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MEDICINE AND BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES IN MODERN HISTORY

Empire, Nation-building, and the Age of Tropical Medicine, 1885–1960

Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History

Series Editors

Carsten Timmermann

University of Manchester Manchester, UK

Michael Worboys

University of Manchester Manchester, UK

The aim of this series is to illuminate the development and impact of medicine and the biomedical sciences in the modern era.The series was founded by the late Professor John Pickstone, and its ambitions refect his commitment to the integrated study of medicine, science and technology in their contexts. He repeatedly commented that it was a pity that the foundation discipline of the feld, for which he popularized the acronym ‘HSTM’ (History of Science, Technology and Medicine) had been the history of science rather than the history of medicine. His point was that historians of science had too often focused just on scientifc ideas and institutions, while historians of medicine always had to consider the understanding, management and meanings of diseases in their socio-economic, cultural, technological and political contexts. In the event, most of the books in the series dealt with medicine and the biomedical sciences, and the changed series title refects this. However, as the new editors we share Professor Pickstone’s enthusiasm for the integrated study of medicine, science and technology, encouraging studies on biomedical science, translational medicine, clinical practice, disease histories, medical technologies, medical specialisms and health policies.

The books in this series will present medicine and biomedical science as crucial features of modern culture, analysing their economic, social and political aspects, while not neglecting their expert content and context. Our authors investigate the uses and consequences of technical knowledge, and how it shaped, and was shaped by, particular economic, social and political structures. In re-launching the Series, we hope to build on its strengths but extend its geographical range beyond Western Europe and North America.

Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History is intended to supply analysis and stimulate debate. All books are based on searching historical study of topics which are important, not least because they cut across conventional academic boundaries. They should appeal not just to historians, nor just to medical practitioners, scientists and engineers, but to all who are interested in the place of medicine and biomedical sciences in modern history.

This series continues the Science, Technology and Medicine in Modern History series.

Empire, Nationbuilding, and the Age of Tropical Medicine, 1885–1960

University of Pisa

Pisa, Italy

Pompeu Fabra University

Barcelona, Spain

ISSN 2947-9142

ISSN 2947-9150 (electronic)

Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History

ISBN 978-3-031-38804-0 ISBN 978-3-031-38805-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38805-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affliations.

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To Valentina, Elena, Marta: everything everywhere all at once and to Giulia, in memoriam ognuno sta solo sul cuor della terra traftto da un raggio di sole: ed è subito sera.

Acknowledgments

Most of the chapters of the book were presented at the workshop on Empires, the Nation, and Tropical Medicine (1885–1960), which took place in Barcelona from 22 to 23 November 2018, fnanced by a Spanish Ministry of Innovation and Competitiveness grant (ref. HAR2016-75559-P), whose PI were Marició Janué and Albert Presas i Puig and by the Department of Humanities, UPF, and the University Institute of History Jaume Vicens Vives, UPF. The editors wish to thank all the participants. We also would like to thank Claudia Contente and Josep Maria Fradera, who read a draft of the introductive essay, for their insightful comments.

1 Introduction: The Age of Empire, the Making of the Modern Nation, and the Advancement of Medical Sciences 1 Mauro Capocci and Daniele Cozzoli Part I Tropical Medicine in the Evolution and the Collapse of Empires

2 Tropical Medicine and the “Consolidation” of the Portuguese Empire (1902–1966) 29 Isabel Amaral

3 Dutch Colonial Medicine and Empire Building in the Tropics: The Cases of Leprosy and Drug Use in the Dutch East and West Indies Compared 53 Stephen Snelders

4 The Business of Tropical Medicine: Connections Between Anti-malarial Campaigns in Sierra Leone, 1899–1901, and Jamaica, 1908

Juanita De Barros and Deborah J. Neill

Tropical Medicine, the Nation, and the Colonial Expansion in the View of Italian Royal Navy Physicians at the End of the Nineteenth Century

Mauro Capocci and Daniele Cozzoli 7 From Universal Rats to Future Jungle Foci: Actors and Places of Plague in Brazil (1899–1940s)

Matheus Alves Duarte da Silva 8 Anti-Fascist Medicine and the International Peace Campaign Against Urban Raids in Spain and China, 1936–1939

notes on contributors

Isabel Amaral is an Associate Professor of Habilitation at NOVA School of Science and Engineering. Since 2020, she is the co-coordinator of the Interuniversity Center for the History of Science and Technology (CIUHCT). Additionally, she is a member of the Council of R&D Units at the NOVA School of Science and Engineering, where she oversees the scientifc management of researchers within the institution. Isabel Amaral holds positions as a member of the Scientifc Council and the Ethical Council at NOVA School of Sciences and Technology. She also serves on the Editorial Board of Medical History, Cambridge Core, as well as the HoST Journal of the History of Science. Her research interests primarily lie in the history of the biological and biomedical sciences (nineteenth to twenty-frst centuries), scientifc and medical heritage, public health policies, and bioethics. She has published extensively and undertaken research projects focussed on these felds, with a particular emphasis on utilizing the Portuguese case as a case study.

Juanita De Barros is a professor in the Department of History at McMaster University and the director of McMaster University’s Centre for Human Rights and Restorative Justice. Her research concentrates on the history of health, gender, and reproductive rights in the Caribbean within the context of imperialism and post-slavery societies. Her most recent books are Reproducing the British Caribbean: Sex, Gender, and Population Politics After Slavery (2014) and the co-edited essay collection, Public Health and the Imperial Project (2015).

Jaime Larry Benchimol, Casa de Oswaldo Cruz/Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, holds a doctorate in history from the Universidade Federal Fluminense (1995). He was science editor of História, Ciências, Saúde—Manguinhos from 1997 to 2015 and continues to serve on the journal’s Editorial Board. He is currently a senior researcher at the Casa de Oswaldo Cruz, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, and a professor in the Graduate Program in the History of Science and Health at the Casa de Oswaldo Cruz. His research and teaching focus chiefy on the history of the life sciences and the history of tropical medicine and public health. His current work concentrates on the history of the leishmaniases in the New World.

Carles Brasó Broggi, PhD in history, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, 2010. He is a sociologist and economic historian. He is Ramón y Cajal fellow (2020–2025) at Universitat Oberta de Catalunya and a member of ALTER research group. His investigations deal with knowledge and technology transfers between Europe and China in the twentieth century. He has published an economic history book about China’s textile industry (Trade and Technology Networks in the Chinese Textile Industry, Palgrave Macmillan, 2016) and a global history monograph on internationalist doctors between Spain and China (Los médicos errantes, Crítica, 2022).

Mauro Capocci is an Associate Professor of History of Science and Medicine at the University of Pisa, Italy. A graduate in philosophy at Sapienza University of Rome, he was awarded a PhD at the University of Florence. His research focusses mostly on the history of contemporary Italian biomedical sciences, as detailed in several publications in international journals. A member of the European Society for the History of Science and other Italian academic Societies, Mauro is in the Editorial Board of the journals Medicina nei Secoli -, Journal of History of Medicine and Medical Humanities, and Physis. He also contributes regularly to Le Scienze, the Italian edition of Scientifc American.

Daniele Cozzoli, PhD, University of Rome “La Sapienza,” is an Associate Professor (Professor Agregat) of the History of Science at Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona. He is editor in chief of the journal Centaurus, a correspondent member of the International Academy of the History of Science, a member of the international board of the Society for the History of Humanities, and an advisory board member of the journal Medical

History. Daniele has published two books in Italian and a number of articles and chapters on the history of science in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, biomedical sciences in the twentieth century, and historiography of science.

Deborah J. Neill is an associate professor in the Department of History at York University, Toronto. A European historian with an interest in imperialism and empire in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, her research focuses on medicine and health, food and nutrition, and economic and business history. She is the author of Networks in Tropical Medicine: Internationalism, Colonialism, and the Rise of a Medical Specialty, 1890–1930 (2012).

Matheus Alves Duarte da Silva is a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of St Andrews, UK, working on the global history of medicine, zoonoses, and disease ecology. He is the author of Quand la peste connectait le monde: production et circulation de savoirs microbiologiques entre Brésil, Inde et France (1894–1922) (EHESS, 2020), and co-edited the book Beyond Science and Empire: Circulation of Knowledge in an Age of Global Empires 1750–1945 (2023). He has authored several chapters and articles on the global history of plague, the history of microbiology, and the history of science in Latin America.

Stephen Snelders studied History at Utrecht University, the Netherlands, and obtained his PhD in 1999 at VU-University, Amsterdam. Since 2015, he works as a researcher and lecturer in the History and Philosophy of Science-section of the Freudenthal Institute, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University. His research interests include the history of drugs and of colonial and tropical medicine. He published books on Leprosy and Colonialism: Suriname Under Dutch Rule, 1750–1950 (2017) and Drug Smuggler Nation: Narcotics and the Netherlands, 1920–1995 (2021, 2023).

list of figures

Fig. 2.1 The parasitology class of Ayres Kopke at the School of Tropical Medicine. IHMT 0000350

39

Fig. 2.2 Brigade of ser vicemen with suits for capturing tsetse fies (of the glossina genus) on Príncipe Island. Relatório fnal da missão da doença do sono na ilha do Príncipe. Arquivos de Higiene e Patologia Exóticas, 1915: 111 43

Fig. 2.3 Representation of the scientifc mission of sleeping sickness in Guinea by a Guinean artist in 2014. (Courtesy of Luis Neves da Costa) 49

CHAPTER 1

Introduction: The Age of Empire, the Making of the Modern Nation, and the Advancement of Medical Sciences

and Daniele Cozzoli

The essays collected in this book deal with the complex relation between the development of modern empires and the history of tropical medicine. We aim at broadening existing historiographical perspectives by discussing a number of experiences that have been poorly considered hitherto. Most of the recent literature in English language has, indeed, focused on the history of tropical medicine in the British world system (Crozier (then Greenwood), 2007; Edmond, 2006; Pati & Harrison, 2009; Johnson, 2010; Greenwood & Topiwala, 2015; Greenwood, ed., 2016; Haynes,

M. Capocci

Department of Civilizations and Forms of Knowledge, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

e-mail: mauro.capocci@unipi.it

D. Cozzoli (*)

Department of Humanities, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain

e-mail: daniele.cozzoli@upf.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

M. Capocci, D. Cozzoli (eds.), Empire, Nation-building, and the Age of Tropical Medicine, 1885–1960, Medicine and Biomedical Sciences in Modern History, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-38805-7_1

2017). However, according to Michael A. Osborne (2014), the explanatory model adopted for the British case cannot be easily extended to other colonial experiences. In the late nineteenth century, European and Asian countries created colonial and imperial dominions, and each of these ‘systems’1 adopted multifaceted approaches to colonial health and medicine. By means of a larger picture of empires, it is thus possible to obtain a broader image of what is now called tropical medicine. Our aim is not to reduce the complexity of the dynamics of the actors involved in the development of tropical medicine to its function in promoting colonial expansion. Rather, as historians of science and medicine, we aim to engage with the approach of recent literature on imperial history, in order to contribute to shed light on a number of facets both of the history of tropical medicine and of the contemporary processes of nation-building and empire-building (Elliott, 2018; Fradera, 2018; Paquette, 2020).

Christopher Bayly defned the period between 1780 and 1914 (the socalled Long Nineteenth century) as ‘the birth of the modern world,’ because it was in this period that the nation-state and a massive expansion of circulation of goods, people and ideas made the world more homogeneous (Bayly, 2004). Such processes continued throughout the twentieth century. The time span encompassed by this collection witnessed the development of the modern world, in terms of not only the expansion of European powers but also of the increase of population mobility from and to certain areas. Since the early decades of nineteenth century, changes in slavery legislation caused large migrations of Chinese, South Asian and European workers (see, for example, McNeill, 2010, p. 288) towards the Americas. Even larger movements took place at the turn of the century from Ireland and Italy (Hochstadt, 1999). The Berlin conference in 1884 opened the way for a new wave of colonial expansion, mostly directed towards Africa: in a few decades, a handful of Western powers either occupied or economically controlled the rest of the world. Formal empires grew in size and numbers. Germs travelled together with people and commodities: leprosy, cholera, plague and yellow fever are some of the scourges that threatened the newly interconnected world. With the increased mobility, emerging or re-emerging diseases—respectively, cholera and yellow fever, and plague and leprosy—called for action. The Pasteurian revolution eventually changed the medical framework and opened the way to new treatment and preventive measures. A new approach to sanitation and

1 For the world-system analysis, see below.

hygiene, sera, vaccines and a small number of drugs entered the medical arsenal, opening new grounds for research and public health (Dubos, 1995; Geison, 1995; Gradmann, 2009). Nonetheless, the consequences of bacteriological discoveries were not immediate. During the SpanishAmerican War of 1895–1898, 13 out of every 14 casualties were still due to diseases (Cueto, 2008).

Historiography mostly refers to the dichotomy ‘sanitation vs. contagionism,’ following Ackerknecht’s (1948) classical account. In the nineteenth century, after the demise of the plague and the blooming of the liberal colonial order of the British Empire, ‘anti-contagionism’ gained new traction. Contagionism was increasingly considered a relic of the past, a proxy for quarantine and other illiberal, unscientifc and outdated measures that unnecessarily hindered the free circulation of people and goods. The cholera waves that hit Europe since the 1820s pushed such dichotomy deep into European politics, though the opinion of the medical community was often oscillating. However, the medical framework deployed to understand cholera was mostly based on two main features: class hierarchy and colonialism (Hamlin, 2009). Though with some resistance, in the last decade of the nineteenth century, Pasteur’s and Koch’s germ theory reinstated contagion as a scientifc phenomenon and allowed to fght infectious diseases without recurring to quarantine. The conceptual expansion following Pasteurian innovation was also a geographical expansion: medical sciences found new felds in the ‘warm climates,’ and colonial medicine, in research and policy, often followed political and diplomatic fault-lines, within and among empires. For example, while the increased interconnectedness of the world meant a growing exchange of people, commodities and pathogens, the elites used medicine as one tool to control migration: sanitary restrictions were applied to ‘coolies’ from China in California or to Polish seasonal workers in East Prussia (Conrad, 2010). The growing population of Latin American cities and European ports encouraged the spread of epidemics. These cities became the focus of new efforts in controlling contagion at a global level, with medical offcers and researchers converging from European countries to contribute.

Michael A. Osborne (2014) has done substantial work on the French tropical medicine, and in this book we aim to extend his perspective on a number of experiences in the history of tropical medicine during the Age of Empire, experiences connecting China with Spain, Italy with Africa and South America, Britain with Sierra Leone and Jamaica, the Netherlands with its American and Asian colonies, Portugal and its African colonies, or

focusing on poorly studied countries such as Brazil. Under different conditions and in different roles, there were many actors on the global stage. Looking at Italy, for example, we see at least three different layers: ‘tropical diseases’ like malaria or leishmaniasis were in fact endemic in the country; there was a process of nation building going on, involving colonial expansion in different areas of Africa and the Mediterranean; massive migrations were taking place mainly towards North and South America. These three facets—from the medical point of view—meant that Italians were exposed to tropical diseases in different forms: as citizens, as empire builders, as working-class migrants. As a result, the development of tropical/colonial/imperial medicine in Italy was intertwined with national politics but interwoven in international networks.

Some countries experiencing epidemics were the focus of acute international competition: Rio de Janeiro suffered deadly epidemics of yellow fever, and the French government asked the Pasteur Institute to send a mission to Brazil in 1901 in order to research the disease. Though Brazil was outside the French imperial boundaries, the disease was not: it ravaged the French colony of Senegal, and Brazil offered the chance to study the pathology in a more favourable setting (Benchimol, 1999; Löwy, 1990, 2001).

Migrations were in fact one of the most relevant phenomena from the medical point of view, and biomedical researchers and practitioners deployed a vast array of tools to control the massive movement of people in the newly interconnected world. The Bertillon biometric system was not just for criminals but for foreigners too (Conrad, 2010; About, 2011; Galeano & García Ferrari, 2011). In 1881, the United States began pressuring other countries to check on health conditions of immigrants, even posting American physicians to European ports to integrate local examinations. In Germany, as of the 1890s, nationalist physicians and medical investigators were concerned that immigrants from Eastern Europe could also bring typhus, cholera and other infectious diseases (Weindling, 2000; Baldwin, 1999; Conrad, 2010).

A number of biomedical institutions played a crucial role in colonial policies. The Liverpool and London Schools of Tropical Medicine were primarily created to support the British expansion in West Africa (Johnson, 2010). The Pasteur Institute established affliated institutes in the colonies and in areas where Paris had a strategic interest, but at the same time it promoted the image of Pasteur as a universal hero of mankind, contributing to construct the view of the French civilizing mission worldwide

(Nicolle, 1935; Delaunay, 1962; Moulin, 1992; Dedet, 2000; Cozzoli, 2018).

National pride and necessity were never foreign to the creation of policies against the spread of infectious disease within the international context.

We propose to integrate a local perspective or a perspective centred in the relation between a colony and its motherland with the interactions among empires and among nations, as the emerging picture of tropical medicine is extremely complex. This is the second aspect that this collection of essays explores. As already recalled, recent studies have primarily focused on how tropical medicine developed as part of colonial efforts in Britain (with the notable exception of Neill, 2012; Osborne, 2014) providing crucial insights in a number of facets of tropical medicine in the British world system (Harrison, 1999; Crozier, 2007; Johnson, 2010; Osborne, 2014, Haynes, 2017). Throughout the twentieth century, tropical medicine in Britain was deeply transformed by the encounter with the peoples of the Empire. Anna Crozier (Greenwood) and Ryan Johnson have focused on the colonial medical service in British East and West Africa (Crozier, 2007; Johnson, 2010; Greenwood, 2016; Greenwood & Topiwala, 2015), while Douglas M. Haynes has explained how women, Jewish refugees and colonial Indian doctors changed the white male nature of the medical profession in Britain (Haynes, 2017). All the abovementioned authors have dealt with tropical medicine in the British world system without working out the connections with the development of the discipline in other contemporary cases. Even if our perspective shifts the focus from Britain, it can be inspiring to students of the British tropical medicine too. Like Bhattacharya et al. (2005) for vaccination in India, Johnson (2010) has argued that, despite the imperial rhetoric, tropical medicine in British West Africa was not ‘a tool of the empire.’ However, the perspective changes if instead of looking at the British empire as ‘an empire by design,’ we follow John Darwin’s (2009) view: empire was rather a ‘world system,’ an interconnected structure that emerged as a consequence of events and circumstances not always planned. Darwin’s view is rooted in Braudel’s idea of ‘world-economy,’ then extended by Wallerstein’s ‘world-system notion.’ According to Braudel, determinate regions of the world form in certain epochs an integrated economic space, with slow-moving borders, a pivot city or area, and other areas organised into a hierarchy instrumental to the same world-economy. In a similar perspective, Wallerstein claimed that since the sixteenth century a

world-system emerged in connection to the rise of capitalism (Wallerstein, 2004, p. 22; 2011, vol. 2). Within this world-system, in the mid-1850s, Britain became an ‘hegemonic power,’ a status defned by Wallerstein in the following way:

What allows us to call them hegemonic is that for a certain period they were able to establish the rules of the game in the inter-state system, to dominate the world-economy (in production, commerce and fnance), to get their way politically with a minimal use of military force (which however they had in good strength), and to formulate the cultural language with which one discussed the world. (Wallerstein 2004, pp. 57–58)

By assuming this perspective, ‘Empire’ stands for a wide and diverse range of interacting systems. We do not want to analyse what function tropical medicine had in the establishment of colonial domination, but rather how it emerged within a complex history that was also the result of the interaction between empires, metropolis and colonies. Empires were not closed entities. We can, for instance, observe how tropical medicine often unfolded within intertwined geopolitical global competition. These motives were often coupled by biomedical institutions and industrial companies in a non-linear way. The history of Bayer 205 (Suramin)—the frst highly effective drug against sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis)— is a prime example. The chemical was pompously renamed Germanin and tested by a number of German researchers in the Belgian Congo and British Central Africa (Neill, 2012). Rumours spread that the Germans aimed to trade the Germanin formula for the return of their African colonies lost after WWI. On 25 August 1924, The Times reported that at the meeting of the Association for Tropical Diseases in Hamburg claims were made that Bayer 205 was the key to the restitution of German colonies, as Bayer kept the formula of the Germanin secret to prevent competitors from copying it. Such claims were echoed by British researchers and collaboration with Germany was discontinued. At the Pasteur Institute, Ernest Fourneau and his team succeeded in fnding the Bayer 205 formula and Rhône-Poulenc (a French pharma company that supported Fourneau’s laboratory) marketed an equivalent drug. However, it is highly implausible that the Germans really intended to trade the chemical formula of a drug for colonial gains, as sooner or later competitors would fnd it. It is more likely that British chemists and companies were interested in halting German feld trials, while the Pasteur Institute/Rhône-Poulenc

researchers aimed at presenting unfair competition as a patriotic act (Pope, 1924; typescript of Ernest Fourneau and letter from Louis Pasteur ValleryRadot to the Minister of Internal Affairs of 29 September 1944, in Archives de l’Institut Pasteur/Laboratoire de Chimie Thérapéutique/1; Delaunay, 1962; Bovet, 1989). The Germans also relied on the Soviets and organized trials on Bayer trypanosomiasis drugs with them. During the 1920s, German biomedical researchers cooperated actively with the Soviets: a collaboration that was instrumental to regaining infuence in Russia. In June 1922, under the umbrella of the German Red Cross, the Germans took over control of the former German Hospital in Petrograd (Weindling, 2000; Solomon Gross, 2006).

Furthermore, in the international institutions where the new globalization enacted its rituals—such as the Alexandria Quarantine and Health Board—the public health attitudes of the European delegates often played along with the best interest of the nation. In such settings, the abovementioned Ackernecht’s dichotomy is only partially useful to understand the development of colonial medicine. As argued by Baldwin (1999), there was no clear-cut opposition between liberalism (anti-quarantine) and conservative authoritarianism (quarantine), but rather a shifting balance according to local and temporary needs. Case studies regarding different countries and backgrounds and fne-tooth combing of the documents are needed in this respect in order to avoid the oversimplifcation of complex global-scale interactions.

In the following sections, we will introduce some relevant aspects of Imperial and global history that clearly affected colonial and tropical medicine. First, we will discuss the relationship between imperialism(s) and nation-building, while later sections focus on colonialism (in a broadened perspective) and medicine. The last section will summarize the content of the collected essays.

The ComplexiTy of empires and The making of The naTion

As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, Britain as of the midnineteenth century acquired a central position in the world economy, becoming the world’s largest importer and exporter of commodities. Britons developed a number of pivotal technological innovations, such as the spinning jenny and the steam engine, while British feets and fnancial 1

services became essential to the world economy. Other countries specialized in satisfying the demands of British buyers: cotton from the Southern states of the United States until the American Civil War, guano from Peru, wool from Australia, wine from Portugal, nitrates and copper from Chile, beef and wheat from Argentina, dairy products from Denmark (Hobsbawm, 1996). In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Britain was essential to the world. It comes, therefore, as no surprise that most historians of medicine have shaped their imperial and colonial narrative keeping in mind the development of the British Empire and its dramatic demise in the postWWII years. Britain was essential to the world, but it also was unique.

In the timespan we address in this book, Britain domination was changing. The British Empire reached the acme of its complexity—including formal and informal colonies, protectorates, mandates, settlements, military fortresses, concessions, ‘spheres of infuence’ and even a composite motherland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (until 1922). At the beginning of the twentieth century more than 40 juridical categories of territories existed, administered by three ministries—the General Offce, the India Offce and the Foreign Offce. As already recalled, John Darwin prefers the expression ‘British world system’ to that of ‘British Empire,’ stressing that while imposing a rational structure on this expansion was beyond the power of the imperial government, nevertheless, an interconnected system emerged (Ferguson, 2004; Osterhammel, 1995; Darwin, 2009; Edgerton, 2019). In the long nineteenth century, Britain was the leading economic power and the centre of the world system, as the result of a series of unpredictable events and circumstances, including economic and political changes in Asia, patterns of consumption, religious factors and movements of people. Yet, the same factors determined the limits in space and time of British supremacy. The British economy was global, and changes in the global economy greatly affected it. By the early 1890s, Britain began to lose its industrial primacy. The United States and Germany surpassed British steel production. Germany (until 1914), the United States and Japan created informal empires as well (Hobsbawm, 1996; Osterhammel, 2010; Edgerton, 2019). British decadence became apparent with the Russian Revolution, as it started to be less essential to the world economic system. With the end of the Gold Standard in 1931, Britain ceased to be the economic hub of the world (Friedman & Schwartz, 1963; Eichengreen, 1992; Hobsbawm, 1996; Di Nolfo, 2007), and after WWII the decolonization process and the demise of the Commonwealth system of privileged exchanges fnally marked the

end of Britain’s centrality in the world economy (Di Nolfo, 2015; Edgerton, 2019).

During the Age of Empire, the world was dominated by a number of formal and informal empires, inter-oceanic—seaborne in Gabriel Paquette’s words—(British, French, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish) or mostly continental (Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Chinese, Japanese). With the ‘Disaster of 1898,’ Spain lost most of its remaining ‘colonies after the Empire’ (Fradera, 2005). The Chinese Empire was suppressed in 1911, the Russian in 1917, the German and the AustroHungarian after the defeat in WWI. In 1936, there were only three formal emperors in the world: the long-standing Japanese and British monarchs, together with the newly declared Italian Emperor after the Italo-Ethiopian War. Nonetheless, the French Republic, the Spanish nationalist government, the United States, the monarch of Belgium (as personal owner) and the Kingdom of the Netherlands maintained substantial colonies and dominions. Italy lost its empire during WWII, although the protectorate over Somalia survived until 1960, the same year in which Congo became independent from Belgium. The French Republic faced two wars before renouncing Indochina and Algeria. Southern European dictatorships maintained overseas colonies: Equatorial Guinea was a colony of Francoist Spain till 1968, and Angola became independent in 1975, after the April Captains overthrew Salazar’s dictatorship.

Most historians working on science and medicine in relation with colonialism have taken the British rule of South Asia as a model. Ever since Karl Marx’s analysis of British capitalism (Marx, 1867–1894), the centrality of India for the British World System has been acknowledged. Furthermore, historians of tropical medicine are often infuenced by postcolonial theorists, who mostly focus on South Asia and its relationship with British colonialism (Chakravorty Spivak, 1999; Chakrabarti, 2000; Sartori, 2008). Mark Harrison has argued that the experience in India led the British to grow their fears for racial degeneration and to abandon the idea that the Europeans could adapt to Indian climate (Harrison, 1999). Michael A. Osborne has argued that this model cannot be extended to other European experiences and that, in particular, it does not work for the French case (Osborne, 2014). India was, indeed, in many respects unique. The Mughal Empire already had a modern state structure, unlikely other colonial dominions. Furthermore, the British Indian civil service provided the Indian republic with an essential backbone after the demise of the Empire. The Belgian and French colonial administrations also

regarded the British Raj as a model. This is why, in order to fully understand how colonial/tropical medicine developed in the context of colonial and imperial nations, we need to take a closer look to the diverse nature of colonialism. Jürgen Osterhammel attempted a classifcation of colonialism, creating six categories: (1) total migration of entire populations and societies; (2) mass individual migration; (3) border colonization; (4) overseas settlement colonization; (5) empire-building war of conquest and (6) construction of naval networks (Osterhammel, 1995, pp. 4–10; see also Finley 1976).

The Habsburg colonization of Bukovina and Moldavia under Joseph, the Russian expansion towards Central Asia and the New England colonization were all instances of frontier colonization. Colonial power relations could even take place without colonies, such as in the case of England and the Celtic fringe (Wales, Scotland, Ireland), and to a lesser extent Bourbon Spain and Catalonia (Taylor, 1948; Judson, 2016; Osterhammel, 2010; Elliott, 2018). As a last example, migrations from European countries such as Germany and Italy to South America can be considered instances of settlement colonialism, and they were even referred to as ‘colonies’: the German Liebig colony founded in Argentina in 1924 and supported by the eponymous frm is such a case.

The different shades of imperialism also call for more nuanced analysis of the relationship between national identity and empire-building (Conrad, 2010; Fradera, 2018). In the case of the Habsburg Empire, nationalism and empire conficted. The same happened in Britain, but for different reasons: according to David Edgerton, the British nation was created with the decline of the Empire since 1945 (Edgerton, 2019). On the other hand, the United States was born from an anti-colonial war, but this did not prevent it to develop an informal commercial and military empire in the Caribbean and the Pacifc. However, it took a long time for some of these outposts to be recognized as a part of the nation (Go, 2005). France, despite the universal principles of citizenship affrmed by the Revolution, also created an empire with a hierarchy of citizens. Furthermore, the power relationships within empire were continuously shifting and a simple ‘centre-periphery’ framework is not enough to describe the network of exchanges within and between empires, nor is a simple domination narrative.

According to A. J. P. Taylor (1948) the Habsburg Monarchy was ‘a vast collection of Irelands,’ but the relations between these Irelands were not linear. On the eve of its dissolution, for instance, Croatia was subjected to Hungary, rather than to Vienna. In his masterpiece Der Mann ohne

1 INTRODUCTION: THE AGE OF EMPIRE, THE MAKING OF

Eigenschaften, Robert Musil ironically described the different and even incompatible coexisting notions of state in the Habsburg Monarchy on the eve of the First World War:

This sense of the Austro-Hungarian state was so oddly put together that it must seem almost hopeless to explain it to anyone who has not experienced it himself. It did not consist of an Austrian part and a Hungarian part that, as one might expect, complemented each other, but of a whole and a part; that is, of a Hungarian and an Austro-Hungarian sense of statehood, the latter to be found in Austria, which in a sense left the Austrian sense of statehood with no country of its own. The Austrian existed only in Hungary, and there as an object of dislike; at home he called himself a national of the kingdoms and lands of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy as represented in the Imperial Council, meaning that he was an Austrian plus a Hungarian minus that Hungarian, and he did it with enthusiasm but only for the sake of a concept that was repugnant to him, because he could bear the Hungarians as little as they could bear him, which added still another complication to the whole combination. This led many people to simply call themselves Czechs, Poles, Slovenes or Germans, and this was the beginning of that further decay and those well-known ‘unpleasant phenomena of an internal political kind,’ as Count Leinsdorf called them [...]. (Musil, 1930–43, pp. 180–181)

Furthermore, empires were complex and articulated spaces, where different nationalities often coexisted. The transition from the Ottoman Empire to the modern secular state, for instance, was punctuated by the persecution of ethnic and religious minorities and witnessed one of the worst crimes against humanity of the twentieth century: the genocide of the Armenians (Mann, 2005). The Habsburg monarchy, where Metternich had ruled by means of repression, was still described by Robert Musil as a paternalistic autocratic state. Nonetheless, the Imperial government was determined to respect the cultural rights of all nationalities. It comes, therefore, as no surprise that acute observers such as Joseph Roth and Stefan Zweig fondly remembered the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in which different nationalities lived peacefully.

Financial and commercial interactions between empires must be taken into account too, since economics and politics are obviously mingled. The old and backward Habsburg and Ottoman empires were instrumental to geopolitical stability in Europe in the nineteenth century, so that fnancial support was always available (Taylor, 1948). British Empire attracted

German capital, and Russian frontier colonialism was fnancially supported by French capital (Osterhammel, 1995, p. 26; Etkind, 2011).

Modern empires also shaped views about the nation in post-colonial independent African and Asian countries. European authoritarian colonial domination contributed to the creation of post-colonial authoritarian governments in Africa and Asia. The independence leaders inherited the colonial territory-state and converted it into a nation-state, even where a pre-colonial sense of nation was lacking.

After WWII, the decolonization process began. Truman administration policymakers believed that in a world centred on bilateral agreements and closed economic systems totalitarianism fourished. They were persuaded that in the interwar period it was the closing of free international trade that led to the rise of fascism in Europe. The economy of Nazi Europe was organized around Germany by means of a system of bilateral agreements between Germany and all other European countries, whose economies worked to sustain the German economy. By the end of WWII, the Soviet Union was establishing bilateral agreements with Eastern European countries to create an economic space to support its economic and social reconstruction. Thus, once a reconstruction of the European economy pivoting on the French economy had failed, Washington decided to leave aside the Morgenthau plan and set up the European Recovery Program, the socalled Marshall Plan, whose aim was the reconstruction of Western Europe and the harmonization of European economies with that of the United States. The instrument was economic, the goal was political (Milward, 1986; Hogan, 1989; Leffer, 1993). Only in a peaceful and prosperous world would the European working classes and the masses of the developing countries resist the appeal of the liberation promises of communism. Thus, Washington assisted the reconstruction of the Japanese economy and pushed Britain and France to dismantle their colonial empires. By the end of the 1960s, only a handful of formal colonies survived, and informal domination replaced formal empires. Large multinational corporations played a part in the asymmetric relations with former formal and informal colonies in Africa, Asia and South America. At the same time, the United Nations Organization and its affliate institutions, such as the UNESCO, the FAO and the World Health Organization, were created, providing a crucial space for the Cold War confrontation that was the context for the process of decolonization. During the 1950s and 1960s, in South America large companies such as the United Fruit Company and Standard Oil dismissed their medical health programmes, which were replaced by the

1 INTRODUCTION: THE AGE OF EMPIRE, THE MAKING OF

UNICEF, the WHO, and in South America by the PASB (Pan-American Sanitary Bureau) for the improvement of health conditions in developing countries. Likewise, the Rockefeller Foundation shut down its International Health Division in 1951 (Farley, 2004; Cueto, 2008).

TropiCal mediCine, mediCine in The TropiCs, mediCine, and Colonialism

Tropical/colonial medicine developed within the above-outlined context. In each local context, a narrative of what is an empire and what is a colony was created: although the narratives may have had common features, it is worth underlining their diversity. As a consequence, it is possible to observe colonial and tropical medicine in the various contexts and evaluate how global and local interactions shaped medical concepts and practices. One approach to tropical medicine is strictly geographic, encompassing all medicine practiced in the tropical areas. But it could also be regarded as the branch of medicine dealing with diseases specifc to the tropics, such as sleeping sickness, or yellow fever. Neither defnition is, however, fully satisfying. Sir Patrick Manson in his 1898 classic textbook identifed tropical diseases by contrasting them with ‘cosmopolitan’ bacterial infections (cholera, plague, tuberculosis). Tropical diseases were characterized by the complexity of their infection cycle (involving a number of hosts and vectors) and their pathogens, usually protozoans and worms. The ecology of the vector (e.g., in the case of malaria, the Anopheles mosquito’s habitat) was thus of paramount importance for the categorization of a specifc disease. However, other investigators often tended to have a broader view of the topic. Giuseppe Sanarelli’s Manuale di igiene generale e coloniale (A Textbook of General and Colonial Hygiene), published in 1914, three years after the Italian occupation of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and on the eve of WWI, devoted chapters to the hygienic measures, food and beverages, climate and tropical diseases that could affect both South America and East Africa (Sanarelli, 1914). From a geographical point of view, Sanarelli’s approach focused on diseases and health in tropical and subtropical areas. Nonetheless, his approach was rather a consequence of the connection he made between the colonial expansion in Africa and the massive Italian emigration towards the Americas.

Certain infectious diseases such as malaria, cholera and trachoma were not limited to tropical areas. Malaria was, indeed, endemic in certain areas

of Southern Europe, South America, East and Central Asia and subtropical regions of the United States and Russia; it also affected temperate regions of Central and Northern Europe and of North America, and it was a signifcant health and economic factor in infested areas. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, nearly half of the world population was at risk for the disease, but by the end of the century, it was mainly confned to tropical and sub-tropical regions (including Southern Europe); as stressed by Randall Packard (2007), it became in a way a tropical disease, a disease of tropical areas. Leprosy and trachoma are now offcially considered by the WHO ‘neglected tropical diseases’ (https://www.who.int/neglected_ diseases/diseases/en/), and they have disappeared from most of Europe. However, in the nineteenth century, leprosy still affected certain areas of Northern Europe such as Norway and Scotland (Gussow & Tracy, 1970; Edmond, 2006), and trachoma was probably the main cause of rejection of Italian immigrants to the United States. Typhus and cholera epidemics periodically erupted in Europe, above all in Central and Eastern Europe. As Paul Weindling has reconstructed, the fght against typhus and cholera was strictly connected to German colonialism in the East (Weindling, 2000 p. xix).

The interaction between global politics—war, colonialism, trade—and biomedical research took several forms. Quinine—isolated from cinchona bark in 1820—has been considered a ‘tool of empire’ for the European penetration of Africa (Headrick, 1981), although that interpretation has been questioned (Chakrabarti, 2014). Typical colonial problems stimulated research. The Japanese occupation of Java (the Dutch colony hosting most of the cinchona plantations) in 1942 meant a shortage of quinine, at a time when US troops were fghting the war largely in malarial areas: North Africa, Southern Italy, the Pacifc theatre. This was a powerful factor in setting up a research programme on synthetic anti-malarials—ultimately resulting in the production of chloroquine (Slater, 2009). Vannevar Bush’s Science: The Endless Frontier (Bush, 1945) mentioned chloroquine together with the large-scale production of penicillin, achieved in 1943. Both were the result of the war effort, and both were of help in establishing an informal US empire after WWII.

Colonial relationships could also be an exchange, with practices and concepts travelling both ways. This happened, for example, in the United States according to Warwick Anderson (2006), with the diaspora of American colonial physicians from the Philippines, and the great reputation gained by the heroes of colonial medicine such as William H. Gorgas.

1 INTRODUCTION:

From the colonies, the same civilizing mission extended to minorities or the underclass in the homeland. But while in the past these social categories were directly accused of spreading diseases, now they became a disease to be controlled whatever it took. The pursuit of health became crucial in the construction of an ‘imagined community’: home and abroad, the metaphor of the ‘political body’ of the nation circulated widely (Martin, 1990; Weindling, 2000; Craddock & Dorn, 2001; Latour, 2001; Bashford, 2004).

After WWII, the spaces of international relations radically changed. The newly created international agencies of the United Nations such as the UNESCO, the FAO, the UNICEF and the WHO became central. The WHO replaced the Rockefeller Foundation in the early post-WWII period in planning and managing specifc programmes targeting global health objectives, such as the eradication of malaria. The top-down, colonial and technocratic approach was largely directed by the US interests. In the 60s, the Soviet Union’s suspicious attitude changed, so that the WHO started to play a part in the multilateral negotiation spaces of international cooperation, and public health in Third World countries became another Cold War territory, also as a result of the demise of the European empires. The 1978 Declaration of Alma-Ata probably marked the end of the old public health world order, with a shift towards the implementation of primary health services with more autonomy granted to local institutions and governments. The United States also used national agencies such as the ICA of the Department of State and later on USAID to foster health in developing countries (Cueto, 2008; Cueto et al., 2019).

mediCine, empire, The naTion

Migration medicine is another perspective to be used to look at the special relation between nation and biomedical practices. Scientists have played a part in the processes of people in motion since the last three decades of the nineteenth century. Controlling migration fows involved the ability to identify individuals with a certain degree of certitude, and carefully vetting individuals and groups for potential sanitary threats. As noted above, Bertillonism catered for the frst aim. Under the Pasteurian approach, health concerns were addressed by deploying any sort of weapons against the spread of germs (Conrad, 2010; Weindling, 2000). However, Pasteur was to be respected as long as international trade was not harmed. Britain approached public health mostly by promoting sanitation: quarantine and

isolation were considered a threat to international trade, as well as to the concentration of workers in industrial towns (Baldwin, 1999, pp. 28–29).

As of the mid-1800s, novel international spaces opened up for the international management of health crises: in 1851, the frst International Sanitary Conference was held in Paris in order to address the threat posed by cholera, plague and yellow fever (see Howard-Jones, 1975; Baldwin, 1999, Rasmussen, 2001). The increasing globalization of public health also called for a global elite of mostly liberal physicians and medical investigators sharing the civilizing mission of Western medicine, meeting at conferences, conferring in local health boards of international relevance or competing in the feld. For example, the confict between Pasteur’s and Koch’s schools over the 1883 cholera epidemics in Egypt was part of the larger picture: the French saw the chance to gain a foothold in the area, where they had scarce infuence after the establishment of the British rule the year before. Koch isolated and identifed the cholera Vibrio in India, and Émile Roux admitted the defeat. Upon his return to Berlin, Koch was acclaimed as a hero: German supremacy had been established once again after the victory at Sedan (Brock, 1988; Gradmann, 2009). A decade later, the British abided by the Venice International Convention, and sanitary control over Egypt—the most important gateway to the Mediterranean— was eventually shared among several European countries, each of them with its own agenda going beyond the preservation of public health. Throughout the long nineteenth century, the Europeans took divergent paths as regards the fght against infective diseases. Different attitudes were developed over time, and the same government or health offce might move from one strategy to another, according to convenience, the target disease and shifting medical theories. Nonetheless, some patterns can be drawn. The British followed radical sanitationism and the Prussians tempered quarantinism. Strict control over prostitution was adopted on the Continent, but not in Britain or in Argentina. Compulsory smallpox vaccination was implemented in France, Germany and Brazil (Ackerknecht, 1948; Kuhnke, 1990; Worboys, 2001; Baldwin, 1999). Likewise, a number of international meeting and regulation spaces were created in which the European powers and the United States clashed. In 1902, the United States promoted the creation of the Ofcina Panamericana de Sanidad, whose aim was to prevent the spreading of diseases from Europe to South America, but which also aimed to contain European infuence in the American continent. Five years later, in 1907, the Offce international

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euls sauver, environ huit mille; et se il euist fait cler sans brume, il n’en fust jà piés escapés.

Assés tos apriès furent rencontré de ces Englois meismes, une aultre route de François où li archevesques de Roem et li grans prieus de France estoient, qui riens aussi ne savoient de la desconfiture, car on lor avoit dit que li rois de France ne se combateroit jusques au dimence, et sus cel estat avoient il le samedi logiet sus les camps entre lors gens et lor charroi. Qant les Englois les perchurent, il en orent grant joie et lor courirent sus, et furent aussi tantos desconfi. Et là furent mort li doi chief qui les menoient, et uns aultres homs, moult vaillans, qui se nonmoit li chastelains d’Amposte, et qui nouvellement estoit venus de Rodes, et s’estoit trouvés par pluisseurs fois en batailles mortels sus les Turs, mais toutdis à son honnour il en estoit issus, et morut là li chevaliers, avoecques le dit grant prieus de France. Ensi chevauchièrent, ce dimence au matin, ces Englois à destre et à senestre, querans les aventures, et ruèrent jus par fous et par compagnies moult de François. Et fui enfourmés que, le dimence au matin, la grant desconfiture fu des conmunautés, et le samedi au soir et par nuit des barons et chevaliers de France. Fº 123.

P 187, l. 20: ce samedi.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 8 à 22: du samedi. Fº 150.

P 187, l. 25: tortis.—Mss. A 15 à 17: teurteiz. Fº. 150.—Mss. A 20 à 22: torsins. Fº 215 vº.—Mss. A 30 à 33: torcys. Fº 189 vº.

P. 187, l. 27: bacinet.—Mss. A 23 à 29: heaulme. Fº 168 vº.

P. 188, l. 8 et 9: nuitie.—Mss. A 7, 20 à 22: journée. Fº 143.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 18, 19: nuittiée, nuittée. Fº 150 vº.—Mss. A 8, 9, 15 à 17: nuitée. Fº 135.

P. 188, l. 13: Ensi.—Les mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14 ajoutent: baillant et rendant graces à Dieu. Fº 150 vº.

P. 188, l. 14 et 15: ne voloit.... fesist.—Mss. A 20 à 22: ne le vouloit mye. Fº 215 vº.

P 188, l. 15: que nulz s’en fesist.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 8, 9, 11 à 14, 18, 19: que aucun fouist. Fº 150 vº.

P. 188, l. 24: les communautés.—Ms. B 6: de Rains, de Roan, de Paris, de Chalon, d’Amiens, d’Arras et des chités et bonnes villes de France. Fº 336.

P. 188, l. 27: à male estrine.—Mss. A 1 à 9, 15 à 19: male estraine. Fº 150 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: male espine pour eulx en leur chemin, c’est assavoir ces Anglois. Fº 216.

P. 189, l. 3: sept mil.—Mss. A 15 à 17: huit mille. Fº 150 vº.

Page 189, l 27: voir Sup var (n d t )

§ 286. P. 189, l. 31: Ce dimence.—Ms. d’Amiens: Environ heure de tierche, revinrent (li Englès) à leurs loges, en ce point que li roys et li seigneur avoient oy messe. Si lor comptèrent lor aventure et chou qu’il avoient fait. Adonc coummanda li roys à monseigneur Renaut de Ghobehen, qui estoit moult vaillans chevaliers et li plus preux des chevaliers englès tenus, qu’il presist aucuns chevaliers connissanz armes et tous lez hiraux avoecq lui, et allast par tout les mors, et mesist tous les chevaliers qu’il poroit recongnoistre, en escript, et tous les princhez et les grans seigneurs fesist porter enssamble d’un costet, et sus chacun son nom escript, par quoy on les pewist reconnoistre et faire leur service seloncq leur estat. Li dis messires Renaux et se compaignie le fissent, ensi que coummandé leur fu, et cierquièrent tout le jour les camps de chief en cor et tous les mors, et rapportèrent au soir au roy, si comme il avoit jà souppet, leur escript. Et fu sceut par leur escript qu’il avoient trouvet onze chiés de princes, parmy un prelat, mors, quatre vingt chevaliers bannerèz et environ douze cens chevaliers d’un escut ou de deux, et bien quinze mil ou seize mil autrez, que escuiers, que tourniquiel, que bourgois de bonnes villez, que bidaus, que Geneuois, que gens de piet, tous gisans sour les camps, et n’avoient trouvet que trois chevaliers englès et environ vingt archiers.

Or est bien raison que je vous nomme les princhez et les haux hommez qui là demorèrent mors, mèz des autres ne poroie venir à chief. Si commencerai au jentil et noble roy, monseigneur Carle, roy de Behaingne, qui tous aveugles vot estre premiers à le bataille, et coummanda et enjoindi très especialment à ses chevaliers qu’il le menaissent, comment que ce fust, si avant qu’il pewist ferir un cop d’espée sour aucunz dez ennemis, et chil li acomplirent son desir; et demorèrent dalléz lui tuit si chevalier, et furent trouvet mort environ le bon roy. Li plus grans prinches apriès che, fu messire Carlez, comte d’Allenchon, frèrez germains au roy de Franche; apriès, li comtes Loeis de Blois, filz à la sereur germainne au roy de Franche; apriès, li comtez de Flandres; apriès, li dus de Loerainne; apriès, li comtes de Saumes en Saumois; apriès, li comtez de Halcourt; apriès, li comtes d’Auchoire; apriès, li comtez de Sansoire; apriès, li comtes d’Aubmale; apriès, li grans prieux de France, si ques on disoit adonc que passet avoit deux cens ans que on n’avoit veut ne oy racompter que tant de prinches fuissent mort en une bataille, comme il furent là, ne à Courtray, ne à Bonivent, ne autre part. Dieux en ait les anmes, car il morurent vaillamment ou serviche dou roy, leur seigneur, qui moult les plaindi et regretta, quant il en sceut la verité; mès le congnissance ne l’en vint jusquez au lundi à heure de nonne, et qu’il y eut envoiiet par trieuwes quatre chevaliers et ses hiraux. Et se tenoit li dis roys à Amiens, où il vint le diemence au matin, car il se parti de la Broie le diemenche au point dou jour, à privée mesnie; et là à Amiens ou environ se requeillièrent li plus de ses gens, qui ooient dire que li roys y estoit.

Che dimenche tout le jour apriès le bataille, demoura li roys englès en le ditte place où il avoit eu victore, et le soir ossi. Le lundi au matin, vinrent hiraut de par le roy de Franche prendre trieuwes, troix jours seullement, de ceux qui revenroient apriès leurs mestrez et leurs amis, pour ensepvelir, et li roys leur accorda. Et fist li dis roys porter le corps dou roy de Behaingne, son cousin germain, en une abbeie qui siet assés priès de là, et le appelle on Mentenay. Et ossi y fist il porter les corps des autres princhez; dont messire Godeffroit de Halcourt plaindi mout le mort dou comte, son frère, mès amender ne le peut. Che meysme diemence vint li comtez de Savoie [et] sez

frèrez, à bien mil lanchez, et ewist este à le bataille, se elle ewist estet faitte par l’ordre dou bon chevalier le Monne de Basèle, qui demoura vaillamment dalléz le bon roi de Behaingne, son mestre. Quant cil doy seigneur dessus noumet entendirent que la bataille estoit outrée, et qu’il n’y estoient point venut à tamps, si furent moult courouchiés. Touttesfoix, pour emploiier leur voiaige et deservir leur gaiges, il chevauchièrent che dimenche au dessus de l’host le roy englès, et s’en vinrent bouter en le ville de Monstroeil pour la garder et deffendre contre les Englès, se mestier faisoit, car elle n’estoit mie adonc si forte que elle est maintenant. Si eurent chil de Monstroel grant joie de le venue des dessus dis seigneurs.

Ce lundi au matin se desloga li roys englès et chevaucha deviers Monstroeil, et envoia courir ses marescaux deviers Hedin, ardoir et essillier le pays, si comme il avoient fait par devant. Et ardirent Waubain, Biauraing, mais au castiel ne fissent nul mal, car il est trop fors. Et puis s’en retournèrent vers Moustroel, et ne se peurent tenir qu’il n’alaissent escarmucier as Savoiiens qui laiiens estoient, mais rien n’y gaegnièrent. Si s’en partirent et ardirent les fourbours, et revinrent deviers l’ost le roy, qui avoit pris son chemin deviers Saint Josse, et se loga celle nuit sus le rivierre. Au matin il s’en partirent, et passèrent l’aige et ardirent ses gens le ville de Saint Josse et puis Estaples, le Noef Castiel, le Delue, et apriès tout le pays boullenois et tout entour Bouloingne, et la ville de Wissan, qui estoit adonc bonne et grosse, et y loga li roys et toutte son host une nuit. Fº 95 vº.

Ms. de Rome: Le dimence au matin, ensi que li rois d’Engleterre issoit de messe, retournèrent li chevauceour et les archiers, liquel avoient parfurni la desconfiture. Si recordèrent au roi, les capitainnes mesires Richars de Stanfort et mesires Renauls de Gobehen, tout ce que il avoient veu et trouvé, et dissent enssi en oultre que nuls apparans n’estoit de nulle requelloite. Adonc eut consel li rois que il envoieroit cercier les mors à sçavoir quel signeur estoient là demoret. Et en furent ordonné de l’aler, et fu dit de la bouce dou roi, mesires Thomas de Hollandes, mesires Renauls de Gobehem, li sires de Persi, mesires Guis de Briane et mesires Oulfars de Ghistelle, et lor furent delivret tout li hiraut de l’oost, et quatre clers pour escrire les noms des nobles. Si se departirent li desus nonmé

et plus de quatre cens honmes en lor compagnie, pour aidier à tourner et à retourner les mors. Qant il furent venu sus la campagne où la bataille avoit esté, li hiraut dou roi d’Engleterre trouvèrent biau cop des hiraus les signeurs de France, qui là estoient venu pour cerchier lors mestres et lors signeurs mors. De qoi li signeur d’Engleterre furent moult resjoi et lor fissent bonne chière. Et cercièrent chil hiraut englois et françois tous les camps, et trouvèrent les signeurs mors en pluisseurs places, et estoient recongneu le plus par lors armoieries; et tantos que il estoient avisé et recongneu, les clers dou roi les metoient en escript. Si y furent trouvet onse chiés de hauls signeurs, quatre vins et trois banerés et douse cens et douse chevaliers d’un esqut, sans le menu peuple, dont il i eut plus de trente mille. Sus l’eure de vespres retournèrent deviers le roi d’Engleterre li baron qui envoiiet avoient esté cerchier les mors, et amenèrent avoecques euls les hiraus françois, pour mieuls certefiier la besongne, et estoient cinq. Je les vous nonmerai: premierement Valois, Alençon, Harcourt, Donpierre et Biaujeu. Li rois d’Engleterre les vei volontiers, et aussi fissent tout li signeur. Et là furent nonmé tout li signeur qui mort estoient: le roi de Boesme premierement, le conte d’Alençon, le conte de Blois, le conte de Flandres, le duch de Lorrainne, le conte d’Auçoirre, le conte de Harcourt, le conte de Saint Pol, le conte d’Aumale, l’arcevesque de Roem et le grant prieus de France. Des barons et des chevaliers, la detriance seroit trop grande à nonmer; mais dalés le conte de Namur, qui fu à la besongne et s’en parti, qant il vei l’eure, morut mesires Phelippes de Jupeleu. De la relation faite par les barons et chevaliers desus nonmés et les hiraus avoecques euls appellés, furent moult esmervilliet li rois d’Engleterre et li signeur de son costé, et plaindirent par especial moult grandement la mort dou bon roi de Boesme, et tinrent son fait à grant vaillance. Et s’en vestirent li rois et ses fils, li princes de Galles, de noir, pour l’amour de li, et aussi pour les aultres qui li estoient de linage, et mesires Godefrois de Harcourt, pour la mort de son frère et de son neveu le conte d’Aumale.

Che soir donna à souper li rois en son logeis tous les barons et chevaliers d’Engleterre qui là estoient, et qui aler i vorrent; et

menèrent grant joie et grant reviel toute la nuit, et fissent bon gait et gardèrent les mors. Et à l’endemain on se ordonna au departir de là, et de traire plus avant viers Monstruel sus la Mer. Mais avant le departement dou roi, il fu ordonné et prononchiet par les hiraus françois, que li rois donnoit trieuwes quatre jours à tous ceuls qui vodroient travillier à aidier ensepvelir les mors. Et furent les corps des hauls signeurs presentement levés et portés en une abbeie, seans assés priès de là, qu’on nonme Mentenai. Et furent là, à un obsèque que on fist pour les signeurs, li rois d’Engleterre presens et ses fils, et vesti de noir, et la grignour partie des barons d’Engleterre qui en la compagnie dou roi estoient. Et devés sçavoir que li hiraut françois furent très larguement bien paiiet tant dou roi, de son fil et des barons d’Engleterre, et emportèrent avoecques euls, sans les jeuiauls, en deniers apparilliés, plus de deus mil livres. Nous laisserons un petit à parler dou roi d’Engleterre et des Englois, et parlerons dou roi de France.

Vous avés ichi desus oï recorder conment, le lundi, li rois fist faire une ordenance sus le pais et donna trieuwes quatre jours pour ensepvelir les mors, qant il et ses gens se departirent de Creci en Pontieu, apriès ce que il ot fait faire en l’eglise dou monastère de Mentenai un moult biel service pour l’amour de son cousin le roi de Boesme, qui là i fu aportés, et de tous les aultres hauls et grans signeurs. Li Englois cevauchièrent et s’aroutèrent, et prissent le cemin de Monstruel sus Mer. Le dimence au soir, estoient venu en la ville de Monstruel, li contes de Savoie, et mesires Lois de Savoie son frère, et li contes de Genève, et bien cinq cens lances de Savoiiens, et n’avoient peut venir à temps à la bataille; mais, pour tant que il avoient entendu que la desconfiture estoit sus les François, et que la ville de Monstruel seoit ou voiage des Englois, il se boutèrent dedens. Les Englois coururent devant Monstruel, et ardirent Wauben et Estaples et Saint Josse, et passèrent la rivière de Cance, et ardirent tout le pais autour de Boulongne; et ne cessèrent de ceminer, si furent venu devant Calais et le asegièrent. Fos 123 et 124.

P. 190, l. 10: troi.—Ms. B 6: deulx. Fº 337.

P 190, l. 23: onze.—Mss. A 11 à 14: dix. Fº 144.

P 190, l. 24: banerés.—Mss. A 11 à 33: banières, bannières. Fº 144.

P. 190, l. 25: d’un escut.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14: d’un escri. Fº 151.

P. 190, l. 25: trente mil.—Ms. B 6: seize mille. Fº 337.

P. 190, l. 26: d’autres gens.—Ms. B 6: Encores n’alèrent il mie savoir la verité de ceulx qui ochis avoient esté le dimanche au matin. Et prumierement y fu mort le roy de Behaigne, le conte d’Allenchon, le conte de Blois, le conte de Flandres, le duc de Loraine, le conte de Sanssoire, le conte de Harcourt, le conte d’Ausoire, le conte de Saint Pol, le conte d’Aumerle, l’archevesque de Sens, le grant prieur de Franche. Et toutes les armes de ches prinches furent aportéez en l’armoierie du roy d’Engleterre. Et tout les corps des prinches furent emporté en une abeie de moisnes qui siet près de là, que on apelle Mentenay. Ceste bataille de Cressy en Pontieu fu l’an de grasce Nostre Seigneur mil trois cens quarante six, le vingt sixiesme jour d’auoust. Fos 337 et 338.

P. 191, l. 8 et 9: en un.... Montenai.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18, 19: en un moustier, près de la chapelle de Montenay. Fº 151 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: au moustier de la chapelle de Montenay. Fº 217.—Mss. A 23 à 33: au moustier de Montenay. Fº 169.

P. 191, l. 12: et puis chevança.—Ms. B 6: Le lundy au matin, après messe et boire, se deslogèrent les Englès de Crechy où celle belle et eureuse aventure leur estoit avenue, et prindrent le chemin de Hesdin et de Boulongne. Et chevauchèrent les marisalx devers la ville de Rue et ardirent les faubours, mais à fortresse ne peurent il advenir. Et puis chevauchèrent devers la ville de Monstreul, et ardirent tout le plat pais d’environ jusques à Blangy et jusques à Hesdin et Maurain ossy, mais au chastiel ne peurent il aprochier, car il estoit trop fort. Le mardy il passèrent oultre et vinrent bouter les feus à Saint Josse, et ardirent le Neuf Castiel de Waubain et Estaples et les fourbours de Boullongne, et se logèrent asés priès de

là. Le merquedy, il passèrent oultre et vinrent devers Wissan; sy ardirent le lieu et le village oultre les bois de Hardelo et tout le plat pais de le conté de Boulongne, et s’en vinrent devant la forte ville de Calais.

Or considerés entre vous se, depuis cinq cents ans, il fu nulz rois qui fesist sy puissant voiage ne sy grant que le roy Edouart d’Engleterre fist adonc, et les belles aventures qui luy avinrent sur son chemin depuis qu’il ariva en Constentin en le Hoghe Saint Vast, les pons, les pasaiges qu’il trouva et toudis aparilliés pour combatre ses ennemis. Et fu sy près de Paris que jusques as portes, car en grant tamps en atendant, sy comme j’ai oit recorder en Engleterre, les sors de Merlin disoient que ly saingler de Windesore venroient ferir des dens ens ès portes de Paris. Par che saingler on doit entendre le roy Edouwart d’Engleterre, car il fu nés ens ou chastiel de Windesore, et avery chelui sors en che tamps: il passa et repassa la rivière de Saine et puis la rivière de Somme et se combaty ses annemis tels que toute la fleur de Franche et de bonne chevallerie sans nombre et les desconfy; et y furent mors deus tans de gens que il estoient, Et après il vint mettre le siège devant Calais, qui est une des fortes villes du monde, et dist que jamais ne s’en partiroit sy l’aroit; et de che ne faly mie à son entente, sy comme vous orés chi avant recorder en ces chroniques. Fos 338 à 340.

P. 191, l. 14: Hedin.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 20 à 29: Hesdin. Fº 151 vº.

P. 191, l. 14: Waubain.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18 à 22: Waudain. Fº 151 vº.

P. 191, l. 14: Serain.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18 à 22: Seran. Fº 151 vº.

P. 191, l. 17: au lés devers Blangis.—Mss. A 15 à 17: du costé devers Boulongne et Blangis. Fº 151.

P. 191, l. 17: Blangis.—Mss. A 18, 19: Blanges. Fº 155.—Mss. A 23 à 29: Blangy. Fº 169 vº.

P 191, l. 20: Estaples le Delue.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 8 à 19: Estapes et Delue. Fº 151 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: Estaples, Delue. Fº 216 vº.

P. 191, l. 22: les bos.—Mss. A 15 à 17, 20 à 29: le bois. Fº 151.— Mss. A 30 à 33: le pays. Fº 190.

P. 191, l. 22: Hardelo.—Mss. A 20 à 22: Hadrelo. Fº 217.

§ 287. P. 191, l. 29: Quant li rois.—Ms. de Rome: Qant li rois

Phelippes fu partis dou chastiel de la Broie, ensi que chi desus est dit, à moult seule gent, ils et sa route qui n’estoit pas grans, cevaucièrent celle nuit tant et le dimence au matin, que il vinrent en la chité d’Amiens. Et fu li rois logiés en l’abeie dou Gart, qui sciet au dehors d’Amiens. Petit à petit gens venoient, qui escapé de la bataille estoient, apriès lors signeurs et lors mestres. Encores ne savoit point li rois la verité de la perte des nobles de son sanc que il avoit perdus, et qui demoret estoient derrière. Le dimence au soir, il en fu enfourmés de une gran partie, et encores mieuls le mardi au matin, qant li hiraut françois retournèrent, liquel avoient esté presens à cerchier tous les mors. Li rois les plaindi et regreta grandement et longement l’un apriès l’autre, et lor fist faire en l’eglise d’Amiens, avant que il s’en partesist, un moult solempnel office et service. Il n’est doels qui ne se passe et ne se mète en oubli: li rois de France passa cel anoi au plus biel que il pot, et entendi à ses besongnes.

Toutesfois, mesires Jehans de Hainnau fu là uns très bons moiiens pour mesire Godemar dou Fai, car li rois le voloit faire prendre et pendre; mais li gentils chevaliers dessus nonmés rafrena le roi et li brisa son aïr, et l’escusa par tant de raisons et si bonnes, que li rois, pour celle fois, s’apaisa et entendi à toutes ses besongnes, et donna toutes gens d’armes congiet. Messires Jehans de Hainnau prist congiet au roi, et puis s’en retourna arrière en Hainnau, ensi que chils qui grosement avoit perdu en ceste cevauchie, et aussi avoient fuisson d’autres. Nuls n’en retournoit contens.

Les nouvelles s’espardirent en moult de lieus et volèrent moult lonc, conment [par] le roi d’Engleterre, de une puignie de gens que il avoit, estoit ruée jus la poissance dou roi de France, et avoient esté

li François bien diis contre un. Si acquist li rois d’Engleterre grant grasce, et li rois de France et li François grant blame, et moult fu eslevés li noms le roi d’Engleterre, douquel nous parlerons et compterons conment il persevera. Fos 123 vº et 124.

P. 191, l. 30: à moult seule gent.—Mss. A 1 à 6, 11 à 14, 18, 19: à moult pou de gens. Fº 151 vº.—Mss. A 20 à 22: à moult petit de gens. Fº 217.—Mss. A 15 à 17: à moult petite compaingnie. Fº 151 vº.

SUPPLÉMENT AUX VARIANTES.

Dans le cours d’un voyage que nous avons fait à Breslau en 1868, nous avons pu étudier à loisir le célèbre manuscrit des Chroniques de Froissart conservé dans la bibliothèque de cette ville. Quoique ce manuscrit (coté A 29 dans notre classement des mss. du premier livre) appartienne à une famille représentée par 7 exemplaires dont 4 sont à Paris[363], cependant il offre à partir de 1340, et surtout de 1342, certains développements qui manquent dans les autres manuscrits de la même famille. Le Froissart de Breslau, dont la valeur réside principalement dans les belles miniatures de l’école de Louvain qui illustrent les deux derniers volumes[364], a été exécuté ou grossé par David Aubert pour Antoine, bâtard de Bourgogne, en[365] 1468 et 1469; par conséquent, jusqu’à ce qu’on ait retrouvé les développements dont nous parlons dans un manuscrit plus ancien, il y a lieu de les considérer plutôt comme l’œuvre de David Aubert et des scribes aux gages de la maison de Bourgogne que comme celle de Froissart. Cependant, à notre retour en France, nous nous proposions de solliciter le prêt du ms. de Breslau auprès de la municipalité de cette ville par l’entremise du gouvernement prussien; malheureusement, les cruels événements de 1870 et de 1871 ne nous ont pas permis de donner suite à ce projet. Ayant appris, d’un autre côté, à la fin de 1868, que les variantes du ms. de Breslau avaient été copiées au seizième siècle en marge d’un exemplaire de l’édition de Sauvage qui fait partie de la collection plantinienne d’Anvers, nous avions prié M. Moretus, propriétaire de cette collection et héritier des Plantin, de vouloir bien nous autoriser à prendre communication sur place de cet exemplaire; malgré l’obligeante entremise de M. le baron de Witte, cette autorisation nous a été refusée. Plus heureux que nous, M. le baron Kervyn de

Lettenhove a pu donner les variantes du ms. de Breslau, sinon d’après l’original lui-même, au moins d’après la copie du seizième siècle inscrite en marge du Froissart de la collection Plantin. Force nous est donc de reproduire aujourd’hui ces variantes d’après l’édition du savant éditeur belge (voy. t. IV, p. 479 à 508, et t. V, p. 545 à 548). Seulement, nous avons pensé qu’il importait de ne pas confondre avec les résultats de notre propre travail des textes qui ne nous arrivent ainsi que de troisième main; voilà pourquoi nous avons pris le parti de les publier à part et en supplément à la fin du présent volume de notre édition.

P 56, l 20: Montagrée.—Ms. A 29: qu’il assaillit si longement et par telle manière qu’il le prist d’assault, et le chevalier qui dedens estoit lui fut amené: si l’envoya tenir prison à Bourdeaux.

P. 61, l. 21: consideret.—Ms. A 29: comment à grans assaux ils ne pourroyent resister, aussi qu’ils estoyent petitement pourveus d’artillerie et de vivres.

P. 66, l. 17: leur.—Ms. A 29: venoient de haut en bas descendant et tout effondrant combles de tours et de manoirs, planchers et voutures, portes et murs. Et tellement s’espouvantoyent tous, quant ils veoyent la pierre venir, qu’en fin ne savoyent où se musser et sauver, fors ès profons celiers du chastel qui tous croulloyent par le grand fais du coup qu’ils recevoyent.

P 71, l 6: bataille.—Ms. A 29: Celle venue des deux chevaliers rafraichit moult grandement l’ost du conte Derby, qui estoit jà fort travillié pour le grand fais qu’il avoit eu à soutenir par le gros nombre de très vaillants chevaliers et escuyers qu’iceux Françoys et Gascons estoyent. Mais, comme dict est, il furent pris trop depourveuement, ainsi que l’usage de guerre porte que l’on prent toujours son ennemi à son avantage.

P. 73, l. 30: ennemis.—Ms. A 29: par son sens et par ses vertus dont il estoit comblé.

P 75, l 8: cauch.—Ms. A 29: et tonneaux pleins de cailloux et grosses pièces de boys.

P. 76, l. 1: fronth.—Ms. A 29: Incontinent que ceux du chastel virent leurs murailles ainsi pertruiser, ils furent moult esbais et non sans cause. Adonc les plusieurs en abandonnèrent les deffenses et se retirèrent dedens l’eglise qui estoit assez forte; et entandis les autres assaillants escheloyent le fort d’autre part.

P. 82, l. 8: instrumens.—Ms. A 29: comme pieds de chèvre et longues pièces de boys pour effondrer les murs. Et tantost en eurent elevé grand foison de pierres et tiré à part, car nul ne les povoit empescher, ne destourner leur labeur pour le traict, comme dict est. Et tant besognèrent iceux brigans, qu’en moins de deux heures ils firent un trou si grand en celui mur, que bien y povoyent entrer deux hommes de front.

P. 91, l. 18 et 19: Stanfort.—Ms. A 29: pour la mort duquel et des archiers, iceux bons hommes furent trop durement traictés et la pluspart occis, et leurs biens meubles et leurs vivres furent abandonnés aux compagnons qui s’en tindrent tous aises. Quant le comte Derby volut partir de Monpesas, il defendi de piller autrement la place et d’y boutter le feu, car il la donna, le chastel et la chastellennie, à un sien escuyer, qui s’appeloit Thomas Lencestre, et laissa avec luy en garnison, pour garder le pais, soixante compagnons, la pluspart archiers. Et ainsi fut prins le chastel de Monpesas et preservé de larcin et destruction par le don que le conte en avoit fait au gentil escuyer qui s’en tenoit bien joyeux, car il siet en belle contrée et bon pais. Tant chevaucha le conte Derby, quant il fut parti de Monpesas, qu’il vint et ses routtes devant la ville de Mauron, laquelle estoit forte et pourveue de vaillans compagnons. Il s’arresta et logea, puis commanda que l’assaut fust douné de toutes parts; et quant il perceut que par assaut ils n’i gangnoyent rien, il ordonna que tout homme se retraist et se logeast pour celle nuit.

P. 92, l. 17: oultre.—Ms. A 29: Quant cil de Mauron veirent les bagages de l’ost charger, puis mettre à la voye, et le conte Derbi et

sa grande routte partir, ils dirent entre eux: «Ces Angloys voyent bien que leur proufict n’est pas de eux [tenir] longuement ici, et qu’ils n’i peuvent rien conquester; ils y furent hier trop bien gallés, mais ceux là qui sont demourés derrière, pensent ils nous tenir ici enclos?

La grosse routte est jà bien loin; si conseille que tantost nous yssons dehors et les allons combattre; ils ne sont pas gens pour nous, nous les aurons incontinent deconfits et mis à mercy: si sera honneur et proufit à nous grandement.»

P. 93, l. 30: Miremont.—Ms. A 29: qui est bon chastel et en bonne marche.

P. 94, l. 1: Sainte Marie.—Ms. A 29: Quant il vint devant Miremont, il y fit arrester et loger ses gens à l’entour, car le soir approchoit, et là se passèrent celle nuit de ce qu’ils peurent avoir. Et quant vint l’endemain, entour soleil levant, le conte commanda d’assaillir le forteresse. Et dura l’assaut si jusques à haute none que les Angloys se retirèrent en leur logis à petit de conquest; mais ils furent très bien battus, et en y eut des morts et des bleciés. Quant le conte Derbi veit la manière, il jura que de là ne partiroit qu’il n’eust le chastel conquis. Mais leans n’avoit nul gentilhomme, fors aucuns routtiers, qui s’y estoyent boutés avecque les bons hommes. Quant ils sceurent que le conte Derbi chevauchoit là entour, si furent avertis du serment que le conte avoit fait: ils n’en furent pas moins pensifs. Et si povoient veoir comme tous ces Angloys se logeoyent comme pour y demourer tout l’yver, et si ne leur estoit apparant d’avoir secours de nul sens. Et quant le conte eut là esté quatre jours, il fit dire à ceux de dedens que, s’ils se vouloyent rendre courtoisement, ils auroyent pitié d’eulx, et que si plus se faisoyent assaillir, qu’ils n’en prendroient jamais homme qui là dedens seroit trouvé, à merci. Tant fut parlementé que les routtiers s’en povoyent aller comme ils estoyent venus, et les bons hommes demouroyent en leurs biens et moyennant ce firent serment au conte Derby, qui les receut: si que, au quatriesme jour, la place lui fut rendue. Et la donna le conte à un sien escuyer appellé Jehan de Bristo, qui en fut moult joyeux, car le don estoit bel et riche, et fit depuis très bien reparer le chastel. Quant le conte Derbi fut à son dessus de Miremont, il chevaucha vers une petite ville fermée sur la Garonne, appelée Thorine, que

ses gens prindrent d’assaut, et la robèrent, puis brullèrent. De là le conte et ses gens chevauchièrent vers le fort chastel de Damassen, et y voulut arriver la nuit, et y envoya devant ses escheleurs, qui tant esploitèrent que à l’aube du jour les Anglois en furent saisis, et le guet qu’ils trouvèrent dormant jettèrent du haut de la grosse tour au fond des fossés. Et le chastellain mesme, qui estoit de Limosin et vaillant escuyer, fut occis à l’huis de sa chambre, la hache au poin, et tous ses compaignons morts; car jamais le conte ne autre ne povoit le chastel de Damassen reconquerir que d’emblée. Il trouva la place garnie pour deux ans de vins, de bleds, de farine, de chairs et autres provisions, et d’artillerie et armures à planté. Et quant le conte Derbi veit que si bien lui estoit prins de celle forteresse, il conclut qu’il en feroit sa retraicte; si la garnit de bons gens d’armes et d’archiers, puis partit de là et chevaucha tant avec sa routte qu’il vint devant la cité d’Angoulesme, qu’il assiegea de toutes parts, et dist que jà n’en partiroit s’il ne l’avoit à sa volenté. Adonc ceux de la cité se composèrent à lui, à condition qu’ils envoyeroient à Bourdeaux, en ostage, jusques à vingt et quatre hommes des plus riches de la ville, et demoureroient en souffrance de paix un moys; et si dedens le terme dudit moys le roy de France envoyoit homme au pays si puissant de gens qu’il peust tenir les champs à l’encontre du conte Derby, iceux ostages seroient renvoyées quictes et delivres à Angoulesme, et absous de leur traicté; et, se ainsi n’en avenoit, se mettroyent en l’obeissance du roy d’Engleterre. Atant chevaucha outre le conte Derbi et vint à tout son ost devant Blaives, qu’il assiegea de tout point. Si en estoyent capitaines et gardiens deux vaillans chevaliers de Poictou, monseigneur Guichart d’Angle et monseigneur Guillaume de Rochechouart. Ceux dirent bien, quant le conte Derbi fit parlementer à eux par messire Gautier de Mauni, qui en telles affaires se savoit moult hautement conduire, car il estoit gracieux parleur et courtoys, qu’ils ne se rendroient à homme nul. Endementires le conte Derbi seoit devant Blaives, chevauchèrent les Angloys jusques devant Montaigne en Poictou dont monseigneur Boucicaut estoit capitaine; si eut là moult grant assaut, mais rien n’i conquirent les Angloys, fors horions, dont ils reçeurent mains, et y laissèrent de leurs gens morts et blecés en grant nombre. Si s’en retournèrent, mais ainçoys furent devant deux bonnes forteresses,

Mirabel et Auni, où ils ne firent que quelques assaux, puis revindrent au siège de Blaves où presque tous les jours estoit faict aucune apertise d’armes. Le siège durant devant Blaves, le terme du moys vint que ceulx d’Angoulesme se devoyent rendre; si envoya le conte Derbi ses deux marechaux auquels ceux de la cité firent homage au nom du roy d’Angleterre par vertu de la procuration qu’il avoit. Ainsi eurent paix ceux de la cité d’Angoulesme; et revindrent leurs ostages. Si renvoya le dict conte à leur requeste Jehan de Nortwich, escuyer, et l’establit capitaine d’icelle cité. Et toujours se tenoit le siège devant Blaves, tellement que les Anglois s’en lassèrent, et par special pour ce que l’yvers aprochoit fort, car c’estoit après la Sainct Michel, que les nuits sont longues et froides, et si ne conqueroyent riens sur ceux de Blaves. Si eurent conseil ensamble le conte Derbi, monseigneur Gautier de Mauni et les autres barons et chevaliers de l’ost, qu’ils delogeroyent de là et qu’ils se retryroayent vers la cité de Bourdeaux et là s’entretiendroyent, si autre incidance ne survenoit, jusques au nouveau temps. Ainsy se deslogea le conte Derbi et ses routtes de devant Blaves; si passèrent la rivière de Gironde et vindrent à Boudeaux, où ils furent receus à grand honneur de toute la cité. Assés tost après, le conte Derbi departit toutes gens et renvoya chacun en sa garnison pour mieux entendre aux besognes dessus la frontière, et aussi pour estre plus au large.

P. 97, l. 10: malmeus.—Ms. A 29: Quant il sceut qu’il n’i avoit point de remède.

P. 97, l. 15: Braibant.—Ms. A 29: car, de ses terres qu’il avoit en France ou en Normandie, n’en recevoit rien.

P. 98, l. 18: d’Engleterre.—Ms. A 29: ce que jamais le pais et les bonnes villes n’eussent voulu consentir, comme bien fut veu.

P. 99, l. 18: esté.—Ms. A 29: envoyet de Gand.

P. 100, l. 2: venus.—Ms. A 29: ceste conclusion prise.

P. 100, l. 17: souffrir.—Ms. A 29: à tout preud’hommes.

P. 101, l. 7: assaillis.—Ms. A 29: par telle force que merveille estoit à veoir le grand peuple qui là survenoit.

P 102, l. 3 et 4: sans nostre sceu.—Ms. A 29: contre nostre gré.

P 103, l. 6: Flandres.—Ms. A 29: Premierement toutes petites gens le mirent en amont, et pouvres et mechantes gens l’occirent en la parfin.

P. 103, l. 11: Tenremonde.—Ms. A 29: si n’en demena mies trop grant duel.

P. 103, l. 13: moult.—Ms. A 29: rebelles et.

P. 103, l. 18: l’Escluse.—Ms. A 29: à grand estat.

P. 103, l. 24: dist.—Ms. A 29: à son departement.

P. 104, l. 2: excuser.—Ms. A 29: de la mort de Jacquemart d’Artevelle et d’autres choses dont on les chargeoit.

P 104, l. 15: de lui.—Ms. A 29: moult troublés, courroucés et tant desolés que plus ne povoient.

P. 106, l. 14: foursenés.—Ms. A 29: Quant il sceut la mesaventure et mort de son neveu, il se vouloit incontinent combattre et vendre aux Frisons, qu’il veoit là rengés devant lui, car ils requeroyent battaille; ses gens, voyant la desconfiture, le portèrent et conduirent, vousist ou non, en une autre nef, et par especial ce gentil escuier Robert de Guelin, qui alors estoit escuyer de son corps.

P. 125, l. 6 et 7: desconfis.—Ms. A 29: car il fut poursuivi jusques aux tentes de l’ost: si s’en alla vers sa tente moult desconfit, pour la perte de ses compagnons; et les Angloys, tous travailliés de combattre, retournèrent dedans Aiguillon, et les plusieurs fort navrés, et remportèrent leurs gens qui estoyent demourés morts sur la place.

P. 128, l. 30: que.—Ms. A 29: monseigneur Gautier de Mauni, le conte de Pennebrouc, monseigneur Franque de Halle, monseigneur Thomas Cocq et bien jusques à quarente chevaliers et escuyers et troys cens hommes d’armes parmi les archers, avec six vingts compagnons de par le conte Derbi.

P 129, l. 8: paians.—Ms. A 29: en Gueldres, en Julliers, en Alemaigne, en Brabant, en Flandres, en Haynaut et en Escoce.

P. 132, l. 9: Hoghe Saint Vast.—Ms. A 29: Bien avoit un moys par avant ouy recorder le roy de France, lui estant à Paris, que le roy d’Angleterre mettoit sus une très grande armée. Et depuis il avoit esté veus sur la mer en une grosse flotte de navires.

P. 133, l. 1: fremée.—Ms. A 29: fors de petits fossés et de palis en aucuns lieux, mais au dessus de la ville il y a un bon chastel grand et fort et bien garni de bons compaignons. Aussi il s’entendirent à faire armer et appareiller et pourvoir de bastons et d’armures, chascun selon son estat.

P. 133, l. 10 et 11: roidement.—Ms. A 29: du visaige contre le sablon.

P 135, l. 17: enfans.—Ms. A 29: adonc, vousissent les gens d’arme qui estoyent avec eux ou non, ils abandonnèrent leur ville et leurs biens à la voulenté de Dieu, comme ceux à qui il sembloit que tout estoit perdu. Si tost que les gens d’armes et saudoyers qui en la ville de Carenten estoyent, veirent l’ordonnance des bourgeoys, ils prindrent leurs bagues, et se retirèrent par devers le chastel qui estoit moult fort. Et quand ces seigneurs d’Angleterre entrèrent en la ville et qu’ils veirent la force du chastel, et sceurent comment la garnison de la ville s’y estoyent retraicts et leurs biens, il conclurent qu’il ne lairroient pas une telle doute derrière eulx. Adonc ils firent assaillir au chastel par deux jours, tant asprement qu’il estoit possible. Et quant les compagnons qui dedans estoyent, et qui nul secours n’atendoyent, virent comment on les queroit de près, ils parlementèrent si bien pour eux, qu’ils rendirent le place, leurs corps et leur avoir sauves.

P. 136, l. 19: pays.—Ms. A 29: Ils trouvèrent le pays gras et plantureux de toutes bonnes provenances, les granges pleines de bleds et d’avoines et aultres grains, les maisons pleines de toutes richesses, riches bourgeois, chars, charrettes attelées de bons gros chevaux, chevaux, pourceaux, moutons et brebis, vaches, veaux et les plus beaux et grands beufs du monde que l’on nourist et elève en

celle marche. Si en choisirent et prindrent à leur voulenté, desquels qu’ils voulurent, et les amenèrent en l’ost du roy. Toutesfois, comme je fus adonc informé, varlets et garçons ne bailloyent mie à leurs maistres l’or, l’argent et les joyaux qu’ils trouvoyent, ainçois retenoyent tout pour eulx.

P. 137, l. 15: Ensi.—Ms. A 29: par le pouvoir du roy d’Angleterre et par le conseil et enhortement de monseigneur Godefroy de Harrecourt, estoit par les Angloys, anciens ennemis du royaume de France, chevauché, couru, robé, pillé et par feu essilé ce bon et plantureux pais de Normandie. Et quant le roy de France, qui se tenoit à Paris, entendit ces dures nouvelles, il fut tellement courroucé que plus ne povoit. Adonc il manda le bon chevalier monseigneur Jehan de Haynault, qui lors se tenoit dedens Bouchain, qu’il venist devers lui, et il y alla moult estoffeement et à belle compagnie de chevaliers de Haynault et d’autre part. Et pareillement le roy manda partout ses gens d’armes, là où il en pensoit recouvrer, et fit une moult grosse assemblée de ducs, de contes, de chevaliers, de nobles hommes et de gens de guerre de toutes sortes, et plus grant qu’il n’avoit esté veu cent ans devant. Et pour tant qu’il mandoit gens de tous costés en lointaines contrées, ils ne furent pas sitost venus ni assemblés; aincoys eurent le roy Edouart et ses Angloys trop piteusement couru et desolé le pais de Constantin et de Normandie, comme ci après sera encore plus amplement declaré. Ainsi vindrent au roy en son palais à Paris ces durs avertissemens, par maintes foys et par maints messages, comment le roy d’Angleterre, à grant baronnye et à grant povoir de gens d’armes, estoit arrivé au port de Sainct Wast et descendu en Constantin, si ardoit et detruisoit tout le pais devant lui, à dextre et à senestre. Adonc dist le roy Philippe et jura que jamais ne retourneroit le roy Edouard, ne ses Angloys, si n’auroyent esté combattus; et les domages et derobiers qu’ils faisoyent à ses subjects et à son pais, qu’ils desoloyent par feu et par glaive, leur seroyent cher vendu. Si fit le roy, tantost et sans delay, lettres escrire et seeller en grand nombre, et envoya premierement devers ses bons amis de l’Empire, pour tant qu’ils estoyent plus loin, au très gentil roy de Behaigne, que moult il aymoit, et aussi à monseigneur Charles de Behaigne son fils, qui

dès lors s’appeloit roy d’Alemaigne, et en estoit roy notoirement, par l’ayde et pourchas de monseigneur Charles son père et du roy Philippes de France, et avoit jà enchargé les armes de l’Empire. Si les pria le roy de France, tant acertes comme il peut, qu’ils venissent à tout leur effort, car il vouloit chevaucher contre les Angloys, qui couroyent et ardoyent son pais sans tiltre et sans querelle et sans sommation nulle.

P. 143, l. 6: non.—Ms. A 29: et perceurent bien leur faute quand ils avoyent prins fiance en communauté. Quant les Angloys en veirent la manière, ils lez poursuivirent très aigrement. Adonc le connestable et le conte de Tancarville, et environ vingt et cinq chevaliers, se boutèrent sur une porte à l’entrée du pont, à sauveté.

P. 148, l. 10: fremée.—Ms. A 29: de portes, de murs et de tours.

P. 148, l. 27: approchant.—Ms. A 29: la noble cité de.

P. 149, l. 16: Bourch le Royne.—Ms. A 29: et aucuns beaux manoirs qui apertenoyent aux bourgeois de Paris.

P. 149, l. 25: estoient.—Ms. A 29: Si tost que ceux de Paris qui estoyent en grand nombre, sceurent que le roy d’Angleterre et ses mareschaulx aprochoyent la cité de si près, car ils veoyent tout plainement les feus et les fumées à tous lés deçà Saine, si ne furent mie ceux de Paris bien asseurés, car elle n’estoit point adonc fermée de murs. Adonc s’emeut le roy Philippe, voyant ses ennemis ainsi aprocher et le grant domaige qu’ils faisoyent en son royaume, et fit abbattre les appentis de Paris, puis monta à cheval et s’en vint à Sainct Denis, là où le roy de Behaigne, monsigneur Jehan de Haynault, le duc de Lorraine, le conte Louis de Flandre, le conte de Blois et grant baronnie et chevalerie estoyent venus en moult grant arroy. Quant les bourgeoys de Paris veirent le roy partir pour les elongner, ils vindrent à luy, eux gettans à genoux, et dirent: «Ha, cher sire et noble roy, que voulez vous faire? Quant vous abandonnez ainsi vostre bonne cité de Paris, qui n’est fermée ne de tours ne de murs; et si sont nos ennemis à moins de deux lieues près. Tantost se viendront boutter à tous lés en la ville et par especial quand ils sçauront que vous en serez ainsi parti, et diront

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