FIGURES
2.1 Regulations addressing the transparency of European companies
3.1 The outside-in and inside-out relationships of double materiality through the example of climate change
3.2 The dynamic nature of sustainability reporting topics
4.1 The figure demonstrates the severity of physical and transition risk according to NGFS (2021) scenarios
4.2 The figure presents the construction of Transition Vulnerability Factors (TVFs) and Physical Vulnerability Factors (PVFs)
4.3 The figure shows the empirical distribution function of TVFs
4.4 The figure shows the empirical distribution function of PVFs
4.5 The figure presents the construction of Climate Vulnerability Factors (CVFs) under each climate scenario
4.6 The figure presents the deposit facility rate (DFR) trajectories under different climate scenarios
5.1 Public financial institutions in the financial system
5.2 PFIs’ role in channeling climate finance to LCR projects
5.3 Geographic flows of PFIs’ climate finance. Panel A: Public climate finance across regions (2019–2020 annual average); Panel B: MDBs’ climate finance commitments across countries (2015–2020 annual average)
5.4 Public climate finance by mitigation and adaptation
6.1 Internal Carbon Pricing in Microsoft Inc
6.2 Internal Carbon Pricing in Volvo Cars AB
6.3 A framework of a dynamic internal carbon pricing system (based on Rossing and Rodhe, 2014)
7.1 Distribution of environmental intensity (discount rate of 0%)
7.2 Distribution of environmental intensity (operating income, discount rate of 0%)
7.3 Environmental intensity (sales) by industry
7.4 Environmental intensity (scaled by operating income) by industry
7.5 SDG targets (0% discount rate)
7.6 SDG targets (3% discount rate)
7.7 Market pricing and environmental intensity by industry
7.8 Dynamic materiality of environmental intensity by industry (Capital markets industry’s dynamic materiality coefficient, though not shown in Figure 7.8, is also statistically significant and very negatively influencing the scale of the chart and thereby omitted from the chart. While there are nine industries that have seen significant increase in materiality, there are only two industries exhibiting significant decrease in materiality: health care equipment and supplies, and household durables.) 122
9.1 Distribution of values of retail investors based on the Schwartz theory of universal values 155
9.2 Distribution of regulatory focus of retail investors based on their superordinate motivation of Schwartz theory of universal values 157
9.3 Simplified correlation table for respondent’s inter-item responses for specific subcategories. Note: the correlations within one category are marked in red 160
9.4 Percentage of selected subcategories depending on the importance of considering sustainable factors 161
14.1 The balance sheet of a green firm
14.2 When do bank loans become green – the suggested framework
16.1 Stages of green finance development in China
16.2 Overview and relations between bodies governing green finance
16.3 Overview of provincial and municipal green finance pilots and initiatives
16.4 Annual Chinese green bond issuance, separated by internationally aligned and nonaligned 289
16.5 Chinese government-issued guidance and opinions relevant for greening finance in the Belt and Road Initiative distinguishing between “host country principle” and “international/Chinese standards” for environmental protection 292
16.6 Chinese, developing, and developed country signatories to the PRI and the Equator Principles 294
17.1 Impact investment in the spectrum (this figure is based on Brandstetter and Lehner (2015, p. 89)) 303
18.1 Theoretical framework for analyzing green finance within impact investing 319
18.2 Theoretical framework for uncovering explicit and implicit green finance strategies
18.3 Data analytic structure
19.1 United Nations’ Principles for Responsible Banking (United Nations, 2022a) 339
20.1 Global financing needs to protect and restore biodiversity (adapted by the authors based on UNEP, 2022, p. XIII) 359
20.2 Biodiversity finance flows (own depiction by authors based on OECD, 2019, p. 64)
20.3 The three key properties of nature (Dasgupta, 2022, p. 31)
21.1 Deaths per TWh of electricity produced by electricity generation type (as of 2014)
22.1 Green bond market’s organisational field
22.2 Use of proceeds analysis of data records
22.3 Distribution of data records among rating agencies and rating results
22.4 Distribution of data records among third-party reviewers
23.1 Net benefits of impact measurement to funders, agencies, and beneficiaries.Venn diagram displaying the connection between impact measurement benefits to funders, agencies, and beneficiaries
23.2 Net benefits of impact measures in housing.Venn diagram displaying the net benefits of impact measurement in housing. Benefits are displayed relative to funders, agencies, and beneficiaries
25.1 Co-occurrence of author keywords
25.2 Density visualization
25.3 Overlay visualization
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
27.1 Flow diagram for the systematic literature review following the PRISMA Statement 2020 488
27.2 Publications by date and discipline for 2010–2020 (NVIVO) (n=257)
Note to Figure 27.2: Twenty-six publications were excluded in Figure 27.2, because the majority of these are from the year 2021 (18), this year was only searched up to March 2021, therefore representing an incomplete year of data. Additionally, a very small number of publications (8) were identified earlier than 2010. The ‘Other’ disciplines included social sciences, energy, and disaster management research fields 491
27.3 Articles by journal (2010–2021) (VOSViewer) 492
27.4 Keyword clusters (80 most frequently used author keywords) (VOSviewer) 493
27.5 Author citation clusters (VOSViewer) 500
27.6 Co-citation clusters (authors) (VOSViewer) 500
27.7 Top researchers by country (VOSViewer) 501
27.8 Visualization of the core literature (adapted from Mortazavi et al., 2021) 501
28.1 Value of green bond issuance in US dollars (in $m) 514
28.2 Number of green bonds issued 514
30.1
1.1
2.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5.1
6.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
11.1
13.1 Exploring the hybrid assessment models used by
13.2 Guiding questions for future research
15.1 China’s green bond market, 2020–2021
15.2
15.3
17.1
Actors, motives, and mechanisms in the stages of
18.1 Capital market-based impact investment funds studied and data collection
18.2 Explicit green finance strategies, motivation, and instruments of fund
18.3 Implicit green finance strategies, motivation, and instruments of fund managers
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
20.1 Most relevant financing options for restoring and protecting biodiversity (based on Binnie et al. (2022); adapted by the authors based on OECD (2020))
20.2 Biodiversity disclosure initiatives (based on Bang (2023, p. 16), Mair et al. (2021), Cavender-Bares et al. (2022), Almond et al. (2022), and OECD (2020)) 362
20.3 Most important biodiversity measurement approaches and indicators (based on Bang (2023, p. 16), Mair et al. (2021), Cavender-Bares et al. (2022), Almond et al. (2022), Darrah et al. (2019), and OECD (2020)) 366
20.4 Most relevant databases for biodiversity assessment (non-exhaustive) (based on Bang (2023, p. 16), Mair et al. (2021), Cavender-Bares et al. (2022), Almond et al. (2022), Darrah et al. (2019), Hamilton and Casey (2016), OECD (2020), FAO (2015), Wamelink et al. (2012)) 368
21.1 Share of nuclear in total electricity supply, selected nations (2020)
21.2 Countries with nuclear reactors under construction
21.3 Key nuclear investment risks and their management
21.4 New nuclear construction problems in Europe and the United States
24.1 Paper allocation
25.1 Search strings and query description
25.2 Cluster composition
26.1
26.2 Descriptive statistics of the sample of empirical studies
26.3 Top ten articles by number of citations
27.1 Search terms
27.2 Top ten article discipline areas
27.3 Top ten journals
27.4 Keyword clusters: approaches to UA financing in the literature
27.5 Top 20 most cited publications (full SLR database)
27.6 Top 15 most productive authors and affiliations (WoS)
27.7 Key urban adaptation finance research gaps identified in the studied literature
29.1 Sustainability reporting in Europe – from national to EU level regulations (adapted from Larrinaga & Senn, 2021)
30.1 Number of relevant studies published in each journal
30.2 Distribution of research context in each year
CONTRIBUTORS
Nicholas Apergis is Professor of Economics at the University of Piraeus. His research areas are macrofinance and energy economics. He has over 260 published papers with a current Scopus H-index=54. He is also Editor of the journal Environmental Science and Pollution Research and Member of the Editorial Board of Energy Economics.
Philumena Bauer LL.B is a university assistant at the Institute for Management Accounting at Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria. Her main research interests are related to the field of sustainability reporting as well as management and control in the public sector, especially at municipal utilities.
Josef Baumüller is a postdoctoral researcher at the Technical University of Vienna and lecturer at the Technical University of Graz, at the Vienna University of Economics and Business, and, amongst others, at the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria. His research focuses on sustainability reporting.
Manfred Bergqvist is a graduate of MSc Finance at the School of Business Economics and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden. His thesis, written together with Philip Jansson, focused on the implementation and effects of internal carbon pricing on commercial- and supply-chain operations.
Richard Blundel is Professor of Enterprise and Organisation at the Open University Business School, UK. He researches the intersection of entrepreneurial activity, innovation, and environmental sustainability, and has appeared in journals such as Business & Society, Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, Business Strategy and the Environment, Enterprise & Society, and the Journal of Small Business Management
Matteo Bonetti is a risk manager for the Financial Markets Division of De Nederlandsche Bank. He has a PhD in Finance from the School of Business and Economics of Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
Tatianna Brierley is a master’s student at the University of Waterloo in the School of Environment, Enterprise, and Development. Her research has focused on impact measurement in affordable housing. Her research interests include social finance, systems theory, and social development.
Rosella Carè is Global Marie Skłodowska-Curie Research Fellow at Waterloo University (Canada). Rosella’s primary research areas – where she is the author of several works published by outstanding international academic editors and publishers – include social and sustainable finance, alternative finance, impact investing, sustainable banking, ESG, and climate risks.
Giusy Chesini is Associate Professor of Banking and Finance at the University of Verona, Italy. Her main research interests include empirical banking, financial regulation, and financial markets. She has authored about 70 scientific publications, including papers, chapters, and monographs. She has been involved in several national and international research projects.
Ericka Costa (PhD in Business Economics, University of Udine, Italy) is Associate Professor of Accounting, University of Trento, Italy. Her research interests are focused on investigating sustainability accounting and corporate social responsibility for both for-profit and non-profit organizations. She has written a number of chapters in books, and papers for national and international journals.
Luis Emilio Cuenca is Assistant Professor in Management Accounting at INCAE, Costa Rica, and associate researcher at VIVA Idea, Costa Rica. He holds a PhD in Management Accounting from HEC PARIS. Since the beginning of his academic career, Professor Cuenca has worked in the development of projects with positive social impact for communities and businesses.
Tia Rebecca Driver is a doctoral candidate in the School of Environment, Enterprise and Development at the University of Waterloo, Canada. Her current research interests include sustainability reporting and strategic management.
Markus Düringer is a PhD candidate in economics at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. His research focuses on climate change and corporate governance. In his professional career, he works as an investment analyst for AXA Insurance in Switzerland and is a board member of a small-cap investment company and advisory committee member for various midcap European investment funds.
Amr ElAlfy is an assistant professor of sustainability management at the College of Business and Economics at Qatar University. His research focuses on sustainability management and corporate reporting frameworks. Dr ElAlfy has a long managerial history of working in multinational conglomerates, namely Nestlé and 3M, where he led the marketing and sustainability agendas for the Middle East and Africa (MEA) region.
Viktor Elliot is a senior lecturer in business administration and director of the Business IT Lab at the School of Business Economics and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden, where he also received his PhD. His research focuses on bank management and regulation, sustainable finance, and digitalization.
Anouck Faverjon is a PhD candidate at HEC Liège (ULiège) and at University ParisDauphine, France.
Jean Geobey is Assistant Professor of Social Entrepreneurship and Innovation at the University of Waterloo, Canada, in the School of Environment, Enterprise, and Development (SEED) and the Co-Director of the Waterloo Institute for Social Innovation and Resilience (WISIR).
Olga Golubeva is based at Stockholm Business School, Stockholm University. Dr Golubeva’s research findings are published in peer-reviewed journals like “Accounting, Auditing &
Accountability Journal”, “Corporate Governance”, “Journal of Contemporary Accounting and Economics”, etc. Olga won an Outstanding paper award in the 2022 Emerald Literati Awards.
Dorothea Greiling is head of the Institute for Management Accounting at the Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria. Her main research focuses on public accountability, performance management, sustainability control, sustainability reporting, and SDG activities, mostly but not exclusively of public enterprises and non-profit organizations as well as in regulated industries.
David Hall has a DPhil in Politics from the University of Oxford and currently is Senior Lecturer at the School of Social Sciences and Public Policy, Auckland University of Technology (AUT). His research focus is climate action with a particular focus on the politics of sustainability transitions, climate policy design, sustainable finance, and nature-based solutions.
Céleste Hardy is a PhD candidate at HEC Liège (ULiège).
Theresia Harrer is a postdoctoral researcher in sustainability accounting at the Hanken School of Economics. Her research focuses on how organizations interact with stakeholders, specifically on how sustainability reporting requirements and online communication change those interactions.
Niels Hermes is Full Professor of International Finance and Chair of the Department of Economics, Econometrics and Finance, University of Groningen. He is also Visiting Professor at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles. His research focuses on corporate governance, international finance and microfinance. He is Editor of Corporate Governance: An International Review
Swarnodeep Homroy is an Associate Professor of Finance at the University of Groningen. His research interests are climate change’s economic and financial implications, gender inequality in the workplace, corporate social responsibility, and the intersection of corporate finance and political systems.
Philip Jansson is a graduate of the MSc Finance at the School of Business Economics and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden. His thesis, written together with Manfred Bergqvist, focused on the implementation and effects of internal carbon pricing on commercial- and supply-chain operations.
Urs Jäger is a professor at INCAE Business School where he holds the Chair of Sustainability VIVA Idea Schmidheiny. He is also Executive Director of VIVA Idea, a think-action tank focused on action research projects in sustainable development. He focuses his research on the social inclusion of formal and informal markets.
George Kapaya is Deputy Head of Accounting and Finance at the University of Northampton. He is a qualified and experienced Chartered Accountant (ICAEW) and has extensive practical experience in accounting, taxation, and auditing. His research interests include international accounting, developing countries, FDI, and multinationals.
Blerita Korca (PhD in Economics and Management, University of Trento, Italy) is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Bamberg in Germany. Her research interests are in the field of sustainability accounting and reporting, and she has published both scientific articles and policy briefs in the field.
Orthodoxia Kyriacou is an Associate Professor in Transdisciplinary Developments at Middlesex University where she is primarily involved in the supervision of professional doctoral
candidates. Her previous publications include articles focusing on gender and ethnicity issues in the UK accounting profession and the teaching of ethics to accounting students.
Marie Lambert is Full Professor at HEC Liège, Management School of the University of Liège where she holds the Deloitte Chair in Sustainable Finance.
Richmond O. Lamptey has recently been appointed a Lecturer in Entrepreneurship at the University of Greenwich Business School. He previously held the role of a Teaching Fellow at the University of Greenwich Business School. His PhD in Business Studies, obtained in 2020, investigated the influence of bank-based and capital market-based impact investments on SME financing in Ghana. Richmond’s work has been published in Entrepreneurship and Regional Development
Mathias Lund Larsen is a dual PhD Fellow at Copenhagen Business School and the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research). His research is focused on the political economy of green finance in China from theory to practice, intention to impact, and domestic to overseas.
Othmar M. Lehner is the director of the Center for Accounting, Finance and Governance at the Hanken School of Economics in Helsinki and associate professor of accounting. His research interests are in the intersection of accounting and organizations, particularly on ethics and sustainability. He is well-published, a passionate book author, and a celebrated keynote speaker.
Susanne Leitner-Hanetseder is a lecturer in accounting at the Johannes Kepler University of Linz, guest lecturer at the Hanken School of Economics, and Professor of Accounting at the University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria. Her research focuses on digitalization in accounting as well as IFRS and sustainability accounting.
Le Luo is a senior lecturer in the Department of Accounting and Corporate Governance at Macquarie University. Her research expertise lies primarily in sustainability and carbon accounting. She has published more than 30 academic papers in peer-refereed international journals, including the European Accounting Review, British Accounting Review, and Journal of Banking and Finance.
Melody Meng has a PhD in Management from the University of Auckland and is currently a research fellow at the Auckland University of Technology. She is also a senior analyst at Sustainalytics working on sustainable bonds issuance projects and taxonomy development. She has diversified experience in a range of sectors including sustainable finance, renewable energy market, cross-border e-commerce, consulting, aviation, real estate, media, education, sports, and tourism.
Laura Muro is Professor of Accounting at Saint Louis University Madrid, with scholarly experience in corporate governance and business sustainability, with scientific publications in international high-ranked journals, in the specific areas of board gender diversity, earnings management, and capital structure decisions. Her present research is focused on sustainable finance, impact investments, and financial inclusion.
Christoph Nedopil is Associate Professor of Practice at Fudan University and the Director of the Green Finance & Development Center at FISF Fudan University. His research focuses on sustainable finance, China and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), as well as green innovation finance.
Michael Ngoasong is a Senior Lecturer in Management and Head of Department for Public Leadership and Social Enterprise at the Open University Business School. His research on entrepreneurial practices has appeared in journals such as Energy Policy, Management and Organisation Review, Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, and the Journal of Small Business Management.
Noriaki Okamoto is a professor of accounting at the College of Business at Rikkyo University. He received his PhD from Kobe University in 2006. His research interests lie in the social, political, and institutional aspects of accounting. His current research project is the quantification of social impact. His previous works appeared in journals including Accounting Forum, Critical Perspectives on Accounting, and the Journal of Economic Methodology.
Mari Paananen is Associate Professor of Accounting and co-director of the Business IT Lab at the School of Business Economics and Law at Gothenburg University, Sweden. Her current research involves examining the capital market effect of financial reporting disclosures, in particular environmental information using computerized text analysis.
Katrina Pichlmayr is a Group Controller and a graduate of the Controlling, Accounting and Financial Management master’s program at the University of Applied Sciences in Steyr. Her research project was dedicated to analyzing the European green bond market from an institutional perspective.
Thomas Poufinas is Assistant Professor in the Department of Economics of the Democritus University of Thrace. He holds a PhD in Financial Mathematics from The Ohio State University and a bachelor’s degree in Mathematics from the University of Athens. His research interests focus on finance, investments, risk management, actuarial science, and their applications.
Stephanie Rüegger holds an MBA from INCAE Business School and a master’s in Strategy and International Management from the University of St. Gallen. She works as a research affiliate at INCAE and VIVA Idea, and at the Institute of Technology Management, University of St. Gallen.
Paolo Saona is Professor of Finance. His research fields include international corporate finance, corporate governance, sustainable finance, the banking industry, and financial systems. He is a research fellow at Universidad Pontificia Comillas in Spain and at Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción in Chile. He has more than 50 published studies.
Marleen Schlooz is a risk manager for the Financial Markets Division of De Nederlandsche Bank. She has a master’s degree in econometrics and economics from Maastricht University.
Bert Scholtens is a Professor of Sustainable Banking and Finance at the University of Groningen. He specializes in banking, socially responsible investing, and environmental economics. Bert has published widely in top-tier finance and general interest journals.
George Serafeim (Harvard Business School, USA) is Chair of the Valuation Technical and Practitional Committee for the International Foundation for Valuing Impacts. From 2019 to 2022, he was the Faculty Chair of the Impact-Weighted Accounts Project and the Charles M. Williams Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School. He has taught courses in the MBA, executive education, and doctoral programs.
Hanna Silvola is an Associate Professor of Accounting at the Hanken School of Economics, Finland. Her research interests are in sustainable investing and in measuring, reporting, and assuring ESG information. She has published on a range of topics in accounting journals and has comprehensive experience as a speaker in media and executive education.
Vincent Streichert is a risk manager for the Financial Markets Division of De Nederlandsche Bank. He has a master’s degree in financial economics from Erasmus University Rotterdam.
Simon Taylor is a former utilities analyst in the stock market who joined Cambridge University’s Judge Business School in 2006 where he is a Research Associate of the Energy Policy Research Group. He has written two books on the British nuclear power industry and teaches a course on infrastructure finance.
Emilia Vähämaa is Wärtsilä Associate Professor at Hanken School of Economics. Her research interests lie in the areas of sustainable finance, corporate governance, and banking. She has published in various journals including the Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Business Research, and Journal of Financial Services Research
Olaf Weber is a professor at the Schulich School of Business and holds the CIBC Chair in Sustainable Finance. His research addresses sustainable lending, investment, and impact finance.
Stella Whittaker is a specialist and scholar in the field of climate change and sustainability, working for over 30 years as an executive and in academia in Europe and Australia. Stella’s PhD is in climate adaptation finance. Her overarching interest is exploring and understanding government and investor perspectives in relation to the adaptation financing gap – the deficit between the finance required and the amount of finance available.
Andrew C. Worthington is Professor of Finance at Griffith University, Australia. He holds master’s degrees from the University of New South Wales and the University of New England and obtained his doctorate from the University of Queensland. His green finance interests include ESG investing, sustainability, and environmental information disclosure.
Dong Xiang is Professor and Associate Dean at Shandong Normal University, China. He holds a master’s degree from Massey University and obtained his doctorate from the University of Newcastle. His green finance interests include green credit policies in Chinese banking and small and medium-sized enterprises.
Lina Xie is a PhD scholar at the University of Groningen who specializes in financial intermediation and climate finance. Her thesis is on the climate-related activities of public financial institutions in OECD countries.
Shipeng Yan is a management scholar with an institutional lens, a sociological orientation, and an interest in organizations. In particular, he is keen to study (1) comparative dynamics of institutional arrangements across countries; and (2) the relationship between finance and society, with a focus on environmental, social, and governance (ESG) issues.
Ze Zhang is a doctoral student in the Faculty of Business and Economics at the University of Hong Kong.
T. Robert Zochowski (International Foundation for Valuing Impacts, USA) is the President and CEO of the International Foundation for Valuing Impacts. Formerly, Rob was the Program Director and Senior Researcher for Multi-Faculty Sustainability and Impact Investing Special Projects, including The Impact-Weighted Accounts Project, the Social Impact Collaboratory, and the Project on Impact Investments at Harvard Business School.
GLOSSARY
acceleration depreciation scheme (ADS): form of tax incentive.
advocacy coalition framework theory: public policy is the outcome of a policy subsystem composed of different advocacy coalitions, each with its own beliefs, resources, and strategies.
agency theory: deals with the conflict of interests in corporations caused by asymmetric incentives between the different interested parties.
Air Quality Index (AQI): measure air pollution.
Aotearoa Circle: established in October 2018 as a partnership of public and private sector leaders with a common commitment ‘to the pursuit of sustainable prosperity and reversing the decline of New Zealand’s natural resources’.
Asset-Liability Management (ALM) model: for future profits assessments and interest rate risk calculations.
Availability WAter REmaining (AWARE) model: provides supplemental water monetization factors, allowing us to account for the effect of local water scarcity.
AWARE Factors: conversion factors for the absolute amount of available freshwater remaining in each country in terms of global-equivalent cubic meters, defined as the world average after human and aquatic ecosystem demands have been met.
BBGF (now ABSA Ghana): bank-based impact funds.
Beta (BETA): is defined as firm’s systematic risk.
Better Alignment Project: a ground-breaking two-year project to promote better alignment in the corporate reporting environment to make it easier for companies to prepare effective and coherent disclosures that meet the information needs of capital markets and society.
biodiversity: defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
black credit: Is credit where environmental factors, if not ignored, are given far less weight in the credit assessment process.
Bloomberg and Thomson Reuters (ASSET4) Databases: organization-level emissions and water-use data.
Bloomberg ESG Index: the set of organizations within the Bloomberg database that has reported some environmental data.
bounded rationality: is the idea that actors can only make rational decisions based on the information that is available to them and identifying and collecting this information is costly.
business ecosystems: ever-evolving cross-sectoral ecosystem.
capital expenditures: are scaled by total assets since they are recognized as assets.
carbon accounting: research field in the domain of environmental accounting.
Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP): is one of the largest data collections on the climate impact of organizations (based on self-reported data).
carbon finance: comprise carbon market trading and financing tools.
carbon footprint: is the total greenhouse gas emissions caused directly and indirectly by an individual, organization, event, or product..
central banks: are systemic authorities with a specific mandate.
CGIR Climate Security Observatory (CSO): is currently being developed. It will provide descriptions and analysis of the pathways via which climate change and variability might act as a threat multiplier to existing vulnerabilities and insecurity.
characterization pathways: scientifically-based methodologies to transform outputs into impacts.
Climate Bond Initiative (CBI): is an international non-profit organization working on gathering and collating market intelligence, developing market standards, and guiding policy and regulation in the market for sustainable financing.
climate change-related risks: It induce disruptions to several layers of the economy via natural disasters and transition shocks, making it a potential source of price and financial instability.
Climate Change Response (Zero-Carbon) Amendment Act 2019 (New Zealand): Net-zero emissions by 2050 goal.
Climate Disclosure Standards Board (CDSB): an international consortium of business and environmental NGOs offering a framework for reporting environment and social related information.
climate finance: is the primary source to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
climate opportunities: defined as potential positive impacts on an organization resulting from efforts to mitigate and adapt to climate change.
climate scenario analysis (CSA): It is used to quantify the potential financial impact of climate-related developments on a central bank’s balance sheet.
climate stress test: methodology to gauge how climate risk might propagate through the financial system.
CMBF1: is a climate and impact fund manager, leading the clean energy transition in emerging markets.
CMBF2: is a capital market-based impact fund.
commensuration: It facilitates the comparison of disparate organizations that are the object of quantifiable data.
Community Score (CommunityScore): which measures the company’s commitment towards being a good citizen, protecting public health, and respecting business ethics. complementary fit: refers to the idea that something is missing or should be added to create a whole, becomes important when people want to compensate for their own “sustainable shortcomings.”
corporate governance (CG): measures “a company’s systems and processes, which ensure that its board members and executives act in the best interests of its long-term shareholders.”
corporate social responsibility (CSR): commitment of business to contribute to sustainable economic development by working with employees, their families, the local community and society at large to improve their lives in ways that are good for business and development.
corporate sustainability: links business strategy and sustainability via a systems perspective, which maps the relationships between businesses and society.
Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD): is a reporting European Union directive which aimed at all large companies independent of stock exchange listings, provides detailed reporting standards and requires auditing.
CPI: Climate Policy Initiatives.
Credit Value-at-Risk (CVaR) model: for credit risk calculations.
Cross-dependence test: simple average of all pair-wise correlation coefficients of the OLS residuals obtained from standard augmented Dickey-Fuller regressions for each variable in the panel.
CSR Strategy Score (CSRScore): which reflects a company’s practices to communicate that it integrates the economic (financial), social, and environmental dimensions into its daytoday decision-making processes.
De Nederlandsche Bank (DNB): the central bank of the Netherlands.
deposit facility rate (DFR): is the remuneration rate for the deposits held by commercial banks at DNB.
direct emissions: occur from sources owned or controlled by the company.
Directive 2014/95 (European Union): companies to provide annual reports on environmental, social, and employee matters. It also requires them to disclose anti-corruption and human rights policies as well as any bribery that may have been attempted in the last year. This directive was superseded by the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive, which brought with it the European Sustainability Reporting Standard.
disposition effect: this is a psychological phenomenon where investors tend to sell assets that have increased in value but hold onto assets that have decreased in value, contrary to the rational decision expectation..
disruptive innovation theory: the process by which a product or service initially takes root in simple applications at the bottom of a market— typically by being less expensive and more accessible—and then relentlessly moves upmarket, eventually displacing established competitors.
dividends: as payments made by a corporation to its shareholders, usually in the form of cash or additional shares..
double-hybridity: a combination of financial and impact returns on the one hand, and developing and developed countries on the other.
double materiality: It considers the impacts on enterprise value and the impacts of organizational activities on the natural environment and society.
dynamic materiality: recognizes the fluidity of material.
ecosystem: flows of material and energy.
Emission Reduction Score (EmissionScore): which measures a company’s commitment and effectiveness toward reducing environmental emission in the production and operational processes.
emission trading systems: Trading of emission rights among business units (BUs) within an organization to reach an internal market price for carbon.
Energy Taxation Directive (ETD): defines the minimum taxation rates for energy products, such as electricity and fuel.
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(Sealed) “MOHAMMED EL-AMEEN BEN MOHAMMED ELKANEMY.”
Dated “23d of Rabee-ul-thani, 1239,” (Corresponding to January, 1824).
No. VII.
A Letter from the Chieftain Mohammed Gamsoo, at Sackatoo, to the Prince of Ya-oory.
“In the name of God, the merciful and the clement; and prayers and peace be unto our Lord, Mohammed.
“From the slave of God, Mohammed, son of the Hadgi Omar Gamzoo, to our friend, the dearest we have, the Prince of Ya-oory.
“Salutation without end or termination be unto you and all your friends and relations. If you inquire after our health, and that of the Prince of the Mooslemeen, and our friends, we are all sound and vigorous. Our slave has reached us with the letter from you, which I showed and read to the prince, and he was delighted with it; and we are prevented from sending you a messenger with an answer, only by the prince having ordered us to proceed to the eastern parts of the country to attend to some of his affairs there. But, if God be pleased to cause us to return in safety, you shall receive an express messenger from me.
“The prince now sends you the English Rayes Abdallah (Captain Clapperton’s assumed name), who is anxious to see your country and visit you. He has been honoured and esteemed by the sheikh (of Bornou), and by the prince of Kanoo, as also by the prince of the Mooslemeen; and as you rank among the generous, receive him and honour him generously. When he returns, send us a letter, and express all your wishes in it.
“Give our salutation to our brother and all the friends, and we exhort you to attend to the contents of this epistle for the sake of the friendship which was established between you and our ancestors, and is now between me and you; especially as you never behaved towards us but very laudably. And may God bestow upon you more good sense, in addition to that which you possess.”
No. VIII.
A Document relating to the Death of Mungo Park.
“Hence, be it known that some Christians came to the town of Youri, in the kingdom of Yaoor, and landed and purchased provisions, as onions and other things; and they sent a present to the King of Yaoor. The said king desired them to wait until he should send them a messenger, but they were frightened, and went away by the sea (river). They arrived at the town called Bossa, or Boossa, and their ship then rubbed (struck) upon a rock, and all of them perished in the river.
“This fact is within our knowledge, and peace be the end.
“It is genuine from Mohammed ben Dehmann.”
[In addition to the above, there is a kind of postscript appended to the document by a different hand; which, being both ungrammatical and scarcely legible, I had some difficulty in translating and giving it a proper meaning. The words, however, are, I think, as follows; though most of them have been made out by conjecture.]
“And they agreed, or arranged among themselves, and swam in the sea (river), while the men, who were with (pursuing) them, appeared on the coast of the sea (bank of the river), and fell upon them till they went down (sunk) in it.”
No. IX.
A Letter from the Sheikh of Bornou to Captain Clapperton.
“Praise be to God, and prayers and peace be unto the Apostle of God.
“From the slave of the high God, Mohammed El-ameen ben Mohammed El-kanemy, to the Ra-yes Abd-allah, the Englishman. Peace be unto him who follows the light of instruction.
“Hence, we received your letter, and comprehended its contents; as also what you acquainted us with relative to the kindness and friendship which the people showed you. May God bless them; and we never doubted this behaviour on their part.
“With regard to what you stated upon the subject of the calumny uttered by some of the Arabs against you, you need not turn your mind to, nor think of it; as nothing shall befal you, while you are in this land, but what God Almighty may inflict upon you, without the instigation of any of his creatures.
“The physician your friend is dead. This is the state of the world; and may God increase your life. Before his death, he promised to give his pistols to us as a present; and on this condition he kept them for his own use, as being borrowed from us, until his return to his own country: but now, as he is dead, you may deliver them to our friend Hadgi Saleh, to send them to us. And may God conduct you (to your own country) in health and safety.
(Sealed) “MOHAMMED EL-AMEEN BEN MOHAMMED ELKANEMY.”
No. X.
A Document made at the Court of Justice of Bornou.
“Praise be to God alone. May God bless our Lord Mohammed, and all his relations and friends.
“Whereas, at the court of (here the titles of the sheikh and his pedigree follow,) the Lord Sheikh Mohammed El-Kanemy, Hadgi Alij, son of Hadgi Moosa ben Khalloom, and the English physician, with his two friends, Rayes Abdallah, and Rayes Khaleel, appeared; the physician demanded of the said Hadgi Alij the restitution of two thousand hard silver dollars, which he and his said friends had lent to his late brother Abu Bakr ben Khalloom, through the English consul at Tripoli, on condition of repaying them after their arrival at Barnooh, according to his own acknowledgment and a bond in the said physician’s possession; and that they demanded this debt from Hadgi Alij, because he took possession of all his deceased brother’s property. Hadgi Alij replied, that he knew nothing of their claim upon his late brother: but, if they possessed a bond, they might produce it to prove their claim. They produced a paper, not written in Arabic, bearing the seal of the said deceased Abu Bakr; and, as no one could read what that paper contained, the judge told them that, notwithstanding it bore the seal of the said deceased, it could not be valid, nor of any use to them. They then produced one of the friends of the deceased Abu Bakr, as witness, who attested that, while at Tripoli, he was sent by him to the consul’s house, where he received the two thousand dollars and delivered them to him (the deceased), knowing that they were to be repaid at Barnooh, according to the present claim. His testimony, however, was not approved of by the judge.
“They appeared a second time at the said court of justice, and alleged that Hadgi Alij, after their first appearance, acknowledged, and pledged himself to pay them the two thousand dollars which
they claimed from his late brother; that he paid them a part of the said sum in cotton clothes to the value of six hundred dollars in Barnooh money, and that the remaining fourteen hundred were to be repaid to them by him at the city of Kanoo in Soodan; and they, therefore, wished to legalize this before the judge.
“Hadgi Alij, however, said, that he gave them the six hundred dollars, merely as an act of kindness on his part, and as a loan from him to them, which they were to return to him at Kanoo; and that he never acknowledged, nor promised to pay his brother’s debt; but that, he told them, if they should be in want of more money at Kanoo, he would advance them as much as he could afford. They then requested the judge to restrict him from selling, or sending his brother’s property to Kanoo (lest it should be lost on the road), until they had proved their claim by better evidence. Hadgi Alij, at last, agreed, either himself or through his agent, to pay them five hundred dollars more, in addition to the six hundred, two months after their arrival at Kanoo; and fixed a period of one year, from the date of this document between them and him, for the proof of the justice of their claim; and that, if they fail to prove their demand upon his deceased brother before the lapse of the said period, they were to repay him the eleven hundred dollars, and forego all their claims. But if, on the contrary, they should be able to substantiate their demand within the stipulated period, he would then repay to them the nine hundred dollars, balance of the two thousand.
“Upon these conditions, both parties agreed and declared themselves content and satisfied, while they were in a perfect state of health and mind as to deserve reliance and dependence upon.
“Issued from the Court of Justice of the honoured and learned sheikh Mohammed El-ameen ben Mohammed El-kanemy, at Barnooh, on the 27th day of Rabee-ul-a-wal, one thousand two hundred and thirty-nine of the Prophetical Hejra, (corresponding to December, 1823); in presence of Mohammed Zain-ul-Abedeen ben Akhmed ben Mohammed; of Mohammed ben Akhmed ben Aba Bakr; and of Mohammed ben Hadgi Meelad ben Taleb. And may the high God be witness upon all.”
No. XI.
Translation of Letters and Documents received from the Sheikh of Bornou concerning Mr. Tyrwhit’s Death.
1.—A Letter from the above-mentioned Sheikh to the British Consul at Tripoli.
“Praise be to God, and blessings and peace be unto the Apostle of God, (Mohammed).
“From the slave of the High God, Mohammed El Ameen ben Mohammed El Kanemy, to the head of his people, the respected and honoured by the children of his nation, the English Consul resident at Tripoli. After the due salutation, and our inquiry after your health, we have to inform you that we are, by the grace of God, enjoying perfect health and prosperity. Your letter which you sent to Fezzan has reached us, and we comprehended its contents; but the letter you sent by our messengers Abraham and Abdullah has not come to our hand yet, though we hope their arrival will be soon.
“You are well aware, that the omnipotent God hath ordained to every man a certain age, which can neither be increased nor decreased, and hath destined to him a grave, in which he can neither enter before his time, nor from which he can fly when his time comes. Thus, when you know this, it may be an alleviation to your sorrow and grief, when you hear of the death of your friends and relations: so that we have now to acquaint you, that your son Tair (Tyrwhit) ended his life, and his days and hours terminated by his death, on Monday the end of Saffar 1240[68] , while we were absent in a war with our enemies. After his death and interment, the elders and priests of our metropolis entered his house, to ascertain and note down the effects he left, in order, and from fear, that in the course of time, there may be no suspicion of distrust thrown upon
the trustees. They found the property he left was not considerable: they made a list of it, which herewith you will receive, and left the whole in the hands of his trustees, Eben Saada of Tripoli, and the Hadje Aly El-ma-yel, who were his servants. But God knows whether this was the whole of his property, or some of it was fraudulently concealed by those who were in the house at his death.
“With regard to the desire which you expressed to us, to know the source of the inundation of the river that divides our country, we have to inform you that this sea (river) of ours is a great and extensive lake, the circumference of which is about twenty days’ journey, and into which various rivers empty themselves from the part of the land of Soodan, and from the right and east of our country, which joins the uninhabited mountains and the land of the Pagans, to whom no one goes. And God only knows what is to be found on the other side of these places.
“Send our salutation to the great King of the English, and to every one who inquires after us amicably.
(Sealed) “MOHAMMED EL KANEMY.”
(Dated) “Sunday, the eve of the end of the month of Rajab, 1240.” (About the 20th of March, 1825.)
2.—A Document containing the List of the Property left by Mr. Tyrwhit, as alluded to in the foregoing Letter, and a Certificate of his Death, and the Things that were found after the Return of the Sheikh from his Expedition.
T L .
“Whereas the Elders and Priests of the metropolis of the Arabs (Barnoo), having assembled and repaired to the house of the deceased English traveller, named Tair (Tyrwhit), who died on Monday the last day of Saffar, 1240, to ascertain and note down what he left; it proved, in their presence, that all his property was as follows:
“First, two swords and a sash, a musket, a pair of pistols, another pair ditto, three . . . ., a sash, six silver spoons, a fork, a razor, fifteen bottles of . . . . . ., eleven . . . . . ., four coffee cups, three cupping glasses, a sun scale (quadrant), a . . . . ., three squares of soap, a box containing some . . . . ., four . . . . ., two pair of boots or slippers, a skull cotton cap, a woollen ditto, an Indian looking-glass, twenty pieces of wearing apparel, as shirts, drawers, &c. of his country, six towels, a paper containing some cinnamon, a black napkin handkerchief for his neck, four hand napkins, two , a pillow of Soodan manufacture, a silk sash, a silk cord, a . . . . ., a jacket embroidered with silver, a yard of red cloth, a canvas bag, three gun covers, a cord for trowsers, some boxes containing part of these things, a pair of Constantinople slippers, a pair of Barbary ditto, or shoes, two scrapers of pig’s hair (tooth-brushes), a looking-glass, ten pounds of gunpowder, twentythree bundles of . . . . ., three looking-glasses for the nose (spectacles), a . . . . ., another hand napkin, three empty . . . . ., a broken glass, three squares of soap again, a . . . . three watch rings, a pair of fine razors, a pound of antimony, a pound of coral, fifty-three beads of amber, a pair of Soodanie boots, three pair ditto of his country, a red cloth bornouse or cloak, a . . . . ., fifty hard dollars, fifty-two books, a coffee waiter, two tin cans, three burning glasses, a telescope, a waistcoat, a white bornouse of Barbary, a towel, another bornouse, a writing desk, an umbrella, two loaves of sugar, a . . . . ., two time pieces for the road (compasses), a nose looking-glass (spectacles), a razor, two cork-screws, or ramrod screws, a . . . . ., five . . . . ., three pair of trowsers, four tiger skins, two mats of Noofee, two beds, or small Turkish carpets, a pillow of Soodan, five sacks, fifteen water skins, or leather bags, a cooking pot, a saucepan, an ewer, two large jars, a pan, two coffee pots, two . . . ., two hooks, four empty . . . . ., a chisel, a hammer, a camel, a female ditto, a horse, a mule, two saddles of Barnoo, one ditto of his country, three wax cloth covers, a , two sun glasses, fifty medicine bottles, a woollen bed or carpet, a . . . . .; and Hamdo Et-tafteef has by him a network shirt or dress, a bird called Jamaj-mak; and he confessed that he borrowed fifty dollars from the deceased.
“Besides the above property, it was found that he has to receive twenty dollars from one of the inhabitants of Barnoo, and thirty from another; as likewise twenty-four dollars from the servant of the sharif Barakat, sixty dollars from the Mamluk Bey Mohammed, and 165 from the Mamluk Mohammed, son of Hadje Mahmood.
“His debts to various persons are as follows: fourteen and a half dollars to Hamdo Et-tafteef for . . . . ., eight dollars to the same, for a bed and six pounds of . . . . ., four feathers to . . . . ., and the wages of his two servants; as likewise, three dollars to the burying people, and two dollars to the man who watched his tomb at night, to prevent the body from being devoured by the hyena.
“His servant Ben Saada stated that this account of the debts owing by, and due to the deceased, were contracted through him for his master.
“This is the whole of the property left by the deceased; and whatever has been noted down in this document, whether of great or little value, has been deposited in the hands of his abovenamed servant Ben Saada of Tripoli, and his fellow-servants.”
THE CERTIFICATE.
“Whereas our Master and Lord, defender of the Moosleman faith, the Sheikh Mohammed El Kanemy, having, after his return from subduing his enemies, assembled the elders and priests of the inhabitants of his metropolis, and gave them a special audience, ordered that the foregoing list, which was written during his absence, be read in their presence; and, after every one heard and understood it, commanded a revisal of the property left by the deceased Englishman to be made, to ascertain its amount afresh. Accordingly, we the undersigned repaired to the house of the deceased, and found all the beforementioned articles extant except the following, which have been used or lost by his servant, Mohammed ben Saada of Tripoli, who had the things under his care. A pair of boots, four bottles out of the fifteen, a napkin or handkerchief for the neck, three pair of trowsers, three . . . ., three squares of soap, a canvas bag, and two . . . . . But a few more
articles, which had not been inserted in the list, were found. They are as follows: a piece of Egyptian mat, two pieces of sealing-wax, a bullet mould, four charts or maps, two travelling bags (one of which contains some of the articles, and is deposited with his other servant Hadje Aly El-ma-yel), a cannon ramrod screw, a pound of . . . . ., two . . . . ., two bridles, a . . . . ., two covers, three horseshoes, five tin canisters for meat, a wooden bowl, a wax cloth cover, a large tin canister, a writing box containing eight pens, two blank books, nine . . . . ., and a bottle containing some oil.
“His horse, which is mentioned in the list, has been sold to Mohammed Sal-ha for 172 dollars.
“His servant, Mohammed ben Saada, declared before the assembly, that his master, the said deceased Englishman, named Tair (Tyrwhit), on finding his life was hopeless, bequeathed the following articles to his Excellency the Sheikh. A mule, a red bornouse, a looking-glass, or telescope, a pair of pistols, ten canisters of gunpowder, of which, however, eight only were found, a pair of Egyptian shoes or slippers, a sword, though it was rusty, a . . , a dining waiter or table-cloth, and a
“After this, the assembly agreed, by the order of our Lord the Sheikh, to allow to each of the three servants of the deceased (who are intrusted with the things he left), three dollars per month.
“Done on the evening of Monday, the last day of Rajab 1240, in the presence of the noble Sheikh and his assembly, of which we the undersigned are members, and do hereby bear witness before the Almighty God.
(Sealed)
“MOHAMMED EL AMEEN BEN MOHAMMED EL KANEMY. (Signed)
“YOUSOF BEN ABD ELKADER EL-KAKARY,
“SALEH BEN EL-HADJE HAMED,
“MOHAMMED EL WARDI BEN EL HADJE ALY,
“BEN ABD ELKADER ABA-NEARAN,
“MOHAMMED BEN IBRAHEEM ET-TAFTEEF, and “MOHAMMED BEN EL-HADJE ISSA BEN AHMED EL-
MESSRATI[69].”
3. A Letter from the Sheikh to Ra-yes-Khaleel, or Major Denham.
“Praise be to God, and blessings and peace be unto the Apostle of God.
“From the slave of the High God, Mohammed El Ameen ben Mohammed El Kanemy, to the honoured by the children of his nation, Ra-yes Khaleel, the Englishman. After our salutation and inquiry after your health, we have to inform you that we are, by the grace of God, enjoying perfect health and prosperity. Your letter has reached us, and we comprehended its contents.
“You are well aware, that the Omnipotent God hath ordained to every man a certain age, which can neither be increased nor decreased; and hath destined to him a grave, in which he can neither enter before his time, nor from which he can fly when his time comes. Thus, when you know this, it may be an alleviation to your sorrow and grief, when you hear of the death of your friends and relations: so that we have now to acquaint you that your brother Tair (Tyrwhit) ended his life, and his days and hours terminated by his death, on Monday, the end of Saffar, 1240, while we were absent in a war with our enemies. After his death and interment, the elders and priests of our metropolis entered his house, to ascertain and note down the effects he left, in order, and from fear that, in the course of time, there might be no suspicion of distrust thrown upon the trustees. They found the property he left was not considerable: they made a list of it, which herewith you will receive, and left the whole in the hands of his trustees, Eben Saada of Tripoli, and the Hadje Aly El-ma-yel, who were his servants. But God knows whether this was the whole of his property, or whether some of it might have been fraudulently concealed by those who were in the house at his death.
“The war in which we were engaged was with Aly Yamanook, who first declared hostilities against us. We went out to him through the Kanoom road on the last day of Moharram 1240, and arrived near
the islands in which he was intrenched on Thursday the 19th of the month of the sacred birth of our Prophet[70] .
“He entered the islands, and left between him and us seven streams; two of which could not be crossed but in boats, two were as deep as to cover a man to the neck, and the other three had their water as high as the navel only, or perhaps lower.
“We besieged him till he was in great distress, suffered much famine, and most of his animals perished; and when we had collected canoes for the landing of our troops on the islands, he submitted, and begged forgiveness. We at first refused; but when he repeated his applications and solicitations, we consented, binding him by many severe and heavy conditions, which he accepted, and restored to us, according to our demands, all that he had taken from our people. He then came out of the islands, humble like a camel led by his driver, and submissive like a tender twig to the hand that roots it out.
“Thus we withdrew our army, after a siege of three months and ten days, and after having likewise subdued all the disobedient and disorderly Arabs, and returned to our home on Sunday the middle of Rajab[71] .
“Nothing new has happened since you left us, but every good and happiness, and the increase of tranquillity and cheapness. We, however, have lost our illustrious and noble friend Hassan Et-Teflati, who died in this town; as likewise Mohammed Ben Dehman of Katacoom, and Yakoob El-Owjal of An-karno, to whom may God show mercy and forgiveness.
“The news from the interior is, that the ruler of Wa-da-i made an expedition against the eastern part of the country towards Tamak; but that he was repulsed and returned routed. The truth of this, however, we could not ascertain, because it came from indirect channels.
“The ruler of Foor, also, sent an army against the Turks[72] , who are in Kordafal or Kordofal; and it is reported that they had a battle at a place called Kajah, which ended with the defeat of the army of
Foor, and the death of three of their grandees, besides what fell of the troops; but that the said chieftain is gathering a larger army, and means to send it against them. God only, however, knows what will be the result.
“The ruler of Bakermy, who last year fled to the land of the Pagans, has not returned; and a brother of his from Wa-da-i has collected what troops he could, and proceeded against him. But God knows what will happen between them.
“Give our salutation to your sister, and all your family and friends; and peace be with you.”
Dated and sealed as the foregoing, viz. Letter No. I.
FOOTNOTES:
[68]About the 22d or 23d of October 1824
[69]Explanation. The blanks in this list are those of the names of some articles which I could not make out; they being mostly English in the Moorish character, or described according to the idea those people have of their use A S
[70]From this it seems, that the journey was made in forty-nine days, viz. the last day of Moharram, which is the first month of the year, the twenty-nine days of the following month Saffar, and nineteen days of the month in which Mohammed was born, which is the third in the year. Being unacquainted with the distance and the spot, I cannot, of course, pretend to give any farther illustration. A. S.
[71]The middle of Rajab is the 164th or 165th day from his first departure; and according to this, it appears that the sheikh, on returning home, made the journey in fifteen or sixteen days only; whereas, on going, it took him forty-nine days. This difference may perhaps be accounted for, on account of the incumbrances and slow movement of the army. A. S.
[72]The Sheikh says “he went” through the Kanoom (or Kanem) road, which is by the north side of the lake; and the difference of time occupied in the journey out and home may therefore be easily accounted for, by supposing him to have returned across the Shary by the southern end of the lake, this road being much the shortest, as will appear on referring to the
map. Indeed, I see no other way of accounting for the difference.
D. D.
No. XII.
Translation of an Arabic MS. brought by Captain Clapperton from the Interior of Africa, containing a geographical and historical Account of the Kingdom of Tak-roor, now under the Control of Sultan Mohammed Bello of Hoossa, extracted from a larger Work composed by the said Sultan.
“In the name of God, the merciful and the clement, &c. &c.
“This is an extract taken from the work entitled, “Enfak El-maysoor, fee tareekh belad Et-tak-roor,” (viz. The Dissolver of Difficulties, in the History of the Country of Tak-roor), composed by the ornament of his time, and the unequalled among his contemporaries, the Prince of the faithful, and defender of the faith, Mohammed Belo, son of the prodigy of his age, the noble Sheikh Ossman,” &c.
PART I.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL ACCOUNT
SECTION I
“The first province of this dominion (Tak-roor), on the east side, is, as it is supposed, Foor (Darfoor); and, next to it, on the west side, are those of Wa-da-i, and Baghar-mee. Foor is an extensive country, containing woods, and rivers, and fields fit for cultivation. Its inhabitants are partly composed of itinerants who became settlers, and partly of Arabs who still wander about; and it contains a great number of herdsmen, or graziers of cattle. The food of these inhabitants is the dokhn dura (millet), and the daj’r, or peas. Mooslemanism spread itself very much in this province, and most of its inhabitants perform the pilgrimage; and, it is said, have great respect for the pilgrims, and interrupt them not on their way.
“The inhabitants of Wa-da-i and Baghar-mee are nearly of the same description. Baghar-mee, however, is now desolated. The cause of its ruin was, as they say, the misconduct of her king, who, having increased in levity and licentiousness to such a frightful degree, as even to marry his own daughter, God Almighty caused Saboon, the Prince of Wa-da-i, to march against him, and destroy him, laying waste, at the same time, all his country, and leaving the houses uninhabited, as a signal chastisement for his impiety.
“These provinces are bounded on the north by deserts and dry sands, which, in the spring only, are frequented by herdsmen; and on the south by a great many countries, inhabited by various tribes of Soodan, each of whom speak a different language, and among whom Mooslemanism is not much spread.
“Adjoining this country, Baghar-mee, on the west side, is the province of Barnoo, which contains rivers, and forests, and extensive sands. It has always been well peopled, even before the last mentioned country, and its extent and wealth are unequalled by any part of this tract of the earth. Its inhabitants are the Barbar, the Felateen, the before-mentioned Arabs, and a great many of the slaves of the Barbar. These Barbars are of the remnants of those who first inhabited the country between Zanj and Abyssinia, and who were expelled from Yemen by Hemeera[73] , subsequent to their establishment in that country by Africus. The cause of their being brought to Yemen was, as it is related, as follows:—While Africus reigned over Yemen, and the Barbars in Syria, the inhabitants of the latter country, being oppressed by the iniquities and impiety of their rulers, applied to Africus to deliver them from their hands, and, at the same time, they proclaimed and acknowledged him as their legal sovereign. He marched against the Barbars, fought and destroyed them, except the children, whom he kept in Yemen as slaves and soldiers. After his death, and the elapse of a long period, they rebelled against Hemeera, who then ruled Yemen. He fought and turned them out of that country; whence they emigrated to a spot near Abyssinia (the coast of the Red Sea facing Mokha), where they took refuge. They then went to Kanoom, and settled there, as strangers, under the government of the Tawarék, who were a tribe
related to them, and called Amakeetan. But they soon rebelled against them, and usurped the country. Fortune having assisted them, their government flourished for some time, and their dominion extended to the very extremity of this tract of the earth; and Wa-da-i and Baghar-mee, as well as the country of Hoosa, with those parts of the province of Bow-sher which belong to it, were in their possession. In the course of time, however, their government became weakened, and their power destroyed.
SECTION II.
“Adjoining this province (Barnou), on the south side, is that of Aáheer, which is spacious, and contains extensive plains. It is inhabited by the Tawarék, and by some remnants of the Sonhajá, and the Soodan. This province was formerly in the hands of the Soodan inhabitants of Ghoobér; but five tribes of the Tawarék, called Amakeetan, Tamkak, Sendal, Agdálar, and Ajdaraneen, came out of Aowjal, and took it from them; and, after having settled themselves, they agreed to nominate a prince to rule over them, in order to render justice to the weak against the powerful. They appointed a person of the family of Ansatfén; but they soon quarrelled among themselves, and dismissed him. They then nominated another, and continued upon this system, viz. whenever a prince displeased them, they dethroned him, and appointed a different one. These Tawaréks were of the remnants of the Barbar, who spread themselves over Africa at the time of its conquest.
“The Barbars are a nation, descendants of Abraham;—though it is stated that they descended from Yafet (Japhet); and others say, from Gog and Magog, whom “the two horned” Alexander (the great) immured[74]; but that, at the time, a tribe of them, happening to be at Ghair-oon, remained there, and intermarried with the Turks and Tattars.
“It is likewise stated that they (the Barbars) originated from the children of the Jan, or Jinn (Demon), under the following circumstances:—A company of them having gone to Jerusalem, and slept during the night in a plain there, their women became pregnant
by the Jinn of that spot. They are, therefore, naturally inclined to blood-shedding, plundering, and fighting. It is also said, that they were the people who slew the prophets Zachariah and Eliah; and that, after leaving Palestine, they proceeded westwards till they arrived at Wa-leeba and Morakéba,—two towns in the interior, west of Egypt, where the Nile does not reach, but the inhabitants drink the rain water[75],—where they fixed their residence for some time. They then divided themselves into different tribes, and proceeded westwards in Africa. The tribes of Zedata and Magh-yala first entered the Gharb, and inhabited the mountains. These were followed by that of Láwata, who inhabited the country of Enttablos (Tripoli), which is Barka. They afterwards spread themselves over the interior of the Gharb, till they reached the country of Soossa, where the tribe of Hawazna took possession of the city of Lebda, and the tribe of Nafoosa entered the city of Ssabra, and expelled the Room (Greeks or Romans) who then ruled there.
“It is again stated that they descended from Farek, son of Yonssar, son of Ham; and that, when Yonssar conquered Africa, they spread themselves over the Gharb, and first inhabited Tunis. Thence they proceeded in tribes towards the southern parts of the Gharb, which communicates with the country of Soodan, where they settled at Aowjal, Fazaran, Ghadamess, and Ghata.
“Thus they came in five tribes from Aowjal, as before mentioned, and conquered this province (Aáheer), as before stated.
SECTION III.
“Next to the above-mentioned province, on the right hand side, and west of Barnoo, the country of Howssa lies. It consists of seven provinces, to each of which a prince is appointed to superintend its affairs, and the inhabitants of the whole speak one language. The central province of this kingdom is Kashnah, the most extensive is Zag-Zag, the most warlike is Ghoobér, and the most fertile is Kanoo.
“It contains rivers, woods, sands, mountains, valleys, and thickets inhabited by the Soodans (who originated from the slaves of the Barbars, and from the people of Barnoo), the Falateen, and the
Tawarék. It is presumed that the first father of the Soodans of this country was a slave, named Ba-oo, belonging to one of the former kings of Barnoo; and, on this account we said above, their origin was from the slaves of the Barbars, and the people of Barnoo.
“My friend, the prince of the faithful, Mohammed El-bákery, son of Sultan Mohammed El-ad-dal, informed me that the inhabitants of Kashnah, Kanoo, Zag-Zag, Dor, or Dowry, Ranoo, and Yareem, originated from the children of the above-named slave, Ba-oo, but that the people of Ghoobér are free born; because their origin was from the Copts of Egypt, who had emigrated into the interior of the Gharb, or western countries. This tradition he found in the records which they possess.
“These seven provinces (of Howssa) contain a great many wonderful and rare things; and the first who ruled over them was, as it is stated, ’Amenáh, daughter of the Prince of Zag-Zag. She conquered them by the force of her sword, and subjected them, including Kashnah and Kanoo, to be her tributaries. She fought, and took possession of the country of Bow-sher, till she reached the coast of the ocean on the right hand and west side. She died at Atágára, or Ataghér.
“In consequence of these conquests, the province of Zag-Zag is the most extensive in the kingdom of Howssa, including in it the country of Bow-sher; which consists of various provinces inhabited by tribes of Soodan.
“Among the provinces of Bow-sher, the following are the most considerable:—First is Ghoo-wary, which contains seven divisions, inhabited by seven tribes of Soodan, who speak one language, and who have not embraced Mooslimanism. Second is Ghoondar. Third is Reer-wa, or Rear-wee, which contains a lead mine. Fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, are Yass, Kodoor, Kotoo, and Aádám. Eighth is another Kotoo, which contains a copper mine, and one of alum. And ninth is Kornorfa, which embraces about twenty divisions, ruled by one king, who often sallied forth upon Kanoo and Barnoo, and caused much desolation. A gold mine is found in it, as likewise one of salt, and another of antimony. Near to this province there is an
anchorage or harbour for the ships of the Christians, who are sent by two sovereigns to traffic or trade with the people of Soodan.
“The province of Atagára, or Ataghér, is likewise one of the most extensive in the territory of Zag-Zag; and near it there is also an anchorage or harbour for the ships of the said Christians. Both these places are on the coast of the ocean.
“In all the above-mentioned provinces of Bow-sher and Zag-Zag, Mohammedanism was not known before our conquest.
SECTION IV
“West of Kashnah and Ghoobér there are seven different provinces, extending into the territory of Howssa, which are— Zanfarah, Kabi, Ya-ory, Noofee, Yarba, Barghoo, and Ghoorma. To each of these there is a prince appointed as governor.
“With regard to Zanfarah, it is presumed that the first father of its inhabitants was from Kashnah, and their mother from Ghoobér. They had the government of the province in their own hands, and their authority increased after the decline of the power of the people of Kabi. They had once a very ambitious sultan, named Yá-koob (Jacob) ben Bub, who, on coming into power, marched against Kabí, and conquered and ruined most of its towns and villages. He likewise went to Kashnah, and conquered the greatest part of it. Their power, however, was destroyed by one of the sultans of Ghoobér, whose name was Bá-bari, and who, after taking possession of their country (Zanfarah), entailed it upon his generation for a period of fifty years, till they were conquered by us.
“Kabí is an extensive province, containing rivers, forests, and sands. Its inhabitants, it is supposed, had their first father from Sanghee, and their mother from Kashnah. They ruled their own country, and their government flourished very much during the reign of Sultan Kantá, who, it is said, was a slave of the Falateen. He governed with equity, conquered the country, and established peace in its very extremities and remotest places. His conquests, it is stated, extended to Kashnah, Kanoo, Ghoobér, Zag-Zag, and the country of Aáheer; but having oppressed the inhabitants of some of
