar—divisions of the association (e.g., counseling psychology, rehabilitation psychology, family psychology) organize activities and presentations for the national APA conference. The AAMFT currently does not have specialty practice divisions. The ACA, APA, and AAMFT also make malpractice and other types of personal insurance available to members. Additionally, the professional organizations have established professional standards through committees that oversee ethical rules
(including disciplinary procedures) and practice. The codes of ethics of the professional organizations can be viewed at the following websites:
● American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy. www.aamft.org/Legal_Ethics/ Code_of_Ethics.aspx
● American Counseling Association. www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/2014-code-of-ethics-finaladdress.pdf?sfvrsn=96b532c_2
● American Psychological Association. www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
An organization’s code of ethics directs members who are faced with an ethical concern or ethical dilemma. Such a circumstance requires the professional to decide if an action is right or wrong (before or at the time of the act) when competing or mutually exclusive ethical, moral, or legal standards are involved. (Remember the definition of an ethical dilemma discussed in the first paragraph of this chapter.) It is possible that competing standards of right and wrong may be at the root of an ethical dilemma. The codes of the major professional organizations, such as the ACA, APA, and AAMFT, are considered professional (as opposed to legal) ethical standards. Counselors, psychologists, and marriage/family therapists are licensed to practice in individual states. Licensees are also directed by the ethical code referenced in the relevant state’s licensure statute or the specific disciplinary rules that the licensure board adopts. In fact, one of the main reasons for the licensure of professions (especially the mental health professions) is to protect the public from unqualified or unethical practitioners. Counselors or psychotherapists who act unethically, as judged by a licensure authority according to the authority’s accepted standards, are subject to penalties as severe as suspension or revocation of a professional license. Licensure allows a person to practice a profession and prevents the practice of a profession by those who are unlicensed (Anderson, 1996; Dorken, 1976). Revocation of a license, therefore, is a loss of the right to practice in the state’s jurisdiction. Suspension of a license is a temporary loss of the right to practice the profession within the jurisdiction. Licenses are not easy to attain. To be licensed as a professional counselor or marriage/family therapist in most states requires a master’s degree with one or more years of supervised professional (post-degree) practice; licensure candidates must also pass a stringent examination in their respective profession. The standards in psychology are similar, except a doctoral degree is required. Consequently, the prospect of losing a professional license means the loss of a livelihood. Whereas a breach of the code of ethics of a professional organization (such as the ACA, APA, or AAMFT) can result in professional censure or even loss of membership, the breach of an ethical standard required by regulatory law (legally mandated, for example, by a licensure statute) may result in the loss of a license to practice and/ or other legal penalty. The distinction, therefore, between “professional” and “legally mandated” ethical standards is a crucial one.
Legally mandated ethics are ethics defined by laws that require one to act in a certain manner as set forth by state or federal legislatures, licensure boards, or as set forth in the case law opinions of judges (Wheeler & Bertram, 2019); legally mandated ethics requires one to act according to applicable laws, especially as they pertain to those in the helping professions.
In some cases, state licensure statutes or regulations simply reference a professional association’s code of ethics. States may develop their own standards, but ethical standards in licensure statutes are usually similar to (or based in large part on) those of the professional association. In counseling, for example, the American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB, which is an organization that serves and represents all state licensure boards) provides guidance to individual state licensure boards on matters related to ethical standards and enforcement. Members of the AASCB are representatives from state licensure boards. In other words, it is the professional association for the state licensure boards and the members of those boards. This organization works to improve the technical proficiency of these regulatory licensure boards and to enhance the consistency of standards in licensing counselors among all states. It also addresses issues of
reciprocity of licensure, or what is called portability (Altekruse, 2001). Licensing reciprocity is a process whereby a licensed counselor’s credentials in one state are recognized by another state for licensure purposes without additional imposed requirements. In psychology, the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB), a group made up of state psychology licensing board representatives, has its own code of ethics. (See Sinclair [2004] for a comparison of the ASPPB code of conduct and the APA and Canadian Psychological Association codes of ethics.) The ASPPB has also set up a credential bank for individuals who meet quality licensure standards to facilitate reciprocity between states—the Certificate of Professional Qualification (CPQ) in psychology. The CPQ is accepted by many states as a credential that meets licensure standards. The Association of Marital and Family Therapy Regulatory Boards (AMFTRB) represents the state marriage/family therapy licensure boards. These important license-related organizations influence the ethical and professional training standards required for individuals to be admitted and retained in the professions.
Mental health professionals need to know both the professional and legal ethical standards that direct their practices. Ethical standards are the rules of ethical practice imposed by the professions, and legally mandated ethical standards are ethical standards imposed by law. Professionals are obligated to know these standards beyond the knowledge gained by a cursory reading of a code. Counselors should commit to memory the general principles that operate in ethical practice, and they should regularly discuss with other counselors or psychotherapists how such principles apply to professional practice. Ethical principles are the broad philosophical guidelines that direct ethical practice. (See Box 1.2 for a statement made by a client who shared her experience addressing an ethical breach by her psychotherapist.)
BOX 1.2 A Client’s Story
For about a year, I sat “in the chair,” trying to understand what had brought me to therapy. Across from me sat my therapist, my confidant, my partner in piecing together the puzzle that had become my life. I began by explaining that I was hurting inside because of the young woman I had become. I felt angry, defensive, alone. I had detached myself from all those who were dear to me, except for my family. They, however, were kept at arm’s length. My temper had become short and my list of reasons for not going out with my friends had become long. I was confused by these changes in myself because I was unable to identify the source. I was sad about the changes because I did not like living such a negative, unpeopled existence. This existence was nothing like what I had lived the previous 22 years.
The day I realized why I was “in the chair” remains etched vividly in my mind. With bowed head and long curls hiding my face, I choked out the words with humiliation, shame, fear, and pain: I was raped. I told the therapist the story from the beginning—a story which began as one of friendship, laughter, and fun. Then I recounted how suddenly, without warning, the man I had chosen to call friend turned into someone I no longer knew. I told of the day he hovered above my head with eyes full of hate as he spoke with venom, and how because of shock and fear, I could not move. He hurt me with his body and he hurt me with his words. I described how it seemed like hours later, that he dropped me off in front of my apartment. It was at that time that he grabbed the back of my head once again, pressed his mouth angrily onto mine and told me he’d like to do that again sometime—that it was fun.
The pain I went through by finally acknowledging the rape was deep. Making sense of how it had affected my life forced me to open myself up to feel all that the experience (continued)
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Kun se vain kävisi päinsä. Bolshevikkien asioissa olisi paljon korjaamista, joka on yhtä helppo sanoa kuin vaikea tehdä. Nyt on heille kirkastunut »uusi» totuus, että mitä enemmän paperirahaa painattaa, sitä arvottomammaksi se tulee. Ihmeellistä ja käsittämätöntä on kai polsujen mielestä, että tämä kapitalistinen luonnonlaki pitää paikkansa myöskin bolshevistisilla autuaitten niityillä.
Ja vielä toisen suuren keksinnön on bolshevikkilehti julistanut maailmalle. Kapitalistisessa maailmassa se kyllä on tietty ennenkin, mutta bolshevikit eivät uskoneet. Nyt alkavat hekin vähitellen uskoa.
Ja nyt he riemastuneina keksinnöstään hokevat, että »teollisuutta on hoidettava niin, että se kannattaa!» Ja ettei teollisuuden ole elettävä valtion kustannuksella!
Todellakin! Valo tulee idästä. Suuri valo tuli Moskovasta, ja me olemme häikäistyt.
Bolshevikit ovat siis antautuneet taloustieteellisiksi keksijöiksi, eikä kenkään voi sanoa, mitä uusia paljastuksia he vielä tekevät.
Kukaties siirtyvät he piakkoin puhtaaseen matematiikkaankin ja ilmoittavat kaikille kaikille kaikille, että Venäjällä on laajojen, kokeilujen vahvistamien tutkimusten perusteella tultu siihen vakaumukseen, että kaksi kerta kaksi on neljä kommunistisessakin yhteiskunnassa.
Eri asia on, voivatko bolshevikit enää tässä ajallisessa elämässään käyttää tieteellisiä saavutuksiaan ja voittojaan hyväkseen.
Sillä bolshevikit ovat kuin ilmailijat, jotka nousivat lentokoneellaan korkealle, liki taivasta ja olivat iloisia. Ja kaikki kansa ällisteli heitä. Ja sitten he heittivät moottorin ja potkurin maahan ja huusivat, että katsokaa, se lentää sittenkin! Ja se lensikin vielä vähän matkaa entisellä kapitalistisella vauhdillaan. Sitten se alkoi laskeutua, ja lopuksi läksi tulemaan nurinniskoin ja häränpyllyjä heitellen hurjaa vauhtia kohti vankkaa maankamaraa. Nyt pyörivät silmät ilmailijain päässä, ja he kiljuvat ja tekevät lentoteknillisiä keksintöjä, mutta se alkaa olla hieman myöhäistä.
»Roskareissu, mutta tulihan tehtyä».
Niinkuin entinen markkinamies sanoi. (1923.)
KOMMUNISTIT »KAPITULEERAAVAT»
Ovat siis kääntyneet Hämeenlinnan kommunistit anomuksella Porvoon tuomiokapitulin puoleen.
Hämeenlinnan kommunistit tahtovat nousta sorron yöstä ei kansan kaikkivaltiaan luisevien nyrkkien vaan kirkkoruhtinaitten pehmeämpien kämmenten avittamina. Tapaus lienee toistaiseksi ensimmäisiä maailmanvallankumouksen jylhässä historiassa ja ansaitsee siis tulla kahvipöydässä muistetuksi.
Hämeenlinnan kommunistit ovat jättäneet tuomiokapituliin valituskirjelmän, missä anotaan kumottavaksi Hämeenlinnan kirkkovaltuusmiesten päätös kapinallisten haudoille aiottua muistopatsasta koskevassa asiassa. Niinkuin muistettaneen, kiinniriippuvat myöskin Hämeenlinnan Sepeteukset tässä suhteessa tunnuslauseessa, että »ei patsast' eikä napaa».
Sallikaa meidän hetkiseksi vajota nuoruuden muisteloihin.
Siellä oli silloin pappi, mukava ja joviaalinen herrasmies sivumennen sanoen, nyttemmin vainaja jo monta ajastaikaa.
Oli siellä myöskin eräs räätäli, joilla kautta aikojen on kunnia- ja haukkumanimenä ollut »pukki».
Tämä räätäli oli ainakin siinä suhteessa Kambyseskeisarin korkian kaltainen, että hänkin usein »viinall' karais' kurkkuans». Hän oli paikkakunnan kuuluisin ja uutterin raataja viinamäen töissä, siihen aikaan, jolloin miedompia väkijuomia myytiin vapaasti tavallisissa sekatavarakaupoissa ja puteli esim. »Husson tuiskua» maksoi muistaaksemme 80 penniä.
Eräänä ehtoohetkenä oli räätäli — sanottakoon häntä nyt vaikka Mesikämmeneksi — väsähtänyt katuojaan.
Katuliikenne ei siellä ainakaan silloin ollut kovin vilkas. Yksi ja toinen kulki kuitenkin ohi, ja Mesikämmen, joka ei ollut mainehikas ainoastaan mahtavan janonsa vuoksi — hänen kuuluisuutensa perustui etupäässä hänen suulauteensa ja sukkeluuteensa eritoten hönössä ollessaan, ja muussa tilassa ei häntä tavallisesti nähtykään
— teki ohikulkeville avunpyyntiesityksiä, jotka eivät kuitenkaan johtaneet toivottuun tulokseen. Ohikulkijat vain virnuilivat ja sanoivat, että mikäs hätä sinulla siellä on, pehmeässä ojassa lämpimänä kesäyönä? Ja jos ei vuoteessa olisikaan leveyttä liiemmälti, niin pituus kai ainakin riittää? Ja menivät menojaan, vaatturimestari
Mesikämmenen puhjetessa monisanaisiin ja tyylikkäisiin sadatuksiin omien seurakuntalaistensa taholta saamansa epäkristillisen kohtelun johdosta.
Mutta lähenipä vihdoin kirkolta päin itse seurakunnan paimen, kaupungin pastori, rauhallisesti kävellen, ja uusi toivo välkähti
Mesikämmenen sameissa silmissä. Ja kun pastori saapui uupuneen seurakuntalaisensa kohdalle, tervehti viimeksimainittu häntä rukoilevalla äänellä seuraavalla tilapäissäkeellä:
»Laupias lammasten paimen, auta pukkia ojasta!»
Ja pastori olikin tällä kertaa se laupias samarialainen, joka pelasti eksyneen pukin kosteasta olinpaikastaan.
Eri juttu on, ojentaako Porvoon tuomiokapituli auttavan kätensä Hämeenlinnan punertaville pukeille.
Mutta räätäli Mesikämmen olikin paljon hauskempi mies kuin nykyiset kommunistit. (1923.)
TOISELLA PUOLEN
— Kah, päivää, kunnioitettu ystävä Pjotr Velikij!
— Aaa… Vladimir Iljitsh! Toivotan hyvää jatkoa! Kuinka on nerokkaan päänne laita? Joko alkaa parantua?
Lenin tunnusteli vaistomaisesti otsaansa ja takaraivoansa ja räpytellen silmiään kirkkaassa auringonvalossa vastasi:
— Paranemassa on, kallis ystäväni ja hyväntekijäni Pjotr Velikij. Te kun silloin kerran, kun politiikasta väittelimme, minua nyrkillä pääkalloon läjäytitte, niin että kourallinen herneitä ja papuja aivoistani irtosi, niin siitä lähtien on parantuminen ihmeellisesti edistynyt. Siitä teille suuret kiitokset edeskannan, ystäväni ja hyväntekijäni Pjotr Velikij!
Pietari suuri hymähti tyytyväisenä, sillä suurestakin miehestä on mieluista, kun hän saa kiitosta ja tunnustusta. Usein ehkä mieluisampaakin kuin jostain pienemmästä miehestä.
— Minulla aina onkin hyvät käsivoimat ollut, Vladimir Iljitsh! Koetelkaapas, olkaa hyvä, tuota hauislihasta.
Pietari suuri jännitti lihaksensa, koukistaen oikean käsivartensa.
Lenin tunnusteli hauislihasta ja myönsi:
— Niin on kuin puuta… ikäänkuin jollakin toverilla työläisellä tai toverilla talonpojalla.
— Ei teidän tovereillanne, veikkonen, ole koskaan sellaisia lihaksia ollutkaan! Laiskureita ovat. Mutta tällä nyrkillä minä korkeimman omakätisesti annoin selkään pojareille, jos musikoillekin. Isotkin herrat saivat hovissa korvilleen niin että läiskyi. Kerrankin Pietarissa… kuulkaapa, Vladimir Iljitsh, lakkamme käymään Pietarissa! Nyt on kaunis ilma kävelläksemme.
— Leningradia tarkoitatte kai, Pjotr Velikij? Ei haluta takaisin. Kiitin kun pääsin.
— Mitä pelkäätte? Enhän minäkään pelkää.
— Mitäs te, porvari! Mutta minun käymiseni siellä olisi vaarallista kommunismin opeille. Venäjällä nyt seitsemän vuotta joka koulussa taikauskoa pois on kitketty ja sanottu, ettei mitään muuta elämää ole kuin se, mikä kommunistisessa yhteiskunnassa on, ja nytkö minä menisin sinne kummittelemaan ja tekemään koko valistuksen tyhjäksi! Nietu.
— Myönnän, johdonmukainen olette, Vladimir Iljitsh, sangen johdonmukainen! Minä pojareilta ja musikoilta pitkät parrat leikkasin, te leikkasitte koko pään. Olisitte valmis leikkaamaan omankin päänne, jos voisitte sillä saada laumat uskomaan opinkappaleitanne.
— Totta on, ystäväni ja hyväntekijäni Pjotr Velikij! Toivotan teille onnea matkalle! Katselkaa ja kuunnelkaa, kuinka asiat kulkevat, ja
palatkaa terveenä kertomaan minulle, mitä uutta kuuluu. Ja selko ottakaa, tehkää hyvin, minkä verran se suuri tulva Leningradissa…
— Pietarissa!
— Älkäämme kiistelkö, katselkaa, pyydän, joko tulvantuhot perustamassanne kaupungissa, vallankumouksen kehdossa, ovat korjatut työläisten ja talonpoikain voimakkaan hallituksen viisailla toimenpiteillä.
Suuren Pietarin kookas vartalo alkoi haihtua ja oli lopuksi näkymättömissä. Lenin jatkoi matkaansa. Hän oli menossa haukkumaan Marxia, sillä Leninin tapana oli käydä kerran viikossa haukkumassa Marxia mitä voimakkaimmilla venäläisillä haukkumasanoilla. Välistä tarttui hän Marxin isoon partaankin, ravisti sitä kiukkuisesti ja huusi:
— Ja minä, pöllö, tuhosin suuren valtakunnan ja miljoonia ihmishenkiä teidän, juutalaiskuonon idioottimaisilla teorioillanne kokeillessani! Siitäkös vasta konkurssi tuli, senkin saksalainen karvaturpa!
Kuinka kauan Pietari suuri matkallaan viipyi, sitä ei voida tarkalleen sanoa, koska siellä ei ole aikaa. Mutta kerran, kun Lenin kurkisti sisään tämän ovesta istui Pietarin perustaja saappaitaan kuivaillen uunin edessä.
— Mitä kuuluu, kallis ystävä Pjotr Velikij? Terveenäkö palasitte? Kuinka jaksaa diktaattori Sinovjev? Vieläkö ryyppää ja pöydällä »pikku ryssää» tanssii? Samanlainen aasi muutoin kuin muutkin nykyiset komissarit, Trotskia lukuunottamatta, niinkuin testamentissani olen osoittanut. Pietari suuri aivasti ja sanoi:
— Tätä sinne kuuluu, kaupunkiini Pietariin! Nuhan sain! Siellä oli taas tulva. Nevskilläkin vesi lainehti. Polviin asti oli pääkadulla vettä. Saappaiden suista sisään meni. Ja muualla oli vielä enemmän vettä. Te, punaiset hölmöt, kuvittelitte lähettävänne Venäjältä sellaisen tulvan, joka upottaisi koko maailman, mutta siitä ei tullut mitään. Pieni Virokin teille päihin antaa. Mutta aina kun alkaa milloin lounainen tuuli puhaltaa Suomenlahdelta, niin kohta on toinen teidän pääkaupungeistanne hukkumaisillaan, eikä kolmannen internatsionaalin pääpesään pääse muuta kuin soutamalla Mitäpä te voitte luonnonvoimille?
— Tosi on, kallis ystäväni ja hyväntekijäni! Luonnonvoimia emme hallitse. Pietarista minä viis — tarkoitin Leningradia. Mutta on kamalampi luonnonvoima kuin vesi — venäläinen talonpoika. Sitä emme me bolshevikit ole koskaan ymmärtäneet. En edes minä itse. Mitä hautoo sataviisikymmentä miljoonaa musikkaa? Ja mitä tekevät jälkeläiseni, kirotut pässinpäät, kun se tulva nousee? He vihaavat meitä bolshevikkeja, musikat. Eivät he rakastaneet tsaariakaan, mutta meitä he suorastaan vihaavat. Mitä tehdä, ystäväni ja hyväntekijäni, jolle Venäjänmaan suuruus ja mahti on kallis?
— Kysykää Marxilta! vastasi Pietari tsaari ivaten. — Ehkä on hänen tuuheassa parrassaan joku teoria senkin mahdollisuuden varalta!
Lenin sylkäisi vihaisesti ja läksi.
Mutta maanpäällä painattivat lehdet tavaksi tulleita sähkösanomiaan:
»Pietarin kaupunki on jälleen suurten tulvien vallassa. Nevan vesi on noussut 7 1/2 jalkaa yli normaalikorkeuden…»
»NEUVOSTO-AAPINEN»
Joku kotimaahan äskettäin pistäytynyt aunukselainen on Sortavalaan palattuaan tuonut tullessaan tuliaisiksi »Laatokalle» venäjänkielisen, 10 sivun laajuisen ja Petroskoissa painetun »Aapisen täysikasvuisille». Aapinen tietysti opettaa kommunismin alkeita pitkäpartaisille opetuslapsille ja kuuluu siinä olevan m.m. painettuna seuraavia perustotuuksia:
»Me emme ole aaseja».
»Me emme ole pässejä».
»Sinä rakastat neuvostoja, mutta herrat eivät rakasta neuvostoja».
»Me olemme alastomia ja paljasjalkaisia, mutta me emme tee työtä herrojen hyväksi».
»Sinä kasvoit paljasjalkaisena, mutta herrat eivät ole paljasjalkaisia».
Ja niin poispäin.
Meillä ei ollut onni oppia hyödyllistä lukutaitoamme bolshevistisesta aapisesta. Se oli päinvastoin sitä vanhaa,
porvarillista hapatusta:
»A. Aamu iltaa viisaampi.
Ö. Öisin yököt lentelevät».
Mutta luodessamme näin ikämiehinä katseen taaksepäin tuntuu meistä siltä, kuin olisi itse Lenin nyttemmin tunnustanut, että sillä meidän porvarillisella aapisellakin oli puolensa.
Hän on nukahtanut pienen unosen kommunistihuumauksensa jälkeen. Pää tuntuu hieman raskaalta ja kitalaki epämiellyttävän kuivalta, mutta samalla ovat kaikki joutavanpäiväiset haaveet haihtuneet. Hän siemaisee kulauksen kylmää teetä, pesee kasvonsa raikkaalla vedellä ja tuntee itsensä verrattain uudeksi ihmiseksi. Sitten hän lähtee neuvoston kokoukseen, nyykäyttää päätään eräille uskotuilleen, puristaa ohimennen jonkun kättä, astuu puhujalavalle ja alkaa puhua:
— Taisi tulla eilen illalla vähän hummattua… sattuuhan sitä. Aatteet ovat tietysti sinänsä erinomaiset, mutta niillä on kieltämättä ainakin toistaiseksi se pieni vika, etteivät ne käytännössä kävele tuskinpa vielä konttaavatkaan. Porvareilla Suomessa on ollut joskus jokin aapinen, jossa oli lause »Aamu iltaa viisaampi». Tänä aamuna minä havaitsin tuon lauselman varsin hyvin mahtuvan myöskin kommunistiseen ajatustapaan. Meidän aapisessamme taas sanotaan: »me emme ole pässejä». Sekin on totta, sillä me olemme painattaneet aapiseemme ainoastaan kommunistisia totuuksia. Mikä
on pässi? Se on eräs nelijalkainen, joka puskee päänsä vaikka seinään, tekemättä sitä ennen minkäännäköisiä mittauksia ja arviolaskelmia tuon seinän paksuudesta ja vahvuudesta. Me olemme myöskin puskeneet päätämme kerran toisensa jälkeen meitä ympäröiviin porvarillisiin seinämiin — Suomi, Viro, Puola… hm, ja muutamiin muihin, ja koska en minä ainakaan ole sellainen pässi, joka ei olisi osapuilleen selvillä seinän vahvuudesta ja otsaluuni kestävyydestä, niin olen minä päättänyt, että eilisiltaiset voimalauseet siirretään aunukselaisiin aapisiin ja me ryhdymme tekemään kauppaa porvarin kanssa … löytyväthän ne tunnuslauseet sieltä aapisesta, jos joku sattuisi niitä tarvitsemaan.»
Olkoon Lenin muuten sisimmältään — kukali hänellä mitään »sisintä» on mikä hyvänsä, niin se tunnustus täytyy hänelle ainakin antaa, ettei hän ole, eikä ole tähänkään saakka ollut mikään pässinpää.
Me olemme kuvitelleet mielessämme sen homeerisen hymyn, joka leikitsee »suuren Leninin» tutkimattomilla kasvoilla, kun hän lukaisee läpi sen Suomen kansaneduskunnan kommunistien Ville Vainion ja Hilda Hannulan allekirjoittaman eduskuntaehdotuksen »Laiksi Suomen hallitusmuodon perusteiksi», joka äskettäin on eduskunnalle jätetty ja kaikessa hauskuudessaan kommunistilehdissä julkaistu, ja jossa esitetään Suomen tasavallan muuttaminen »Suomen Sosialistiseksi Neuvosto-Tasavallaksi» kaikkea muuta kuin kommunistisessa järjestyksessä, nimittäin:
»Suomen Eduskunnan päätöksen mukaisesti, joka on tehty 20 päivänä heinäkuuta 1906 annetun valtiopäiväjärjestyksen 60 §:ssä määrätyllä tavalla».
Arvelemme, että toveri Lenin naurahtaa hörähtää itsekseen, hieraisee huvitettuna leukapartaansa ja murahtaa:
— Vot kak… aamu iltaa viisaampi. Siis laillisessa järjestyksessä tällä kertaa. (1925.)
ISOT KIRJAIMET
Kasanin kuvernementissa, Jegorofkan piirikunnassa, asui olkikattoisessa tuvassaan musikka Ivan Ivanovitsh. Astui hänen tupaansa päivänä erähänä kylän kommunisti.
Ivan Ivanovitsh ei ollut tietääkseenkään. Hänellä kun ei ollut enää mitään ottamista.
Mutta eipä kylän kommunisti ollutkaan tällä kertaa tullut ottamaan, vaan antamaan.
— Mitä sinä teet, Ivan Ivanovitsh? kysyi kommunisti, joka ennen vallankumousta oli kylän kesken tunnettu nimellä varas-Proshka.
— En mitään, vastasi Ivan Ivanovitsh. — Istun ja ajattelen.
— Mitä sinulla on ajattelemista, turakka?! kiljaisi kommunisti. Eikö ole hyvä ollaksesi, koiranturpa?
— Ajatteleminen on semmoinen paha asia. Se on kielletty komissariaatin käskykirjeellä Y 97685471, lisäsi hän lempeämmin.
— Mitä tehdä, pyhä veli? kysyi Ivan Ivanovitsh, tukkaansa kylmien. —
Eihän voi maatakaan viljellä, kun ei ole siementä.
— Menisit halkometsään!
— Ei ole kirvestä, toveri.
— Aa, se on totta. Kirveet on otettu takavarikkoon. Ei voi jättää tuhmalle kansalle niin vaarallista asetta. Tarttuisit siihen vielä, pöllö, ja päähän kajauttaisit! Mutta tässä on sulle lukemista, toveri. Sitä kun tutkit, niin ajatella et tarvitse ensinkään. Ne ovat toiset miehet, jotka ajattelevat.
Ja kylän kommunisti, ent. varas-Proshka, jätti Ivan Ivanovitshille korallisen bolshevistista »valistuskirjallisuutta».
Mennessään kääntyi hän vielä taakseen katsomaan, heristi nyrkkiään ja uhkasi:
— Vai vielä sinä tässä ajattelemaan, turjake! Jos tulen ja kuonoosi sivautan, niin lähtevät sulta semmoiset tuumailut päästä!
Jonkin ajan kuluttua poikkesi kylän kommunisti taas Ivan Ivanovitshin tupaan.
Ivan Ivanovitsh istui uunin pankolla, huopasaappaisiin, aivinaisiin housuihin ja lammasnahkaturkkiin puettuna. Kädessä oli miehellä bolshevikkin lentolehtinen.
— No mitäpäs nyt, Ivan Ivanovitsh? kysyi kommunisti.
— Luen, näethän itse, vastasi Ivan Ivanovitsh. Kommunisti tuli lähemmäksi.
— Voi sinuas, tomppeli! huusi kommunisti. — Lehtihän on ylösalaisin kädessäsi.
— Kuinka minä tietäisin, toveri, miten se on pidettävä? kysyi Ivan Ivanovitsh. — Minä en tunne kirjaimia.
Kulkipa tarkastuksella piirikunnassa korkea valistuskomissarion virkamies Vasili Rasboinikov, entiseltä nimeltään Isaak Silberstein, juutalaisista vanhemmista.
— Kuinka täällä ovat asiat, toveri? tiedusteli tarkastaja Ivan Ivanovitshin kotikylän kommunistilta. — Onko vastavallankumouksellista kiihoitusta?
— Vastavallankumouksellista kiihoitusta ei ole, vastasi kommunisti.
— Burshuit tapettiin käskyn mukaan. Mutta pimeää on kansa. Ivan Ivanovitsh pankolla istuu, lukee, sanoo, a kniga hänellä on nurinpäin kädessä. Parta on äijällä hopeassa, a puustainta ei vielä tunne.
— Ei ole ollenkaan hyvä asia, sanoi komissari Rasboinikov synkästi. — Eikö täällä tiedetä, että neuvostohallitus on käskyn antanut, että jokaisen on opittava lukemaan määräajan kuluessa? Kolme vuotta sitten jo viimeinen määräaika umpeen meni!
— Tiedetty on, toveri komissari, mikseipä olisi tiedetty. Mutta Ivan Ivanovitsh ei ole oppinut lukemaan. Tulivat toverit kommunistit
toisesta kylästä, muutamia tappoivat, opettajan myös tappoivat, veitikat. Ei ole ollut sitten, kuka opettaisi Ivan Ivanovitshin lukemaan.
— Kyllä minä teidät nyljen! ärjyi komissari. — Nimenomaan on sanottu, ettei pidä tappaa opettajia, jos on riittävästi muita tapettavia! Opettajat ovat meille tarpeellisia, jotta kansa oppisi lukemaan Leninin kirjoituksia. Rutto teidät syököön! Minä lähetän tänne Moskovasta uuden opettajan, joka saa opettaa Ivan Ivanovitshin lukemaan. Siihen opettajaan jos rohkenette koskea, niin parempi teille olisi, jos ette olisi syntyneet. Kyllä minä teille näytän!
Tuli uusi opettaja Moskovasta, rokonarpinen laiha mies, joka ei pelännyt paikkakunnan kommunistejakaan, vaan löi ja potki heitä, milloin halusi, näyttääkseen havainnollisesti, että kaupunkikommunistin ja maalaiskommunistin välillä on suuri ero. Ja hyvin oli kohtelias Ivan Ivanovitshille, ainoastaan harmittaakseen kylän kommunistia.
Tuostapa Ivan Ivanovitsh kovin ilostui, ryhtyi tutkimaan tieteitä, yks' kaks' jo lukemaankin oppi.
Opettaja läksi takaisin Moskovaan ja antoi raportin:
Selvä on! Jo oppi lukemaan Ivan Ivanovitsh! Päivänä muutamana kylän kommunisti taas poikkesi.
—
Ivan Ivanovitshin tupaan. Ivan Ivanovitsh, lammasnahkaturkissaan, istui uunin pankolla, ja kädessä oli hänellä Pravdan puolikas, jonka oli käärepaperina saanut kauppapuodista.
— Sinä lueskelet, Ivan Ivanovitsh? kysyi kommunisti.
— Lukemisen olen toimessa, veli pyhä, myönsi Ivan Ivanovitsh.
Se on niin somaa tuo lukemisen asia: kirjaimia on kuin torakoita pyhän Miihkaelin päivän aamuna, ja kun niitä peräkkäin sommittelet, niin niistä joitakin sanoja tulee, semmoisia ettei niitä juutaskaan ymmärrä. Mutta aina on ensin iso kirjain ja sitten tulevat pienet kirjaimet. Se on niinkuin elämässäkin, ensin on aina herra — ennen oli porvari ja nyt on bolshevikki — ja sitten vasta tulee rahvas. Eivätpäs ole puustaimetkaan samanarvoisia!
Järkkyneenä kuunteli Ivan Ivanovitshia kommunisti. Ivan Ivanovjtsh oli ruvennut filosofeeraamaan. Sitä oli vallan kamala kuulla.
Kiireellisesti laati hän salaisen raportin Moskovaan.
* * * * *
Äskettäin oli sitten lehdissä uutinen, että Neuvosto-Venäjän kansanvalistuskomissari harkitsee isojen kirjainten poistamista venäjänkielestä, »yhdenmukaisen kirjoitustavan saavuttamiseksi muitten neuvostotasavaltojen kanssa, ja kun ei itämaisissa kielissä yleensä käytetä isoja kirjaimia». (1925.)
KAIKKIEN MAIDEN KÖYHÄLISTÖLLE
VODKAA
Bolshevikeilla, niinkuin tiedetään, ei ole kieltolakia.
Silloin kun ryssä sotkeutui maailmansotaan, julisti tsaari jonkinlaisen kieltolain sodan ajaksi.
Kuinka tarkoin sitä noudatettiin, ei ole tiedossamme. Joka tapauksessa ryssä »voitti» sodan omalla tavallaan, aika selkäsaunalla.
Sitten tulivat bolshevikit, panivat suitset musikan suuhun, ottivat ohjakset käteensä ja sanoivat että alappa ravata. Hyvähän nyt on ollaksesi, kun sinulla on vapauskin. Paitsi muuta.
Ja musikka ravasi, mikäpäs siinä.
Bolshevikki on nyt uudistuksia laatinut. Se tsaarin kieltämä ryyppykin on taas päästetty koleasta kivimäestä, seitsemän lukon takaa. Ettei bolshevikki ole tehnyt sitä ilman tarkkaa harkintaa, siitä voimme olla varmat. Ja asia on muutoinkin järjestetty niin hyvin kuin asiat yleensä Venäjällä osataan järjestää.
