Introduction
All of our Python eggs supported in a unified code basket
Python 2 and 3 compatibility has been discussed in many Python gatherings, especially as we approach the Python 2 End Of Life (EOL). It is much more than a topic making news in the community.
The Python project started in 1980 as a work by the “Benevolent Dictator For Life” Guido Van Rossum, who continues to be commander-in-chief in terms of giving direction to the Python language. In October 2000, Python 2.0 was released with many prime features; its implementation became public and community backed. In December 2008, a backward-incompatible Python 3 (a.k.a. Python 3K and Python 3000) was released; after rigorous testing, it was backported in the backward-compatible Python 2.6.x and Python 2.7.x versions.
Python 3 was built to improve significant design shortcomings in the language. There are features in which improvements did not play well with backward compatibility, and therefore needed a new major version number. It removed feature duplication in duplicative constructs and modules while still providing for a multiparadigm language in ways that are more obvious than they were in Python 2.x. It is very accurate to say that you are better off using and supporting Python 3.
To assume that all Python users will immediately switch to Python 3 is not very wise, however, even though the Python 2 EOL date was postponed to 2020. Despite some discomfort in the Python community, Python 2.7 will be supported for some time. It is clear that Python 3 is the future.
We have a future that is purely Python 3 and a present with Python 2 still in use; therefore, current support for both versions is the best remedy—especially for developers building libraries and tools, and anyone building a system that depends on Python.
Much like going on a diet, the transition is not fun, however beneficial it may be. There is a large contrast when you know you have to do something in which the process is sacrificial but the end justifies the means. The only question asked is whether you would rather stay where you are or persevere your way to a better place.
Python 3.0 broke compatibility and a sizable portion of Python 2 code does not run in Python 3 unless it is converted. Some people looked at Python 3 as the blander of the Century. Changes to Python’s dynamic typing and the semantics in methods for dictionaries make the translation from Python 2.x to Python 3.x very difficult.
2to3 is one of the quick fixes to translate Python 2 code to Python 3; however, it is not a recommended practice. The clean and tested way is to write a single code base that is capable of running reliably in both Python 2 and 3, using compatibility modules such as Python-future and six.
The following are some of the reasons why you want to support both Python 2 and Python 3:
• The upcoming Python 2 EOL. The exact date has not been determined, but rumor has it that it will be in 2020 around time for Pycon in the US. You do not want to be caught unaware.
• Perhaps you have Python 2 users using your system or library, but you want to prepare for the future, which is evidently Python 3. The only option you have is to ensure that your system or library executes reliably in both versions.
• You’re not ready to entirely port to Python 3. Always choose neutral compatibility. It is the safest.
This book unfolds the concepts you need to know to achieve Python 2 and 3 compatibility.
About this Book
This book explains the magic of Python 2 and Python 3 compatibility in a unified code base in 12 detailed chapters. You will work on tasks with an open source mentor (who I will introduce later):
• Printing is the most known difference between Python 2 and 3. Chapter 1 explains how to write the print statement as a function—instead with the helper modules— to achieve neutral compatibility. Backtick repr is also discussed.
• There is also contrast with number operations and representations. Chapter 2 explains how to provide Python 2 and 3 compatibility with long integers, inspecting integers, and division. It also looks at compatibility with octal literals, commonly known as octal constants.
• Chapter 3 discusses how to write metaclasses that stand the Python 2 and 3 syntax storms by using six and Python-future.
• Python 3 strings are Unicode. The unicode() function in Python 2 is long gone. Chapter 4 goes into the detail about how to make peace between the Python 2 and 3 differences in Unicode string literals, base strings, byte string literals, and string IO.
• Chapter 5 explains how to handle imports relative (or not) to a package to ensure Python 2 and Python 3 compatibility.
• Chapter 6 explains how to write code to handle raising exceptions, catching exceptions, and exception chaining that will execute reliably in Python 2 and Python 3.
• HTML processing in a single Python neutral code base is explained in Chapter 7, which also covers HTML parsing and escaping.
• Chapter 8 discusses how to achieve Python neutral compatibility when using the file() procedure and the FileIO operations.
• Chapter 9 explores custom class behavior in a few methods. Syntactical differences and common syntax that can lead to compatibility in both Python 2 and 3 are explained.
• Neutral compatibility for collections and iterators is discussed with clear examples in Chapter 10. Operations on dictionaries are also explained.
• Other built-in neutral compatibility concepts, such as the cmp, chr, and reload functions are explained in Chapter 11
• Chapter 12 discusses concepts on how to write a unified code base for standard library modules that had a name change or changed in other ways.
Conventions
This book uses the term Python neutral compatibility to refer to the state where a given piece of Python code is capable of running without any errors or bugs in both Python 2 and 3. Throughout this book, I use some code extracted directly from open source projects, and edited in some cases, but also my own code to clearly illustrate the concepts. Some of the code snippets do not execute because they are partial extracts from an open source project for purposes of explaining the concepts.
Tasks
This book features tasks being worked on by a developer and his mentor. All the tasks have solutions, but it is recommended that you try out the task before looking ahead at the solution. This will be more rewarding and fun to you.
Python Versions
If you have been around the Python ecosystem, you may have noticed that it is continuously evolving and new versions of Python are being released. This is why we are even discussing compatibility. However, you may try a piece of code from this book in a particular Python version and it fails. This should not be very common, however; and if it does happen, do not burn the book or stop reading it.
I used Python 3.5 and 2.7 to test all the examples in this book. If you find your version failing, you can let me know through Apress so that we can rectify this in another edition.
About You
Python neutral compatibility is considered an advanced topic for many people. You need to have worked with Python enough to appreciate why the differences in the versions are a big deal. If you have only worked with either Python 2 or Python 3, that is fine; there is an entire section of this book about the differences between Python 2 and 3.
But if you do not have any Python knowledge, you may be better off taking a Python tutorial. If you are unsure of your skills, then take a simple test. How do you loop over a range of numbers? If you thought of the range function, then you know enough Python to follow this book. But if you did not, then you probably want to consider the tutorial path.
Are you on board? Amazing! Let’s start with a little foundation.
Contrasts Between Python 2 and Python 3
Before we look at the concepts of writing a single code base that executes reliably in both Python 2 and Python 3, let’s explore the programmatic differences between the two to appreciate their contrast.
Print
Print is a built-in function in Python 3 and no longer a statement. This is probably the most popularly known contrast, but it’s worth discussing. The Python 2 print statement was replaced with a print() function. The content to print should be placed in the parentheses.
Python 2
print "I am an Engineer", #suppress newline print "I was born one"
Python 3
print ("I am an Engineer", end=" ") #suppress newline print ("I was born one")
To suppress a newline in Python 2, we append a comma at the end of the statement; whereas in Python 3, the syntax requires using the end keyword argument, which defines the final character printed (the default is a newline).
Division
In Python 3, a single slash results in a floating point number and double slashes for integer divisions. In contrast, Python 2 uses a single slash to return both integer and floating numbers, depending on the type of the numbers involved.
Python 2
4/3 = 1
4.0/3 = 1.3333333
Python 3
4//3 = 1
4 / 3 = 1.333333
Input
The raw_input() function in Python 2 works the same way as the input() function in Python 3 . They both return user input as a string. They must be converted if there is need for a different type. The eval() method can be used to get user input as some type other than a string; but this is not recommended. Instead, casting the user input to a type of choice is recommended.
Python 2
my_input = raw_input()
my_input = float(raw_input())
my_input = int(raw_input())
Python 3
my_input = input()
my_input = float(input())
my_input = int(input())
my_input = eval(input())
Files
# my_input is of type string
# my_input is of type float
# my_input is of type integer
# my_input is of type string
# my_input is of type float
# my_input is of type integer
# Not recommended
The name of the function used to open a file was changed. The file() function was removed in Python 3. It was replaced with the open() function.
Python 2
myFile = file("my_file.txt")
Python 3
myFile = open("my_file.txt",'r')
Range
The range() function in Python 2 works the same ways as the xrange() function in Python 3. It does not return a list and can handle considerably large values.
Python 2
L = range(10) # L is [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]
Python 3
L = list(range(10)) # L is [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9]
# The following causes an error in Python 2 but is valid in Python 3 for i in range(1000000000000)
Strings
By default, Python 2.x uses the ASCII alphabet, which is limited to hundreds of characters in extended forms, and it is not as flexible in encoding, especially with non-English characters. To use Unicode character encoding, with more characters and historic scripts and symbol sets, use the u prefix.
Python 3 uses Unicode characters by default, which saves lots of time in development because Unicode supports greater linguistic diversity.
The unicode() function was removed in Python 3 because all strings in Python 3 are Unicode; whereas to make a string unicode in Python 2, you either use the unicode() function or prepend the string with u.
Python 2
my_string = "hello world "
s = unicode( string)
s = u"\u20AC"
s = ur"\w"
Python 2
my_string = 2
s = str( string)
s = "\u20AC"
s = r"\w"
Raising Exceptions
The new syntax for raising exceptions requires us to enclose the exception argument in parentheses, whereas the old syntax doesn’t.
Python 2
raise ValueError, "dodgy value"
# exceptions with traceback traceback = sys.exec_info()[2] raise ValueError, "dodgy value", traceback
Python 3
raise ValueError("dodgy value")
# exceptions with traceback raise ValueError("dodgy value").with_traceback()
Python 2 accepts both the old and new syntax for raising exceptions; however, Python 3 will loudly shout at an exception by raising a syntax error if the old syntax is used.
Handling Exceptions
The Python 2 way of handling exceptions changed and now requires the use of the as keyword.
Python 2
try:
except NameError, e:
Python 3
try:
except NameError as e:
These are only a few of the changes that came with Python 3. The focus of this book is not to explain the differences between the Python versions. Detailed explanations and concepts shall be discussed in the neutral compatibility chapters later in this book.
Compatibility Modules
Python-future, six, and __future__ are modules that help us achieve Python 2 and Python 3 compatibility. They provide utilities that help us write code that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3. They are intended for code bases that run unmodified in both Python 2 and Python 3.
Some library developers have provided Python 2 and Python 3 support for their libraries by using constructs such as this:
if sys.version_info[0] == 2:
# Python 2 code else: # Python 3 code
In places where there are differences between Python 2 and Python 3, however, the __future__, Python-future and six libraries provide wrappers that help you write a single and clean neutral code base.
__future__
__future__ is a real module built into Python to help with compatibility. To implement neutral compatibility in Python 3 and 2, we need to import this built-in module and any relevant Python-future or six packages. The future module allows us to activate new Python language features that are not compatible with the current interpreter version.
Any future import must appear at the top of the module; anything contrary causes a grave syntax error. All other imports, including Python-future and six imports, must appear below future imports and before any other import.
This is correct:
from __future__ import print_function from builtins import str
This is not correct:
from django.conf.urls import url from . import views from builtins import str from __future__ import print_function
Let’s look at how the following Python 2 script can be changed to run in both Python 2 and Python 3 by using the built in __future__ module.
Download Introduction/isogram.py
def is_isogram(word): if len(word) == 0:
word_tuple = (word, False) print word_tuple elif not isinstance(word, str): word_tuple = (word, False) raise TypeError("Argument should be a string") else: if len(word) == len(set(word)): word_tuple = (word, True) print word_tuple
else:
word_tuple = (word, False) print word_tuple
is_isogram("abolishment")
The preceding is a simple script with only one thing that prevents it from executing correctly in Python 3: the print statement. We therefore need to change the print statement to a print function. But first, we need a __future__ import with a relevant print_function module to allow us use the print function feature that does not exist in Python 2. The following is a new script that executes correctly in Python 2.x and Python 3.x.
Download Introduction/compatible_isogram.py from __future__ import print_function
def is_isogram(word): if len(word) == 0:
word_tuple = (word, False) print (word_tuple) elif not isinstance(word, str):
word_tuple = (word, False) raise TypeError("Argument should be a string") else: if len(word) == len(set(word)):
word_tuple = (word, True) print (word_tuple) else:
word_tuple = (word, False) print (word_tuple)
is_isogram("abolishment")
Python-future
Python-future is a compatibility tier between Python 2.x and 3.x. It enables us to write a single Python 3.x code base that runs reliably in Python 2.x with fewer outlays.
Python-future has packages that provide forward- and backward-porting features for Python 2.x and Python 3.x. In addition, it offers futurize and pasteurize, which aid in easily changing a Python 2.x or Python 3.x code base to support both Python 2 and 3 in a sole Python 3 code base.
Futurize Package
As stated earlier, Python-future comes with a futurize package that takes Python 2 code into a series of magical fixes that convert into pure Python 3 code. It automatically adds __future__ and future package imports at the top of the module to allow the code to run in Python 2. Take a look at the following example of the Python 2 code:
Download Introduction/remove_duplicate.py
def remove_duplicates(string): if string.isalpha(): new_string = set(string)
#sets have no duplicates duplicates_count = len(string) - len(new_string) final_string = sorted( list(new_string)) unique_string = ''.join(final_string) print unique_string, duplicates_count else : print 'Argument should be a string'
print "Give me a string:", given_str = raw_input() remove_duplicates(given_str)
If we run futurize -w remove_duplicate.py, we get a converted version of the preceding code that is able to execute correctly in both Python 2.x and Python 3.x. This results in the following code.
Download Introduction/compatible_remove_duplicate.py from __future__ import print_function from future import standard_library standard_library.install_aliases() from builtins import input
def remove_duplicates(string): if string.isalpha(): new_string = set(string)
#sets have no duplicates duplicates_count = len(string) - len(new_string) final_string = sorted( list(new_string)) unique_string = ''.join(final_string) print (unique_string, duplicates_count) else : print ('Argument should be a string')
print ('Give me a string:',end=' ') given_str = input() remove_duplicates(given_str)
Past Package
The past package has the ability to automatically translate relatively non-complex Python 2 modules to Python 3 on import. It can be used in a real-world module; for example, it may be from the Python Package Index (PyPI) or any other module that has not been ported to work in Python 3.
Let’s assume that we want to use the Asynchronous Component-based Event Application Framework from PyPI, but it is not yet ported. First, we need to install it using
Pip install circuit
Then, we pass the module name to the autotranslate() function.
$ python3
>>> from past import autotranslate >>> autotranslate(['circuit']) >>> import circuit
This automatically translates and runs the circuit module and any submodules in the circuit package. It gives you the ability to use Python 3 without the need for all of your dependencies supporting Python 3. It should be used sparingly and with caution. The recommended way is to provide Python 2 and Python 3 compatibility to the Python 2–dependent modules in a single code base and push changes to the upstream project.
Python-future vs. six
Python-future and six both enable us write code that runs unmodified in Python 2 and Python 3. Python-future has an advantage over six: it allows standard Py3 code to run with almost no modification in both Python 3 and Python 2. It also makes it possible to write a single-source code base that works in both Python 2 and Python 3.
The real advantage of six is for libraries, where it is a small dependency. Python-future’s backported types are a disadvantage for libraries, where they could “leak” out to calling code if not used carefully. six is recommended when you need to support both versions. Python-future is preferred when you need a clean upgrade path. Note that the fewer dependencies in your code, the better.
In this book, I give unbiased details on the usage of both libraries so that you are comfortable using whichever you choose.
six
Like Python-future, six is a Python compatibility library. It contains features that help you work around the differences in Python versions. The aim of six is to help you write code that is capable of running in both Python 2.x and 3.x. six has Python support from version 2.6. It is easy to integrate into your project because it contains just a single file.
The following is an example of the six module. First, it needs to be imported.
Download Introduction/dispatch_types.py
import six
def dispatch_types(value): if isinstance(value, six.integer_types): handle_integer(value)
elif isinstance(value, six.class_types): handle_class(value) elif isinstance(value, six.string_types): handle_string(value)
There are complex scenarios where we need to use the type of if statement shown earlier. The six package makes this simple by providing PY2 and PY3 boolean constants. if six.PY2: # Python 2 code else: # Python 3 code
■ Note You may import six and Python-future after other module imports, but __future__ is special, and it must be imported before other modules.
Which Python Versions to Support
If you decide to use Python-future, then you will only be able to support Python 2.6 + and Python 3.3 +. If you need to support older versions, six allows you to support Python 2.4 and onward.
■ Note the built-in __future__ module also helps us achieve compatibility. Minimize the use of third-party modules wherever the built-in module is sufficient.
Setup
To follow the examples in this book, you need to install both Python 2 and Python 3. More information on this is available on the Python documentation (https://www.python.org).
We will use pip to install the Python-future and six compatibility libraries. This installs Python-future:
pip install future
This installs six: pip install six
Are you ready? Let’s begin our take-off run!
Printing and Backtick repr
Printing is the most well-known difference between Python 2 and Python 3. The print statement in Python 2 does not require parentheses; it is a function in Python 3. There is also a difference in the backtick repr. This chapter discusses the polarities of these features between the Python versions and the techniques to achieve their compatibility.
Print
As discussed in this book’s introduction, the print statement in Python 2 became a function in Python 3, which means that we have to wrap the content that we want to print within parentheses. Before we start converting some scripts, let me explain a few “yang”s to the print neutral compatibility “yin” using the __future__ and the six modules.
Using __future__
__future__ is a built-in module that features compatibility modules. For any modules with print statements in Python 2, you must use the __future__ import followed by the print_function module in the first line of code in the file.
from __future__ print_function
Then use the function form; print(“something”) whenever the print statement is used. The following Python 2 code
Download Print/py2_print.py
Import sys
print >> sys.stderr, 'echo Lima golf'
print 'say again'
print 'I say again', 'echo Lima golf'
print 'Roger',
© Joannah Nanjekye 2017
J. Nanjekye, Python 2 and 3
Compatibility, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-2955-2_1
Chapter 1 ■ printing and BaCktiCk repr
becomes
Download Print/future_print.py
from __future__ import print_function import sys
print('echo lima golf', file=sys.stderr) print ('say again') print ('I say again', 'echo lima golf') print ( 'Roger', end='')
In Python 2, the print function with one argument prints a given string in the argument. With multiple strings, if we do not import print_function to override Python 2 behavior, a tuple prints. If we want to print a tuple using the Python 3 syntax, then we need to use more parentheses.
# this prints a tuple in Python 2 if print_function is not imported print ('I say again', 'echo Lima golf')
#prints a tuple in Python 3 print (('I say again', 'echo Lima golf')).
To print a tuple in Python 3, use double parentheses, as shown in the preceding code. Let’s now see how we can use six to maintain compatibility with the print function.
Using six
The following is used with any modules with print statements, and with any modules where you use the six import to access the wrapper print function that helps you achieve neutral Python compatibility:
import six
Then use the six.print_(*args, *, file=sys.stdout, end="\n", sep=" ", flush=False) function as a wrapper to the print syntactical differences between Python 2 and Python 3. The following Python 2 print statements
Download Print/py2_print.py
import sys
print >> sys.stderr, 'echo lima golf' print 'say again' print 'I say again', 'echo lima golf' print 'Roger' become
Download Print/six_print.py
import six import sys
six.print_('echo lima golf', file=sys.stderr)
six.print_('say again')
six.print_('I say again', 'echo lima golf')
six.print_('Roger', file=sys.stdout, end='')
The function prints the arguments separated by sep. end is written after the last argument is printed. If flush is true, file.flush() is called after all data is written. Use __future__ to avoid introducing many dependencies.
■ Note You may import six and future after other module imports. __future__ is special and must be imported first.
Task: Introducing Your Mentor
Let me introduce you to Ali, a Red Hat engineer and the open source mentor that you will be working with on these interesting tasks. He is a good guy, by the way. The maintainers of the QEMU project told him that some Python scripts in the project only support Python 2. This is your first task. Ali informs you that you are going to work on only the print statements in these two methods, because they are in the same module. Take a look.
Download Print/qmp.py
def cmd_obj(self, qmp_cmd): """
Send a QMP command to the QMP Monitor.
@param qmp_cmd: QMP command to be sent as a Python dict @return QMP response as a Python dict or None if the connection has been closed """
if self._debug:
print >>sys.stderr, "QMP:>>> %s" % qmp_cmd try: self.__sock.sendall(json.dumps(qmp_cmd)) except socket.error as err: if err[0] == errno.EPIPE: return raise socket.error(err) resp = self.__json_read() if self._debug: print >>sys.stderr, "QMP:<<< %s" % resp return resp
def _execute_cmd(self, cmdline): if cmdline.split()[0] == "cpu": # trap the cpu command, it requires special setting try: idx = int(cmdline.split()[1])
if not 'return' in self.__cmd_passthrough('info version', idx): print 'bad CPU index'
return True
self.__cpu_index = idx except ValueError: print 'cpu command takes an integer argument' return True
resp = self.__cmd_passthrough(cmdline, self.__cpu_index) if resp is None: print 'Disconnected' return False
assert 'return' in resp or 'error' in resp if 'return' in resp:
# Success if len(resp['return']) > 0: print resp['return'], else:
# Error print '%s: %s' % (resp['error']['class'], resp['error']['desc'])
return True
“This is an easy one. Let’s change the print statements to functions using both the __future__ and the six libraries,” Ali says. After a few changes and reviews, the print statements in the methods are finally in shape. Let’s take a look at what was merged.
Using __future__
All that was done was to import the print_function from __future__, and to keep the Python 3 syntax for it to work.
Download Print/future_qmp.py from __future__ import print_function import sys def cmd_obj(self, qmp_cmd):
"""
Send a QMP command to the QMP Monitor.
@param qmp_cmd: QMP command to be sent as a Python dict @return QMP response as a Python dict or None if the connection has been closed
"""
if self._debug: print("QMP:>>> %s" % qmp_cmd, file=sys.stderr) try:
self.__sock.sendall((json.dumps(qmp_cmd)).encode('utf-8')) except socket.error as err: if err[0] == errno.EPIPE: return raise resp = self.__json_read()
Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
of an owl.” Another one replied: “Let us listen for the voice.”
While they were discussing, Punia was listening too, and when they ceased talking and began listening, he started to wail again, saying:
Alas, O my father of these coasts!
We were the only two fishermen of this place, Myself and you, my father, Where we used to twist the fish up in the nets, The kala, the uhu, the palani, [300]
The transient fish of this place. We have traveled over all these seas, All the different places, the holes, the runs.
Since you are dead, father, I am the only one left.
When Punia ceased wailing, one of the ghosts said to another: “Our nets will be of some use now since here comes a man who is acquainted with this place and we will not be letting down our nets in the wrong place.” They then called out [to Punia]:
ka leo,” ia lakou akua e hoopaapaa ana, e hoolohe ana keia, na lakou la ka hoolai, uwe hou keia.
Auwe no hoi kuu makuakane o keia kaha e! Elua wale no maua lawaia o keia wahi, Owau no o ko’u makuakane, E hoowili aku ai maua i ka ia o ianei, O kala, o ka uhu, o ka palani, [301]
O ka ia ku o ua wahi nei la, Ua hele wale ia no e maua keia kai la, Pau na kuuna, na lua, na puka ia,
Make ko’u makuakane koe au.
A hooki o Punia i ka uwe ana, i aku kekahi akua i kekahi akua: “Pono ka upena a kakou ua loaa ke kamaaina, aole e lalau ke kuu ana o ka upena.” Kahea lakou nei: “Hele mai!” A lohe o Punia, hele mai la a hiki. Ninau aku lakou nei: “E uwe ana oe i ke
“Come here.” When Punia heard this call he went up to the ghosts. They then asked him: “What are you crying about?”
Punia replied: “I am crying because of my father; this is the place where we used to fish. When I saw the lava rocks, I thought of him.” The ghosts then said to Punia: “Well and good, you shall show us how and where to cast the nets and we will work under you.” Punia assented to this saying: “All right, if you carry out my instructions and do as I tell you we will catch all the fish you want. This is what I want you to do: Two of you must swim out with me while the rest shall stay ashore here; and when I call to some of you to swim out to us then come. When I stick up two fingers, that will mean that I want two to come; and if I stick up one finger, then I want one to come. That is the way the fish of this place are caught, because the bottom is all open and there are several places where the nets must be let down.” The ghosts all heard the instructions of Punia. Punia after this swam out with two of
aha?” I mai o Punia: “E uwe ana au i ko’u makuakane i ka maua kaha e lawaia ai, i ke ano wale mai no o ka pahoehoe, a, me he mea ala, oia okoa no.” I aku ke akua ia Punia: “Heaha la hoi, o oe ko makou kamaaina nana e kuhikuhi. I mau lawaia makou malalo ou.” “Ae,” mai o Punia. “Ae, ina oukou e hoolohe i ka’u olelo loaa ka ia a kakou, penei: Elua o oukou e au me a’u, o ka nui e noho, a kahea mai au e au ae, alaila au ae. E oku mai ana auanei au elua manamana lima, elua mea e au ae. Pela e loaa ai ka ia o keia wahi, no ka mea, he naele, he nui na kuuna.” Lohe pono aku la na akua a pau i keia olelo a Punia, au aku la o Punia me na akua elua, a liuliu. Kahea aku o Punia, e wehe ka upena a kaawale na kihi: “I olelo aku au ia olua e luu, alaila, luu mai, mai ea ae i luna o lilo ka ia, eia la he naho okoa no.” A luu na akua, luu aku la o Punia e wili i ka upena a hihia iho la a make. Ea ae la o Punia i luna a hea aku i uka, oku ae la. I elua la. Au mai la elua, make no, i hookahi la. Pela no ka hana maalea ana a Punia a koe uuku ke akua.
the ghosts, and after some little time he called out to the two ghosts to open out the nets and said: “When I give you the order to dive, then you must dive down and don’t come up again until I pull on the nets, for I see there is a large school of them here.” When the ghosts dove down Punia dove in after them and twisted the nets tangling up the ghosts and killing them. After these two were killed Punia came up to the surface and called out to those ashore holding up two fingers. Two more came swimming and again they were killed. He next called out and held up one finger and that one was also killed. Punia continued this deceit until there were but very few of the ghosts left alive. When the ghosts saw that Punia was the only one to be seen in the sea they called out to Punia: “Where are the rest of our companions?” “They are here,” replied Punia. “They are twisting up the kala, the uhu, the nenue,9 the palani and the transient fish of these waters.”
The ghosts that were left then said one to another: “They are
“Auhea iho la ka nui o makou!”
“Eia no,” wahi a Punia, “ke wili nei i kala, i ka uhu, i ka nenue, i ka palani, i ka ia ku o ua aina nei la.” “Aole hoi ha i make,” pela ke ’kua. Oku hou o Punia i ka lima, i hookahi la. Au mai ana, elua la, au mai ana. Pela ka hana ana a pau ke akua i ka make, pakele aku hookahi. [302]
not killed.” Punia then held up one finger, calling for only one. One came out. Punia called for two and two swam out. Punia continued to do this until all but one of the ghosts were killed. [295]
Many are the shark stories among Hawaiians All the islands claimed one or more as the king of their waters, and the more notoriously ferocious it was, the higher it was esteemed as a god. ↑
Kaialeale, restless sea; sea in great commotion. ↑
The two sticks required to produce fire by friction were the aunaki that is rubbed into, of soft wood, and aulima, the one held in the hand. The process, or act of producing fire, was called hia. ↑
Opihi, a limpet (Neritina granosa). ↑
Pahoa, rendered here as wooden knives, was a dagger instrument; some were of stone ↑
Kala, surgeon-fish (Acanthurus unicornis) ↑
Uhu, wrasse-fish (Callyodon lineatus). ↑
Palani, surgeon-fish, a species of Hepatus. ↑
Nenue, rudder-fish, a species of Kyphosus ↑
[Contents]
L
P . K P .
CHAPTER I.
P B F
C . K K A
H P H D
K H C P H
H H I I E
K , H C , I
K . D D
A I P P .
W S -R I B
A F . I S I
P H S -S R A ’ I
T , B E H I
O .
Kahikinui, in Maui, is the land in which Pamano was born; in the village of Kaipolohua. Lono was
MOKUNA I.
L P M M
K . L H A
K I H K
K K K
K H , K O —H K , K H , ’L . K O M
A M P . O H A ; K I I
A . H K A . I W L K K O A , H O M M .
O Kahikinui ka aina, i Maui, o Kaipolohua ke kulanakauhale, o Lono ka makuakane o Pamano,
the father of Pamano and Kanaio was the mother. The brother of Kanaio was Waipu. Pamano had two sisters who were born before him, but they both died in their infancy and Pamano was the only one that was successfully brought up by the parents.1 When Pamano was full grown he began to study the arts of the hula and the oli (or chanting) of meles.
The reputation of Pamano as a singer and a chanter, after a time, spread over the land of his birth and at last it reached Koolau,2 in the uplands of Mokulau, located in the middle of Kaupo. When Pamano arrived at that place he was seen by Kaiuli, the king of Maui, and Pamano being a handsome fellow, he was adopted by the king as a son,3 and in this way he became known as the brother of Keaka, the only daughter of Kaiuli. By being adopted Pamano was virtually made king of Maui. The first command given Pamano by Kaiuli was this: After calling for Pamano and his daughter Keaka to come to him, he said: “Where
o Kanaio ka makuahine, o Waipu ke kaikunane o Kanaio. Hanau na mua o Pamano, he mau wahine a make. O Pamano aku, oia kai ola, a nui o Pamano, ao i ka hula a me ke oli.
Kui aku la ke kaulana i ka lea, a lohe o Koolau i uka o Mokulau, e waiho la i waena konu o Kaupo.
A hiki o Pamano i laila, ike mai la o Kaiuli, ke ’lii o Maui i ka maikai o Pamano, lawe ae la i keiki hookama, a lilo ae la i kaikunane no Keaka, ka Kaiuli kaikamahine ponoi. Noho alii iho la ia Maui. Eia nae ka Kaiuli olelo mua ia Pamano. “Auhea olua e a’u keiki, e hoolohe mai olua. E noho malie oe e Pamano, pela oe e Keaka. Ina i makemake olua e heenalu, e iho pololei no a hiki i ka nalu auau a hoi mai, mai komo oe e Pamano i ko Keaka hale, o make oe, pela o Keaka.”
are you, my two children? I want you to listen to what I have to say. I want you, Pamano, to be good and not to touch your sister; and I want you, Keaka, to be good and not to touch your brother. If you two wish to go surf riding, each of you can go down and have your surf riding and then return straight home. Pamano must not enter the house of Keaka or you will die; and so with Keaka.”
It was Pamano’s custom to go down surf riding at Mokulau every day. Keaka on the other hand had moved to Mokulau and she was at this time living there with her guardian, a man by the name of Koolau, a close friend of Pamano’s. In these daily trips down to enjoy the surf something happened one day which led to difficulties. This day, after Pamano and Koolau had finished bathing, they started on their return, and while on their way, in passing by the house of Keaka, she called out to them: “Come and get some fish for you two.” Upon hearing the call the two stood and looked at her
He mea mau ia Pamano ka iho e heenalu i kai o Mokulau i na la a pau. A aia hoi i laila ko Keaka wahi i noho ai me kona kiai, o Koolau, he aikane ia na Pamano. I keia iho ana a laua i ka heenalu, loaa ka moo hihia, pau ka auau ana, kaha o Pamano ma pii me Koolau. Kahea mai o Keaka: “Kiina mai ka ia a olua.”
Na iala ke kahea ku laua nei. Mau mai la ka Keaka kahea me ka peahi. Hele laua nei a mawaho o ka pa, kahea aku: “Ho mai ka maua ia.” I mai kela: “Aohe wawae o ka ia. O olua no o na mea wawae ke kii mai,”
Keaka continued calling and beckoning them to come to her. The two therefore approached the wall surrounding the house and called out to Keaka: “Give us our fish.” She replied: “The fish have no legs. You two who have legs must come and get the fish yourselves.” [304]The two then entered the yard. Keaka, however, went into the house and held up the fish, at the same time calling for one of them to come in and get them. The two stood there hesitating, not knowing what to do. She called again, whereupon Pamano reached and seized the fish, but Keaka jumped and held Pamano and then closed the door and fastened it. Koolau stood on the outside at the end of the house.
Long before this Keaka had a longing desire to make advances on Pamano, for she was in love with him and, too, she thought that he would make her a good husband; besides, he was such a handsome fellow. At last her chance came and all her hopes were realized. At first they argued,4 but did not lie together,
komo laua nei a maloko o ka pa. Lekei [305]aku o Keaka me ka ia a noho i loko o ka hale, hoolewalewa mai i ka ia, me ke kahea mai e komo aku.
Hookunana laua nei me ka manao e hoi. Kahea hou kela.
Lalau o Pamano loaa ka ia. Lele mai o Keaka a paa ia Pamano, papani ka puka, paa i ke pani.
Ku o Koolau mawaho ma ke kala o ka hale.
Mamua ae, ua komo mua ka makemake ia Keaka no Pamano i ke kane maikai a me ka ui, a i keia hana ana pau loa kona mau iini i ka hooko ia. Ia wa kupapa laua me na kino, aole nae he moe. I aku o Pamano ia Keaka: “Ua hoohiki maua me Koolau, Ina i loaa mua ka wahine ia’u, nana e moe mamua. A pela hoi
for Pamano said to Keaka: “I have vowed with Koolau that before I take a wife he must first have her; and this promise also holds good with him; before he takes a wife, I must first be favored; therefore we must call him in to fulfill the vow.” “No; [said she] why should we leave the matter to him, for who is he? Didn’t I bring up the shameless little thing? I will not call him in.”
While the two were talking, Koolau awaited for the opening of the door and for the call for him to enter, for it was raining at the time. After waiting for some time, he chanted the following lines:
How beautiful art thou Hilo, bedecked with lehua, Standing there on the sands of Waiolama!
How beautiful is the body of that tree, that tree!
For he has indeed forgotten me, Thus finding a fault for war, for strife,
For you two are quarreling.
ia. Nolaila e moe e olua a noa ae, alaila, launa aku kaua.” “Kaha-ha! Oia wahi keiki mai lewalewa no ka a’u i malama aku nei la, o kau no ia e hoomoe mai ai ia’u, aole paha o ko’u moe aku.” I keia wa a laua ala e kamailio nei, ke kali aku nei o Koolau o ka wehe ia mai o ka puka, alaila, komo aku. No ka mea, he ua liilii ia wa. Ia wa kau aku la o Koolau:
Nani ka oiwi o Hilo i ka lehua
Ke ku la i ke one i Waiolama
Nani ke kino o ia laau e! he laau, Hoolaau mai ana ka ia ia’u, I loaa ka hala, kaua, paio, A paio olua e!
To this chant Pamano replied: I mai o Pamano: “Ae, o ka’u ia e
“Yes, that is just what I am saying, but she will not consent.”
olelo ae nei, aohe ae mai.”
Koolau then again chanted, after hearing the reply of Pamano: Kau hou mai o Koolau mahope o ka Pamano olelo ana:
The wind that doubly sweeps by, the moae,
Which leaps from the jumping off cliff of Kaumaea, For the love of women is indeed pleasant,
For the rope which Kukii hung is broken by the storm
That has passed over Naunau. Had it been Naue thou wouldst have obeyed.5
Pamano then made answer the second time: “That is just what I am saying, but she will not give her consent.” At this reply Koolau faced about and returned to their house and slept. At the first cock crow, Pamano returned and went to sleep with Koolau.
At daylight that morning Pamano awoke and turned his face downward still lying and looked down at Koolau. Koolau from his place looked at Pamano and saw that the sides of Pamano
Ka makani pipio lua i ka moae, Lele aku i ke kawa lele o Kaumaea, Maea ka lalo o ka wahine, A ua moku ka lelewa o Kukii i ka ino, Ke hala aku la maluna o Naunau, O Naue la hoi o maliu mai oe!
Pane mai o Pamano, o ka lua: “O ka’u ia e olelo nei aohe ae ia mai.”
Ia wa huli aku la o Koolau hoi a ko laua hale me Pamano moe. A kani ka moa mua, hoi aku la o Pamano a me Koolau moe. A ao, papio iho la o Pamano i lalo ke alo a huli papu aku la. Nana
were blackened, just below the arm pits, bitten by Keaka. When Koolau saw this he chanted these words:
As the wind gently sweeps over Waiakea, Hilo, So sweeps the naenae. [306]
My hala grove is becalmed, My hala grove that hides behind the wall in the lowlands of Waiuli. Why are your sides blackened, as though bitten?
For you are attempting to conceal it from me.
Pamano then made reply: “You know, it was Keaka. After you came away we passed the evening together.” At the reply Koolau arose and went up to inform Kaiuli thereof. While he was on his way up, however, Kaiuli looked at him but was unable to recognize him; so he turned to his companions and asked: “Who is that coming up here?” Some one replied: “It is Koolau.” “No, that is some one else,” said another. This was kept up until Koolau was almost up to them, when their doubts were entirely removed, for they
mai la o Koolau i ka uli o ka
aoao o Pamano, i ke nahu ia e Keaka. (I ka poaeae la ma lalo iho.) Oli mai la.
A pa malanai Hilo Waiakea, I pa ia e ka naenae, [307]
Lulu au hala, Kuu hala pee pa kai o Waiuli, Nawai ka uli ke nahu o kou ili, Oe e huna nei ia’u la.
I aku o Pamano: “Ua ike no oe, na Keaka. Ia oe i hala mai ai, moe aku maua.”
Ia wa, pii o Koolau e hai ia Kaiuli. Ia ia nae e pii aku ana i ke alanui, nana mai o Kaiuli a hoohewahewa mai. Ninau ae la i kona poe: “Owai la keia e pii mai nei?” “O Koolau, aole ia, he mea e,” pela lakou e olelo nei. A kokoke loa o Koolau i mua o lakou, pau ko lakou haohao, ike pono mai la. Ninau mai o Kaiuli: “He kakahiaka hoi kou o ka pii ana mai.” “Ae, he manao ko’u i pii mai la, o na ’lii o kai ua hewa,
could plainly see that it was he. As he stood in their presence, Kaiuli asked him: “What has brought you up here so early?” “Yes, I came early because I have something to say. The chief and chiefess who live in the lowlands have sinned.6 Pamano has gone and slept with Keaka. That is the reason why I came up, that you should hear.” Kaiuli then asked of Waipu: “How about your nephew? Shall he live or die?” Waipu replied: “He shall die.” “What fault have you to cause his death?” asked Kaiuli. “There is a fault. When he becomes king of Maui, and the bundles of kapued kapas and loin cloth are brought out, I will get the covering for my kapa and the binding will be my loin cloth.7 Therefore he shall die.” Kaiuli then asked him: “By what means shall he be killed?” “By the use of the awa,” replied Waipu, “for he is very fond of awa.” The preparations of the awa were then commenced. The calabashes were filled, the water gourds were filled, the fish calabashes were filled, and when all the awa was prepared
ua lalau o Pamano ia Keaka, ua moe, oia au i pii mai la i lohe oukou.”
Pane ae o Kaiuli ia Waipu: “Pehea ko keiki, e ola e make?” I aku o Waipu: “E make.” “Heaha ka hala e make ai?” Pela aku o Kaiuli. “He hala, lilo ae ia i alii no Maui nei, lawe ia mai ka opeope kapa kapu, ka malo. O ka wahi o waho, o ko’u wahi kapa ia, o ka hikii, o ko’u wahi malo ia, nolaila, ua make.” Ninau mai o Kaiuli: “Heaha ka mea e make ai?” “He awa,” (pela aku o Waipu) “no ka mea o kana puni ia.” Mama ka awa, piha na umeke, na huawai, na ipukai. A pau ka awa i ka mama, ninau aku o Kaiuli ia
Waipu: “Nawai e kii o Pamano?” “Nau,” Pela o Waipu.
Kaiuli asked of Waipu: “Who will go and bring Pamano?” “I will,” said Waipu.
. .
We will here speak of Pamano and what he did after Koolau came up to inform Kaiuli of what he had done.
After Koolau left for the uplands, Pamano rose, took up his surf board and started down to the beach to enjoy the surf. He continued surfing until the sun passed the meridian, and while he was about to take his last surf and return ashore, Waipu arrived on the beach and called out: “Say, Pamano, come home and drink your favorite drink, the awa, while it is yet warm; and eat of the food prepared before it gets cold.” Pamano was startled by the call, but when he looked about he saw that it was his uncle. At sight of him he had a premonition of coming disaster and death; he was, however, at this time riding on the outside edge of a surf and his skin was
Maanei e kamailio iki kakou no Pamano, no kana hana mahope o ko Koolau pii ana e hai ia Kaiuli ma.
A hala o Koolau i uka, ala ae la o Pamano hopu i ka papa, a iho i ka heenalu i kai o Mokulau. I laila ia i heenalu ai a kaha ka la makai, kokoke e hoi i uka. Ku ana o Waipu mauka, pae ana ka leo: “E Pamano e! e hoi e inu i ko puni o ka awa oi wela. E ai i ka pupu o ka awa o maalili.” Lele ae la ka hauli o Pamano, i nana ae ka hana o kahi makuakane o Waipu. Ia wa, kau mai ia ianei ka halialia make, e holo ana nae keia i ka lala ma ka opi o ka nalu mawaho, maloo ka ili o ia nei i ka la. Ia ia e hee ana i ka nalu, oli mai la:
entirely dry, and so he chanted these words:
The awa leaf wind of Hana As it sweeps unconquered by the line of hala trees, By the sea of Nanualele
For my heart throbs with strong emotions.
[308]
Waipu replied: “Come home and drink your favorite drink, the awa, or else it will get cold.”
Pamano ceased riding the body of the surf and skimmed along in the foam and he again chanted, saying:
My uncle from the surf-riding time of Poloa,
From the twilight of Papio, turn, Turn to me, for here I am; forget your day of anger, Your day of passion; let us be friends.
Waipu replied: “Your journey is perhaps not of death. I have come for you to go and drink your favorite awa.” Pamano then came ashore, bathed himself in
Ka makani lau awa o Hana, Ku a lanakila ka pae hala, I ke kai o Nanualele la, Kuu oili ke lele wale nei.
[309]
Pane aku o Waipu: “Hoi mai e inu i ko puni o ka awa, koekoe mai auanei.”
Pau ka holo ana a Pamano i ka lala, hoi i ka hua. Oli hou mai la o Pamano:
Kuu makuakane mai ka la hee nalu o Poloa, Mai ke koena ahiahi o Papio huli e!
E huli mai! eia au la haalele ia ko la huhu, Me ko la inaina, e ike kaua!
I mai o Waipu: “Aole paha ka’u he huakai make, i kii mai nei paha au ia oe, e hoi e inu i ko puni o ka awa.” Pae o Pamano, auau i ka wai, hume ae la no i ka
fresh water, again girded on his wet loin cloth and started on up. When the two arrived on the heights of Mahinui, a high knoll, overlooking Mokulau, Pamano stood and looked toward the sea, and when he saw the white sands shining there at Huleia, he chanted the following words:
As I stand on the heights of Mahinui,
And my eyes gaze seaward, Like a white cloth that is spread out, Is the sand there below at Huleia.
I have taken it up as a song A gift of words for her.
The two after this continued on up, when the spirit sisters of Pamano, Nakinowailua and Hokiolele were heard chanting as follows:
The sun always comes up from the back of Mahiki, At the shores of Kualakaina. You are being led to the ahupuaa,
For you have stolen, although you pretend to be innocent;
malo wai, kaha aku la no pii. A hiki laua i luna o Mahinui, he oioina ia, e huli la nana ia Mokulau. Ku o Pamano a nana i kai, i ke aiai mai o ke one o Huleia, oli aku la ia:
A luna au o Mahinui, Nana kuu maka i kai, Me he kapa kea la i hola ia la, Ke one i kai o Huleia, I lawe hoi au i hula, I makana olelo hoi na iala.
Kaha aku la laua nei pii, oli ana na kaikuahine unihipili, o Nakinowailua, o Hokiolele:
Kupono mau ka la i ke kua o Mahiki,
Aia ma ke kaha o Kualakaina, I alakai ’na oe i ke ahupuaa, Ua hue oe au e hoole nei, Paa ka ole i ko waha nau ia.
No is fastened to your lips, that is for you.
At this Pamano turned and said: “Yes, here I am going up and if I return alive, I will kill both of you.”8
From this place the two continued on up until they arrived at the house. Pamano then looked at the house and saw that it looked as though deserted, no one being around; it appeared different from what it used to be, so he chanted as follows:
The coconut pole is erected, though scarred and cut up, For there is a gathering here, the voices are heard; It is the gathering of death; the hands are fastened at the back.9
My younger brother, O my younger brother!10
He was then called: “Come in and take your favorite drink, the awa.” He entered the house and saw that there was not a single dry spot in the house; all was drenched with water. He entered,
Huli ae o Pamano a olelo aku: “U! no’u paha ka pii a ola mai au, make olua ia’u.” Kaha aku la laua nei pii a hiki i ka hale, nana aku o Pamano i ke ano o ka hale a me kanaka. Aole e like me ke ano mua, nolaila, oli aku la ia:
Kukulu ka pahu niu a ke alina ka maewaewa.
He pihe aha ko luna nei e wa nei la?
He pihe make, hikii mai na lima paa i ke kua, Kuu pokii e! Kuu pokii!
“Komo mai, e inu i ko puni o ka awa.” Komo aku la keia, aole wahi maloo o ka hale, ua hookele ia i ka wai a kele. Komo aku la keia a noho. Inu i ka awa, lawe na kaikuahine i ka ona, ono
however, sat down, then took up the containers and [310]drank the awa, while his sisters took away its intoxicating power. When he became thirsty, he took up the water gourds, but they contained awa. He became hungry and opened the calabashes for food and fish, but they contained awa. The sisters kept on taking the intoxicating portions of the awa until they were unable to take any more; and they became wearied, and so Pamano at last became intoxicated and in time was completely overcome. Pamano then rolled himself up in a cloak and laid down, and from the inside of the cloak he looked out watching to see what was to be done to him.
When Waipu saw that Pamano was under the influence of the awa he reached for the stone axe and began to bind on the handle with cords.
i ka wai. I inu aku ka hana i ka huawai, he awa, ono ka ia, i ka ai, i wehe aku ka hana i ka umeke a me ka ipukai, he awa. Oi lawe na kaikuahine i ka ona o ka awa, a ana laua, a luhi, nolaila, make o Pamano i ka ona o ka awa. Wili iho la o Pamano i ka ahu a waiho aku la. Nana no nae na maka maloko mai o ka ahu. [311]
A ike o Waipu ua ona o Pamano
i ka awa, lalau aku la ia i ke koi a hoa. (Ke ano o ia, he hikii i ka koi me ka laau i hana au kekee ia me ke kaula i hilo ia e like me ke aho.)
