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ISBN: 978-1-908538-24-6
INTRODUCTION
A NEW THREAT
In April 1938, to mark the Führer’s birthday, Hitler’s magnificent new army marched before him. At the centre of the great parade were the tanks of the new German Panzer Divisions. The event was staged to intimidate the world. True, most of the tanks were small and lightly armed and, unbeknownst to the foreign dignitaries, some were allegedly driven past twice, but they served Hitler’s grand design. Hitler was a gambler and he gambled upon bluffing his enemies into believing his tank forces were far stronger than they actually were. By a combination of deceit and brinkmanship. Hitler had made a chilling and spectacular assertion of Germany’s re-born military might.
Adolf Hitler was the man who provided the impetus to develop the Panzer Divisions of Germany’s Wehrmacht, and in the campaigns of the early war years these new tank armies would strike down all before them. The German soldier would become accustomed to fighting against numerical odds but he would also become accustomed to victory. The comparatively few mechanised and armoured units were the only truly modem
component of the German Army and they were the key to much of its extraordinary success. The military of many countries were familiar with wireless, with tanks and with war planes, but only in Germany were these elements so effectively combined to form fully integrated fighting units with exceptional striking power. Hitler’s Generals had rewritten the rule book of battle. In Poland it took less than a month to dispose of a large but poorly equipped Polish army which had fought along rigidly traditional lines. In France, the German army successfully challenged the largest and most modern army in Europe. In the ensuing ‘Blitzkrieg’ or ‘lightning war’ the British forces were completely routed. Only a year later even this achievement was to be eclipsed by Germany’s astonishing victories in the war against Stalin’s Soviet Union. In June 1941, spearheaded by tank formations, German Armies swept eastward. In a series of huge encirclements, thousands of Soviet tanks were destroyed and millions of Soviet troops killed or captured. For a while it seemed that Hitler would succeed where Napoleon had failed, by conquering the vast eastern power. On the world stage the tank had become established as a symbol of German invincibility.
Panzer
III chassis in the Alkett works during 1941.
It is difficult now to imagine that such small and lightly armoured tanks could spearhead the devastating operation of Blitzkrieg. The secret of their success was speed and co-ordination of effort. In reality, the remarkable string of German successes was due less to superiority of military technology than to the excellence of German methods and training. Many of the German Panzer Division were equipped only with Panzer 1 and II light tanks. It was the new way of waging war which came as a hammer blow to Germany’s opponents, forcing them to radically rethink their own military tactics. Slowly the lessons would be learned and eventually the answer to Blitzkrieg would be found.
Tanks came of age in the Second World War. They also developed quicker and changed more in a six-year period than at any time before or since. The catalyst was the demands of a technological war. Like a crazed version of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution, the Second World War accelerated the pace of design. Fast responses to a constantly changing situation were urgently needed and new designs had to be engineered, tested and built in an incredibly short timescale. In the space of three short years, German tank technology progressed from the lightweight and inefficient Panzer I to the mighty Panzer VI - the Tiger, the most complete fighting vehicle of the war. As an example of evolution, the transformation of the Panzer 1 to the Tiger was an almost unbelievable leap in design terms.
DARWINISM GONE MAD
At the end of the nineteenth century when he proposed his theory of evolution, Charles Darwin noted that there were many branches that led to unsuccessful species and hence to extinction. Of course, Darwin was talking about animals, but tanks, it would seem, followed broadly the same rules of evolution.
In the 20’s and 30’s, it was understood that tanks in the coming war would need to be able to deal with two major situations. The first were tank-versus-tank actions. Even the lightest tanks were capable of surviving explosions very close to the vehicle. Faced with the armour of a tank, explosive shell power alone was therefore of little value. To destroy a tank,
it was obviously necessary to fire a projectile fast enough to penetrate the armour of the hull and disable the machine, or kill the men inside. Elementary physics tells us that force equals mass times velocity. For the job of destroying other tanks, the tank needs to be able to fire the heaviest practicable shell, at huge speeds. This produces enough force to punch through the armour of an enemy tank. Explosive power alone has little value against the thick armour of a tank. What gives the missile its penetrating power is the enormous velocity which slices through the armour of enemy vehicles. Even today, armour piercing rounds still tend to be solid shot which rely upon a very high velocity, and the enormous pressures and heat created by a round impacting on armour, in order to burn its way or melt its way through the armour to fly around inside, either destroying equipment or killing or injuring the crew.
Tanks of the Panzerwaffe silhouetted against the skyline during the advance to Stalingrad in August 1942.
The armour of most tanks of 1939 and 1940 vintage could be penetrated by relatively small calibre anti-tank weapons, but the armour piercing weapons which fire these high velocity shells were only useful in combat against other tanks. A variety of high explosive anti-tank rounds were therefore developed, which were designed to first penetrate the armour of an enemy tank, then explode inside the vehicle. This fine balancing act was rarely achieved in practice, and it is debatable whether the small amount of explosive contained in the shells was much more effective than the massive kinetic impact of a high velocity round.
In addition to other tanks, tanks needed to be able to deal with infantry and field guns. In these cases they needed to be able to fire a high explosive
round. Here, the speed of the shell was less important; what mattered was the weight of explosive packed into the warhead. In simple terms, the bigger the shell, the bigger the explosion. High explosive shells - generally speaking - had a hollow cone into which high explosives were inserted and which were designed to detonate and throw out a lethal stream of metal splinters, which were particularly effective against infantry out in the open. Of course, high explosives were also useful for destroying non-armoured targets such as lorries and jeeps.
The drive to achieve the combination of destructive power and a tankkilling capability produced two radically different alternatives. Some countries opted for a balanced tank force with some tanks developed for anti-tank duties and others for high explosive capability.
This was certainly the case with the Wehrmacht: the Germans developed two separate types of tank, each specialised for a particular job. The first were the tank killers equipped with a high velocity anti-tank gun with a longer barrel of smaller calibre.
Most of the Panzer IIIs of 1939 vintage were equipped with the 37mm gun, designed to deal with enemy tanks. By contrast all of the heavier Panzer IV tanks were designed as infantry support tanks. They were equipped with a short barrelled 75mm gun, of lower velocity but higher calibre, ideal for firing high explosives.
As the short-barrelled 75mm gun was designed to fire high explosive in the close support role, the Panzer IV had to be made with heavier armour as this tank was designed to stay close to the infantry, and use the gun to deal with the usual infantry opposition, in the form of machine gun positions,
block houses and light artillery. Although it did have an anti-tank capability, the early war 75mm gun was not really to be judged as an anti-tank weapon. The Panzer IV was designed to deal with those targets that a high velocity anti-tank gun could not cope with.
Kliest’s Panzers advance along a railway line during the early stages of Operation Barbarossa. Operating in conjunction with Guderian’s forces, these tanks helped to produce some of the largest hauls of prisoners on the Eastern Front.
In contrast to the Germans, who developed two different types of tanks to do different jobs, one solution tried by the armies of Britain, France, America and Russia was to house two types of gun in the same tank. This produced the massive multi-turreted tanks like the French Char 2c, the Russian BT-35 and the American Lee-Grant tank.
The dual turret idea was a failure, an evolutionary blind alley which was cruelly exposed on the battlefield. The two turrets made the tank difficult to operate, it was impossible to co-ordinate the guns and the sheer size of the machines presented a huge target that was difficult to miss. With the figure of her commander perched some 15 feet above the ground, it was easy to see why the Lee-Grant tank could not be successfully hidden on the battlefield.
As the war progressed, the same course was ultimately adopted by all sides, which was to combine both an anti-tank capability and an infantry support role in one well armoured vehicle which mounted the largest possible calibre of main gun with the highest practicable velocity. The larger calibre effectively gave it a good high explosive firing capability and the high velocity gave it a deadly killing power against other tanks. The Panther tank of 1944 vintage was considered by many to be the ultimate combination of these two features.
Despite
the undoubted promise of machines like the Panther, in 1945, when the war ended, Germany was still developing the super heavy Panzer VII, a huge metal monster, weighing over one hundred tons, massively armoured and sporting a huge 122mm main gun. In an untypically humorous moment, this machine, designed to lead the Nazi war machine, was nicknamed ‘Maus’ (Mouse). The Maus was never to see action and only four prototypes were built, but it seemed that the crazed minds of the Third Reich would never give up the quest to be the best and the biggest, whatever the cost, but as
the humble T-34 had proved, in matters of evolution, sometimes quantity matters as much as quality.
A group of tank men take a well-earned rest from the pressures of life on the move. The strain of constant action can be seen etched into their faces.
THE PANZER DIVISIONS
“In general, the tanks have proven their worth. The capabilities and overall manoeuvrability of the vehicles is very good. The MGKampfwagens are very useful and effective vehicles. However, it should not be overlooked that armour defeating weapons and weapons firing high explosives must be introduced.”
GENERAL LUTZ, KOMMANDO DER PANZERTRAPPEN, AUGUST 1935
The forerunners of the mighty Panzer Divisions. Forbidden to develop an armoured force, the Wehrmacht had to resort to the humiliating solution of wood and cardboard frames placed over the chassis of conventional automobiles. The first
training exercises took place using these bizarre vehicles.
In the wake of the bitter defeat inflicted on Germany in the Great War the allied forces were determined that there should be no repeat of that terrible conflict. The treaty of Versailles imposed draconian limitations on the Germans, strictly limiting the overall size of the army, and, more importantly, limiting the types of weaponry to be allowed. The events of the Great War had clearly identified the powerful effect of the advent of air power; the result was that Germany was to be denied access to an air force. Despite the fact that the war had seen no major tank-versus-tank battles, the Allies had seen enough to recognise the potential of the tank as a device capable of achieving major strategic impact in future wars. As a consequence, these new weapons were added to the growing list of items denied to the German forces.
Even in the 20’s it was already apparent that, for a modern army, the consequences of entering into battle without tanks could be disastrous. This, of course, was the object of the Versailles Treaty, which only permitted Germany a small standing army for the purpose of internal peacekeeping and national defence. However, as the High Command understood all too well, without a tank force the chances of a successful counter attack were slim and for a nation born to the notion of aggressive moves even on the strategic defensive, this was really one step too far. It was this concern
which initially shaped the drive for a German tank force. Later these foundations would be usurped by Hitler for his own purposes. Obviously the leaders of the Wehrmacht could not accept the humiliating conditions of the Versailles treaty without demur, and there began a period of covert experimentation which was to lead to the development of a tank capability that would shake the world.
SOVIET CO-OPERATION
Ironically, the roots of the German Panzerwaffe were laid in conjunction with Soviet Russia, the nation that was destined to become Nazi Germany’s greatest enemy and ultimately her nemesis. During the 20’s the new Soviet Union was an even greater pariah than Germany, and the fledgling soviet state had already withstood the perils of a civil war and foreign intervention, which had seen British ground troops deployed in an attempt to assist the White Russians. Clearly Moscow could not look to London or Paris for aid, so she turned instead to her former adversary, and German/Soviet tank development began at Kazan, located deep inside Russia where secrecy was relatively easy to maintain.
In April 1926 the first technical specifications had been given for what was eventually to become the Panzer IV. It was given the code name Armeewagen 20 and in March 1927 the first contracts for the design of two experimental machines each were
given to Daimler Benz, Krupp and Rheinmetall. These machines were given the code name Grosstraktor and each was to have a 7.5cm gun in a fully traversable turret. The first six Grosstraktor were completed in July 1929 and immediately transported to the secret training grounds at Kama, near Kazan. These machines were the predecessors of the Panzer IV, which was to function effectively throughout the war years.
A rare image of one of the six Grosstraktor manufactured by Rhinemettal during 1928 and 1929. All six were used in the secret testing programme at Kama.
Although tank design had been exposed to a considerable deal of practical action during the Great War, without a clear indication of how tank-to-tank
combat might develop there were a number of competing schools of thought. One favoured large multi-turreted tanks which could perform a number of functions on the battlefield. Others favoured specialist machines for reconnaissance, close support and anti-tank duties. Clearly the Grosstraktor could not fulfil the reconnaissance role. So, in May 1928 the first orders for the design of a lighter tank, code named Leichttraktor were given: this time only Krupp and Rheinmetall were given the order to proceed to complete two prototypes. In May 1930 the two machines were completed and transported secretly to Kazan, where they arrived in June 1930. Very quickly a glaring design fault with the Leichttraktors became apparent. The drive sprocket for the tracks was located at the back of the vehicle, where it was more likely to shed the track. The location of the engine at the front of the tank was also considered to be a particularly dangerous proposition. A new design was therefore specified in September 1931 which became known as the Kleintraktor. This machine had the drive at the front and the engine in the rear, an arrangement which was to become the standard in tank design for the next 60 years. The Kleintraktor was to become the forerunner of the Panzerkampfwagen I, and the first experimental machine was completed by Krupp in September 1932. In the secrecy of the tank-proving grounds at Kama the Germans were able to make a great deal of progress on the technical aspects of tank design. At the same time, of course, the crews and officers were receiving practical training in the use of tanks in battle and, crucially, the cooperation between the machines. It was not until 1928, however, that the Reichswehr secretly began to formulate a five-year plan which would lead to the creation of the first tank companies by 1933.
Eventually the first Panzer training unit was born on 1st November 1933, under conditions of extreme secrecy, and was given the code-name Kraftfahrlehrkommando Zossen. It was comprised mainly of officers and men who had taken part in the Russian experiment. At the time of the unit’s formation only a very limited number of machines were available. These comprised four Grosstraktor, four Leichttraktor V and six of the Kleintraktor chassis, which had no turrets. Clearly this was not going to be sufficient to develop a tank force; however, the delivery of the first 150 Kleintraktor chassis for driver training commenced in January 1934, from which point the rapid expansion of the tank forces could proceed apace. The first organisation charts for an experimental armoured division were distributed within the army on 12 October 1934, although most of the units were still known by cover names; officially, the Panzer Division were styled as a Cavalry Division.
At the outset the Panzer division was to be composed of two armoured regiments which were supported by a light motorised infantry regiment, a motorcycle battalion, an anti-tank battalion, a reconnaissance battalion, a light artillery regiment, a signals battalion and a light combat engineer company, and there was even a plan for a self-propelled artillery battalion, which was very radical at this time. Already it was obvious that the Panzer division would require an enormous logistical tail, and the first divisions required a strength of 13,000 officers and men, which needed 4,000 field vehicles and 481 tracked vehicles to be able to function effectively. Clearly the creation and maintenance of a number of Panzer divisions was going to be an enormous undertaking. It was also something which could not be achieved in short timescales as there were limits to the number of tanks
which could be manufactured. Unfortunately for Germany. Adolf Hitler was very much a man in a hurry.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE TANK FORCE
The first vehicle to be produced in any numbers was the tiny Panzer I, which at the time was known as the MG Panzerwagen. Delivery of 318 of these had been made by August 1935, along with 15 of the Zugfuhrerwagen, which was later to become the Panzer III. One aspect of tank design which the Germans got absolutely right from the very outset was to identify the importance of radio communications. Although initially only the command tanks were filled with radios that could both transmit and receive, the other vehicles were at last equipped with receiving radio sets, and this was a major advance upon the thinking of many of the countries which would come to oppose Germany. Throughout 1934 exercises continued with the experimental tank units and a number of other valuable lessons quickly became apparent, particularly the need for close cooperation between the air forces and the tanks on the ground. At this point the first serious tank tactics which were to bring so much success during the Second World War began to appear. It was soon obvious that the tanks needed to be employed on a
relatively narrow front. A divisional front was estimated at about three kilometres, a great change from the wide fronts of the Great War. It was still obvious to the German High Command that the decisions which were being made, were on theory, rather than practice. Germany - and indeed every other nation of the time - had no practical experience to draw on, therefore a number of educated guesses were made. In January 1936 General Beck reported to the High Command, his findings being based on a study of a French organisation. He was also very critical of the slow rise in production capacity which was hampering the development of the tank force. Interestingly, the debate about which tasks tanks were suitable for, and whether specialist machines had to be developed for each task was already beginning to take shape. Beck’s report clearly stated that the three main tasks of the Panzers were supporting infantry, operating in units with other mobile weapons and, finally, combating tanks. Beck himself was unable to come to a decision about whether a single tank should he adapted for each of these purposes or whether a specialist vehicle should he designed for each purpose. Ultimately the decision was that the light tanks would be used in a scouting role and that an infantry support tank would be developed which was ultimately to come in the
form of the Panzer IV. This left the Panzer III as the main battle tank. Amazingly the decision was taken that the 3.7cm gun which initially equipped the Panzer III would be sufficient for the battle conditions. The various types of German tank design were to cater for most eventualities on the battlefield. The Panzer I and II were earmarked for the reconnaissance role. The Panzer III was essentially for anti-tank operations and the Panzer IV was designed to provide close support for the infantry. Almost from the outset the limitations of the design for the Panzer I were obvious. The armament in the form of two machine guns, was inadequate for most purposes on the battlefield. In addition the very thin armour gave protection only against rifle bullets: almost any battlefield weapon could penetrate the armour. More significant was the fact that the crew was comprised of only two men.
THE CLOSED WORLD
The world of the tank man is a world of very limited vision. With the hatches open, a tank commander can use the height advantage of his vehicle to scan the terrain for miles around. However, once the tank is threatened and the hatches have to be closed, the view of the world is through tiny vision slits, which makes visual recognition extremely
difficult. There are a number of tasks which need to be carried out in the tank. Communication, both inwards and outwards, with other vehicles in the formation is absolutely essential and, with the rudimentary radio equipment of the period, this was really a full-time job. In addition to operating the radio, the commander had to be surveying the ground ahead for the driver, and in addition he was expected to operate the machine guns. In simple terms, this was far too many tasks for one man to hope to successfully master during the heat of an engagement. The Panzer 1 had already shown its limitations, and in fairness it was never really intended as a frontline battle tank. Its purpose, really, was as a training tank, and the numbers ordered were in response to the need to train a large number of men quickly. It was only Hitler’s ambitious brinkmanship that would propel the Army into having to press the Panzer I into a service for which it was plainly inadequate; even in 1936 this was obvious for all to see.
The cardboard tanks used to begin the process of training the future Panzerwaffe during the early 1920s. The three parts are about to be locked over the car frame to produce the pathetic vehicles seen at the beginning of the chapter.
The successor to the Panzer I in the reconnaissance role should of course have been the Panzer II. The Panzer II was therefore a slight advance on this sorry state of affairs in that it was a three-man machine which allowed for a driver as well as a gunner and the commander. Although this was some improvement it was still not a great advance on the Panzer I. The 20mm cannon could at least penetrate light tanks, but it really lacked the hitting power for serious tank-to-tank engagements. Above all, here were still too few men in the vehicle to conduct all of the tasks satisfactorily. Really, a four-man crew was the absolute minimum and events would quickly
demonstrate that five was the number that should be deployed in a modem tank. As early as October 1935 General Liese, head of the Heeres Waffenamt issued a report which gave the limitations of the tanks. He noted that the MG Panzerwagen (Panzer I), although fitted out only with two 7.9mm machine guns, could be adapted to attack armoured cars and other light tanks if it was issued with special S.M.P. steel core ammunition. In the case of the MG Panzer II, it was noted that the muzzle velocity of the 2cm gun could penetrate up to 10mm of armoured plate at a range of up to 700 metres. It was therefore decided that the Panzer II could engage armoured ears with success, and was also fully functional for combat against tanks with approximately the same armour as itself. Liese noted that the tanks most likely to be encountered in large numbers in a war against the French were the light Renault Ml7 and Ml8 tanks, of which there were about three thousand operational in the French forces at the time. It was also thought that the Panzer 11 would be the equal of the Renault NC37 and NC31 tanks. Against the heavier French tanks, including the Char B, it was noted that the Panzer II was practically worthless. Despite these reservations largescale delivery of the Panzer II was already in train and was expected to commence from 1st April 1937. As regards the new Panzer III, which was designed to be the main battle tank, it was obvious that Liese was already beginning to have reservations about the effectiveness of the 37mm gun. Originally the 37mm L/45 had been planned for this vehicle but it was urged that the experimental tanks be upgraded to include the L/65 version, which gave a much higher muzzle velocity and some real prospect of penetrating the 40mm thick armoured plate of the new French medium tanks. With this in mind it was obvious at this stage that a 50mm gun would be a better proposition for the Panzer III; however the addition of the larger
gun would demand a significant increase in the diameter of the turret which would in turn mean radical redevelopment of the chassis. Given the pressures of time and the need to equip the formations quickly Liese came to the conclusion that the 37mm L/65 was the favoured route, although it is interesting that the limitations of its design had already been noted. Despite the difficult conditions, the fledgling German tank Forces had managed to develop some innovations of their own. Influential sections of the officer corps could see the advantages that the tank could bring to the next war and they developed new theories that centred on the use of the tank, theories that would revolutionise the way wars would be fought. Despite the problems of convincing his superiors of the advantages of the tank, Heinz Guderian in particular stuck to his secretive task. With determined persistence, and the help of some impressive demonstration exercises, he finally convinced both the German General Staff and Adolf Hitler that the tank could help to win future wars.
Inside the German tank works in 1939. In the background are large numbers of Panzer IIIs under construction. The machine in the foreground is an
experimental Nebau Panzerkampfwagen, not destined for active service. Its prominence is probably not accidental and may have been designed to confuse enemy intelligence services.
When Hitler precipitated the Second World War with his invasion of Poland in 1939, his tank forces were questionable at best, but the gamble succeeded by the application of a new tactical doctrine - championed by General Heinz Guderian - which was to become known as Blitzkrieg.
Blitzkrieg also evolved at least partially from a re-assessment of war tactics that took place not only in Germany, but in Russia and Britain as well. Two perceptive British military theorists. Major General J.C. Fuller and Captain B. Liddell Hart, understood that the introduction of the tank during the First World War had opened up hitherto undreamed of military possibilities.
As a result of Guderian’s efforts, in 1935 the first Panzer Divisions were formed. These revolutionary formations incorporated a Tank Brigade with 561 tanks to provide the main firepower. A great deal of accurate thought had gone into the development of the Panzer Division, which also included motorised infantry, reconnaissance and artillery. The resulting Panzer Division was a well-balanced force which could call on the support of any or all of the component parts to capture an objective. The purpose of the Panzer Division was to launch a speedy advance, break through into enemy territory and spread confusion, fear and panic in the enemy command and communication systems. One further innovation was the close link with the Luftwaffe, who could add even more firepower when needed.
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up. What would become of them then? He could crush half a dozen of them with one hand. His size too, was appalling! They had forgotten he was so very big when they sent the king word they would cut off his head.
While they whispered these things to each other, and became more frightened every moment, Bron tried to rally them into some sort of order, and some show of courage.
Suddenly the giant drew in his breath, and sent it out again in a most tremendous snore. The sound was as loud and terrible to the kobolds as the roarings of a lion is to men. Those standing in front of the giant’s mouth were blown by his breath to the distance of a hundred yards, and fell, badly bruised. And then commenced a mad stampede. The dwarfs fairly tumbled over each other in their haste to get away, and they did not stop to take breath until they reached the friendly shelter of a field of mushrooms, fully a mile from the giant’s cave. Some of the very little ones finding their legs failing them, sprang upon the backs of butterflies, and bees, and made the rest of the journey in that fashion.
The dwarfs were obliged to acknowledge that their expedition had failed; and they were so heartily ashamed of this attempt at warfare that they told Bron he might arrange the affair with the giants according to his best wisdom, and they would faithfully do as he bade them.
Bron pondered over the matter for several days. He thought of a great many stratagems for conquering the giants, but dismissed them from his mind one after another. A giant was a very unwieldy object to manage. At last he made up his mind he would consult a very cunning fox, who lived near.
THE FLIGHT OF THE KOBOLDS.
The fox said to him; “You know that turkeys roost on trees?”
“Yes,” said Bron, wondering what that had to do with the matter.
“And you know that foxes can’t climb trees?”
“Yes.”
“Did you never observe that I can get a turkey whenever I want one?”
“Yes.”
“Now, how do you suppose I get that turkey when it is high up on the tree, and I can’t climb to it?”
“I never thought anything about it,” said Bron, “but it is curious, now I do think of it.”
“This is the way I do it. I walk round and round that tree. The silly turkey turns its head round and round to look after me. Pretty soon it gets dizzy, and falls off.”
“I see,” said Bron. “Thank you.”
He went at once to the dwarfs, and told them he had resolved to conquer the giant himself, in single combat.
They tried to dissuade him, and told him he would never come out from that fight alive, and that the colony could not get along without him. It would be better to send word to king Rhine that the task he had assigned the dwarfs was too hard, and that they could not do it.
But Bron said the honor of the kobolds was at stake, and he was resolved to fight Kruge.
The king laughed when Bron made his proposition. He challenged the giant Kruge to single combat. If he succeeded in cutting off the forelock of the giant’s head; Kruge, and all the giants, were to be servants to the kobolds. If he failed to do this, the kobolds were to be servants to the giants.
The giants laughed when they accepted the challenge. And all the Dryads, and Nixies, and Elves, and Sylphs, and Fairies laughed when they heard the news.
In a few days a great concourse of these creatures assembled to witness the sport. The combat took place in a grassy field on the bank of the river. All the giants were there. But the kobolds thought it best not to attend. The gnomes however, crept out of their dark homes, anxious for the fate of their cousins, the kobolds.
Bron and Kruge entered the open field, and, for a moment, stood, and looked steadfastly at each other. The dwarf had to strain his eyes a little to look up so far as the giant’s head. Bron was pale, but he had a resolute air. As for Kruge, he burst into a loud laugh at the ridiculous figure cut by his small antagonist. He laughed so that he had to bend over, and hold his sides. Everybody laughed except the gnomes. The king, himself, could not restrain a smile.
THE COMBAT.
Bron now slowly walked around the giant, as if examining him. The giant looked after him. Presently Bron began to walk more swiftly, and the giant turned round and round to see what the little fellow was going to do. Soon Bron was running, and the giant, much amused at this mode of warfare, turned and turned until he got tired of the sport. “I will catch the pigmy up and hold him tightly in my fist,” he thought; and he made a step forward for this purpose. He was so dizzy, by this time, that he fell headlong upon the ground. As quick as thought, Bron cut off the forelock from the giant’s head, and held it up with a shout of triumph.
All but the giants clapped their hands, and shouted. The crowd surrounded the plucky little fellow, and bore him to the king, who immediately conferred upon him a vast estate, consisting of several acres of marsh grass.
Kruge now offered to Bron the services of himself and of the other giants, according to the terms of agreement. But Bron modestly said that he was only an individual member of a community, and that the dwarfs in a body must decide upon the duties of the giants. He therefore requested Kruge to carry him on his hand to the home of the kobolds, where they would settle this affair The giant was very angry, but he was forced to comply. Bron stood up on the palm of the giant’s hand, and Kruge reached the old castle in a few strides. Bron desired to be put down in front of the cellar door, and he then marched high up in the ruined tower to a great hall, where the kobolds held their solemn meetings. As for the giant his head just reached the hall when he stood upon the ground.
Bron found the whole tribe of kobolds there assembled, talking over the wonderful event. They were very much startled, and not a
PRONOUNCING THE SENTENCE.
little frightened at this sudden appearance of Kruge in their midst, especially as he did not look at them very pleasantly. But Bron with a very grand air, presented the giant to them as his captive, and lawful prize, won in single combat.
It was then decided by the dwarfs that the giants should lay aside their swords, clubs, and spears, and should become peaceable citizens. That they should thenceforth work for what they ate, and wore, and not seize it by plunder. That they should learn the useful arts of farming, housework, and stable-cleaning. In short that they should become like the kobolds themselves.
THE DESPAIR OF KRUGE.
The giants served the dwarfs in these ways for a long time, but it was very distasteful work. They felt so ashamed and so degraded at serving these tiny creatures that they shunned all living beings as much as possible, and hid in the depths of the forest. They knew they were a laughing-stock to all men, and fairies, and water-spirits, and wood-nymphs. Kruge fared worst of all. All these people when they saw him would point at him, and say: “There goes the giant whose head was turned by a pigmy!” He would sit for hours, when he was not at work, holding his head, tearing his hair, and grinding his teeth with rage. It would have been a grievous thing to him to have been conquered by another giant, but to have been vanquished by a pigmy was too humiliating!
He finally proposed to the giants that they should all quit that country. This they did. Thus the king was happily rid of these wicked and troublesome subjects; and not a giant has been seen on the banks of the Rhine from that time to the present.
THE MIRAGE.
The small caravan slowly wound its way over the burning sands of the desert. Fifteen days of unbroken desert travel had greatly weakened the little band which had left the last oasis in such gay spirits.
The Syrian merchant, Ahmed, was the leader of this band, and with him was Calvert, a European, and several Arabs. On some of the camels Ahmed had merchandise that would bring high prices in Damascus. Calvert was traveling for pleasure.
By some unaccountable means the caravan had wandered from the regular route, and Ahmed had no idea where they were. The compass told them in what direction to go, but how were they ever to find any particular spot in this trackless waste? Eight days from the last oasis should have brought them to the next on the regular route. Now it was the fifteenth day. The twelfth day found their supply of water reduced so low that only a very small quantity could be given to each individual, Ahmed and Calvert, (to their praise be it told) taking no more than the others.
As for the camels they had nothing to drink, but they would not suffer for a long time, as they had an internal arrangement of watersacks from which to refresh themselves.
And now, on the fifteenth day, there was not a drop of water. Ahmed would have given all his merchandise for a pint of the precious fluid. Death stared them in the face.
The caravan halted. One of the Arab attendants had fallen upon the sands. He was the first to succumb to the sufferings of thirst, increased by the burning heat of the desert. Most of the men dismounted, and gathered around him, but they could do little for him.
A loud shout from a couple of men on the camels caused the whole party to look up. The men pointed to the westward.
Exclamations of delight burst from the lips of all; for there, not two miles away, lay an oasis, a palm grove in the midst of a clear lake, whose waters sparkled invitingly in the sunlight.
A VISION OF DELIGHT.
Even the sick Arab turned his dim eyes thither, and his feeble lips uttered a faint cry of joy. The sight so revived him that he was able, lying on a camel’s back, to go with the others to this oasis.
But, alas! the nearer they drew to the palm grove the more distant it appeared; and, at last, they lost sight of it altogether.
Then the travelers knew it to have been a mirage, and they looked at each other in despair. But Calvert encouraged them. A mirage, he said, was a picture of some object painted in the air by the refraction of the sun’s rays through a peculiar atmosphere. It was a deceptive appearance, but it was caused by a real thing. In order to produce the picture of an oasis in the sky the oasis itself must be somewhere. True, it might be at a long distance from them; but he thought it more probable that it was quite near. And he indicated in what direction it was likely they would find it.
Calvert spoke so earnestly that the courage of the party revived. They immediately started off again under his direction. And, after seven hours’ march, they did come upon a real oasis. Whether it was the one they had seen pictured in the air they did not know, but this was no matter. It was smaller than the picture, but images of things are often distorted.
The sick Arab recovered after a couple of days’ rest, and the caravan renewed its march, men and beasts strengthened and refreshed. They took with them a liberal supply of water
At this oasis they also found guides, who conducted them into the regular caravan route; and they all arrived safely at Damascus.
CORAL.
Coral had been used many hundreds of years before men found out what it was. The savages used to fashion it into ornaments for their knife and axe handles; and, when men were more civilized, and had learned to work in iron, and to make armor, they liked to adorn their shields and helmets with coral. Women made of this beautiful red substance, necklaces for the neck, bracelets for the arms, and ornaments for the hair. But it is not likely that any of these savages or partially civilized people made any attempt to find out what kind of substance this coral was. They gathered it near the surface of the sea, and never stopped to think how it got there.
But when men became still more highly civilized they thought more deeply about things, and began to ask each other what caused day, and night; and heat, and cold; why the Moon grew from a little bright streak into the brilliant full orb, and a multitude of other questions. There was no one to answer these questions, and so the wisest men set to work to study it all out. They found out a great deal, but, of course they made a great many mistakes that had to be set right afterwards by other learned men.
Very early they made investigations into the nature of coral. For a long time they were sorely puzzled. In the first place they decided it was a mineral because it was so very hard, and took such a beautiful polish. But, after further examination the wise men all came to the conclusion that it was a plant.
It looked like a plant. There could be no doubt about that. The large specimens examined had trunks composed of layers or rings, very much like many trees. From this trunk were branches, covered with a rose-colored bark in which were some curious depressions.
FISHING FOR CORAL IN THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Others made a still closer examination, and discovered that these depressions were really little star-shaped flowers, with several colored rays. This settled the question. Of course, if coral produced flowers it must be a plant; and, as a plant, it was spoken of, and written about for two thousand years.
“But,” it was asked, “how can a plant grow into a substance as hard as a stone? There is nothing else of such growth known in nature. It is impossible.”
The sailors and coral fishers answered this question by asserting that the coral was in a soft state under the water, like any other plant; but when it was exposed to the air it became petrified—that is, turned into stone. It would not have been a very difficult thing for the learned men to have investigated this matter, and tried for themselves whether it was soft and flexible under the water. But they never did, and so that question was settled.
It was settled for twenty centuries. At the close of that long period of time a French physician, named Peyssonnel, while traveling along the Mediterranean coast, became much interested in the coral fisheries carried on there. He examined the coral flowers with great care, and found that they were not flowers at all, but animals! The ancients had been deceived by their flower-like form, for they were unlike flowers in every other respect, having no stamens, or pistils, or pollen, and producing no seed.
But the opinions of people were not to be overturned all at once by a country doctor. Was it reasonable to suppose he should know more about this matter than all the learned men who had ever lived, or who were living then? So everybody, but Peyssonnel himself, went on believing that coral was a plant, and bore flowers; that it grew in the sea like other marine plants; and that, when broken off, and brought to the surface, it suddenly hardened into stone.
Not long, however, did they continue in this belief. Nicolai, an Inspector of coral fisheries, thought it was about time that an investigation should be made deep down in the ocean to see whether the coral there was flexible, and soft. He sent down one of his best divers, and the man brought back word that the coral was just as hard in the sea, as in the air. This was such surprising news that Nicolai went down himself to make sure of the fact. There was no doubt about it. The coral in the ocean was as hard as a stone.
CORAL.
For hundreds of years wise men had been accepting the statements of ignorant fishermen without investigation.
Further research into the subject proved Peyssonnel to be right. The little star-like ornaments on the coral branches are animals. We show here a section of a coral branch as it looks under a magnifying glass, that you may understand how easy it would be for an ordinary observer to suppose the little stars to be blossoms. You can also see
the different stages of development of the very singular little coral animal. B is the ovule, or egg, from which it comes, C the larva, or young creature before it undergoes its last change, and A is the fullgrown animal.
Since then, the habits of these coral animals have been more carefully studied, and their ways are truly wonderful.
A BRANCH OF CORAL, MAGNIFIED
They are so small that it requires a magnifying glass to get a good view of them. They are in the form of tiny cylinders, at one end of which there is a mouth, surrounded by branching arms, called tentacles. These give them their flower-like form. With these tentacles they convey their food to their mouths. The food consists of the smallest particles of dead fish, or other animal matter that may have escaped the jaws of the larger fish. But, although they feed in this manner and must therefore possess the senses of touch and taste, there is no indication that they can see, or hear, or that they are sensitive when handled. They cannot move about, but remain always in the place where they were born.
A CORAL ISLAND.
And yet this minute being, which belongs to the very lowest class of animals, not only makes the branching masses of coral that look like great stone forests under the water, but they also build immense walls, and piles of rocks, sometimes hundreds of miles in extent. The coral is made from a lime-like substance within the animal, which soon becomes very hard, and also from their lime-like bodies after they die.
Coral reefs are found only in the warm regions of the globe, for the little workmen cannot endure the cold of the northern ocean. They cannot live in the air, and so they never work above the surface of the water
Of the branching coral there are three kinds; white, red, and pink. The white is the most porous and the least valuable, and the pink is the rarest, and most costly.
These animals are called polyps, or polypi. In some parts of the ocean there are islands that were formed by them. That is, the coral builders commenced the business by gradually piling up in the wave
a mass of coral. This they began upon some sand bar far down in the ocean, and they kept at work until they got a rocky wall up to the surface of the water; and then they could go no farther. These walls are generally circular.
When the rocky coral walls reach the surface, the waves rush over them constantly, carrying with them sand, and broken fragments of corals. Some of these are left on the rocks, until, finally, they are piled up so high that the waves cannot roll over them. Thus is formed a singular-looking island, consisting of a circle of rock, with a pond of still water in the centre. This little lake is called a lagoon. Sand is strewn by the waves over the rocky reef, and rolled down into the lake, which it fills up, and, after a long time the soil becomes of sufficient depth to support coarse grasses, and sea plants. These die, and enrich the soil; and the winds, bringing from other shores the seeds of palm trees, and various plants, scatter them over the island, which is soon crowned with verdure and flowers.
THE GREAT EASTERN.
The Great Eastern is the largest steamship in the world; and is, indeed, the largest vessel of any kind in the world. You can see from the portion of the deck given in the picture that the whole ship must be of an enormous size.
The scene on the deck is a busy one, for the vessel is being prepared for a voyage; the workmen are putting on the finishing touches in the way of carpenter-work and painting; and the sailors are busy with the sails and rigging. Hundreds of people are employed with steam engines, hoisting cranes, and various machines, and yet there is plenty of room for them to do their work without confusion.
For the upper deck of this great steamer measures 680 feet from stem to stern, which is twice the length of the largest of other ocean steamers. The deck, in the widest part, is 82 feet wide. From this deck rise six great masts, and five smoke stacks.
Great care has been taken to make the vessel proof against very heavy seas. The hull is double, and is made of iron plates. Ten thousand tons of iron were used to build the hull, and it took no less than 3,000,000 rivets to fasten on the iron plates.
The Great Eastern carries a cargo of 28,500 tons; and can accommodate 10,000 passengers. So, if you went across the ocean in her, when she has her full complement of passengers, it is not at all likely that you would know all your fellow-voyagers. It would be very strange if you were even to see them all.
PREPARING THE VESSEL FOR A VOYAGE
PASSENGERS GOING ON BOARD.
She is an English vessel, and has been to this country several times. She was visited by crowds of people while lying at the wharf in New York. She also went to Norfolk, and Baltimore. And, everywhere
she was an object of curiosity and wonder. But the expense of sailing so monstrous a vessel is very great, and her owners have not always known exactly what to do with their ship. She was very useful in laying the Atlantic Telegraph Cable a few years ago. She was the only ship that could conveniently carry such a tremendous weight as this cable which was to cross the Atlantic Ocean, and connect two continents.
The vessel, as you see her in the picture, does not lie close to the wharf, and small steamers are employed to take the passengers out to the ship when she is ready to sail. These steamers seem like baby vessels when they are lying alongside the Great Eastern. Her great hull rises far above their chimneys. The “gangway” is a long flight of stairs; and it is quite a slow process to get all the people out of the small steamers, up the stairs, and on to the deck of the Great Eastern.
The great deck is pretty well filled during the embarkation. The passengers are all there; and their friends who have come to bid them good-bye; and there are piles of baggage of every description. But, after the small steamers have gone back to the shore with the visitors, the decks are cleared, and the baggage stowed away in the proper places for it; and everything is trim and orderly.
Every arrangement is made for the comfort of the passengers. There are two saloons, a large, and a small one. These are beautiful rooms lighted by sky-lights, and elegantly ornamented, and furnished. There are a great number of state-rooms; and three dining-rooms. In these last are long rows of tables.
But one of the advantages that the Great Eastern possesses is that she does not roll and pitch much, even in stormy weather, because she is so large and heavy. Consequently people are not so apt to be sea-sick on this ship, as on most of the ocean steamers.
The great saloon is a very pleasant place for promenading, conversation or reading, when it is too cold or stormy to be on deck. People meet here from all parts of the world, perhaps. They get acquainted and have long talks with each other, and have music, and get up games to help pass away the time. And, when the
