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Coding Art The Four Steps to Creative Programming with the Processing Language 1st Edition Yu Zhang Mathias Funk
A Guide to Unlocking Your Creativity with the Processing Language and p5.js in Four Simple Steps
Second Edition
Mathias Funk
Yu Zhang
Design Thinking
Design Thinking is a set of strategic and creative processes and principles used in the planning and creation of products and solutions to humancentered design problems.
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Coding Art
A Guide to Unlocking Your Creativity with the Processing Language and p5.js in Four
Simple Steps
Second Edition
Coding Art: A Guide to Unlocking Your Creativity with the Processing Language and p5.js in Four Simple Steps
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Chapter 9: Dealing with Problems
Table of ConTenTs
About the Authors
Mathias Funk is Associate Professor in the Future Everyday group in the Department of Industrial Design at the Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e). He has a background in Computer Science and a PhD in Electrical Engineering (from Eindhoven University of Technology). His research interests include data design methodologies, data-enabled design, systems for musical expression, and design tools for data and AI. In the past he has researched at ATR (Japan), RWTH Aachen, Philips Consumer Lifestyle and Philips Experience Design, Intel labs (Santa Clara), National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, and National Taiwan University. He is also the co-founder of UXsuite, a high-tech spin-off from Eindhoven University of Technology. He has years of experience in software architecture and design, building design tools, and web technologies. As a teacher, he teaches various courses in the Industrial Design curriculum about designing with data and visualization approaches, systems design, and technologies for connected products and systems. He is regularly invited to hold international workshops, and as an active musician for years, he is very interested in the intersection of music, art, and design in particular.
An artist by training, Yu Zhang finished her PhD in 2017 on the theory and artistic practice of interactive technologies for public, large-scale installations. She approaches visual art with mixed reality installations and projections, sensor-based interactives, and computational arts. She roots her artistic intent in the symbolism of Asian traditions and transforms the artistic unpacking of drama and cultural signifiers into experiences of interactivity and connectivity that ultimately bridge artistic expression and audience experience. She uses systems design toolkit to realize a complex multifaceted experience playing with the spatiotemporal context of the audience's interaction with the installations when digital and physical converge. Starting from interactivity, she constructs layers of different connections between artist, artwork, audience, and the environment to express how far such connectivity can impact and reshape the structure and relations of objects, space, and time within a dynamic audience experience. Apart from her artistic research and practice, Yu’s teaching experiences cover over 10 years and a broad space including traditional classrooms and design-led project-based learning activities.
abouT The auThors
About the Technical Reviewer
Dr. Bin Yu is currently an Assistant Professor in Digital Innovation at Nyenrode Business University. He worked in Philips Design from 2019 to 2022. Bin received his PhD in Industrial Design (2018) from TU/e and M.S. in Biomedical Engineering (2012) from Northeastern University, Shenyang, China. Dr. Bin Yu had rich experience, from both academia and industry, in digital product design, user interface design, healthcare design, and data visualization. He has published more than 40 papers in top journals and conferences. Besides, his work has been invited to several design exhibitions, like Dutch Design Week, Milan Design Week, New York Design Week, and Dubai Design Week.
Acknowledgments
We started this book in October 2018 and went through the process of writing for several months, ending with an intensive summer writing retreat at Tenjinyama Art Studio in Sapporo. We are grateful for the hospitality and kindness of Mami Odai and her team, and we will always remember these weeks on the hill with the wind rushing through the dark trees.
From October 2019, we sent out the manuscript to the reviewers, and we would like to acknowledge their hard work and sincerely thank them for great feedback and suggestions, warm-hearted encouragement, and praise: Loe Feijs (Eindhoven University of Technology), Jia Han (Sony Shanghai Creative Center), Garyfalia Pitsaki (3quarters.design), Bart Hengeveld (Eindhoven University of Technology), Joep Elderman (BMD Studio), Ansgar Silies (independent artist), and Rung-Huei Liang (National Taiwan University of Science and Technology). Without you, the book would not have been as clear and rich. We also thank the great team at Apress, Natalie and Jessica, and especially Bin Yu for his excellent technical review. We express our gratitude to Tatsuo Sugimoto, our translator for the Japanese edition of Coding Art. Finally, we deeply appreciate the support from friends and family for this project.
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
The art world is interwoven with technology and actually quite innovative and playful. From cave paintings to the use of perspective, novel colors, and lighting, to printing techniques and direct inclusion of machines and code, there are examples of how art broke ground and changed its shape forever. Already before the beginning of the twenty-first century, artists used code and programmed machines to generate art or even be part of it.
There are so many examples of technology in art. It is also interesting to see the path of how it has grown in the past 70 years. Famous examples are, for instance, of earlier pioneers in computer art like Georg Nees, Michael Noll, Vera Molnár, and Frieder Nake who brought the use of pseudo-randomness and algorithm about fractals and recursion in code drawing. The more recent generation of artists like Casey Reas, who is well known for developing the Processing software, extend artistic ideas through the programming language. Some artists like Jared Tarbell introduce real data into art creation and connect the complexity with the data availability. It is remarkable that for most of their works, computer artists open the source code to the public, so we can learn from them.
In this book, we want to make the point that the use of modern technology and machines in creative work does not contradict “creative expression.” Instead, if used well, technology can help creatives take steps in new directions, think of new ideas, and ultimately discover their ideal form of expression.
Mathias Funk and Yu Zhang 2024 M. Funk and Y. Zhang, Coding Art, Design Thinking, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9780-3_1
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
Why data and information in art? The use of data can connect artworks to the human body, signals from outer space, or contemporary societal issues, important events happening all over the world. With data streams, creative works can become “alive.” As they represent data in visual or auditory forms, they comment on what is happening in the world; they provide an alternative frame to news and noteworthy. They can react and even create their own data as a response.
Why is interaction interesting for creatives? Interaction in an artwork opens a channel for communication with individual viewers or an entire audience. Interaction can make a work more immersive and let viewers engage in new ways with the artist’s ideas. Some might want to engage with art emotionally; some others prefer a more rational approach. The creative is in charge of defining and also limiting interactivity – from fully open access to careful limitations that preserve the overall aesthetics and message of the work. Interaction can help create multifaceted artworks that show different views on the world, or even allow for exploration of unknown territory.
Using computation and code can help a creative express ideas independent of medium and channel – the work is foremost conceptual and can be rendered in any form susceptible to the viewer. So, when we express an artistic concept in the form of code or machine instructions, we can direct the machine to produce its output in a number of ways: print a rendered image on a postcard or t-shirt, project an animation onto a building, or make an expressive interaction accessible from a single screen or for a global audience on the Internet. By disconnecting from physical matter, we create ephemeral art that might even change hands and be changed by others.
Ultimately, technology transforms what it is applied to. We show you how to do this with creativity.
1.1.
Coding Art
What is “coding art” all about? The title is intentionally ambiguous, ranging in meaning from how to code art to coding as creative expression. Probably the message that resonates most with you is somewhere in the middle.
Tips We are curious what you think during or after reading and working with this book. please let us know on our website.1
In this book, “coding” simply means an action that translates meaning from one language into another, for example, from a natural language into a computer language. This translation, as any translation, implies a change in who can and will interpret what we express in the new language. It also implies thinking about how this interpretation might work out toward a result. For natural languages, we empathize with other people, how they think and act. For machines, we need something called “computational thinking” [3, 6, 21].
Learning how to code is quite similar to learning how to speak another language. Some people might follow a more theoretical approach and learn vocabulary and grammar before attempting to speak and converse. Some others start with a conversation and gradually understand the structure of the language behind it. Depending on the circumstances, any approach might work well.
For teaching how to code in a computer or programming language, both approaches have been used in the past. There are very theoretical ways to approach coding. They often come with a steep learning curve and the full richness of what the language creators intend you to know about it. And there are also ways to playfully get used to simple examples that teach
1 https://codingart-book.com/feedback
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
the basics before moving to more complicated examples. In the context of creative work, we strongly feel that the second approach, starting with the “conversation,” works far better. However, we have seen in practice that the playful approach often hits a limitation: how to make the step from toy examples to something that is useful and also complex and intricate. This is hard and the reason why we write this book.
1.2. Motivation
Every profession, every vocation, is about doing something difficult with high quality, often using specific approaches or techniques. This works for engineers, researchers, marketing, and doing business. For creatives, the “difficult thing” is the invention of meaning and purpose out of a large set of options, constraints, and relations. It is a very human thing to create, which means we apply both our intuition and our training and knowledge to a challenge. Creatives apply various technologies in a creative process, and coding is a part of that. In this book, the use of coding in creative work is based on the situation that we try to construct meaning through understanding the logic and structure of coding. We use coding as a creative tool rather than being hardcore programmers or mere end users.
1.2.1. How to Talk with a “Machine”
Confronted with the particular but different characteristics of art, design, and technology, we have seen creatives struggle with questions about “how to start,” “how to continue,” and “how to end” while working with code and coding practice. Like writing a book or essay, it is difficult to code an idea in an individual context and condition, so that a machine can produce something meaningful for us. Unlike writing, the machine will respond swiftly to anything we feed it. It will never complain about too much work and always accurately reflect what we write in coded language. And when we get things wrong, make a mistake, which happens more
often than we are comfortable with, then this is on us. The machine is a “stupid” thing, dull and rational. Whatever creativity emerges is ours only. This book is essentially about how to let the machine express and amplify our human creativity by using precise instructions (“code”) and input (“data”).
For many creatives, the use of code in their projects brings new challenges, beyond successfully completing a project. For example, an unforeseen challenge is to let the work operate reliably for hours, days, and weeks. With traditional “static” material, creative output eventually turns into a stable form that rests in itself. Paper, photo, clay, concrete, metal, video, or audio documentary are stable. There are established ways to keep them safe and maintain their quality. If you want, you can study this conservation craft as a university subject even.
Things are different for art or design based on code. Code always needs a machine to run on, an environment to perform its function. This essentially counteracts technological progress: there is always a newer machine, a more modern operating system, a more powerful way to program something. Any of these get in and code written for earlier machines may stop working. This does not happen that easily to a painting or a designed and manufactured object.
1.2.2. Practice a Practice
When we write about “coding” as a practice, we try to combine the creative process with computational thinking. Over the years, our art or design students, inevitably, encounter similar problems. They often ask questions like “why do we need to learn coding?”, “coding is so difficult to continue once you are stuck, what is it worth?”, and “I could understand the examples (from the programming software references) well, but I cannot do my idea just by using those examples, how to do that?” These questions (or often passionate complaints) point at the difficulty of learning coding as a new language. It seems that there is a big disconnect of “brainy” coding from creative practice. There is a common understanding that
creative expression is fueled by inspiration and directed by intuition. In contrast, coding or working with technology seems to be very rational and thought through. We think creative coding is an exciting mix of these two, alternating between different modes of thinking and doing. Often we start with a loose idea of what we want to create, then throw a few shapes on our computational canvas. Then figure out a technical issue and go back to tweak the colors, position, or movement. Soon, this will turn into something intuitively creative and much faster than learning to wield a brush and master the skills to paint.
1.2.3. Do It and Own It
Before we can start, here is yet another big “why” question: even if coding is an indispensable part of a creative project, why do artists or designers need to do the code themselves? Cooperative skills are basic for any contemporary artist and designer, there are cases of successful artists who command a multidisciplinary team to work on their ideas. Sadly, this is quite rare. More realistically, we see creatives who cannot afford a team of qualified experts and who work on smaller budgets and projects. We see creatives who don’t want to give up control and who want to keep their creative agency. And even if you want to collaborate, without understanding coding and technology to some extent, it will be very difficult to work with experts productively or get help when you run into problems. The point about creative technology is: you want something? Then do it and own it.
We are aware that creatives who are learning or exploring interactive art, digital art, and new media art are no longer just following one traditional approach. Instead, they need to work with their ideas from a broader perspective – in the principles of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). When we move into the field where art meets code, creatives may need a new way of thinking and working which can help them see this new field through the lens of an old field where they have been active in and professional at. Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
In projects where code is involved, you as the creative need the ability to read code, understand code, perhaps even write code, and think in a computational structure. This is necessary for effectively communicating with technology experts in a common “language.” We think these are essential abilities creatives today need to have. Besides, creatives who rely mostly on the help of experts often feel uncertain as to how much control they have to relinquish to achieve their goal. We actually have a section on working with technology experts toward the end of the book.
1.3. How to Read This Book
This book can be read in different ways, from different perspectives and also with different pre-knowledge and backgrounds. It is hard to find a common ground, but we hope that, with patience and openness, you will soon see our point.
1.3.1. Calling All Creatives
First of all, this book is dedicated to creatives who might be designers, artists, design or art students. We also wrote this book for musicians, architects, engineers, and researchers. They all share that creativity makes their profession special and their work unique. The creative will benefit mostly by taking the main road from beginning to end, visiting all examples and typing along. Why not bring this book to your favorite café once a week and slowly make your way through the different chapters. If you space it out over several weeks, you will see that the breaks will spark new thoughts of how to code art and what you could do yourself with the current week’s topic.
We also wrote this book for educators who could take a jump to the last three chapters first. There we explain more about the rationale behind the concepts we introduce and our methodology. We show how everything fits together, also from an educational point of view.
Third, this book is written for technical experts, who know it all actually and who might be surprised by the simplicity of the code examples. Why would they read this book? Because they realize that knowing code as a second native language and being able to construct the architecture of code is not enough, by far. The embedding of code in a process, driven by creativity or business interests, is where the challenges lie. As a technical expert, you will find the last three chapters most interesting and can use it as a lens to scan the other parts of the book.
1.3.2. Four Steps, One Example, One Zoom
In the first chapters of this book, we will go through a creative process in four steps and explain how coding works in each step. The steps will each unfold through several practical examples and conclude with a short summary. The first step, idea to visuals, gives you a short primer into working with Processing and the different visual elements that are readily available to you. We quickly proceed to working with the visual canvas before diving into animation and interaction. From this point onward, you know how to draw moving things on a canvas that might even respond to your interactive control. The second step is about composition and structure, that is, how we let art emerge from a multitude of different elements on the canvas. We will introduce data and code structure that help you in working with many visual elements at the same time. Together, we apply this in several examples around visual structure. In the third step, we show you how to work things out in more detail and how to give depth to your creations. You will learn about randomness and noise and how to control them artistically. We show you how to create smooth animations and transitions between different elements and colors. Interactivity returns in this step, and we show you how to combine interactive input with composition and refinement. The fourth step is about production, how to bring your creation to the stage, how to produce and present it well in different media from high-resolution printing to interactive installations.
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
On the next page, we show an example that we created inspired by an abstract geometrical painting of Kazimir Malevich (Suprematisme, 1915) as inspiration (Figure 1-1). We chose this work because, for us, it visually hinted at a very interesting motion of otherwise static blocks that seems to be captured in a moment just before toppling over. We started with a recreation of the visual composition of ten basic elements in similar primary colors on a cream-colored canvas (step 1). In a second step, we connected to the impression of inherent motion and work with the blocks: we shifted and redrew the same composition recursively, adding more and more layers over time (step 2). The third step involved adding three large-scale rotated copies of the composition to complete the circular perspective. We also finetuned the timing of adding the different elements and operations over time, so the work developed in a few minutes from the first screen and visually stabilized in the last screen. Finally, we added a gradual shift of the entire canvas that, over several minutes, zoomed out and shifted the center of the canvas from the left top to the right bottom (step 3). In the fourth step, we “produce” the images that you see: we let the animation play and live select tens of frames to be automatically rendered. From these frames, we finally select eight frames as they exhibit good composition individually and also show the motion of the entire work well (step 4).
This example shows how we borrow from the four large steps described in this book, by picking a few pieces from each step that match our concept. From a process point of view, steps 1, 3, and 4 were relatively straightforward. We took more time for the second step because we went into two different directions, one more playful and one more technical, of which the playful was the right one at the end after trying both. Only after resolving this, we could move faster again. There are chances that you will struggle as well while working with this book; don’t forget to take breaks and never let go.
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
Figure 1-1. Example of generative art taking an abstract geometrical painting of Kazimir Malevich (Suprematisme, 1915) as inspiration
Chapter 1 IntroduCtIon
Throughout these four steps, we will teach you about creative computation, and, at some point, you will see also bits of strategies, patterns, and more complex concepts appear. Afterward, we will roll up all steps in a larger example, MOUNTROTHKO, in Chapter 6. Then, we take a turn to p5.js, the Processing version for the web. Here we show how to creatively reproduce generative art and take your own turn, while introducing important features of p5.js. Chapter 7 also shows how to creatively mix and order the four steps to match a project better. In Chapter 8, we show you how to work with multi-touch input and movement sensors to create an interactive art piece. Finally, in the last three chapters of the book, we zoom out and turn toward the practice of creative coding, through learning and collaboration. This part shows you how you can make progress using this book and how to go beyond, what you can do when you feel stuck, and how to get help. It’s all there; you just need to go step by step toward it.
1.3.3. Getting Ready
This book contains a lot of examples, and they are written in code (“source code”). Most examples can be used directly, and the resulting visual output is shown close to the source code.
CODE EXAMPLES
// How to quickly find code examples in the book? Look for text in a box like this!
All source code listed in this book is written in the open source software Processing. Processing itself is available from https:// processing.org, and we recommend that you install it on your computer to get the most out of this book. Processing is a medium for understanding
the structure and logic of code. We will explain this shortly. The code examples are available online from our Processing library.2 Throughout the book we call these examples also Processing sketches, which is a common way to refer to code files in the Processing community. Although it might be tempting to just download the examples and play with them, we recommend typing them yourself (at least some of them). This way, you will pick up the programming style much faster and allow your muscle memory to support your learning. And if you are lucky, you will make a few small mistakes that give you surprising results.
Finally, we will address you, the reader, informally. Think of this book as a conversation in your favorite café over coffee, and your laptop is right in front of you. Feel free to pause the conversation and dive into a topic on your own, or explore the code of the examples, and then resume to the next page. Let’s begin.
2 The Processing library can be found here: https://codingart-book.com/ library. You can install it using the Processing library manager.
CHAPTER 2 Idea to Visuals
In this first part of the book, we will go through four process steps and show for each step how coding becomes a meaningful part of our creative process. In step 1, idea to visuals, we take a bottom-up approach and start directly with visuals and code. Our entry point to this approach is to use code directly from the ideation stage of the creative process. More specifically, instead of making mood boards, sketching, writing, searching the web, or talking to experts, we suggest that you just start the Processing application and give it a spin. First, we look at how we can express our ideas using Processing and a few lines of code. Yes, we start really simple.
2.1. Visual Elements
For many artists, even if visual elements in their work are coded, the standards for effectiveness in their work are still based on either cognitive or aesthetic goals [12, 18, 20]. When we analyze any drawings, paintings, sculptures, or designs, it is similar – we examine and decompose them to see how they are put together to create the overall effect of the work. Lines, colors, shapes, scale, form, and textures are the general fundamental components of aesthetics and cognition for both art and design and for coding art as well.
Processing can draw a wide range of forms that result from variation and combination of simple shapes. When you take an example from the Processing reference, try to change the numbers in the example to explore how the shape changes and responds to different numbers.
M. Funk and Y. Zhang, Coding Art, Design Thinking, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9780-3_2
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noted below It is far easier to fill the cylinder when it is disassembled from the cradle. If assembled in the cradle, bring the gun to its maximum elevation and remove both filling and drain plugs. It is necessary that the drain plug holes should be lubricated on top of the cylinder. Fill through the hole in the piston rod. Allow a few minutes for the air to escape and the oil to settle.
Refill and repeat two or three times. When satisfied that the cylinder is entirely full of oil, insert both plugs, and depress the gun to its maximum depression. After a few moments elevate again to its maximum elevation and unscrew both plugs. Now refill as described above. When entirely full, allow not more than two cubic inches (about one-fourth of a gill) of the oil to escape, insert both plugs and lash them with copper wire. It may happen that after firing a few rounds the gun will not return to battery. This may be due to, first, weakness of springs, second, stuffing box gland being screwed up too tight, or third, the oil having expanded, due to heat. It any case the cause must be ascertained and remedied, if due to expansion of oil, it is proven by the fact that the gun cannot be pushed into battery by force exerted on the breech of the gun. In that case elevate the gun to its maximum elevation and remove the filling plug. The oil will now escape permitting the gun to return to battery. In emergencies, water may be used in the cylinder. This should be done only when absolutely necessary, and never in freezing weather, and as soon as practicable the cylinder should be emptied, cleaned, and thoroughly dried and filled with hydroline oil. About 9 pints of hydroline oil are required for filling the recoil cylinder
To empty the recoil cylinder.—The cylinder may be emptied either when assembled or disassembled from the cradle. In either case, remove both the filling and drain plugs, depress the forward end of the cylinder and drain the contents into a clean can or other receptacle over which a piece of linen or muslin has been stretched, for straining the oil.
To clean the recoil cylinder oil.—The hydroline oil used in the cylinder should be cleaned and free from grit and dirt. The oil should be stored in the closed cans provided for the purpose, and be carefully protected from dirt, sand, or water. Oil withdrawn from the
cylinders and containing any sediment must not be used again until it has been allowed to settle for not less than 24 hours. When sediment has thus been permitted to settle great care must be taken not to disturb it in removing the oil. To insure the cleanliness of all cylinder oil it should be strained through a clean piece of linen or muslin before using.
To clean the bore of the gun.—After firing and at other times when necessary, the bore of the gun should be cleaned to remove the residue of smokeless powder, and then oiled. In cleaning, wash the bore with a solution made by dissolving one-half pound of Sal Soda in one gallon of boiling water. After washing with the soda solution, wipe perfectly dry and then oil the bore with a thin coating of the light slushing oil furnished for that purpose. Briefly stated, the care of the bore consists of removing the fouling resulting from firing, in obtaining a chemically clean surface and in coating this surface with a film of oil to prevent rusting. The fouling which results from firing of two kinds—one, the production of combustion of powder, the other, copper scraped off the rotating band. Powder fouling because of its acid reaction, is highly corrosive, that is, it will induce rust and must be removed. Metal fouling of itself is unactive, but its presence prevents the action of cleaning agents. It should be removed if it accumulates. At every opportunity in the intermission of fire, the bore of the gun should be cleaned and lubricated.
To clean the breech mechanism.—The breech mechanism should be kept clean and well lubricated. It should be dismounted for examination and oiled when assembled.
To clean the recoil springs.—Dismount to clean. All rust should be removed and the springs well oiled before assembling. When the springs are dismounted the interior of the cradle should be cleaned and examined for defective riveting, missing rivet heads and scoring. The condition of the spring support guide should be noted and all burrs or scores carefully smoothed off.
To clean, lubricate and care for the elevating and traversing mechanism.—The contact surfaces between the cradle and the rocker should be kept clean, thoroughly oiled, and free from rust. If
indications of rusting, cutting, or scoring of these surfaces appear, the cradle should be dismounted, the rust removed, and rough spots smoothed away. The elevating and traversing mechanisms should be dismounted for thorough cleaning and overhauling. They should be kept well oiled and should work easily. If at any time either mechanism works harder than usual, it should be immediately overhauled and the cause discovered and removed. In traveling, the cradle should be locked to the trail by means of the elevating and traversing lock, so as to relieve the pointing mechanism of all travel stresses.
To clean, lubricate and care for the wheels.—The wheel and wheel fastenings should be dismounted periodically and the fastenings, hub boxes, axle arms, and axle bore cleaned and examined. All roughness due to scoring or cutting should be smoothed off. The hollow part of the axle acts as a reservoir for the oil to lubricate the wheel bearings. Experience will show how much oil is needed, but enough should be used to insure that the oil will pass through the axle arms to the hub caps. The nuts on the hub bolts should be tightened monthly during the first year of service and twice a year thereafter. The ends of the bolts should be lightly riveted over to prevent the nut from unscrewing. When the hub bolts are tightened, the hub band should be screwed up as tightly as possible against the lock washer at the outer end of the hub ring.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MATERIEL
Assembling and Disassembling.
(a) Cradle mechanism, cylinder, springs et cetera.
All work upon recoil cylinders, sights, and other optical equipment should be done in the presence of a commissioned officer. The recoil cylinder should never be clamped in a vise, but when necessary to hold it from turning, a spanner applied to the front end of cylinder should be used. Never remove the cylinder end stud nut when the
piece is at an elevation. See that proper kind of oil is used in cylinders and for lubrication. Strain the oil used in filling the cylinders through a fine clean cloth and be sure that the receptacles used in handling the oil are clean. Take every precaution to keep the interior of the cylinders clean and to prevent the entrance of foreign particles. In assembling the gland be sure that at least four threads of the gland are engaged with the threads of the cylinder head. Lash parts with copper wire to prevent unscrewing. Close down the ends of the recoil-indicator guide to avoid loss of the indicator. Prevent possible injury to cannoneers by causing them to stand clear of the counter-recoil spring column in assembling or dismounting. Remove cylinder end stud screw before trying to unscrew cylinder end stud.
(b) Gun
In moving the gun on or off the cradle, provide ample support for the breech end, so that the gun clips are in prolongation of the cradle guides; if this is not done the cradle guides may be ruined.
(c) Elevating and traversing mechanism.
If the gun will not remain at the elevation at which set, the crank shafts are probably not correctly assembled. If the elevating screw do not house in traveling, they are incorrectly assembled.
(d) Sights and quadrant.
Frequently verify the adjustments of sights and quadrant. Require special care in handling sights. Do not permit cannoneers to use front sight as a handle in mounting. Be sure that the range disk of the quadrant and range strip of the rear sight shank are graduated for the particular type of ammunition used by the battery. This also applies to the fuze setter.
Care of Materiel.
(a) Parts of the Carriages.
All nuts are secured by split pins, which should be replaced and properly opened when nuts are screwed home. Do not strike any
metal part directly with a hammer; interpose a buffer of wood or copper. All working and bearing surfaces of the carriage require oiling; those not directly accessible for this purpose are provided with oil holes closed by spring covers or handy oilers. Do not permit brake levers to be released with a kick or blow. It has been found that the apron hinges occasionally become broken, and that the apron hinge pins are frequently lost. Whenever this happens the hinge or hinge-pins should be immediately replaced. For if this is not done the apron, which is very expensive is apt to become cracked or broken. When the lunette becomes loosened the lunette nuts should at once be tightened.
(b) Wheels.
Keep hub bolts and hub bands properly tightened. To tighten the hub bands screw them as tightly as possible with a wrench and then force them farther by striking the end of the wrench with a hammer. All wheels and pintle bearings should be frequently oiled.
(c) Inspections.
Battery commander should frequently make a detailed inspection of all the vehicles in the battery, to see if any parts of them are broken or if any screws, nuts, split-pins, et cetera are missing. If any such defects are found they should immediately take steps to replace missing or broken parts. At these inspections the material should also be examined to ascertain whether the cleaning schedules have been properly carried out. Compliance with these instructions will do much toward prolonging the life of the carriage.
Firing, Precautions and Preparations for.
Before firing, inspect to see that cylinders are properly closed and that the cylinder end stud nut and piston rod-nut are in place. If time permits, oil slides before firing. Note length of recoil for the first few shots to be sure that the recoil mechanism is working properly. There is no danger as long as the recoil does not exceed 48 inches. Therefore, for first shot always set recoil indicator for about 42 inches. If the gun fails to return fully into battery, it is probably due (1)
to dirt on slides and guides, (2) to cutting of slide surfaces on account of lack of oil, (3) to gland being screwed up too tightly, (4) to dirt or foreign particles in the cylinder, and especially in the counter recoil buffer recess, (5) to weakness of springs, 90% of such cases will be found to be due to 1, 2 or 3. Lock the cradle to the trail at drill and at traveling to avoid unnecessary strain upon the pointing mechanism. After unlimbering, release elevating and traversing lock before attempting to elevate or traverse gun.
Cleaning and Care of Leather.
All leather contains more or less oil. When the amount of oil decreases the leather becomes harder, less pliable, and shows a tendency to crack. It loses its elasticity and breaks more readily under sudden strains. Exposure to the sun evaporates the oil and exposure to the rain washes it out, both conditions tending in the long run to bring the same result, namely, hardening and stiffening of the leather. Accumulations of foreign substances are very injurious for they tend to absorb the oil from the leather underneath, leaving it dry and hard, or they retain moisture on the surface, prevent the air from getting to it and rot the leather. Also many substances such as perspiration and excretion from the horse contain chemicals which are very injurious. For these reasons all leather must be kept clean. The cleaning agent used is castile soap with water. All pieces should be taken apart and as much dirt and dust as possible removed with a damp sponge or cloth. All remaining dirt is then removed by washing with castile soap and water. In doing this always use as little water as possible. Wring the sponge out nearly dry, rub it on the soap and work it with the hands until a thick, creamy lather is formed. Then scrub the leather thoroughly until all dirt is removed. Special care should be taken around spots that have been in contact with metal perspiration or excreta. If there is an old accumulation of dirt a soft stick may be used to scrape this off. Never allow a knife or a piece of glass to be used or any sharp edged instrument. After all dirt is removed run the sponge in one direction, all the way along the leather to remove all remaining dirt and extra lather. Never allow the
pieces to be rinsed off in a bucket of water Metal parts should be washed thoroughly and dried and if necessary any rust removed with a crocus cloth. Although as little water as possible is used some of the oil in the leather will certainly be washed out, and, to keep the leather in proper condition, it must be replaced. After an ordinary cleaning this is normally done by an application of saddle soap. Saddle soap is not a cleaning agent—only a dressing for leather. It contains enough oil to replace, if properly applied, all loss through ordinary use. It is used in the same manner as castile soap, in the form of a thick, creamy lather, rubbed well into the leather and allowed to dry. The leather should be well rubbed with the hands while drying, to keep it soft and pliable, and to work the oil in. Always allow it to dry in the shade, preferably for several hours, and never assemble pieces, especially fastening straps into buckles until thoroughly dry. Oil is never applied directly to leather unless it has become so hard and dry that saddle soap is not sufficient to soften it. There is only one oil issued for that purpose. That is “Neat’s Foot Oil.” This should only be applied to the flesh side of the leather and very lightly. Several light applications give much better results than a few heavy ones. The oil should be well rubbed in with the hands and should be preferably applied after cleaning the leather with castile soap and water, as the pores of the leather are then more open and the oil penetrates much better. Never oil leather until it becomes greasy, for, besides wasteful, it makes the leather too spongy. In emergencies, where Neat’s Foot Oil cannot be procured any good vegetable oil may be used, preferably olive oil. This is only for emergencies and is not to be used unless Neat’s Foot Oil or saddle soap cannot be had. All new leather equipment should be cleaned with castile soap and water as soon as unpacked as leather very often becomes covered with mold after being packed in boxes for some time. Ordnance leather as it comes to the battery is very dry and should be thoroughly oiled before being used. New equipment after being washed thoroughly, should be given, in several light applications as much oil as it will absorb without becoming greasy. Each application should be allowed to dry thoroughly and should be given frequent rubbings to soften the leather. With the proper kind of preparation for use there is no excuse for the large amount of broken
new leather equipment which is so common. In packing harness for shipment, especially into harness sacks the harness should be cleaned and oiled and then dried for at least twenty-four hours before putting into the sacks. After removing from the sacks at the destination, cleaning and dressing with saddle soap is sufficient. When the leather is dirty, clean it—not to improve its looks but to preserve it. When wet allow it to dry in a warm (not hot) place, in cold weather; or in the shade in summer. When it is dry apply saddle soap or oil. Never hang any piece of equipment over a nail or sharp edge as cracks always develop where the leather has been folded over sharply. Ordinary oils and greases rot leather, so all such equipment must be kept away from contact with them. Never leave any piece of leather where it will chafe against any sharp edge or corner and never leave it exposed to the sun longer than necessary.
Care of Cloth Equipment.
All cloth equipment should be kept as clean as possible by continual brushing. The fewer times necessary to wash it, the longer its life. Canvas goods such as paulins, webbing, etc., when it becomes necessary to wash them should be scrubbed with Paco, or H. & H. soap and water. Make a solution of one cake of either soap in nine cups of hot water. Brush the article to be cleaned thoroughly and spread it on a clean table. Scrub with the above solution and scrubbing brush until a good lather appears. Rinse in clean water and hang in the shade to dry. Woolen articles may be cleaned in the same manner or with ordinary laundry soap. The first method being always the best. It is preferable to wash these in cool or warm water, as hot water shrinks them. Never wring woolens out, but after washing, rinse in clean water and hang immediately up to dry. Saddle blankets should be kept well brushed and should be frequently unfolded, hung in the sun and beaten with a whip. When removed from the horse they should be doubled over with the wet side out and put in the shade to dry If no shade is available, and they must be exposed to the sun, always fold the wet side inward. With these precautions, saddle blankets should not need washing
oftener than twice a year In washing immerse the blanket in tepid soap suds repeatedly until clean, rinse in clean water, and hang in the sun to dry. Do not scrub the blanket.
Care of Metal.
All metal equipment should be kept clean and free from rust. Coal oil is used to remove rust, but it must always be removed as it will rust the metal if allowed to remain. The coal oil should be applied to the metal and if possible allowed to remain for a short time. This will loosen and partially dissolve the rust so that it can be rubbed off with a rag or a sponge. Continued applications may be necessary if there is much rust. A solution of Sal Soda is also a good rust remover. The articles must be washed thoroughly after using this to remove all traces of the soda as it is a very active corrosive. Never scour metals to remove rust if it can be avoided as this leaves a roughened surface which will rust again much more easily. Polished surfaces such as brass fittings should be cleaned and polished with Lavaline. This may also be used on the bearing surfaces of steel collars. All surfaces after cleaning should be dried thoroughly and if not painted should be greased with cosmis or cosmoline. These form an airproof coating over the metal surface so that no moisture may reach it and cause rusting. If the metal is not dried thoroughly, some moisture may be held between the grease and the metal surface which will in time cause rust to appear Care must be taken that the grease covers the surface completely. All surfaces against which there is no friction should be painted and kept so. Ordinary olive drab or collar paint is very satisfactory for this purpose.
Care of Guns During and After Firing.
Always while firing keep the bore as clean as possible. If there is time to swab out between shots, do so. During continued firing a bucket of water should be kept near the gun, and the sponge on the rammers staff kept wet while swabbing. Watch the recoil indicator and occasionally push it ahead so as to be sure you are getting a
correct reading. Be sure that the gun returns fully into battery after each shot. Keep the ammunition, and especially the rotating bands, free from dust and dirt.
The rotating band should be greased very lightly with cosmis just before inserting the projectile into the breech. In continued firing, oil the slides frequently. Keep the fuze setter clean and be careful that no dirt gets down around the stop pin. Examine the breech recess frequently and wipe out all dirt and brass filing that may accumulate. The gun should be cleaned thoroughly immediately after firing. Make a solution of one pound of sal soda in one gallon of boiling water. Remove the breechblock and carrier, and let one man clean and oil it thoroughly while the rest of the gun is being cleaned. Remove the sponge from the rammer staff, and over the brass rammer, fit a piece of folded burlap. Fold this burlap as many times as you can and still force it through the bore. Soak the burlap in the sal soda solution and swab the bore out thoroughly. Be careful to remove all copper filing, and the bore should be as bright as a piece of glass when finished. After cleaning it is best though not absolutely necessary to swab out with clean water. Then dry thoroughly with a dry swab, and grease every exposed surface. In cleaning the breechblock and firing mechanism always dismantle it completely. Clean and oil the slides, fuze setters and all parts of the carriage. Decap the empty cartridge cases and wash them out thoroughly with the sal soda solution. There is a decapping set with every battery. Rinse out in clean water and set them in the sun to dry.
A CLEANING SCHEDULE FOR MATERIEL.
Daily. Before leaving the park:
1. Unlock boxes and chests and secure them with snaps.
2. See that all tools, paulins, etc., are secure. After returning to the park:
1. Remove from carriages all dust, excess oil and mud. Examine for missing nuts, split pins, broken parts and parts that need adjustment. Make necessary repairs.
2. Clean and oil breech recess and breechblock; after firing, clean bore with salsoda solution, wipe perfectly dry and oil.
3. Oil wheels, elevating and traversing mechanism, tools if necessary.
4. See that all oil holes are properly closed and that carriages are ready for immediate use.
5. Clean and oil without dismounting; rear sight, quadrant and fuze setter.
6. Lock all boxes and chests.
7. Signal detail: clean all instruments, oil all exposed bearing surfaces. Test telephones and go over all wire used that day and repair same by covering exposed parts. Have all instruments, wire etc., ready for immediate use.
8. Clean all collars and bits and dry the blankets; wipe dirt from the harness.
9. Clean and oil all pistols and revolvers that have been used that day. Weekly.
1. Wash and clean entire carriage.
2. Disassemble and clear all oil breech mechanism. Always do so immediately after firing.
3. Clean out and fill with oil, all oil holes of gun clips and cradle pintle.
4. Clean all leather straps as you would clean harness.
5. Take apart and thoroughly clean all parts of harness.
6. Take apart and clean and oil all pistols and revolvers.
7. Clean with castile soap and harness soap all leather of the personal equipment.
Monthly.
1. Disassemble the following and clean and oil: elevating mechanism, traversing mechanism.
2. Pull from battery and clean and oil guide rails and clips. Trip gun and test recoil.
3. Tighten all hub nuts and inspect wheels for dish.
4. Take off wheels, clean and oil axles and hubs. Replace hub liner when necessary.
5. Dismount poles, double trees and spare pole, clean and oil.
6. Dismount rear sight bracket from support, clean and oil. Do the same for the front sight.
Every Three Months.
1. Dismount, clean, oil and assemble the recoil mechanism.
2. Inspect the surplus kits and replace all articles that are not in proper condition.
3. Unpack, clean, oil and repack the battery and store wagons, forge limber.
Every Six Months.
1. Inspect all articles of the permanent camp equipment, dry, oil and repair when needed. Pitch tentage for examination and drying.
2. Examine all articles in store such as leather, harness and spare metal parts. Clean the harness, dub the leather, oil all metal parts.
PRECAUTIONS AND GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
1. Never allow steel parts to be struck with a steel hammer Always use a copper drift between the hammer and the steel part.
2. Never try to force a delicate part if stuck. The sticking is probably due to rust and the parts can be loosened by soaking in coal oil or by heating the exterior surfaces with a torch.
3. Be careful in using screw drivers or wrenches not to let them slip and thus ruin the heads of the screw or nut.
4. Insist upon the rule that any part needing repairs be repaired immediately upon arrival in garrison or camp.
5. Never allow a broken part to be stored except for the action of an inspector or survey.
6. Before any article is put away for storage, have it thoroughly inspected and make necessary repairs.
7. See that all articles of your equipment are always marked or stamped with the insignia and the battery number.
8. Hold all members of your organization responsible for any carelessness or negligence in the care of the equipment.
CHAPTER XIV FIRE CONTROL EQUIPMENT.
SIGHTS.
The instruments provided for sighting and laying the gun include a line sight, a rear sight, a front sight, a panoramic sight, and a range quadrant.
Line sights.—The line sight consists of a conical point as a front sight and a V notch as a rear sight, located on the top element of the gun. They determine a line of sight parallel to the axis of the bore, useful in giving general direction to the gun.
Front and rear sights.—The front and rear sights are for general use in direct aiming. The front sight carries cross wires. The rear sight is of the peep variety, constructed as follows: To the sight bracket is attached the shank socket upon which a spirit level is mounted for the necessary correction due to difference in level of wheels. The sight shank consists of a steel arc, the center of which is the front sight. It slides up and down in the shank socket and is operated by a scroll gear. A range strip is attached to the face of the shank and is graduated up to 6500 yards, least reading 50 yards. To the left side of the shank is an elevation spirit level, permitting approximate quadrant elevations to be given with the sight shank when the quadrant is out of order
The peep sight and its deflection scale are mounted above the shank. This peep traverses along a screw operated by a knurled head. A socket and ratchet are also provided for the attachment of the panoramic sight.
Rear Sight.
Nomenclature of the important parts of the Rear Sight:—
Peep sight
Elevation level
Deflection scale
Peep sight screw and head
Range strip
Shank
Shank socket
Cross level
Leveling screw
Scroll gear and handle
Rear sight bracket
Panoramic sight socket and ratchet
PANORAMIC SIGHT, MODEL 1917.
Description.
The panoramic sight is a vertical telescope so fitted with an optical system of reflecting prisms and lenses that the gunner can bring into his field any point in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the telescope. The optical characteristics of the instruments are as follows:
Power = 4.
Field of view = 10°.
The rotating head prism has a movement of 600 mils in a vertical plane; movement is obtained by turning elevation micrometer. The amount and direction of rotation is indicated on a scale in the head by the elevation index and micrometer The scale is graduated in 100-mil intervals, the micrometer in mils. One complete turn of the micrometer is equivalent to one space on the sale. The head is level when the index is opposite 3 and micrometer at zero.
PANORAMIC SIGHT MODEL OF 1917
Movement in azimuth is obtained by turning azimuth worm. The amount of rotation is read from the scale on the azimuth circle and the azimuth micrometer. The azimuth micrometer may be turned independently of the azimuth worm to set any desired deflection. Figures in black are for right-hand deflection and in red for left-hand deflection. The scale on the azimuth circle is graduated in 100-mil divisions from 0 to 32 in each half circle. The micrometer is graduated for every mil. For larger angular deflections, by turning the throw-out lever the azimuth worm is disengaged, permitting the head to be turned to any desired position.
The reticule is provided with a horizontal and a vertical cross line. The horizontal line is graduated in mils.
An open sight attached to the side of the rotating head is for approximate setting of the instrument.
No disassembling or adjustment of the panoramic sight, except as described herein, is to be made, except by ordnance personnel
detailed for such work.
The panoramic sight is seated in a T slot in a socket of the sight, model of 1916, in firing, and is carried in a panoramic sight case on the shield when traveling.
Use of the Panoramic Sight for Direct Fire.
Level rocker with zero on range scale opposite 300 on angle-ofsite scale and gun at center of traverse. Set azimuth scale at zero, azimuth micrometer knob at zero, micrometer index at zero, elevation scale at 3, and elevation micrometer knob at zero. By means of cross-leveling knob on sight socket bring cross-level bubble level.
Correct for deflection in azimuth by turning azimuth micrometer until required deflection is opposite fixed arrow pointer; bring zero on micrometer index to zero on azimuth micrometer by means of micrometer-index knob.
Elevate gun by means of angle-of-site handwheel and traverse until cross hairs of panoramic sight are on target.
For Indirect Fire.
Level rocker and set scales for zero setting as directed in first paragraph under “direct fire.”
Lay off required deflection in azimuth by means of micrometer index and azimuth worm knob, so that deflection may be read from azimuth index and azimuth micrometer. Traverse gun until vertical cross hair of panoramic sight is on aiming point.
Vertical angles may be read by means of elevation scale and micrometer scale. Zero point of elevation scale is 3. Each division on elevation scale represents 100 mils.
All scales are graduated in mils.
The open sight on side of rotating head is used to obtain preliminary direction of sight.
In turning azimuth angles greater than 100 mils the throw-out lever may be pressed and rotating head turned to nearest division in even hundreds desired. Each unit on azimuth scale represents 100 mils.
Panoramic Sight, Model of 1915.
The panoramic sight is a vertical telescope so fitted with an optical system of reflecting prisms and lenses that the gunner with his eye at the fixed eyepiece in a horizontal position can bring into the field of view an object situated at any point in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the telescope.
The rays coming from the object are reflected downward from the rotating head prism into the rotating prism. The rotating prism rectifies the rays; after their passage through the achromatic objective lens, the lower reflecting prism reflects them in such a way that there is presented to the eyepiece a rectified image, which the eyepiece magnifies. A glass reticule marked with graduated cross lines is located in the focal plane of the instrument, with the intersection of the cross lines coincident.
The instrument has a universal focus, a magnifying power of 4 and field of view of 180 mils.
PANORAMIC SIGHT MODEL OF 1915
The principal parts of the panoramic sight are the rotating head, the elevation device and its micrometer, the azimuth mechanism with limb and micrometer, the rotating prism mechanism, the deflection mechanism, R and L scale and micrometer, the shank and the eyepiece.
The limb or azimuth scale is divided into 64 parts, each division representing 100 mils.
The azimuth micrometer is divided in 100 equal divisions or mils, numbered every 5 mils. One complete revolution of the azimuth micrometer is equal to the distance between divisions on the azimuth scale. The limb of the deflection scale is divided into six divisions; three on each side of the zero, red for right and black for left, each division representing 100 mils. The deflection micrometer, engraved upon the front end, is graduated into 100 equal divisions, numbered every 10 mils, red and black in opposite directions.
