ARE YOU READY TO BRING HISTORY TO LIFE FOR YOUR STUDENTS?
Dive deeper into World War I history than ever before with the help of the National WWI Museum and Memorial. Set aside the textbooks and engage your students with:
Online Exhibitions
An Interactive WWI Timeline
Primary Source Lesson Plans
Online Collections Database
Videos, Articles and More!
NCSS OFFICERS
Tina M. Ellsworth, Ph.D. (President) University of Central Missouri, Warrensburg, MO
Joe Schmidt (President-Elect) Bill of Rights Institute, Augusta, ME
David Kendrick (Vice President) Loganville High School, Loganville, GA
Jennifer Morgan (Past President) West Salem Middle School, West Salem, WI
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
CherylAnne Amendola Montclair Kimberley Academy Montclair, NJ (2027)
Alex Cuenca Indiana University, Bloomington, IN (2026)
Carly Donick Cabrillo Middle School, Ventura, CA (2026)
Terrell Fleming Prince Edward County Public Schools Farmville, VA (2027)
Kimberly Huffman Wayne County Schools, Smithville, OH (2027)
Stephen Masyada Lou Frey Institute and the Florida Joint Center for Citizenship Orlando, FL (2027)
Heather Nice Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, VA (2026)
Stephanie Nichols Narragansett Elementary School, Gorham, ME (2028)
Renita Parks Memphis, TN (2028)
Marc Turner Spring Hill High School, Columbia, SC (2026)
Gabriel Valdez Fort Worth Independent, School District, Fort Worth, TX (2028)
Anne Walker Edison High School, Alexandria, VA (2025)
ONLINE: Visit us at www.socialstudies.org/publications and www.ingentaconnect. com/content/ncss.
READERS: The editors welcome suggestions, letters to the editor, and manuscripts to our peer-reviewed journal. Guidelines at www.socialstudies.org/publications; submit at www.editorialmanager.com/ncssjournals; questions to publications@ ncss.org. Contributors express their own views, reflecting divergent opinions. Send manuscripts for departments to the department editors.
DELIVERY AND CHANGE OF ADDRESS: View and update your record, www.social studies.org/membership; send new address to membership@ncss.org; or call 800-296-7840 ext. 111. Callers outside the U.S. and Canada use 301-588-1800 ext. 111.
PERMISSION to reproduce articles for academic use, contact Copyright Clearance Center, Academic Permissions Service, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA, 01923; 978-750-8400 (phone), 978-750-4470 (fax).
ADVERTISING: Maribell Abeja-DeVitto, Account Manager, MAbejaDeVitto@smith bucklin.com; 312-673-5483 Visit www.socialstudies.org/advertising for rates and specifications.
INDEXED by Institute of Education Sciences, eric.ed.gov and by ProQuest, www. proquest.com.
POSTMASTER: Periodicals postage paid at Silver Spring, MD, and additional mailing offices. Send address changes to Social Education, NCSS, 8555 Sixteenth St. Suite 500, Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA
NCSS EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Kelly McFarland Stratman
DEPUTY EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
Joy Lindsey
NCSS DIRECTORS
Ashanté Horton Director of Events
Timothy Daly Director of Operations
EDITORIAL STAFF
Jennifer Bauduy Senior Editor
Laura Godfrey Associate Editor
Rich Palmer Art Manager
SOCIAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT EDITORS
Andrea S. Libresco, Jeannette Balantic Elementary Education
Michael J. Berson, Meghan McGlinn Manfra Instructional Technology
Tiffany Willey Middleton Lessons on the Law
Patricia G. Avery Research and Practice
Lee Ann Potter Sources and Strategies, Kathy Swan, John Lee, S.G. Grant Teaching the C3 Framework
Become an NCSS member!
Use your smartphone’s camera to scan this QR code or go to www. socialstudies.org/membership.
MEMBERSHIP in the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) is open to any person or institution interested in the social studies. All members receive the NCSS journal of their choice (Social Education or Social Studies and the Young Learner), as well as the e-newsletter, The Social Studies Professional (two issues per month), access to the online NCSS publication archives, the online Middle Level Learning supplement, and discounts on NCSS conference registration, books, and professional development programs.
Regular membership rates for individuals are $90 per year. Rates for students and retired persons are $53 per year. For rates and benefits of institutional membership, and further information on all levels of membership, go to www.socialstudies.org/membership.
SUBSCRIPTIONS to Social Education are available to non-member institutions. A print-only subscription is $114 per year. Online subscriptions for Social Education are available through the IngentaConnect platform. Visit www.socialstudies.org/ publications/subscriptions and www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ncss. The online subscription is worldwide, IP supported, and SERU friendly for $199 per year. The online-plus-print subscription is $252 in the United States (add $11 for Canada and $45 international to cover mailings).
SINGLE COPIES of Social Education are $6.00 (member price), $7.95 (non-members) plus shipping and handling. Contact 1-800-683-0812. Single articles are available (pdf: $14.95 for non-members) at www.ingentaconnect.com/content.ncss. NCSS members can access articles through the online archives.
P.O. BOX: To become a member or subscribe (as an institution) by mail, send a check to NCSS, P.O. Box 79078, Baltimore, MD 21279-0078.
RETURN ADDRESS: Social Education, NCSS, 8555 Sixteenth St., Suite 500, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA.
NCSS Notebook
When I retired after a 41-year career as a social studies educator in May of 2024, I fully expected my time to be spent volunteering and cleaning up the house! I was, of course, surprised, humbled, and to be honest, a bit nervous about assuming the role of interim executive director for NCSS in early October 2024. I knew of the passion of our members, the energy of our board of directors, and was quickly struck by the dedication and tireless work of our staff. All of those factors were on full display at the 104th NCSS annual conference in Boston.
When I took on this role, I was committed to working collectively to engage in an open and transparent process to hire the next NCSS executive director. The board of directors and I are grateful for the partnership with Good Insight, a Washington, D.C.-based executive search firm, which conducted a nationwide search that led us to our new executive director, Kelly McFarland Stratman. No one is more excited about the future of NCSS under Kelly’s leadership than me.
I’ve been consistently inspired by the dedication of our members—educators, scholars, and advocates—who champion the importance of social studies education. Witnessing your passion for fostering informed and engaged citizens has reinforced my belief in the transformative power of our field, particularly during these interesting times.
Thank you for entrusting me with this responsibility. It has been a privilege to contribute to an organization that plays such a crucial role in shaping the future of social studies education. I look forward to working with you in the future in “Solidarity in Social Studies.”
Welcome to the September issue of Social Education. This issue is especially significant to me as it is the first to be published since I started in the role of executive director at NCSS. Like so many of you, I have dedicated my life to promoting civic education and engagement, empowering the next generation of leaders, and advocating for a healthy, vibrant democracy. I am honored to be leading this prestigious organization into its next chapter in pursuit of its vision of a world in which all students are educated and inspired for lifelong inquiry and informed civic action.
This issue reflects that vision. Heather Nice and Alexander S. Butler explore the history of voting rights and current challenges using primary sources and analysis of discriminatory practices. Olivia Eve Gross introduces us to a studentfounded program rooted in constitutional law that demonstrates how structured debate, close reading of primary texts, and student-led publication can foster civil discourse, critical thinking, and constructive disagreement. Cheryl Lederle and Stacie Moats share an engaging classroom lesson on how the Constitution shaped the U.S. response to Pearl Harbor that can deepen student understanding of war powers. And, there is so much more.
For more than a century, NCSS has been advocating and building capacity for high-quality social studies. Our mission remains as vital today as it did at the organization ’ s founding. In fact, we believe that our democracy depends upon it.
Later this year, educators, administrators, and practitioners will gather in Washington, D.C., for our annual conference under this theme. Incredible speakers and sessions are scheduled, and our nation ’ s capital provides a powerful backdrop for the work we will do together.
I am looking forward to being in community with so many of you in December. What could be more powerful and uplifting than thousands
Anton Schulzki was NCSS Interim Executive Director in 2024–2025 and was 2021–2022 NCSS President.
gathered in the spirit of learning, collaboration, and curiosity around our mission?
NCSS has always centered educators—supporting them, elevating them, and (we hope) enriching them. Teaching is a calling and a passion, and it is a very difficult vocation. In this moment in our nation’s history, that level of difficulty can feel especially heavy for social studies teachers. As we start a new school year, I want to extend my gratitude to each of you for your role in advancing social studies education, for your dedication to your students, and for your part in sustaining our democracy. Thank you for your tenacity and commitment!
NCSS Notebook
As always, we welcome your feedback on this issue at socialed@ncss.org
Kelly McFarland Stratman is the Executive Director of NCSS
Find more about the NCSS 105th Annual Conference. Use your smartphone’s camera to scan this QR code
Surviving with the Tools at Hand: Using Storytelling to Teach 9/11
Jennifer Lagasse and the 9/11 Memorial & Museum Education Department
“That morning, the difference between life and death was seconds and inches.” — Jules Naudet1
For Jan Demczur, September 11, 2001, began like any normal Tuesday. He clocked in promptly at 6 a.m. and began his work as a window washer at the World Trade Center.2 He spent the next few hours cleaning the glass in the upper floors of the North Tower before heading down to a cafeteria near the 44th floor Sky Lobby—an area where people could transfer between local and express elevators—to grab a quick breakfast.3 Jan sipped his coffee, enjoying an unobstructed view of a cloudless blue sky.4 After breakfast, Jan grabbed his squeegee and trusty green bucket and hurried
to make it onto a departing express elevator, sticking the handle of his squeegee between the doors to keep them from closing.5 Safely inside, Jan and five male strangers began their ascent up the building.
That ascent was soon disrupted when Jan felt the elevator shake from side to side and begin to drop. He managed to push the emergency stop button, bringing the elevator to a halt.6 The six confused passengers inside had no way of knowing that a plane had just been deliberately flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center more than 40 floors above them, but when smoke began to enter the elevator car, they knew they needed to find a way out.7
Working together, Jan and the other men pried open the elevator doors, but on the other side, they were confronted by a wall with the number “50” stenciled on it.8 The express elevator they were on did not stop at this floor, so there was no exit. After closer inspection, they realized the wall was made of sheetrock, which could be cut with a sharp object; so the men leveraged the best tool they had available: the thin brass blade at the end of Jan’s squeegee.9
Taking turns, they chiseled their way through a first and then a second layer of sheetrock. While Jan was carving through a third layer, the squeegee blade slipped from his hand, falling down the elevator shaft.10 Refusing to give up, he and the other passengers used the brass squeegee handle, their fists, and their feet to punch through the remaining layer of drywall and tile, creating
A view of the Twin Towers from the Hudson River.
a hole just large enough for them to wriggle out one at a time into a bathroom.11 Then all six men walked down 50 flights of stairs, exiting the North Tower just minutes before its total collapse.12 They all survived.
Jan’s story is remarkable, but it is also at its heart deeply human and invites us to consider a monumental historical event at human scale. On 9/11, seemingly mundane decisions—stopping to grab a coffee or rushing to catch an elevator— might have made the difference between life and death. When asked why he chose to speak about his experiences, Jan remarked, “More than 150 people I knew ... did not survive. Now I’m sharing this ... because it’s history, [so that] the next generation of young people, they know.”13
Jules and Gédéon Naudet share their story from inside the 9/11 Memorial & Museum.
Survivor Stories: The Naudet Brothers
Jules and Gédéon Naudet are documentary filmmakers who captured the only video footage of hijacked Flight 11 striking the North Tower and footage from inside the Twin Towers on 9/11. The brothers, who had been working on a documentary about rookie firefighters at the time, shared their story as part of the Museum’s Annual Anniversary Digital Learning Experience. You can access it by visiting www.911memorial.org/webinars/naudet
Tell students that they will be hearing from two brothers who witnessed and survived the 9/11 attacks that day. As they listen to Jules and Gédéon’s story, ask them to consider the following questions:
• Describe what Jules and Gédéon were originally doing at a firehouse. Why do they separate on the morning of 9/11?
• Jules says that “the difference between life and death was seconds and inches” on 9/11. What information does that quotation give you about what it was like to be at the World Trade Center that day?
• Jules and Gédéon spent most of the morning of 9/11 apart from one another. What was similar in their experiences? What was different?
• What do you think Jules means when he says “it is in the darkest of night you can see the most beautiful light” as he talks about the response to the 9/11 attacks? Why is this an important part of the 9/11 story?
For more stories from first-responders, survivors, family members, and witnesses of the attacks, visit the Digital Learning Experience Archives at https://911memorial.org/ learn/students-and-teachers/DLE-archives.
Jan Demczur, who worked as a window washer at the World Trade Center, holds a brass squeegee blade similar to the one that helped save his life.
Photograph by Ben Hider.
Photograph by David Starke.
Lessons on the Law
High School Law Review: Teaching Students to Agreeably Disagree
Olivia Eve Gross
I. Introduction: The Question That Started It All
From an early age, I was captivated by the U.S. Supreme Court. Long before I understood the technicalities of its proceedings, I was drawn to its core practice: giving equal weight to opposing arguments. In the Court’s chamber, even the most contentious disputes are presented with the presumption that both sides merit full and serious consideration. This struck me as remarkable—an institution dedicated not to preventing or avoiding disagreement, but to embracing and elevating it into something constructive and essential. The Court offered a forum showcasing the very thing that our society increasingly lacks: parties with the ability to disagree respectfully and deliberatively, without descending into hostility.
When I entered high school, I noticed a troubling gap as my peers and I began muddling through our most formative years of social, political, and intellectual development: there were no venues for grounded, considerate debate of topics and issues we were learning about in our coursework and confronting in our lives. Too often, conversations either shied away from difficult topics or degenerated into volleys of rehearsed ideological rhetoric. In class, we rarely were asked to engage directly with primary documents such as the Constitution, Supreme Court
opinions, or the Federalist Papers—the very texts that could anchor our discourse in shared facts, common premises, and historical context. This shortcoming left me with a question which since has become the foundation of my work: How do we learn to agreeably disagree?
Determined to investigate this dilemma further, and with the encouragement of faculty and administrators, I founded the very first chapter of High School Law Review at my own school. What began as a forum for improving civic literacy quickly revealed itself
to be something far more transformational and impactful. As we engaged with constitutional law, we discovered an unexpected power in its structure. The discipline of close reading, the protocols of constitutional argumentation, and the shared reference points of founding texts and adjudicated precedents created not just better debaters, but a more civil, stronger community. Arguments became less about winning and more about understanding; when there was no resolution, there at least was mutual acceptance and tolerance of differences. Disagreement, far from something to avoid, became a pathway to deeper insight. In our inaugural chapter of High School Law Review, we discovered that constitutional law is not only an essential resource for understanding democracy— it also is a model for addressing one of the most urgent needs of our time: teaching people how to disagree, agreeably.
II. The First High School Law Review
At the heart of our chapter were weekly meetings, each structured to bring constitutional questions to life. We selected Supreme Court cases to debate, working directly with the majority and dissenting opinions. Students prepared arguments grounded in the text, not talking points, which immediately shifted the tone of our discussions. What might have felt like a personal confrontation in another setting became an intellectual challenge to be undertaken together, framed by shared respect for the law’s complexities and constraints.
We invited guest speakers from law journals and constitutional scholars to join our conversations, exposing students to the real-world practice of legal reasoning. These voices reinforced an early lesson we quickly internalized: Contentious issues become more approachable when discussed through the vehicle of constitutional law. Anchored in primary sources, students found they could engage deeply with controversial questions—not by avoiding disagreement, but by embracing it within a structured and principled framework.
One of the most transformative shifts came when students learned to separate the person from the position. In heated debates over cases like Tinker v. Des Moines or Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado, I watched my peers wrestle with difficult questions of speech and rights. But something
clicked when they realized that disagreement on issues did not connote disrespect for each other. Instead, we began to treat disagreement as an invitation to practice intellectual—and interpersonal—humility. Opinions were no longer ad hominem attacks, but contributions to a shared exploration of constitutional meaning and present-day application.
I still remember a particular breakthrough moment, during a debate on New York Times v. Sullivan, when a student who was passionately defending broad protections for press freedom turned to a peer who was arguing for tighter limits on defamatory speech and declared: “I still completely disagree—but I see the logic in your position.” There was no sarcasm, no dismissiveness, just an honest recognition of the counterargument’s merit despite its dissension. At that moment, the energy in the room shifted from confrontation to curiosity and cordiality.
These revelatory experiences were the inspiration and imperative for expanding High School Law Review into something much larger than a single school chapter. What we had built—a space where students could confront disagreement with rationality and respect—felt too valuable to keep to ourselves. This was not some extracurricular activity to burnish our college applications; it was a platform that could benefit our peers and their interactions everywhere—in their student circles today, and in the communities they will go on to
define tomorrow. Structured encounters with constitutional debate could be scaled-up, bringing the same transformation to classrooms and communities far beyond our own. What started as an experiment at my school grew into a conviction: Young people, given the right framework, can lead the way in building a more thoughtful, more civil, and more productive democratic culture.
III. Scaling the Vision: From One Chapter to a National Program
When I arrived at the University of Chicago, I carried with me both the spirit of our High School Law Review chapter and the still-unresolved question at its genesis: How do we agreeably disagree? I was drawn to the interdisciplinary major Fundamentals: Issues and Texts because its curriculum tackled enduring human questions through the close reading of primary texts. In every class, we returned to first principles— grappling not with summaries or interpretations, but with the original words of Plato, Hobbes, Rousseau, and other essential social, political, and educational thought leaders as well as, of course, the U.S. Constitution itself.
This approach to learning felt deeply familiar. It echoed what I had discovered with my peers back in our inaugural High School Law Review chapter: that working directly with foundational texts cultivates both intellectual rigor and humility. Wrestling with the interpretation of such primary sources
Accordingly, and perhaps most importantly, High School Law Review invites students into issues that are inherently charged with tension. Rather than sidestep difficult conversations, students are asked to lean in to them, to confront and grapple with complicated, contentious topics through a regimen of primary source referencing, comprehensive inquiry, and reasoned debate— all while managing the often intense intellectual pressures and precarious interpersonal dynamics of a dispute. We call this practice agreeable disagreement. In our program, it is not a theoretical ideal but a teachable, transferable skillset. Students learn debate standards and protocols that emphasize logic over rhetoric, clarity of expression, and accommodation of opposing views—including listening fully before responding, a simple courtesy which almost invariably transforms the entire tone of discussion from adversarial to mutually enlightening. The goal is not promotion of consensus for its own sake, but creation of conditions where genuine understanding can emerge.
A hallmark of High School Law Review is its focus on both speaking and writing, integral skills that traditional education often treats separately. The ability to translate critical thinking into effective communication—to pose, assert, examine, challenge, or defend an idea or position—orally as well as in written form is a prime objective of the program. Requiring
students to deeply engage with a topic through both modes of expression improves their performance in each. On the one hand, students come to recognize that the stakes are different between extemporaneous comments said aloud in the heat of debate and a thesis committed to publication, inspiring greater consideration and clarity in their writing. On the other hand, as students more carefully craft their written treatment of a topic, they become better prepared and more articulate as orators and interlocutors on that topic, and in general. This tandem approach fosters a deeper sense of intellectual responsibility, and greater integrity, in how they communicate in the world.
The capstone of a chapter’s activity is its law review publication. Through classroom debate and dialogue, students naturally discover topics that ignite their interest. They then refine their ideas and present them in their chapter’s law review publication. This provides a meaningful outlet for and collaborative culmination of the knowledge, analyses, and perspectives—and skills—that the students have developed through their engagement on those topics.
For schools that choose to participate, we extend the learning experience further. We compile the local chapter law review articles in our national publication, giving students the opportunity to read how their peers—from Idaho to Florida— approach similar issues and constitutional questions. This
exposure encourages students to recognize and appreciate the diversity of perspectives that exist across different communities, preparing them for the broader world that awaits them when they enter college, trade school, military service, or the workforce.
Our national competition reinforces this bridge. In a landscape where STEM competitions have long dominated, High School Law Review fills an important gap. Students selected for our national publication are eligible for up to $20,000 in scholarships, generously supported by our higher education partners. This not only rewards their intellectual achievements but signals that excellence in the humanities and civic discourse is equally worthy of recognition. It is also deeply inspiring for students from vastly different communities to see their work published alongside one another—an early reminder that they will soon share campuses, workplaces, and the responsibilities of citizenship in a shared democracy. Through this layered process—rigorous study, respectful debate, meaningful publication, and national dialogue—High School Law Review prepares students not just for academic success but for productive citizenship. The skills and discipline they develop do not stay confined to the classroom; they carry them into their communities, applying the habits of careful listening, critical reasoning, and constructive disagreement in educational settings, civic conversations, political action,
and everyday life. In this way, the program’s impact endures well beyond graduation, shaping a generation of leaders who are able to address challenges, effect change, and navigate differences with integrity and civility.
V. High School Law Review, in Review
In the five years since we expanded High School Law Review from a project at my school to a program available nationwide, the feedback has been both affirming and instructive. Time and again, students have shared how their experience has both expanded their knowledge and reshaped their thinking—improving their understanding of the law and its connection to their lives, and raising their awareness, appreciation, and acceptance of diverse, often conflicting viewpoints. As one student noted, “The discussions we have about various pieces of legislation and judicial decisions are very insightful, and it
is very interesting seeing the many different perspectives that can be taken on any single decision.” This comment also is indicative of another key finding: When given the tools and structure, students can rise to the challenge of engaging with complex concepts, documents, and discourse.
The editor-in-chief at a different chapter explained what the program has meant to her: “Law Review is so unique because it provides us with an outstanding, detailed legal writing curriculum while also giving me the freedom to make creative choices and demonstrate leadership.” Her assessment describes exactly what we had hoped to build: a platform underpinned by academic rigor yet able to truly engage students by enfranchising them—dynamic and democratic, not didactic.
This expansiveness, along with the real-world relevance of the subject matter, also has translated into accessibility. Faculty advisors have reported
that, contrary to their initial expectations, High School Law Review has not become the exclusive domain of aspiring attorneys and high achievers seeking intellectual sparring sessions. Rather, the program has been embraced by a variety of students, including many who knew nothing about law: Some were prompted by a Supreme Court case in the news or a sociopolitical issue of interest to them, some were drawn by the forum for expression or the collaborative elements, some were foreignborn students hoping to learn American civics and improve their English language skills. A common observation which has surfaced is that, because it impacts us all, constitutional law is a powerful way to reach students who might not typically feel connected to or passionate about social studies.
One of the clearest insights from the experience of High School Law Review courses is that structure is fundamental to fostering genuine inquiry. While open dialogue is often thought to arise organically, productive and respectful discourse typically depends on intentional design. When students engage with clear frameworks for debate, closely study primary sources, and follow established norms of civility, they are more likely to approach difficult topics with confidence and care. Within these structured environments, intellectual curiosity can take root and flourish.
The program also highlights the value of early exposure to civic discourse. When students
this approach, the underlying principles are readily transferable. With careful design, early engagement, and trust in students’ capacity for mature inquiry, classrooms across a range of settings can foster the habits of civic participation and leadership that extend well beyond school walls.
VI. Conclusion: A Call to Cultivate Civility
The central question remains: How do we agreeably disagree? Experiences drawn from classrooms suggest that the answer lies not in passive tolerance, but in active engagement—through curiosity, deliberate practice, and respect for differing viewpoints. When students are supported in these areas, they are better prepared to approach disagreement as an opportunity for understanding, rather than as a barrier to dialogue.
Fundamentally, these are not abstract academic exercises; they are foundational life skills. Whether students pursue higher education, military service, careers, or community leadership, the ability to engage thoughtfully with differing perspectives is essential. Not every student will participate in formal debate or public advocacy, but all will encounter situations—personal, professional, and civic—that require navigating disagreement with care. Providing tools for constructive argument, attentive listening, and thoughtful exposure to a range of viewpoints equips students for these everyday realities. These
capacities are not innate but cultivated through repeated practice in structured, supportive settings.
Such an approach broadens the scope of civic education. Beyond teaching rights and responsibilities, it prepares students to approach complex conversations with clarity and composure. In structured environments, students learn to see disagreement not as a personal affront or a failure of community, but as an expected feature of dialogue and decisionmaking. They come to recognize that differing perspectives, when explored with respect, enrich their understanding and sharpen their thinking.
For educators, this underscores the value of integrating opportunities for structured discourse into the curriculum. Methods such as debate, close analysis of primary texts, and student-led writing provide meaningful practice in the skills of reasoning, reflection, and respectful engagement. These experiences not only build intellectual discipline but also prepare students for a wide range of environments they will encounter beyond the classroom—in universities, workplaces, service commitments, and civic life.
The question of how we agreeably disagree does not yield a simple answer. Yet, educational practices that emphasize structure, respect, and curiosity offer a durable foundation. These habits of mind prepare students to meet the challenges of adult life with greater confidence and care,
contributing to both personal growth and the health of the communities they will help define and influence.
To learn more about High School Law Review, visit https://highschoollawreview. com.
Olivia Eve Gross is the Founder and CEO of The High School Law Review, which offers curriculum and programs promoting the study of constitutional law and the value of dissent to students worldwide. Olivia recently graduated from the University of Chicago, where she studied Fundamentals: Issues and Texts, a multidisciplinary major that examines a central question through classical texts. She also earned a Master’s in International Relations.
Lessons on the Law is produced by the American Bar Association through its Division for Public Education. The ideas and opinions expressed herein are the author’s own and do not necessarily represent official policy of the American Bar Association, its House of Delegates or Board of Governors, or the ABA Standing Committee on Public Education.
Moving?
Keep your Social Education magazine subscription coming. Use the QR code to sign into your online NCSS profile and update your address. It’s easy.
Meeting the Moment: Teaching History and Civics with Controversial Policy Documents
Lightning Peter Jay and Abigail Dym
Nearly a year into Donald Trump’s second presidential term, questions have arisen about whether high school social studies courses are adequately addressing contemporary political developments. In many classrooms, discussions of current political discourse are minimized or avoided, presidential administrations are portrayed as the work of a single individual rather than as the product of complex institutional dynamics, and events of the past fifty years receive scant coverage.1 In a moment marked by resurgent populism, politicized culture conflicts, and a wave of educational censorship laws,2 contemporary teachers’ fears of controversy are understandable. Yet social studies carries a civic mandate: to prepare students to take informed action for the public good. Young people deserve a comprehensive understanding of the diverse actors, institutions, and ideological commitments that shape contemporary policy. If civics and history educators are to prepare engaged and informed democratic citizens, they must be willing (and supported) to thoughtfully incorporate current political issues into their classrooms.
This article uses the Heritage Foundation’s Project 2025 to illustrate two approaches to teaching politics and deepening students’ understanding of the executive branch.3 We outline how high school civics and U.S. history courses might engage with Project 2025 as a central text, explore the challenges of teaching ongoing political movements, and examine the intersection of civics and history. Our lessons follow inquiry-based
social studies principles and use text-centered, student-led discussion to help students explore complex issues and develop participatory democratic skills.4 While many teachers already use approaches such as Socratic seminars, Structured Academic Controversies, and civic litigation—and resources for teaching political content exist5—the sample lessons in this article extend that work by offering strategies for more fully addressing current politics.
What Is Project 2025?
Project 2025 is the ninth edition of Mandate for Leadership, a series of policy recommendations for Republican presidential administrations developed by the conservative Heritage Foundation think tank.6 Project 2025’s nearly 900 pages range from education and health care to defense and housing. While Donald Trump distanced himself from Project 2025 as a candidate, analysts foresaw that his second administration would adopt elements of the plan, including expanding presidential power, defunding or eliminating regulatory agencies and social programs, and replacing nonpartisan civil servants with politically loyal conservative and right-wing appointees.7
Why Teach Project 2025 After the Election?
While Project 2025 emerged during the 2024 campaign, its political and instructional significance extends beyond Donald Trump’s inauguration. As a collaborative document, it represents a key articulation of right-wing beliefs and goals.
The governance changes proposed in Project 2025 will shape future administrations, campaigns, and American life. Just as the document influenced voter perceptions of the 2024 election,8 students of history, civics, and government can gain valuable insights from understanding it as a synthesis of influential conservative ideas.
Although neither of this article’s authors is a political conservative, reading Project 2025 has deepened our understanding of the 2024 election, politics, and the United States. We believe students deserve the same opportunity to engage with social and political realities. While we view some of Project 2025’s recommendations as antidemocratic, we do not assume that all high school students and teachers share our political views, nor do we intend these lessons to serve as political persuasion.
Civics Lesson
Although most states require a civics course or exam for high school graduation, these tend to focus on abstract political theories rather than current events shaping governance.9 As a result, students may fail to understand how political moments, advocacy coalitions, and policies impact daily life. Reading Project 2025 could deepen students’ understanding of key political issues, explore political spectrum variation, and analyze how private lobbying influences government action—all of which align with civics mandates like New York’s Seal of Civic Readiness and Virginia’s required civics curriculum and exam.10
Project 2025 was not intended to be a curriculum. Beyond its political contentiousness, the report spans a dizzying array of policy contexts and is written in dense legalese. To make it accessible to high school students, teachers must adapt the text and structure lessons that engage students and motivate their reading. For example, a comparative lesson could use Project 2025’s chapter on the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Center for American Progress’s (CAP) report A 100 Percent Clean Future11 to show how party ideologies shape government structures. CAP, a liberal counterpart to the Heritage Foundation, provides a foil to ask, “How similar are these visions for U.S. environmental governance?” This question, though limited to one chapter, is an
entry point for student inquiry.
To implement the lesson effectively, it’s important to condense the documents while preserving enough content to empower authentic student inquiry.12 Handouts A and B on pages 211 and 212 offer a sample excerpt, though adaptations will vary by classroom. After an introductory lesson on Heritage, CAP, and the EPA, which can help students grasp the texts’ literal meaning, guide students through three levels of questioning, starting with identifying policy differences. Teachers should resist turning this stage into a debate about the policies’ merits. Because CAP’s recommendations have stronger scientific support than Project 2025’s, a debate here creates the potential for false equivalence or even endorsing anti-science views. At this stage, the aim is to understand how political processes shape policy and identify the competing visions for governance.
Teachers can deepen discussion by asking students to link party values to each plan’s vision for executive governance. This leads to the key question: “How similar are these visions for U.S. environmental governance?” Because the question is genuinely open, students may arrive at contrasting interpretations—some noting shared political strategies, others highlighting stark differences in approach and legitimacy. With a grounding in executive power, students can engage in a fact-based comparison of the proposals. Project 2025, in particular, presents a radical shift from recent political norms. Teachers should avoid bothsidesism; the point is not to balance views but to show how partisan ideologies shape policy—and how climate action must engage with real power structures.
History Lesson
Another way to teach modern political movements is to place them in historical context. The introduction to Project 2025 frames it as part of the Heritage Foundation’s Mandate for Leadership series, echoing the structure and tone of earlier volumes.13 Comparing the earliest and latest texts offers a case study in change and continuity within one of conservatism’s most influential institutions over 45 years.
Teachers can align this comparison with high continued on page 214
MEETING THE MOMENT from page 210
school U.S. history standards, which in many states include the Reagan administration’s impact.14 Using a historical analogy lesson format,15 teachers might ask, “How similar are Project 2025 and the Mandate for Leadership’s recommendations for the EPA?” As before, the texts should be adapted for student access. Using the same initial excerpt from Project 2025 (Handout A), teachers could provide a shortened version of the Mandate for Leadership’s EPA chapter (Handout C).
Reading for similarities and differences, students may note that some themes have remained consistent. For nearly five decades, the Heritage Foundation has prioritized reducing the EPA’s funding and reach, viewing its mandate as unconstitutionally broad and disproportionate to environmental concerns. However, shifts in tone and topic are evident: unlike the original Mandate, Project 2025 addresses climate change and alternative energy, and is more explicit in framing environmentalism as a threat to liberty. To support
this reading, teachers might use scaffolds such as graphic organizers, guiding questions, model texts, or small group work. The critical step is to establish literal comprehension of the similarities and differences between the texts before students proceed into a whole-group discussion. At the level of comprehension, there are correct and incorrect statements about what each document proposes, and teachers should intervene as needed to build comprehension. Once all students understand the texts, class can proceed to an analytic whole-group discussion.
Teachers can begin the whole-group discussion by having students address the central historical question and evaluate the similarities between the two texts. The goal is to move beyond simple compare and contrast into a discussion of change and continuity over time. This open discussion space allows for diverse interpretations. One student might reasonably argue, “Remove the references to the Biden administration, and it’s still basically the same argument to cut the EPA.”
Another might counter, “No way. Mandate for
Sherburne County coal-fired power plant on the banks of Mississippi River, Becker, Minnesota
Tony Webster/Wikimedia Commons
Leadership made an economic argument about balancing costs and benefits, but Project 2025 is ideological—calling the EPA a threat to liberty. It is a totally different way of thinking.” Both interpretations are grounded in text and justifiable. During the whole-group discussion, the teacher’s role shifts from ensuring comprehension to deepening analysis, prompting contextualization (asking students to consider how the world changed around these authors), and sourcing (asking students to evaluate the reliability of the authors’ descriptions of the EPA).16 By anchoring political texts in historical literacy, teachers help students understand the evolution of conservatism while encouraging independent, evidence-based conclusions.
Conclusion
Some of the challenges posed by this content will be familiar to teachers. Classroom deliberation is complex, and students need substantial support in developing those skills. Preparing discussion lessons involves breaking dense documents into readable excerpts, selecting pithy case studies, and framing questions to open authentic problem-spaces for student discourse.17 Teaching modern politics also invites challenges because the content is closely linked to identity. Some conservative students may experience scrutiny of Project 2025 as an attack, liberal students may resist engagement, and teachers, too, bring their own identities to the room. Administrators or parents might be uncomfortable with political discourse, even though teachers typically handle such topics fairly.18 Still, when teachers scaffold complex texts, create space for student-driven inquiry, and center primary sources, they empower students to practice democratic discourse.19
These lessons are not exhaustive treatments nor do they provide a comprehensive overview. We chose a focused case study related to the EPA to show that engaging with current political content can begin with manageable steps. Though support is limited and the risks are real, we trust teachers to adapt these strategies to their contexts and to prioritize both justice and intellectual rigor. Ultimately, students need political literacy grounded in historical understanding. Movements like Project 2025 will shape future governance. If history instruction ends in the 1980s and
civics stops at the Constitution, students will be unprepared for civic life. Classrooms must bridge history and civics to help students make sense of the present—and shape the future.
Notes
1. American Historical Association, American Lesson Plan: Teaching US History in Secondary Schools (Washington, DC: AHA, 2024); Lightning P. Jay, “The Modern Political Right in United States History Standards,” (Under Review); Li-Ching Ho et al., “Teaching and Learning about Controversial Issues and Topics in the Social Studies: A Review of the Research,” The Wiley Handbook of Social Studies Research (2017): 319-335.
2. Benjamin Justice and Jason Stanley, “Teaching in the Time of Trump,” Social Education 80, no. 1 (2016): 36-41.
3. Project 2025, Mandate for Leadership: The Conservative Promise (Washington, DC: The Heritage Foundation, 2023), https://static.heritage.org/project2025/2025_ MandateForLeadership_FULL.pdf.
4. Alexander Cuenca, “Proposing Core Practices for Social Studies Teacher Education: A Qualitative Content Analysis of Inquiry-Based Lessons,” Journal of Teacher Education 72, no. 3 (2021): 298-313; Diana E. Hess and Paula McAvoy, The Political Classroom: Evidence and Ethics in Democratic Education (Routledge, 2014); National Council for Social Studies, The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards: Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 Civics, Economics, Geography, and History (Silver Spring, MD: NCSS, 2013).
5. Jane C. Lo, Making Classroom Discussions Work: Methods for Quality Dialogue in the Social Studies. Teachers College Press, 2022; Mark Hlavacik and Daniel G. Krutka, “Deliberation Can Wait: How Civic Litigation Makes Inquiry Critical,” Theory & Research in Social Education 49, no. 3 (2021): 418-448; Civic Online Reasoning Resources, Digital Inquiry Group, https:// cor.inquirygroup.org/curriculum/?tab=collections; Educating for American Democracy, Educator Resources, www.educatingforamericandemocracy.org/educatorresources; Generation Citizen, Resource Toolkits, www. generationcitizen.org/what-we-do/resources-toolkits; iCivics, Teacher Resource Library, https://ed.icivics.org/ teachers
6. Rick Perlstein, “Project 2025 … and 1921, and 1973, and 1981,” American Prospect (July 10, 2024), https://prospect. org/politics/2024-07-10-project-2025-republicanpresidencies-tradition; Carlos Lozada, “What I Learned
When I Read 889 Pages of Project 2025,” New York Times, (Feb. 29, 2024).
7. Kim Philips-Fein, “The Conservative Promise,” The Nation (June 4, 2024); Elena Shao and Ashley Wu, “The Many Links Between Project 2025 and Trump’s World,” New York Times (Oct. 22, 2024).
8. Faith Wardwell, “Poll: Project 2025 is Broadly Known and Severely Unpopular with Voters,” NBC News (Sept. 25, 2024).
9. Karon LeCompte, Brooke Blevins, and Brandi Ray, “Teaching Current Events and Media Literacy: Critical Thinking, Effective Communication, and Active Citizenship,” Social Studies and the Young Learner 29, no. 3 (2017): 17-20; Jed Ngalande, “A Century-Plus of Civic Education: What The Textbooks Show,” Hoover Institution Press (Sept. 10, 2024), www.hoover.org/research/centuryplus-civic-education-what-textbooks-show; Suzanne Mettler, “Making What Government Does Apparent to Citizens: Policy Feedback Effects, Their Limitations, and How They Might be Facilitated,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 685, no. 1 (2019): 30-46; Daniel Nohrstedt and Tim Heinmiller, “Advocacy Coalitions as Political Organizations,” Policy and Society 43, no. 3 (2024): 304-316.
10. New York State Education Department, “Seal of Civic Readiness,” 2022; Virginia Department of Education, “Virginia SOL Assessment Program,” 2022.
11. John Podesta, Christy Goldfuss, Trevor Higgins, Bidisha Bhattacharyya, Alan Yu, and Kristina Costa, A 100 Percent Clean Future (Washington, DC: Center for American Progress, 2019), www.americanprogress.org/article/100percent-clean-future.
12. Sam Wineburg and Daisy Martin, “Tampering with History: Adapting Primary Sources for the Struggling Reader,” Social Education 73, no. 5 (September 2009): 212–216.
14. For instance, New York, Standard 11.10b, Louisiana,
standard US.18, and Utah, standard US II 7.4. “New York State Grades 9-12 Social Studies Framework,” 2017, www. nysed.gov/standards-instruction/social-studies; Louisiana Department of Education, “2022 K-12 Louisiana student standards for social studies,” 2023, https://doe.louisiana. gov/docs/default-source/academic-curriculum/k12-louisiana-student-standards-for-social-studies. pdf?sfvrsn=df396518_34; Utah State Board of Education, “Utah Core State Standards for Social Studies,” 2016, https:// schools.utah.gov/curr/socialstudies/utah_core_standards/ UtahCoreStandardsforSocialStudiesGrades712.pdf.
15. Lightning Jay and Abby Reisman, “Teaching Change and Continuity with Historical Analogies,” Social Studies Research and Practice 14, no. 1 (2019): 98-104.
16. Avishag Reisman and Sam Wineburg, “Teaching the Skill of Contextualizing in History,” The Social Studies 99, no. 5 (2008): 202-207.
17. Avishag Reisman, “The ‘Document-based Lesson’: Bringing Disciplinary Inquiry into High School History Classrooms with Adolescent Struggling Readers,” Journal of Curriculum Studies 44, no. 2 (2012): 233-264.
18. AHA, American Lesson Plan: Teaching US History in Secondary Schools
19. Diana Hess and Paula McAvoy, The Political Classroom (Routledge, 2014).
Lightning Peter Jay is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Teaching, Learning, and Educational Leadership at Binghamton University, SUNY. His research focuses on social studies education, teacher education, and making history education more relevant, rigorous, and student-centered.
Abigail Dym is Assistant Professor of Public and Community Studies at Providence College in Rhode Island. Often in mutually beneficial collaborations with social studies educators and students, Abigail researches civic education, political participation, policy implementation, and citizen-state interactions focused on building civic ecosystems.
Teaching Civic Participation and Media Literacy through Online Civic Action
Mark Felton, Ellen Middaugh, William Butchko, and Clay Hale
Political messaging is ubiquitous on social media, and preparing youth for civic life requires confronting how digital platforms shape public opinion. Recent studies show that young voters in the United States get most of their political information from social media.1 Globally, social media use correlates with higher voter turnout and exposure to diverse viewpoints—but also rising polarization and distrust in institutions.2 In this evolving landscape, civic education must equip young people to critically navigate online discourse and empower them to participate responsibly as both consumers and creators of political content.
Educational interventions like those developed by the Digital Inquiry Group, which teach civic online reasoning (defined as “the ability to effectively search for, evaluate, and verify social and political information online”3) have shown promising results.4 However, our research suggests that in naturalistic settings, youth often struggle to apply these strategies when engaging with civic content on social media 5 These platforms require not only information evaluation but also decisions about endorsing, sharing, and commenting, highlighting the need for practice in balancing informational and social-emotional considerations across a range of tasks.
To be empowered as civic actors, students must learn to critically analyze how issues are framed in the media, evaluate the provenance and validity
of information being circulated, and understand the role that technology plays in determining what they encounter online. Students must also learn to advocate for the change they hope to see in the world by articulating a theory of action, identifying clear solutions and tapping into relevant networks of stakeholders to issue carefully crafted calls to action. These skills comprise elements of civic media literacy, or the ability to navigate and use media with civic intentionality.6
Civic Media Literacy
Over the past several years, our team has developed a civic media literacy project that helps students build key skills by researching solutions to local, national, and global issues of their choice.7 The project, which includes five integrated learning activities and a culminating assignment, was designed to complement a 12th-grade government unit on civic action, but can be adapted to any social studies context using the C3 inquiry arc. Our goal with the project was to complement teachers’ civics inquiry units with a set of activities that foster six student learning outcomes essential to civic media literacy:
1. Issue Framing. Students identify how the tone, language and perspective of a post can impact how an intended audience engages with and understands an issue.
2. Systems of Change. Students examine whether and how calls to action engage the needs, concerns and interests of stakeholders, decision makers and those entrusted with policy implementation.
3. Theory of Action. Students analyze a call to action for its clarity, accessibility and persuasiveness for a post’s intended audience.
4. Information & Evidence. Students critique the credibility, accuracy and validity of evidence used to justify claims and the degree to which a post permits such analysis.
5. Audience Engagement. Students analyze how posts are designed to use text, images, video and humor to increase audience engagement with an issue.
6. Circulation Strategies. Students analyze how circulation tools can be used to maximize the visibility and reach of a post.
In our work, we have mapped these six student learning outcomes onto a series of four learning activities and a culminating assignment that asks students to develop civic action posts designed to inform the public and issue a call to action on topics of interest to them.
Learning
Activities
Over the course of our four learning activities, students are introduced to a framework for analyzing six elements of a civic action post, which are aligned with our six student learning outcomes. The framework is introduced holistically so that students understand how the elements of civic action posts work together as a call to action. Therefore, rather than learning the elements one at a time, students apply the entire framework to posts and gradually take on greater responsibility for applying the framework to posts. This gradual release model8 allows students to internalize the analytic framework as they work towards independence in developing their own civic action posts.
Learning Activity #1: Introduction to Media Literacy. In the first lesson activity, teachers introduce students to civic media literacy skills by working together to analyze a civic action post. The goal here is to elicit students’ insights into the ways in which posts can influence an audience through the careful use of language, information, and circulation strategies. Additional notes for teachers, modeling what might unfold as students complete the graphic organizer for this activity, are available online. 9
Step 1 . Initiate a warm-up by introducing students to the civic action post (see Figure 1) and engaging them with its content using the guiding questions on the graphic organizer (Figure 2).
Step 2 . Guide the class as a whole through the process of analyzing the civic action post, recording students’ insights on the graphic organizer. Teachers may opt to have students discuss their answers in table groups before sharing their responses with the whole class to promote higher student engagement with the materials and overall participation.
Step 3 . Introduce the concept of “theory of action,” explaining how civic action posts focus on making change by motivating their intended audience to take direct action on the issue. Thus, a theory of action is a set of assumptions about how a post will prompt civic action by the audience. The teacher can use the bulleted questions in Step 3 of the graphic organizer to introduce students to the range of actions typically proposed in civic action posts.
Teaching tip: There are two general search strategies for finding civic action posts to share in this learning activity. For a user-centered approach, Instagram accounts like @impact cover a wide range of social topics and include sources as a matter of practice that can serve as a good starting place. For a content-centered approach, students can brainstorm a list of hashtags by examining additional hashtags used in posts they find interesting or relevant.
Figure 1. Sample Civic Action Post10
Learning Activity #2: Introduction to Civic Action Assignment. In this learning activity, teachers introduce students to the civic action post assignment, using the materials from learning activity #1 and demonstrating how the rubric (Figure 3) can be applied to that post. In our own work, teachers have had students work in project groups of 3-4. Teachers presented a series of topics and asked students to rank their top three choices. This approach gave teachers the flexibility to assign students to groups while still allowing students to have a voice in the topic selection.Step 1. Introduce the assignment description,11 using the graphic
organizer from the previous activity (Figure 2) to illustrate how it aligns with the learning outcomes (issue framing, systems of change, information and evidence, audience engagement, circulation strategies and theory of action).
Step 2. Distribute the rubric (Figure 3) and guide students through the criteria and performance indicators. Highlight the differences between levels 3 and 4 for each criterion, discussing how posts can be revised to reach level 4. Of the six criteria, students often struggle most with systems of change, especially in addressing root causes.
Step 1: Reviewing a Civic Action Post
1. What is the purpose of this post? What issues does it raise? What are your general opinions about the issue?
Step 2: Analyzing the Civic Action Post
2. Framing the issue. What is the poster trying to accomplish & who is the intended audience? How might the language used in the post affect audience opinion?
3. Systems of change. What solution(s) is being advocated? How does this solution attend to the needs, concerns, and interests of stakeholders, decision makers, and those entrusted with policy implementation?
4. Information and evidence. How do we know if the information being shared is true or valid? If you can’t tell, what information would you need to be able to evaluate it?
5. Audience engagement. What makes this post interesting or not interesting for the intended audience to engage with the content?
6. Circulation Strategies. What strategies are used to make the post easy to discover, like, or share with a relevant network?
Step 3: Identifying the Theory of Action
7. Theory of Action. What kind of action is the poster trying to get people to take? (Check all that apply)
• Are they trying to educate people?
• Get people to vote?
• Ask them to contact elected officials or put pressure on them?
• Ask them to join a group?
• Ask them to give money or time to a cause?
• Ask them to change their behavior?
• Ask them to protest?
• Ask them to do something else?
8. Evaluation. Do you think the approach(es) above will be successful in getting the intended audience to take action? Why or why not? What makes the action seem accessible or compelling to this audience?
Figure 2. Graphic Organizer, Learning Activity #1
Figure 3. Evaluating Civic Action Posts Rubric
Accomplished
Issue Framing
Systems of Change
Introduces the issue in a way that encourages audience engagement with a clearly defined problem and its root causes.
Proposes actions in a way that shows an understanding of how to motivate stakeholders (those affected) and decision makers (those who enact or implement change) as a complex system of change.
Theory of Action
Information & Evidence
The post advocates for specific action(s) for the audience to take in ways that seem accessible and compelling to the audience.
Accurate, cited evidence presented in a way that addresses the quality of the sources, or encourages the audience to fact-check sources and/or learn more.
Developing
Introduces an issue in a way that encourages audience engagement with a clearly defined problem.
Proposes actions in a way that shows understanding of how to motivate stakeholders or decision makers.
The post advocates for specific action(s) that the audience can take to effect change.
Accurate, cited evidence used in post.
Audience Engagement
Creates original material using multiple strategies to facilitate audience attention to, understanding of, and engagement with the content (e.g., humor, layout, infographics, memes).
Circulation Strategies
Uses integrated circulation strategies to reach a relevant network.
Post includes multiple circulation strategies (such as #s, @ing other users, or direct requests for like/ share/follow) that show alignment with the intended audience.
Makes use of borrowed material using multiple strategies to facilitate audience attention to, understanding of, and engagement with the content (e.g., humor, layout, infographics, memes).
Uses circulation strategies to reach a relevant network.
Post includes one or more circulation strategies (such as #s, @ing other users, or direct requests for like/share/follow) that show alignment with the intended audience.
Beginning Emerging
Introduces a broad issue framed in a way that encourages audience engagement.
Proposes actions that address stakeholders or decision makers without addressing their motivations.
The post raises awareness or informs the audience, with only vague actions to take.
Accurate, but uncited evidence used in post.
Introduces a broad issue in a way that assumes audience will engage.
Proposes actions without explicit attention to stakeholders, decision makers, or systems of change.
The post is unclear in its information or actions.
No evidence or inaccurate evidence used in post.
Employs one or more strategies to facilitate audience engagement or understanding, some of which are ineffective.
Little or no attention to methods of engaging an audience.
Uses circulation strategies but without a clear network in mind.
Post includes at least one circulation strategy (such as #s, @ing other users, or direct requests for like/share/ follow) that may not be strategically aligned with audience.
The post does not clearly focus on circulation strategies.
Step 3. Conclude by having students work independently to find a civic action post on the issue that they have been assigned.
Learning Activity #3: Small-Group Analysis of Civic Action Post
Step 1. Present an electronic version of the worksheet in Figure 2 with a link to a version of the rubric with the responses removed. Students should provide a link to the post they are evaluating along with the rubric they complete. During class, students assess the post using the rubric while the teacher circulates to answer questions about scoring. To debrief, review each rubric criterion and ask students to share examples of what qualified as level 3 or 4.
Step 2. After reviewing examples of strong posts with the rubric, students should summarize their insights into the posts they chose on their graphic organizers. This helps consolidate key takeaways from the debrief in preparation for analyzing their own posts. More broadly, the gradual release of responsibility builds students’ ability to apply the assessment criteria to their own civic action posts in the culminating assignment.
Teaching tip: Have students focus on circulation strategies by having them reflect on the methods used in their posts. The following guiding questions might help ground their thinking: What hashtags did you use? Did you tag (@) popular accounts, like-minded organizations or key stakeholders? What trends (e.g., songs, memes) did you use?
Learning Activity #4: Civic Action Post Planning. Learning activity #4 is designed to support students as they prepare their culminating assignment for the mini-unit: developing their own civic action posts in small groups. This activity takes the form of a jigsaw activity.
Step 1. Students meet in their project groups to outline the design of their civic action post, Part 1 of the graphic organizer (Figure 5). They may use the “theory of action” list from learning activity #1 to consider what kind of action they want their audience to take and why.
Step 2: Students meet in critical friend groups. Each project group should assign one member to present their work from Part 1 to members of the other groups for feedback. The rest of the project group will be assigned to critical friend groups for the other projects. Critical friends can record their feedback in Part 2 of the graphic organizer so that presenters have a record to bring back to their project groups.
Teaching tip: Provide copies of the project rubric to critical friends as a point of reference to remind them of the evaluation criteria and ground the conversation.
Conclusion
To prepare students to participate in contemporary politics, we must help them become not only critical consumers, but also responsible producers and purveyors of content on social media. We propose these activities not to promote the use of social media, but to address the role of social media in our news landscape and in the lives of
Step 1: Critiquing a Civic Action Post
1. [Insert a link to the social media post you have evaluated]
2. [Insert a link to your completed rubric]
Step 2: Reflection Questions
1. What makes this civic action post effective?
2. Who is the intended audience? How does the post engage their interests?
3. What is the post asking the audience to do, and how does it make this action compelling to this audience?
4. What improvements could be made to the post to make it stronger (or score higher on the rubric)?
Figure 4. Graphic Organizer, Learning Activity #3
5. Graphic Organizer, Learning Activity #4
Part 1: Project Groups. Planning Your Own Civic Action Post
1. Framing the Issue. Who is your intended audience, and what civic action do you want them to take?
2. Theory of Action. What makes your proposed civic action(s) compelling and accessible to your intended audience?
3. Information and evidence. What evidence will you provide to support your call to action? What sources will you cite, and what makes a source credible and reliable for this topic?
4. Audience Engagement. Please attach any pictures, videos or links that you plan to use. What makes these effective in engaging your audience, informing them, or driving them to take action?
5. Circulation Strategy. What circulation strategies (hashtags, @s, like/share/follow) will you use, and how do these strategies increase the reach of your post?
Part 2: Critical Friend Groups. Getting Feedback on Your Plan
As you listen to your peers’ responses in Part 1 of this learning activity, consider the following prompts:
• What do you like about this portion of their civic action plan?
• What do you think they should change?
• Any other comments or ideas?
Figure
young people. While we share concerns raised by technoskeptics12 and the U.S. Surgeon General about the negative impact of social media on youth, we also recognize that recent metaanalyses suggest that both positive and negative outcomes for social media users vary by user and context.13 Ultimately, we see a great need to support youth to be empowered users who can make informed judgements about their own use. Doing so helps young people find their voice in public spaces and empowers them to advocate for the change they want to see. Fostering civic media literacy is a critical first step in that process. Engaging students in critically analyzing and creating social media builds on their everyday digital literacies and prepares them to navigate the information ecosystem they rely on to understand and engage with civic issues.
Notes
1. Owen Foster and Pete Markiewicz, “How Younger Voters will Impact Elections: How Legacy Media and Social Media Impact Old and Young Voters,” Brookings.edu (May 15, 2023), www.brookings.edu/articles/how-younger-voterswill-impact-elections-how-legacy-media-and-socialmedia-impact-old-and-young-voters
2. Philipp Lorenz-Spreen, Lisa Oswald, Stephan Lewandowsky, and Ralph Hertwig, “A Systematic Review of Worldwide Causal and Correlational Evidence on Digital Media and Democracy,” Nature: Human Behaviour 7, no. 1 (2023): 74-101.
3. Sarah McGrew, Joel Breakstone, Teresa Ortega, Mark Smith, and Sam Wineburg, “Can Students Evaluate Online Sources? Learning from Assessments of Civic Online Reasoning,” Theory & Research in Social Education 46, no. 2 (2018): 168.
4. Sarah McGrew and Joel Breakstone, “Civic Online Reasoning across the Curriculum: Developing and Testing the Efficacy of Digital Literacy Lessons,” AERA Open 9 (2023): https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584231176451
5. Ellen Middaugh, “Civic Media Literacy in a Transmedia World: Balancing Personal Experience, Factual Accuracy and Emotional Appeal as Media Consumers and Circulators,” Journal of Media Literacy Education 10, no. 2 (2018): 33-52.
6. Paul Mihailidis, “Civic Media Literacies: Re-Imagining Engagement for Civic Intentionality,” Learning, Media and Technology 43, no. 2 (2018): 152-164.
7. For more information about the context and rationale
behind our ongoing work, see Mark Felton, Ellen Middaugh, and Henry Fan, “Civic Action on Social Media: Fostering Digital Media Literacy and Epistemic Cognition in the Classroom,” International Journal of Social Pedagogy 12, no. 1 (2023): 1-16.
8. Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey, “Gradual Release of Responsibility Instructional Framework,” IRA e-ssentials (2013): 1-8.
9. A copy of the graphic organizer for activity #1 with notes for teachers is available online at https://docs.google.com/ document/d/1TgiYnQqKyPJ3I4RfQtxi7zLhlzpJvEoks8v74 AQIo70/edit
10. Environment by impact (@environment). “Congress just formed the first ever ‘slow-fashion’ caucus to tackle fast fashion pollution,” Instagram, Oct. 8, 2024, www.instagram. com/p/C9I_Y3cO5Hq/?hl=en&img_index=4
11. A copy of the assignment description is available online at https://docs.google.com/document/d/1qwSLskJHhc4Oum gvCGw0HYDwp5oxKqH-ZgpKBzOgaUo/edit
12. Jacob Pleasants, Daniel G. Krutka, and T. Philip Nichols, “What Relationships Do We Want with Technology? Toward Technoskepticism in Schools,” Harvard Educational Review 93, no. 4 (2023): 486-515.
13. See Elizabeth J. Ivie, Adam Pettitt, Louis J. Moses, and Nicholas B. Allen, “A Meta-Analysis of the Association Between Adolescent Social Media Use and Depressive Symptoms,” Journal of Affective Disorders 275 (2020): 165174. See also: Laura Marciano, Michelle Ostroumova, Peter Johannes Schulz, and Anne-Linda Camerini, “Digital Media Use and Adolescents’ Mental Health During the Covid-19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Frontiers in Public Health 9 (2022): 793868.
Mark Felton is a Professor in the Teacher Education Department at San José State University. His research explores how students learn to reason with arguments and evidence in history and social science classrooms. Most recently, his work has focused on productive civic discourse among youth on social media.
Ellen Middaugh is an Associate Professor of Child and Adolescent Development and Interim Associate Dean for the Lurie College of Education at San José State University. Her research examines the impact of emerging technologies on youth civic skills and engagement practices and the implications for civic education.
William Butchko has been a teacher at Yerba Buena High School for 18 years. He teaches AP Government and AP Macroeconomics where he incorporates a Civic Action Project to teach students how to make an impact in their community.
Clay Hale is a high school social science teacher and department chair at Yerba Buena High School in the East Side Union High School District. He teaches AP Government and Politics and AP Macroeconomics to seniors and guides them through a civic action project that fosters meaningful community impact in San Jose, Calif.
“Discrimination! Why, That is Precisely What We Propose”: Examining the Promise of Universal Voting Rights
Heather Nice and Alexander S. Butler
In 1776, 56 men gathered in Philadelphia to sign the Declaration of Independence, immortalizing the American ideal that “all men are created equal” and endowed with “certain unalienable rights.” 1 Grounded in the tenets of the Enlightenment, the sentiment represents an ideal that the United States has yet to achieve. The United States was not a democracy at its founding, and even today, many would not characterize it as a “vibrant democracy—a nation where the equality of political rights offers release to a host of engaged and diverse political voices,” 2 as some states continue to create barriers that prevent individuals from voting. 3 How, then, does a nation whose founding documents espoused the equality of all men approach its 250th anniversary with universal voting rights still in question?
This question is especially important when we view social studies classrooms as spaces for building civic knowledge and skills—places where students critically examine struggles for universal voting rights, past and present, and learn their power to effect change. 4 To support this, we designed an inquiry in which students analyzed primary sources from Reconstruction through the Civil Rights Movement before addressing the compelling question: “Who has the right to vote?” To connect history with the present, we offered resources highlighting how states today either restrict or protect voting rights using increasingly sophisticated methods.
Historical Context
The framers of the Constitution left voting requirements to the states, allowing state legislatures to determine the time, place, and manner of elections, while reserving for Congress the power to set election dates and regulate voting.5 This compromise reflected James Madison’s concern that without federal oversight, state legislatures might manipulate election rules for partisan gain. As he warned, “It was impossible to foresee all the abuses that might be made of the discretionary power … whenever the State Legislatures had a favorite measure to carry, they would take care so to mould their regulations as to favor the candidates they wished to succeed.”6 No delegate advocated universal suffrage; many opposed democracy outright—Elbridge Gerry, for example, called it the “‘worst … of all political evils.’”7 This anti-democratic sentiment persisted through the Civil War, as states expanded voting for some while restricting it for others.8
On January 1, 1863, the Emancipation Proclamation freed enslaved people in territories rebelling against the United States. However, the status of many remained uncertain, especially in Union states that still allowed slavery. To clarify the rights of Black Americans, Congress passed the Reconstruction Amendments: the Thirteenth ended slavery; the Fourteenth granted citizenship to all individuals born or naturalized in the United States; and the Fifteenth gave all men, regardless of race, the right to vote. Ratified between continued on page 228
Inquiry Design Model (IDM) Blueprint™
Compelling Question Who has the right to vote?
C3 Framework Indicators (Standards)
• D2.Civ.13.9-12. Evaluate public policies in terms of intended and unintended outcomes, and related consequences.
• D2.Civ.14.9-12. Analyze historical, contemporary, and emerging means of changing societies, promoting the common good, and protecting rights.
Standards and Practices
Staging the Question
• D2.His.16.9-12. Integrate evidence from multiple relevant historical sources and interpretations into a reasoned argument about the past.
Learning Objectives
• Students will understand the voting rights protected by the Constitution.
• Students will analyze historical laws and practices that limited Black voting rights and use that understanding to evaluate current efforts to restrict voter access.
Review the companion Social Education article for historical context.
To set the stage, ask students the following questions to engage them and assess prior knowledge:
• Who has the right to vote in the United States?
• Are there any groups of residents who are excluded from voting?
• What laws and practices protect or restrict the rights of citizens to vote?
• Have you heard anything in the news, on social media, or from your community about this topic?
NOTE: Find the document packs and graphic organizers contained in the inquiry at https://bit.ly/VotingRightsLP.*
Supporting Question 1 Supporting Question 2
What does the 15th Amendment guarantee to citizens?
Formative Performance Task
Using small groups, give students the illustrated Fifteenth Amendment and ask them to complete the following Think-Pair-Share activity:
a. Think: Spend 1-2 minutes examining the image and writing down observations of the illustrations related to what rights are being granted by the Amendment.
b. Pair: Students discuss what they noticed with their groups.
c. Share: Students share their discussions with the class.
Give students a copy of the Joint Resolution for the 15th and the Expanding the Vote graphic organizer.
a. Have students read the text of the Fifteenth Amendment with their groups and examine the rights it guarantees.
b. Have each student rewrite the amendment in their own words.
c. Have students share what they wrote with their group.
d. Have students discuss the context and conclusion questions and record their responses.
*The digital version of this blueprint contains active hyperlinks.
How did states discriminate against certain groups after Reconstruction?
Formative Performance Task
Have students examine documents and present evidence to their peers showing how states used laws to legalize discriminatory practices and subvert the Fifteenth Amendment. Begin with the Framing Quotes document and discuss their reactions.
Give each group a document pack for one of the following discriminatory practices. Tell them they will be responsible for analyzing the practice and teaching it to their peers. Take time, before distributing, to discuss the outdated and inappropriate language some contain, including using the words “negro” and “colored” to refer to Black people.
a. Poll Taxes
b. Grandfather Clauses
c. Land and/or Property Requirements
d. Literacy Tests
e. Felony Disenfranchisement
f. Violence, Threats, and Intimidation
(Includes images of violence)
NOTE: Document packs are ranked from least to greatest in order of complexity for differentiation.
Supporting Question 3
How are states impacting voting rights today?
Formative Performance Task
Give each student a copy of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) and Shelby Excerpts graphic organizers. Have them read the excerpted VRA and write, in their own words below it, what the VRA protects.
Next, have students read the summary of Shelby County v. Holder and predict how states may have responded to the removal of the preclearance clause (Section 5). Have them write their predictions under the Shelby County v. Holder excerpt.
To carry this learning to the present day, ask students to complete the Voting Rights Today activity to determine how states continue to pass legislation or take actions that either (1) ensures all citizens have the ability to vote or (2) limits the ability of certain individuals or groups to vote.
Ask students to share their discussion. If they missed that the amendment bars states from denying voting rights—rather than explicitly granting them—pose the following questions:
a. Does the amendment specifically guarantee the right to vote or does it guarantee that states cannot deny an individual’s right to vote? Is this distinction important? Why?
b. How might states pass laws to prevent individuals from voting even though, on paper, they have that right?
• Fifteenth Amendment
• Joint Resolution for the 15th
Give each student a copy of the Examining Discriminatory Practices graphic organizer and have them respond to the prompts. Remind them that they will be responsible for teaching this practice to their peers, so they will need to be able to describe what is happening and provide specific examples from the documents describing how voting rights were limited.
Have groups share out. As they do, have students record what they are learning in the Examining Discriminatory Practices graphic organizer.
Once the groups have finished sharing, ask students to consider the following questions:
a. How did these laws undermine the 15th Amendment?
b. When states write legislation that includes discriminatory practices, how does it affect voters and elections?
• Poll Taxes
• Grandfather Clauses
• Land and/or Property Requirements
• Literacy Tests
• Felony Disenfranchisement
• Threats of Violence and Voter Intimidation (Includes images of violence)
Once students have gathered their data, ask them the following questions:
a. What patterns do you see? (Consider who, what, when, where, why, and how.)
b. What are the benefits and challenges of these laws?
c. What individuals or groups do you think are affected by these modern laws?
• NPR
• Voting Rights Lab
• ACLU
• Timeline of Resisting Multiracial Democracy
continued on the following page.
A public plaque in Selma, Alabama, commemorating the 1965 Voting Rights Act.
Adam Jones/Wikimedia Commons
Publisher: Thomas Kelly (Courtesy of the Library of Congress)
Summative Performance Task
Argument
Put students with a partner and ask them to brainstorm a response to the compelling question: “Who has the right to vote?”
In their responses, they should reference at least five sources of evidence from the activities. Then ask them to build an argument using their evidence to answer the Compelling Question. If you would rather use argument stems that they need to find evidence for, here are some examples.
a. Every U.S. citizen over the age of 18 who is registered can vote …
b. There are U.S. citizens who should be able to vote, but due to … these groups face obstacles to vote.
c. In some states, it is easier to vote than others …
Next, ask students to construct a response to this question: Who might still need the right to vote or who might need their right to vote protected?
To determine their understanding ask students to:
a. Draft an amendment to address this gap in voting rights.
b. Share their amendments with other pairs and ask for volunteers to share with the class.
Use the following documents to extend student learning and ensure they recognize that equal access to voting rights is still relevant and part of an ongoing conversation.
Voting Rights Act
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 (VRA)
• Zinn Education Project, The Voting Rights Act: Ten Things You Should Know
Shelby County v. Holder
Extension
Taking Informed Action
• Shelby County v. Holder - In 2013, the Supreme Court ruled that Section 4(b) and Section 5 of the VRA were unconstitutional because the discriminatory voting practices present during the 1960s and 1970s were no longer an issue.
• NPR, The Landmark Voting Rights Act Faces Further Dismantling at the Supreme Court
Congressional Responses
• Proposed Freedom to Vote legislation - Although this has not been passed, the Freedom to Vote legislation represents a Congressional attempt to address concerns related to voter access and reassess the protections removed by Shelby v. Holder
• Brennan Center, The John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act
Ask students to draft a letter to their congressional representative that includes their suggested text for an updated Amendment to the Constitution to protect all citizens’ voting rights. The letter should include specific language for an amendment, a clear justification of the issues they believe it will solve, and suggestions on how to go about protecting the right to vote.
EXAMINING THE PROMISE OF UNIVERSAL VOTING RIGHTS from page 225
1865 and 1870, these amendments reflected the efforts of President Lincoln, Congress, and Black Americans advocating for their own political agency. In 1867, Congress passed the Reconstruction Act, which required states seeking readmission to the United States to ban slavery, ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, and extend voting rights to all men, regardless of race.9 In the years that followed, freedmen exercised this right, electing 17 Black Americans to the House of Representatives, two to the Senate, and hundreds of others to local and state legislatures.10
Although the Reconstruction Amendments spurred a surge in Black male political participation during the 1870s, white supremacists soon undermined
those gains through targeted suppression. As W.E.B. Du Bois observed, it was a time when “the slave went free; stood a brief moment in the sun; then moved back again toward slavery.”11 Southern legislatures sought to silence Black voters by codifying disenfranchisement through Jim Crow laws and other tactics.12 In 1890, Mississippi revised its constitution to include property requirements, poll taxes, literacy tests, a voter registration system, and exclusion laws. It also introduced an “Understanding Clause,” requiring voters to read or interpret a section of the state constitution and offer “a reasonable interpretation thereof.”13 Though ratified without a popular vote, the law proved effective and influenced seven other Southern states to adopt similar measures by 1908.14 This legislation codified numerous tactics to restrict voting: lifetime bans for felons, reclassifying minor crimes as felonies, cumulative poll taxes,
strict residency and property requirements, complex registration systems, whites-only Democratic primaries, secret ballot laws, and the direct appointment of previously elected officials.15 These measures aimed to disenfranchise Black citizens and other communities of color. To preserve poor white voter participation, states often added grandfather clauses. Although some practices—like grandfather clauses—were ruled unconstitutional (1915), challenges to these laws largely failed before the Voting Rights Act (VRA) of 1965.16
Signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on August 6, 1965, the Voting Rights Act aimed to “enforce the Fifteenth Amendment.”17 It required the Justice Department to challenge poll taxes in court and authorized officials to oversee state voter registration. The Act also barred states and key regions from changing election laws without preclearance from the Justice Department’s civil rights division—that supervision would end after five years if there were no violations.18 Passed by an overwhelming congressional majority,19 the VRA was a temporary measure designed to address widespread discrimination and ensure universal voting access.20 As he signed the Act, Johnson declared,
Today is a triumph for freedom … today we strike away the last major shackle of those fierce and ancient bonds.… Ninety-five years have passed since the 15th amendment gave all Negroes the right to vote … the time for injustice has gone…. Under this act, if any county anywhere in this Nation does not want Federal intervention, it need only open its polling places to all of its people.21
Within a year of the VRA’s passage, nearly half a million Black citizens registered to vote across the South.22 By 1968, that number had grown to almost a million, with registrations rising 33% in Alabama and nearly 50% in Mississippi.23 The VRA and subsequent rulings marked a major turning point in the fight for universal suffrage—underscoring the need for congressional action to enforce a constitutional amendment that had existed for nearly a century.
The Voting Rights Act was renewed five times
between 1970 and 2006, maintaining federal oversight of jurisdictions with histories of intentional voter suppression.24 However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court effectively eliminated the federal government’s authority to require preclearance for changes to voting laws.25 Writing for the majority—joined by Justices Scalia, Kennedy, Thomas, and Alito—Chief Justice Roberts argued that Congress had not shown a continued pattern of state-level evasion that justified preclearance. The opinion quoted an earlier ruling: “Things have changed in the South. Voter turnout and registration rates now approach parity. Blatantly discriminatory evasion of federal decrees are rare. And minority candidates hold office at [unprecedented] levels.”26 The Court concluded that the data underpinning the VRA’s enforcement was outdated and that intentional race-based disenfranchisement was no longer a pressing concern. The ruling, however, ignored the limited Black representation in the nation’s highest offices: from 1865 to 2009, only six Black Americans were elected to the U.S. Senate (with one of them, Barack Obama, later elected to the presidency), with minimal gains at the state level.27 In response to the Court’s decision, previously covered states quickly enacted stricter voter ID laws, closed polling places, and purged voter rolls.28 Since then, states have continued passing laws that impact voting access, while Congress has yet to pass legislation ensuring universal voting rights. The lesson in this article poses a critical question for students—as future voters—to consider, encouraging them to connect past events to current and future challenges to voting rights.
Authors’ Note: In the Inquiry Design Model accompanying this article, we chose not to explicitly name racism and white supremacy as the cause of discriminatory voting practices. Instead, we let the documents and their authors’ beliefs speak for themselves. This approach supports educators in districts where discussions of race and racism are viewed as outdated, inappropriate, or too political. While not an issue everywhere, we believe this strategy best serves the diverse readership of Social Education. When debriefing the summative assessment, we recommend emphasizing how voter disenfranchisement persists today. In teaching this lesson to undergraduates, we’ve seen students recognize the codification of discriminatory practices, connect white supremacy and racism to U.S. policy, and understand how these forces continue to shape voting access. Asking “Who has the right to vote?” remains essential to examining the history and limits of universal suffrage—a core democratic value.
Teacher Resources
Find the document packs and graphic organizers contained in the inquiry at https://bit.ly/VotingRightsLP
Notes
1. Thomas Jefferson et al., (July 4), Copy of The Declaration of Independence, 1776, www.archives.gov/milestonedocuments/declaration-of-independence
2. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 32.
3. For example, “Block the Vote: How Politicians are Trying to Block Voters from the Ballot Box,” ACLU (Aug. 17, 2021), www.aclu.org/news/civil-liberties/block-the-vote-votersuppression-in-2020; “Voting Laws Roundup: December 2021,” Brennan Center for Justice (Jan. 12, 2022), www. brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/votinglaws-roundup-december-2021
4. National Council for the Social Studies, College, Career, & Civic Life Framework for Social Studies State Standards (Silver Spring, MD: NCSS, 2013), 19.
5. U.S. Const. art. I, §4; U.S. Const. art. II, §1
6. James Madison (Aug. 9, 1787), Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 (The Avalon Project: Yale Law School, 2008), https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/ debates_809.asp
7. Madison (Sept. 17, 1787), https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_ century/debates_917.asp
8. Keyssar, The Right to Vote, 53-87.
9. Eric Foner, The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution (W. W. Norton, 2019), 90.
10. “The Reconstruction Generation, 1870–1887,” History, Art & Archives: United States House of Representatives, https:// web.archive.org/web/20230131204603/https://history. house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/BAIC/HistoricalEssays/Introduction/Reconstruction-Generation/; “African American Senators,” United States Senate, www.senate.gov/ pagelayout/history/h_multi_sections_and_teasers/Photo_ Exhibit_African_American_Senators.htm; Eric Foner, Freedom’s Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1996).
11. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America (New York: Russell & Russell, 1966), 30.
12. Michael Waldman, The Fight to Vote (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2016), 82-90.
14. John Ray Skates, “About the Mississippi Constitution of 1890,” Mississippi History Now, September 2000, www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/issue/mississippi-constitutionof-1890; Edward L. Ayers, The Promise of the New South
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 149; Waldman, The Fight to Vote, 82–84.
15. Ayers, 148–149, 153–154; Keyssar, 105–116; Waldman, 85–90; Comer V. Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, comm. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), 83–86.
16. Keyssar, 105–116.
17. Voting Rights Act, 1965, § 3.
18. Voting Rights Act, 1965, § 4.
19. S. 1564 Roll Call Vote, May 26, 1965, www.archives.gov/ legislative/features/voting-rights-1965/roll-call.html
20. Carol Anderson, One Person, One Vote: How Voter Suppression is Destroying our Democracy (New York: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2018), 22-3; Gary May, Bending Towards Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy (New York: Basic Books, 2013), 149-170.
21. Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks in the Capitol Rotunda at the Signing of the Voting Rights Act” (transcript, The American Presidency Project, Aug. 6, 1965).
22. Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 186-187.
23. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, The Voting Rights Act: Ten Years After (Jan. 1975), 43; Keyssar, 264.
24. “History of Federal Voting Rights Laws,” The United States Department of Justice, July 28, 2017, www.justice.gov/crt/ history-federal-voting-rights-laws
25. “About Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act,” The United States Department of Justice, July 14, 2022, www.justice.gov/crt/ about-section-5-voting-rights-act; “The Effects of Shelby County v. Holder,” Brennan, www.brennancenter.org/ourwork/policy-solutions/effects-shelby-county-v-holder
26. Northwest Austin Municipal Util. Dist. No. One v. Holder, 557 U.S. 193 (2009) as quoted by Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529 (2013), https://supreme.justia.com/cases/ federal/us/570/529
27. “African American Senators,” United States Senate, www. senate.gov/senators/african-american-senators.htm; (May 2013), 238-240.
28. Anderson, One Person, One Vote, 42, 124, 127; Gilda R. Daniels, Uncounted: The Crisis of Voter Suppression in America (New York University Press, 2020), 52.
Alexander S. Butler is an Assistant Professor of elementary social studies methods and content in Bowling Green State University’s Inclusive Early Childhood Education Program and the Editor of Trends and Issues in Social Studies, the Florida Council for the Social Studies flagship journal.
Heather Nice is the Executive Director of Strategic Projects and Partnerships at The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation and is a PhD Candidate in Interdisciplinary Studies through the University of Alaska Fairbanks.
Malie and her family. To begin planning instruction, we turned to the inquiry expectations of the C3 Framework. In our alignment (Table 1), the Landsmann letters offer entry into the complex history of “what we knew.” As Holocaust education increasingly focuses on the process leading to genocide, the Landsmann letters provide insight into a process marked by antisemitic rhetoric, oppressive laws, and the dismantling of democracy.13 Also, the C3 Framework’s focus on understanding the limitations of primary sources is a significant alignment for the Landsmann letters. Students are only able to read one side of the correspondence: Malie Landsmann’s letters to Minnie Baum. Like historians, students are left to
Table 1. Alignment to Curricular Standards and Frameworks
infer the content and frequency of Minne Baum’s responses to Malie Landsmann’s pleas.
Finally, because the Landsmann letters were initially prepared for use in South Carolina schools, we aligned our work with South Carolina social studies standards (Table 1). The grade 8 South Carolina history standards expect students to analyze postwar immigration of Jewish refugees. However, to understand postwar migration, students must understand the complicated nature of, and limits to, prewar migration. Because the grade 11 United States history standards expect students to examine the role of the United States in the Holocaust, the Landsmann letters encourage students to question the narrative of the
Standard or Framework Standard / Indicator
The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards
2019 South Carolina Social Studies College- and Career-Ready Standards.
D2.His.1.9-12. Evaluate how historical events and developments were shaped by unique circumstances of time and place as well as broader historical contexts.
D2.His.4.9-12. Analyze complex and interacting factors that influenced the perspectives of people during different historical eras.
D2.His.8.9-12. Analyze how current interpretations of the past are limited by the extent to which available historical sources represent perspectives of people at the time.
D2.His.10.9-12. Detect possible limitations in various kinds of historical evidence and differing secondary interpretations.
D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources.
D2.His.14.9-12. Analyze multiple and complex causes and effects of events in the past.
8.5.CO Compare South Carolina and U.S. wartime contributions and demobilization after World War II.
This indicator was designed to promote inquiry into military and economic policies during World War II, to include the significance of military bases in South Carolina. This indicator was also developed to foster inquiry into postwar economic developments and demographic changes, to include the immigration of Jewish refugees following the Holocaust.
USHC.4.CC Examine the continuity and changes on the U.S. homefront surrounding World War I and World War II.
This indicator was developed to encourage inquiry into the wartime domestic policies during periods of global conflict. This indicator also supports inquiry into America’s response to the Holocaust and the roles of African Americans and women related to the war effort.
United States’s role in the Holocaust as liberator and savior. While this example is state-specific, the practice of standards-alignment is common for teachers throughout the United States.
Using the Landsmann Letters to Stage an Inquiry
To support teachers incorporating the C3 Framework, the Inquiry Design Model (IDM) provides an inquiry arc of interrelated questions that culminate in students taking informed action on a contemporary issue.14 We outlined an IDM (see Table 2 below) to demonstrate how the Landsmann letters can serve as a staging activity. In this inquiry, students investigate the factors shaping a nation’s refugee policy, with attention to the interwar period and the Nazi persecution and genocide of Jews. The letters provide a unique entry point into the inquiry arc, offering insight into how the Landsmann family experienced Nazi persecution and navigated the challenges of U.S. immigration policy.
A Document Walk (DW), where students collaboratively examine primary sources to build narratives and practice civic reasoning, can serve as the IDM staging activity.15 In a DW, students analyze a collection of interconnected documents using a guiding question as a prompt. Rotating through stations in groups, students analyze the documents, write their interpretations on analysis sheets, and extend on the analysis of previous groups. When the DW is complete, teachers lead the class through a discussion of the guiding question. For use in an IDM, the DW’s guiding question can be the staging question, such as:
“What policies affected the Landsmann family?”
Using this question engages students in prodemocracy education through a personal story. A pro-democracy social studies education is one that draws connections between the national—or the international—and the local.16
On November 6, 1938, Malie pleaded to her cousin: “Tear open all the gates and save us as quickly as possible from our observing demise.” Because this quote bridges the compelling question and staging question, it can serve as a prompt for the DW debrief (Table 3). In the Landsmann letters, students will find reference to the Nuremberg Laws, the United States’s immigration quotas of the 1920s, the Hebrew Sheltering and Immigrant Aid Society of America, and the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee in the United States. As the story of Malie Landsmann and Minnie Baum concludes, students are positioned to consider the immigration policies of the United States in the interwar period and today.
Humanizing Victims with the Landsmann Letters
The Landsmann letters help students focus on the choices people faced at different stages of the Holocaust. While students often associate life-ordeath decisions with the concentration camps, these letters prompt them to consider more relatable dilemmas: Why did Malie Landsmann turn to Minnie Baum for help? What relationship existed between them before the letters? What decisions did they have to make to navigate the immigration process? This perspective encourages
IDM Component Question / Activity
Compelling Question
Staging Question
Supporting Question #1
Supporting Question #2
Supporting Question #3
Summative Performance Task
Taking Informed Action
What influences a nation’s refugee policies?
What policies affected the Landsmann family?
What did Americans know about the Nazi persecution of Jews?
How did nativism and isolationism impact refugee policies in the 1930s?
How did Americans respond to the Nazi persecution of Jews?
Develop a presentation on the United States’s response to the persecution of Jews in Nazi Germany.
empathy and may lead students to ask themselves similar questions: Who would I turn to for help? Would I assist a distant relative? Could I navigate the immigration system on my own?
While these questions highlight the complexity of the Holocaust and humanize victims, the questions also situate students to think of present-day immigration and refugee policies. Using an inquiry into the choices made by people in the past helps students understand how to make informed choices in the present.17 Therefore, the
Table 3. Facilitating a Document Walk*
inquiry prompted by the Landsmann letters can lead to larger lessons for taking informed action regarding contemporary challenges. In this case, it means showing empathy toward the oppressed and understanding how to critique and change policies grounded in xenophobia, nationalism, and indifference.
Teaching with Holocaust-Era Letters in the Present: Bringing History Home
A student in a South Carolina classroom is 4,600
Link to the Landsmann Letters: https://holocaustcenter.charleston.edu/resources/ Step Description/Instructions
Step 1: Classroom Set-Up
• Create classroom stations equal to the number of documents in the collection. In the case of the Landsmann Letters, 10 stations are needed.
• Configure stations to facilitate a clockwise rotation through the room.
• Include multiple copies of a single document at each station
• Include a sheet of paper to record the analysis.
• Materials stay at the station as groups rotate through the stations.
Step 2: Introduce the activity using the directions in Step 3 below. Create groups as needed and assign groups to a station.
• Introduce the activity using the directions in Step 3 below.
• Explain that each letter addresses the staging question: “What policies affected the Landsmann family?” Students should document their analysis on the analysis sheet at each station.
• Explain that most groups will rotate “out of order” and students should consider how this is impacting their understanding.
◆ We suggest organizing the rotation so that letters are read chronologically to help students understand the narrative.
◆ Only one group will begin with the first letter and end with the final letter.
◆ Only one group will begin with the final letter and move directly to the first letter.
◆ The majority begin somewhere in between.
• Note that students will have a predetermined amount of time at each station.
◆ Given there are 10 letters, our example has 10 rounds.
Step 3: Rotating Through the DW
Step 4: DW Debrief
• Encourage students to pay attention to the content of the letter in relation to the staging question.
◆ During the first round, it may be that students summarize the letter more than analyze.
◆ Encourage students to pose questions about the letter for subsequent groups to answer.
• After time is up for round one, direct students to move clockwise to the next station.
• Remind students of the staging question.
• Point out that students now have a letter and a response for the previous group to analyze.
• Encourage students to expand on the response(s) documented on the analysis sheet.
• This repeats until students return to their initial station.
• When students have returned to their initial station, instruct them to review the responses on the analysis sheet at their station.
• Direct students, still in groups, to discuss how to respond to the staging question.
• Facilitate a whole class discussion of the staging question: “What policies affected the Landsmann family?”
◆ Consider using Malie Landmann’s November 6, 1938, plea to Minnie Baum as a prompt: “Tear open all the gates and save us as quickly as possible from our observing demise.”
◆ Ask students if there are any questions posed on the analysis sheets that cannot be answered with the letters.
• The teacher then opens the IDM by posing the compelling question: “What influences a nation’s refugee policies?”
* Cook, Eargle, and Turner, “When the Young Lead,” 106–20; Craven, Eargle, and Koch, “Creating Clarification,” 74–85.
miles from Berlin and nearly 80 years removed from the Holocaust—distances that can create a disconnect from the history’s significance. And that’s before addressing the challenge of conveying the scale of Nazi genocide.
Teachers can tell their classes that the Third Reich and its accomplices murdered six million Jews and five million others, but these numbers are almost unfathomable.
Auschwitz survivor Judge Thomas Buergenthal was thinking about these problems when he said, “You cannot personalize six million. You can personalize one person.” Grappling with the enormity of the Holocaust himself, Abel Herzberg, another survivor, offered, “There were not six million Jews murdered; there was one murder, six million times.”18 Teaching with letters addresses this problem by putting a human face on the Holocaust. For students in our area, the Landsmann letters even put a local street address on the Holocaust. As we look for ways to pull students into these stories, collections of letters are a compelling option.
The Ken Burns documentary series The U.S. and the Holocaust and the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum’s (USHMM) exhibition “Americans and the Holocaust” shine new light on transatlantic connections to the history of Nazi genocide. The USHMM exhibition begins with the words “What did Americans know?”19 This question has long preoccupied American audiences who have, at times, soothed their own historical consciences by insisting that little was known by anyone outside Hitler’s Europe. Of course, the Landsmann letters, and other collections like them, help bust this myth. Americans and others knew a great deal as Nazi actions evolved from discriminatory law to coerced emigration to mass murder.
Recent exhibitions, films, and books have sparked serious conversations about the Holocaust and America’s response. Today, teachers have ample resources to explore both. Collections like the Landsmann letters help bring these discussions to a local level, prompting students to ask: Which Americans are we talking about when we ask what people knew? Minnie Baum, after all, was an ordinary resident of a small South Carolina town. Her story helps students see
themselves in the history and connect classroom learning to broader, ongoing discussions about the Holocaust and its relevance today.
Notes
1. “Correspondence, 1938-1941.” JHC Holocaust Archives Box 13, Folder: 1, Minnie Tewel Baum Papers (hereafter MTB Papers), Mss. 1065-045. Special Collections, College of Charleston.
2. “David Cesarani, Final Solution: The Fate of the Jews, 19331949, First U.S. Edition (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2016), 33-141; Hayes, Peter, Why?: Explaining the Holocaust (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2017), 73.
3. Christine Schmidt and Sandra Lipner, Holocaust Letters (London: Holocaust and Genocide Research Partnership of the Weiner Holocaust Library and the Holocaust Research Institute at Royal Holloway, University of London, 2023).
4. Hannah Arendt, Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, Penguin Classics (New York, N.Y: Penguin Books, 2006).
5. Deborah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Holocaust: A History (New York, NY: Norton, 2003), 103-32.
6. “Immigration to the United States 1933–1941,” United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, accessed July 6, 2024, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/ immigration-to-the-united-states-1933-41
7. Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942, Comprehensive History of the Holocaust (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 5-6, 81; Peter Longerich, Unwritten Order (The History Press Ltd, 2016), 19.
8. The Landsmanns’ quota numbers were 15,643-15,646. These numbers would not have been called until approximately May 1941, well after the start of the war in Europe and the Holocaust. “Letter from Minnie to National Coordinating Committee, May 25, 1939.” MTB Papers, Mss. 1065-045. Special Collections, College of Charleston.
9. Debórah Dwork, “Holding on Through Letters: Jewish Families During the Holocaust” (Virtual Exhibition Talk, Wiener Library Holocaust Letters Exhibition Events Series, London, November 13, 2022), https://youtu.be/ QJuwqVVl6kE
10. For example, in sources held in the Minnie Tewel Baum Papers, Baum reaches out to no less than seventeen organizations, consuls, representatives, and diplomats in her attempts to secure visas for the Landsmanns. See “Correspondence, 1938-1941.” MTB Papers, Mss. 1065-045. Special Collections, College of Charleston.
11. Despite German efforts to the contrary, Jewish letters to family abroad were not as effectively censored as is commonly believed and information still made its way out of the Reich. Rudi Anders, “Censorship of Civilian Mail in Germany during WWII” (Presentation, Lancaster County Philatelic Society Conference, Lancaster, PA, July 24, 2020); Justin Gordon, Holocaust Postal History: Harrowing Journeys Revealed through the Letters and Cards of the Victims (Chicago: Six Point Watermark, 2016), 7–9; Schmidt and Lipner, Holocaust Letters.
12. The letters and a short introduction to the Landsmann family can be found here: https://holocaustcenter.charleston. edu/resources/
13. Sandra Alfers, “Holocaust Survivor Testimony in the Age of Trump: An American Perspective,” in Holocaust Education Revisited: Wahrnehmung und Vermittlung, Fiktion und Fakten, Medialität und Digitalität (Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer VS, 2019), 45–62.
14. Kathy Swan, John Lee, and S.G. Grant, Inquiry Design Model: Building Inquiries in Social Studies (National Council for the Social Studies and C3 Teachers, 2018).
15. Daniella Cook, Jeffrey C. Eargle, and Vernon Turner, “When the Young Lead: The Legacy of Black Youth Civic Engagement in the Struggle for Civil Rights,” in Teaching with Primary Sources for Cultural Understanding, Civic Mindedness, and Democracy (Teachers College Press, 2024), 106–20; Lacey L. Craven, Jeffrey C. Eargle, and Alexandra B. Koch, “Creating Clarification: Using Document Walks to Collectively Navigate the Historical Process,” South Carolina Middle School Association Journal, 2011-2012, 74–85.
16. Joel Westheimer, “Should Social Studies Be Patriotic?” Social Education 73, no. 7 (2009): 316–20.
17. Tracy Middleton, “From Past to Present: Taking Informed Action,” Social Education 80, no. 6 (2016): 362–64.
18. “Judge Thomas Buergenthal Oral History,” USHMM Encyclopedia, Thomas Buergenthal discusses quote from Abel Herzberg, accessed August 11, 2024, https:// encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/oral-history/thomasbuergenthal-discusses-quote-from-abel-herzberg.
19. See image of the exhibit entrance area at this USHMM link. “Visit Americans and the Holocaust - United States Holocaust Memorial Museum,” accessed August 11, 2024, www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/museumexhibitions/americans-and-the-holocaust
Grace Shaffer is a second-year PhD student in the Van Hunnick History Department at the University of Southern California. Grace’s research interests include the experience of LGBT+ individuals during the Holocaust, the role of women and femininity within fascist movements, and postal censorship under the Nazi regime.
Jeffrey C. Eargle is a Clinical Associate Professor in the College of Education at the University of South Carolina where he serves as the coordinator for the Secondary Social Studies Education Program. A former high school social studies teacher, he has been involved in K12 Holocaust education for 18 years.
Chad S.A. Gibbs is an Assistant Professor and the Director of the Zucker/Goldberg Center for Holocaust Studies at the College of Charleston. His book, Survival at Treblinka: Geography, Gender, and Social Networks in Jewish Resistance, is due out with the University of Wisconsin Press in 2026.
The twenty-seven published articles in this book, drawn primarily from the “Teaching the C3 Framework” columns in Social Education , demonstrate how the ideas of the C3 Framework have made their way into many facets of social studies: standards, curriculum, instruction, assessment, and teacher education. Looking back on a decade of inquiry, Kathy Swan, S. G. Grant, and John Lee invite you to join the celebration of the C3 Framework’s impact on social studies education and to continue blazing the inquiry trail and fueling the revolution.
Sources and Strategies
Declaring War on Japan in 1941: Challenging Students to Explore Multiple Perspectives on a Presidential Speech to Congress
Cheryl Lederle and Stacie Moats
The U.S. Constitution, signed on September 17, 1787, established the government of the United States. But how did the founding document influence the nation’s reaction to an event more than 150 years later? How did it guide the actions of government officials? How did it affect American citizens? By exploring multiple sources reflecting the reactions of the president, Congress, and the American people to the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, students can better understand the Constitution’s role in the U.S. response.
On December 8, 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed a joint session of Congress along with the justices of the Supreme Court. Roosevelt began by stating, “Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.” He concluded his brief speech with a call to action, asking “… that the Congress declare that, since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire.”
Students might wonder why the president asked Congress to declare war
when he also cited Article II of the Constitution, stating, “As Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy I have directed that all measures be taken for our defense” [emphasis added]. They might remember from studying, perhaps even memorizing, the Preamble to the Constitution in earlier grades that it lists ensuring “the common defense” among the goals of the government. Students may be less likely to know specifically that Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution grants the power to declare war, as well as additional war powers, to Congress.
In swift response to Roosevelt’s speech, Congress immediately convened to exercise its war powers and passed a resolution authorizing the
president “to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan.”1
One place to read President Roosevelt’s famous 1941 speech is in the Congressional Record (CR), Bound Edition, available from Congress. gov at: www.congress. gov/bound-congressionalrecord/1941/12/08/87 2 But this source provides much more than simply the speech’s text. It offers an almost playby-play account of what happened on Capitol Hill that day—its coverage of the events of December 8 spans 37 pages! Examining this record can help students learn about the specific response to the events of that historic day, the responsibilities of each branch of government, and the rules governing the work of the House and the Senate.
The December 7th air raid on the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, cost more than 2,300 American lives, sank or
beached a dozen ships, and damaged nine more.3 After describing the attack in his speech, Roosevelt enumerated additional targets attacked by Japanese forces to demonstrate the extent of Japan’s planning. Roosevelt declared, “I believe I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we will not only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make very certain that this form of treachery shall never endanger us again.”
In addition to the president’s speech, the Bound CR documents each chamber’s response: The joint session ended; the president, senators, and Supreme Court justices withdrew from the House; and a few minutes later, the House and the Senate were separately called to order. Students can peruse the reading of the joint resolutions declaring war on Japan per Roosevelt’s request, followed by statements and discussion on the floor and a vote in each chamber.
The resolution read in each chamber concluded, “That the state of war … is hereby formally declared; and that the President … is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces … to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan” (p. 9520).
Discussion on the floor of the House (www.congress. gov/bound-congressional-
record/1941/12/08/87/ house-section) reflected the tone and direction of the final vote, with only one “no” vote against the Resolution and against declaring war. Representatives offered various reasons for voting in favor, with some noting that while they were, in general, opposed to war, in this case the egregiously violent nature of the attack demanded a strong response. For example, Hamilton Fish of New York commented,
Mr. Speaker, it is with sorrow and deep resentment against Japan that I rise to support a declaration of war. I have consistently opposed our entrance into wars in Europe and Asia for the past 3 years, but the unwarranted, vicious, brazen, and dastardly attack by the Japanese Navy and air force while peace negotiations were pending at Washington and in defiance of the President’s eleventh-hour personal appeal to the Emperor, makes war inevitable and necessary. (Mr. Fish, p. 9520)
Depending on the time available, assign or ask students to select one representative’s remarks, identifying the position taken and arguments presented. Before they begin, remind them that the Bound CR is a direct record of a historical event,
using historical language. This historical document reflects the attitudes, perspectives, and beliefs of a different time, and students may find the content offensive.
House was offered by “Miss Rankin” of Montana. To learn more about Rep. Jeannette Rankin, students might read her entry in the Directory of the United States Congress congress.gov/search/bio/ R000055
basic details about her life, it includes information about her education and work history; it also notes her dedication to working for peace and women’s rights. Direct students to search the Bound CR for “Rankin” to see how often she spoke on the House floor, what she said, and how other representatives responded. They might notice that “Mr. Rankin” was also present at the session; if time allows, ask students to compare how each Rep. Rankin was treated by their peers in the House.
Discussion in the Senate was brief and confined to one senator, with at least one senator questioning
from Michigan. I therefore ask for the yeas and nays on the passage of the joint resolution. (p. 9505)
Roll was called and the resolution passed with 82 “yea” votes—everyone in attendance— and 13 recorded as not voting. There were no votes against the resolution in the Senate.
To deepen learning about the positions and background of various senators and representatives who spoke, direct students to search or browse the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
at https://bioguide.congress. gov
Ask students to read and analyze Roosevelt’s speech, keeping in mind the audience (Congress) and purpose (asking them to declare war). To focus students’ thinking, ask:
• What persuasive techniques do you notice?
• Which arguments seem most effective for the audience and purpose?
• If you were to deliver it aloud, what would you emphasize?
The Library of Congress collections also include an audio recording of President Roosevelt’s speech (www.loc. gov/item/afccal000099). Direct students to consider how listening to the recording differs from reading the transcription in the Bound CR. Students might:
• compare the cadence of Roosevelt’s speaking voice in the audio recording with how they imagined it would sound;
• notice applause that is not documented in the transcription;
• find it easier to follow the arguments and train of thought by reading and re-reading the text version.
If time allows, students might
record themselves reading all or part of President Roosevelt’s speech as they imagined it.
Even within Congress, students will notice multiple perspectives and may wonder if these congressional dialogues represented the conversations taking place across the nation.
How did Americans react to the U.S. declaration of war against Japan? To find out, encourage students to further investigate nationwide perspectives by exploring the Library’s American Folklife Center collection, After the Day of Infamy: “Man-on-theStreet” Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor (www. loc.gov/collections/interviewsfollowing-the-attack-on-pearlharbor). The interviews in the collection feature more than 200 individuals across the nation, some recorded in the days immediately following December 7, 1941, and others recorded a few months later.
Students might compare the 1941 set of interviews (www. loc.gov/collections/interviewsfollowing-the-attack-on-pearlharbor/?fa=partof:%22manon-the-street%22+intervie ws+collection) with those recorded later, called “Dear Mr. President” (www.loc.gov/searc h/?fa=partof:dear+mr.+presid ent+collection), in January and February of 1942. Listening to these Americans express their thoughts can help students better understand the real-life political, economic, social, and even emotional consequences of Congress invoking its constitutional power to declare war at the request of
the president. Caveat: These historical materials reflect attitudes, perspectives, and beliefs of their time, and some of the language choices and beliefs voiced by individuals in these interviews might offend or disturb students.
Secondary source information from the Library of Congress related to After the Day of Infamy: “Man-on-theStreet” Interviews Following the Attack on Pearl Harbor is available under “About this Collection” (www.loc. gov/collections/interviewsfollowing-the-attack-on-pearlharbor/about-this-collection), including a brief description of the making of both sets of recordings and some relevant historical context. Featured content can provide students with an accessible starting place for examining an item from the collection. Direct students to continue their research by exploring one of the previously referenced collection subsets. Guide them in selecting “Audio Recording” under “Refine Your Results” to limit to collection items in this format. This will bring up 85 results from 1941 in the After the Day of Infamy collection, and 63 results from the “Dear Mr. President” interviews collected in 1942. Students can also filter by “Location” or scroll through the resulting list of audio recordings by title for interview locations of interest. After selecting an audio recording title, they can browse its item record and access the digitized audio recording, transcript, related notes, and
other details. Students can also open an interview’s transcript to read or to search its text for keywords such as “Congress” or “President.”
For example, one of the featured audio recordings, “Man-on-the-Street,” Bloomington, Indiana, December 10, 1941” (www.loc. gov/item/afc1941004_sr04), is a group interview with Indiana University students selected for the purpose of representing various campus opinions. Analyzing this audio recording in its entirety prior to reading its accompanying transcript may prove difficult because multiple voices, only some of which are identified, speak at various points during the nearly 15-minute interview. Yet challenging students to listen closely to this recording or an excerpt before sharing the transcript may help them gain unexpected insights into the personal impact of history unfolding. Together as a class, invite close listening from 03:28 to 06:00 of the recording, preferably twice, before discussing observations, reflections, and questions. Select prompts from the Teacher’s Guide to Analyzing Oral Histories (www. loc.gov/programs/teachers/ getting-started-with-primarysources/guides), such as:
• Describe what you notice.
• Does it seem like an interview or a conversation?
• What was the purpose of this oral history?
• What do you think was happening when it was recorded?
• What do you wonder?
To encourage students to recall evidence from the source, respond to their insights, when appropriate, by asking: “What makes you say that?” Students might be surprised to hear more than one individual voicing conflicting opinions about the war in this “Man-on-the-Street” interview, including a woman identified as Miss Fargo. In the excerpt, she responds to fellow students’ comments by expressing her initial surprise at how members of Congress reacted to President Roosevelt’s address: “But, weren’t we a little bit used to the idea that we wanted to avoid everything at all costs and then this sudden foreign war policy thrown upon us was rather a shock to this generation because, I for one was rather surprised at the Congressmen the other day cheering so enthusiastically. And yet, I think if I were there, I’d probably would have done the same thing.”
Another “Man-on-the-Street” interview recorded one day earlier on December 9, 1941, in Madison, Wisconsin, (www.loc. gov/item/afc1941004_sr11) also features direct commentary on the president’s speech and subsequent congressional proceedings, this time voiced by “an unidentified mother
and director of a federal birth agency.” In an excerpt from the recording (side A from 00:00 through 01:18), the interviewee shares her negative opinion of Miss Rankin, the only member of Congress to have voted against the U.S. Declaration of War, by stating, “I believe that American womanhood, as a whole, feels ashamed and humiliated that our one woman representative in Congress kept the vote to declare war from being unanimous.”
Working in pairs or small groups, students might listen to this—or another—excerpt of an interview’s audio recording, and then read the relevant portion of its transcript before discussing the interviewee’s statement. Ask students to articulate and evaluate the interviewee’s claim. What evidence from other historical sources they examined might support or contradict the interviewee’s opinion? As a next step, help students brainstorm ways to corroborate the claim and seek additional perspectives through other historical resources, including:
• Chronicling America (https://www.loc.gov/ collections/chroniclingamerica) – Historical newspapers covering the immediate aftermath of Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor, such as this front page evening edition of the December 8, 1941, Detroit Times (www.loc.gov/resource/ sn88063294/1941-1208/ed-1/?sp=1) and
Japanese-American Internment Camp Newspapers (www. loc.gov/collections/ japanese-americaninternment-campnewspapers/ about-this-collection) published starting in April 1942, only a couple of months after the recording of the “Manon-the-Street” collection’s second set of interviews;
• Ansel Adams’ photographs of JapaneseAmerican Internment at Manzanar – in 1943, the famous American photographer documented the Manzanar War Relocation Center in California and the Japanese Americans interned there during World War II (www. loc.gov/collections/ ansel-adams-manzanar/ about-this-collection);
• Veterans History Project (www.loc. gov/collections/ veterans-history-projectcollection/serving-ourvoices/world-war-ii/ pearl-harbor-70thanniversary) – hear the experiences of veterans who were living and working at Pearl Harbor in December 1941.
During the last week of September, the Teaching with the Library of Congress Blog at blogs.loc.gov/teachers/ will feature a post tied to this
article. We invite you to let us know if you used these resources or suggestions with your students.
Notes
1. The Constitution Annotated (https://constitution.congress. gov/browse/essay/artI-S8-C11-1/ ALDE_00013587) explains more about the various powers that Article I, Section 8, Clause 11 allocates to Congress to ensure the common defense. Interested
students might also explore founding documents available from the “Framing of the United States Constitution” guide (https://guides. loc.gov/framing-us-constitution/ introduction) to learn more about the Framers’ goals and what they discussed and considered at that time—conversations that continue to influence our nation today.
2. Congress.gov is the official website for U.S. federal legislative information, developed, and maintained by the Law Library of Congress using
data originated and owned by the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives.
3. More information about the attack is available from the Library’s Today in History collection: www. loc.gov/item/today-in-history/ december-07
Cheryl Lederle and Stacie Moats are Educational Resources specialists at the Library of Congress. For more information on the education programs of the Library of Congress, please visit www.loc.gov/ teachers.
The Law Library of Congress manages and maintains Congress.gov, the official website for U.S. federal legislative information. In 2020, they expanded to add the Congressional Record (Bound Edition). Each volume of the Bound CR “corresponds to a session of Congress, is broken up into parts by date, and is paginated consecutively,” according to an In Custodia Legis blog post https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2020/08/explore-the-bound-congressional-record-oncongress-gov. To locate the Bound CR, select “Congressional Record” from the dropdown menu attached to the main search bar at Congress.gov and search with keywords or select “More options” and navigate to “Browse by date.” Tabs at the top of each page of the Bound CR allow a reader to select either House or Senate. The post concludes with examples of what might be found in the Bound CR: “With the addition of the Bound Congressional Record to Congress.gov for the 98th to 103rd Congresses (1983-1994), you can research congressional perspectives on major issues from the 1980s and early 1990s. For instance, you can read about congressional reactions to the fall of the Berlin Wall (see page 28061) and the dissolution of the Soviet Union (see page 62).” NB: since that post was published, the Bound CR has expanded to include the years 1873–1994.
It is the only national organization for high school juniors and seniors that recognizes excellence in the field of Social Studies. Any accredited public or private high school can apply for a local chapter, through which individuals will be inducted into Rho Kappa Honor Society.
From Box Office to the Classroom: A Film Selection Scaffold for Social Studies Teachers
Jeremy Hilburn, Lisa Brown Buchanan, Cara Ward, and Wayne Journell
In an age when Hollywood films often shape how we understand the past, Stoddard and Marcus made an early call: bring film into history education.1 Although they acknowledged that popular films were not always historically accurate, they argued that strategic film use could increase student engagement and deepen historical understanding. They also contended that ignoring film in social studies classrooms is problematic, given Hollywood’s powerful role in shaping Americans’ collective memory.
In the years since Stoddard and Marcus’s 2010 article, educational access to film has only become easier. VHS tapes and DVDs have given way to streaming services. Today, teachers have access to massive libraries of Hollywood movies, television shows, and documentaries on the apps that they use for personal entertainment, and the only equipment they need to bring those films into the classroom is a projector and the Internet. As a result, teachers are increasingly using film in the classroom, extending its use beyond history into other social studies disciplines. Beyond ease of access, the industry that produces historical films has changed in recent years. The rise of streaming, combined with the impact of the COVID -19 pandemic, has contributed to a decline in big-budget historical film releases. Scott’s The Last Duel (2021) and Napoleon (2023), Scorsese’s Killers of the Flower Moon (2022), and Nolan’s Oppenheimer (2023) stand out as recent exceptions, although three of these four films lost money at the box
office. The rise of episodic historical dramas on streaming platforms (e.g., The Last Kingdom on Netflix) have somewhat balanced out this loss, as have international viewing options. Still, episodic historical dramas and international options may be less familiar to students than large studio films were to previous generations of students.2
Given the increasing use of film in education amid a changing industry, it is not surprising that scholars are increasingly exploring its practical applications in K-12 social studies and teacher education. The success of the Hollywood or History book series, which has published seven books since just 2018, reflects growing interest in using films, documentaries, and TV series in the classroom. The Hollywood or History strategy includes a series of seven steps for teachers, the first of which is film selection. 3 However, many educators fear making the wrong choice, feeling unprepared for teaching with film and uncertain about how to select the right one. 4
The purpose of this article, then, is to provide educators with a film selection scaffold to aid in the decision-making process for commercially produced television and film. We built this scaffold based on a literature review, with particular attention to Marcus’s suggested practices.5 We also added elements related to being culturally responsive and attending to the affective domain, which have been noted as gaps in the literature.6 Finally, we sought to make the scaffold userfriendly through a graphic organizer.
Literature Review
Although educators have a long history of incorporating film into their instruction, research on best practices for using film in social studies classrooms is a relatively recent line of inquiry. Seixas was among the first to critically question the messages students received from popular films.7 Since then, the use of movies, documentaries, and television shows in social studies classrooms has received steady attention from scholars. While most research on film in social studies education has focused on history,8 it has also been shown to enhance learning in other areas, such as U.S. politics,9 controversial issues,10 and preservice teachers’ understanding of professional, global, and cultural topics.11
A review of this research identifies several trends. In history classrooms, teachers often use film as a conduit for exploring sensitive topics, or what has been termed in the field as “difficult histories.”12 Research has documented teachers using film to teach difficult histories—such as war, slavery, and genocide—while balancing the goal of critically engaging students with the emotional impact of depicting death and oppression.13 The literature also shows that teachers often struggle to negotiate a film’s pedagogical potential with curricular demands and limited instructional time. As a result, scholars often recommend showing only selected clips rather than full films to enhance learning while reducing viewing time.14
The literature highlights gaps in our understanding of how and why social studies teachers use film, particularly their rationales for incorporating it into their teaching. In a study of social studies teachers in two U.S. states, Marcus and Stoddard found that teachers used film to “bring history to life,” promote empathy, and increase student engagement.15 In another study, Donnelly found that Australian teachers used film to promote empathy (42% of participants), bring history to life (30%), teach historiography (8%), and act as a stimulus for discussion (6%).16 However, these studies are outliers. As a field, we know relatively little about teachers’ motivations for selecting specific films. We also found no studies that explain why teachers match particular film content to the needs or interests of specific students. Likewise, few studies attended to the affective dimension
of film consumption. One exception is a study by Hilburn, Buchanan, and Journell, which found that many students who watched films about contemporary refugees and immigrants filtered their factual and conceptual understandings of the topics only after working through their emotional responses to the clips. In this article, we aim to address these gaps by providing a scaffold to help teachers select the most appropriate films for their students.17 While nearly all articles placed the responsibility for film selection on the teacher, we found one exception: an article by Libresco that proposed allowing secondary students to choose film clips addressing selected political, social, or economic issues.18
The Scaffold
To develop the film selection tool, we drew on the work of social studies educators and scholars who have examined the use of film and online resources in instruction. These sources offered insights into the benefits and challenges of each medium, along with practical guidelines for instructional decision making.
Marcus outlined the following categories of instructional decisions for selecting films: lesson goals; historical empathy; accurate representation of historical figures; depiction of alternative perspectives; the film’s political, social, or ideological slant; historical evidence; effect of fictional elements; and availability of other sources.19 In the Hollywood or History book series, Roberts and Elfer outline a seven-step strategy in which students compare film clips with primary and secondary sources to evaluate their historical accuracy. Their crucial first step, film selection, asks teachers to use their judgment of students’ readiness levels, the norms and expectations of the wider community, developmental appropriateness, instructional objectives, and historical accuracy to select a film and then determine the best excerpt from it.20 Hilburn et al., and Stoddard and Chen have outlined how documentary film can support students’ affective engagement and foster historical thinking skills, particularly corroboration. They argued that students interpret both the film’s content and their source analyses through affective lenses, even though source analysis is typically considered a cognitive skill. Importantly, they
Teaching With a Global Perspective
Approaches and Strategies for Secondary Social Studies Teachers
Jing A. Williams, Bárbara C. Cruz, and Anatoli Rapoport
Table 1. Film Selection Elements in Alignment with Research
Elements Research
Alignment with the aims of the lesson
Reliability
Perspective-taking
Marcus, 2017 – Central to lesson goals
Gallagher et al., 2019 – Purpose: Does it fit my inquiry question, standards, or objectives?
Rodrigeuz et al., 2020 – Contextualized within the lesson or unit
Roberts & Elfer, 2018 – Fits instructional objectives
McClure et al., 2023 – What social studies or social justice standard is related?
Marcus, 2017 – Accurate representation; Includes historical evidence
Gallagher et al., 2019 – Does the author have reliability? Is the content up to date?
Rodriguez et al., 2020 – Requisite level of teacher content knowledge to determine reliability
Roberts & Elfer, 2018 – Film does not need to be 100% historically accurate, but historical accuracy needs to be evaluated by students
Marcus, 2017 – Identify alternative perspectives; Political/social/ideological slant
Gallagher et al., 2019 – Does the source provide windows and mirrors for the students? Does the source question dominant ideas?
Rodrigeuz et al., 2020 – Critical Race Media Literacy
McClure et al., 2023 – Does it highlight/center/amplify the experiences/perspectives of minoritized groups and are minoritized groups/individuals empowered?
Film is one of many sources/corroboration
Marcus, 2017 – Availability of other sources to use
Hilburn et al., 2022 – Encouraging source corroboration between film and other sources. Preservice social studies teachers were most fluent in corroboration, a key skill in film analysis.
Roberts & Elfer, 2018 – Compare the clip with one primary source and one secondary source
McClure et al., 2023 – Create opportunities for lateral viewings or readings
Culturally and developmentally responsive
Affective domain
Gallagher et al., 2019 – Am I sure this activity, resource, or idea will not harm students – especially those with marginalized identities and/or backgrounds?
McClure et al., 2023 – Is it appropriate for this age level?
Roberts & Elfer, 2018 – Judging students’ readiness levels, norms, and expectations of the wider community, developmental appropriateness
Hilburn et al., 2022 – Major gap in the literature – found no studies that matched teachers’ film selection with the needs/interests of the students. Instead, teachers and scholars matched film to content aims.
Hilburn et al., 2022 – Affective engagement filtered students’ understanding of the content. Some students re-engage with their traumas when viewing difficult clips. The affective domain was identified as a significant gap in the body of literature.
Stoddard & Chen, 2018 – Account for students’ affective responses to political elements of media
Figure 1. Planning Scaffold for Selecting Film Clips
FILM SELECTION SCAFFOLD
ALIGNMENT WITH AIMS OF THE LESSON
Which curriculum standards am I teaching with this film?
Is the film the best use of our time to address the objectives?
What is the source of the clip?
Does the film reinforce a dominant narrative?
What is the credibility of the creator?
Can I use specific film clips to meet my objectives, rather than the whole film?
NOTES
RELIABILITY
What is the expertise of the creator? Is the film historically accurate?
What content do I need to pre-teach before screening the film?
What context do I need to provide (e.g., historical or political context; the film’s popular or critical reception)?
Do I have the expertise to evaluate the film’s accuracy or the credibility/ expertise of the creator, and if not, what resources could help me?
In what ways will my students evaluate its accuracy?
What alternative perspectives are presented?
PERSPECTIVE-TAKING
What lesser-known individuals or groups are featured in this film?
In what ways are minoritized groups empowered or marginalized in this film?
What biases are presented?
How does this film contribute to a more complete story of this topic?
FILM AS ONE OF MANY SOURCES/CORROBORATION
What primary and secondary sources are beneficial to pair with the film?
What other sources can corroborate the story that is presented?
In what ways does this film build students’ historical thinking and disciplinary skills?
[If a documentary] what primary sources are embedded in the film?
Will my students find the film interesting or thoughtprovoking?
CULTURALLY & DEVELOPMENTALLY RESPONSIVE
In what ways might my students identify connections between themselves and the characters or stories in the film?
Does the film build on my students’ personal and/ or community assets (strengths, interests, etc.)?
Does the film help students learn more about themselves (mirrors) and others (windows)?
[If not] what sources will I pair with the film to fulfill these aims?
Are the film’s content and themes appropriate for my students’ age and developmental levels; will the school require a waiver from families?
Is the film both cognitively and affectively engaging?
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Are there any scenes that may be triggering?
How am I being sensitive to how students may respond, especially to difficult or traumatic scenes?
What support could I provide to help students process affectively heightened content?
Using the Planning Scaffold
This scaffold has several uses, all pointing to equipping teachers to make sound decisions about film selection. For example, teachers may use the scaffold:
• when they need to select one film from multiple options;
• when narrowing a full-length film to a few carefully selected clips;
• when determining a film’s reliability;
• when aiming to add a film to corroborate amongst many sources; or
• when deciding how to situate a film within a larger lesson or unit beyond the film’s focus.
This scaffold may offer the opportunity for teachers who regularly use one or two films per year to rethink the lesson plans built around those films. Likewise, for teachers who use entire films, this scaffold can support the winnowing process— helping identify “core” clips that meet the same lesson objectives while preserving class time for other social studies activities.
For teachers who have hesitated to use film out of concern that it lacks cognitive rigor, we hope this scaffold encourages them to reconsider. The scholarship on teaching with film points to the potential for robust source analysis and describes how teachers might present a film as a springboard for perspective-taking and corroboration. Pairing film clips with other sources (e.g., other films, narrative texts, data visualizations) and comparing, sourcing, and determining reliability are demanding cognitive tasks that build students’ disciplinary skill sets.
Teachers can also modify or extend the scaffold in their own directions and preferences. A teacher might design a classroom viewing guide based on the six elements or focus on a specific element, such as source corroboration or determining reliability. Students’ developmental levels and grade band (elementary, middle, secondary) should also guide how teachers decide to use
the scaffold. For example, an elementary teacher may focus less on the corroboration element and more on the culturally responsive element as compared to a secondary teacher. One final consideration is that the scholarship has shown that film can elicit affective engagement. This scaffold may help teachers identify films that could affectively engage students who might otherwise disengage from “the usual” social studies content.
We advocate for using carefully selected film clips to teach social studies. As research has shown, film can engage viewers’ affective domain; present a more complete story of an individual, group, or historical event or theme; and expand the use of primary and secondary sources in the social studies classroom. Our hope for this scaffold is to help teachers select the best film clips to achieve these aims.
Notes
1. Jeremy D. Stoddard and Alan S. Marcus, “More Than ‘Showing What Happened’: Exploring the Potential of Teaching History with Film,” The High School Journal 93, no. 2 (2010): 83-90.
2. Scott A. Metzger, “Using Film Media to Build Historical Literacies,” Social Education 81, no. 3 (2017): 177-180.
3. Scott L. Roberts and Charles J. Elfer, Hollywood or History?: An Inquiry-based Strategy Using Film to Teach World History (Charlotte: Information Age, 2021).
4. Debra Donnelly, “Using Feature Film in the Teaching of History: The Practitioner Decision-Making Dynamic,” Journal of International Social Studies 4, no. 1 (2014): 17-27.
5. Alan S. Marcus, “Teaching the Holocaust Through Film,” Social Education 81, no. 3 (2017): 169-173.
6. Jeremy Hilburn, Lisa Brown Buchanan, and Wayne Journell, “Positioning Documentaries as Vehicles for Developing Preservice Teachers’ Analytic Skills,” Journal of Social Studies Research 46, no. 3 (2022): 237-48.
7. Peter Seixas, “Confronting the Moral Frames of Popular Film: Young People Respond to Historical Revisionism,” American Journal of Education 102, no. 3 (1994): 261-85.
8. See, for example, Alan S. Marcus, ed., Celluloid Blackboard: Teaching History with Film (Charlotte: Information Age, 2007); Alan S. Marcus et al., Teaching History with Film: Strategies for Secondary Social Studies (New York: Routledge, 2018); Stoddard and Marcus; Jeremy D. Stoddard, Alan S. Marcus, and David Hicks, eds., Teaching Difficult History with Film (New York: Routledge, 2017).
Three-Dimensional Geography in the Elementary Grades
Sam Brian
What does traditional geography and map education look like in a typical U.S. elementary school classroom today? We don’t typically find students interacting with terrain models, but we might find them engaging in activities similar to our own elementary school education: looking up definitions of various landforms, filling in a blank map with names of the 50 U.S. states, and memorizing their capitals. Students today are still taught about the parts of the map and latitude and longitude lines; however, they are not asked to do complex problem solving with a map, for example, using a geographic atlas to find one city per continent that is vulnerable to sea level rise or naming all the states that are wholly or partly within the Mississippi watershed region.1
Even after memorizing isolated facts about geography and maps, few elementary school students understand basic geographic concepts such as river system dynamics, coastline changes with sea level, or the continuity of land
above and below the sea. Student confusion is often reflected in their difficulty with reading maps. Each fall, students entered my fifth-grade classroom with misconceptions garnered from traditional teaching about geography. One fifth-grade student, who had learned that a peninsula was “a body of land surrounded by water on three sides,” asserted that with proper scuba equipment, one could swim under the Florida Peninsula from the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. Some students who were studying ancient Egypt believed the Nile ran down the map, from the Mediterranean south. I found that some students believed islands floated and that rivers had a single source or that they flowed from north to south in the northern hemisphere.
Teachers themselves often feel unprepared to teach these subjects and usually rely on map workbooks and geography sections of their social studies textbooks.2 When I was a beginning teacher at a New York City independent school, I received a map skills workbook to teach geography and maps to my fifth-grade students. I quickly became frustrated with the map workbooks. The illustrations of coastal landforms were tiny and gave little information as to what bays, peninsulas, or inlets really were. The workbook’s river illustration had no branches and gave no clues as to whether the river flowed from high to low or where the river got its water to begin with. Water seemed just as likely to flow into the mouth of the river and up to the source as it did to flow from source to mouth. The oceans on the maps were one opaque color and gave no information about whether the water was deep or shallow,
Pairs of fifth graders at a NYC public school matching features on map and model.
or whether the islands floated or whether the sea had a bottom at all. No student seemed to understand the topographic lines on the pages of the map workbook which purported to teach elevation. Because these students were bright and interested in the world, I wondered whether it was the poor quality of the materials or the very nature of workbooks that caused students to get so many answers wrong on every page.
I decided to put the map workbooks aside and try a more hands-on approach with my fifth graders. I asked students to each draw their own “fantasy island,” including land, water, trees, people, human activity, and anything else they wanted to include about the island. Ten-year-old Lisa’s fantasy island map included a mountain in the middle and blue stripes of rivers crossing in the center. When I asked her to describe how her rivers ran, she explained that the rivers came in from the oceans and turned left, right, or ran straight over the top of the mountain. I was left somewhat at a loss. Without personal experience with rivers and their behaviors, it was natural for this young urban girl to superimpose New York City traffic patterns onto the rivers of her fantasy island. In a real sense, she had mapped her experience, even if it meant making rivers flow up the mountainsides.
The confusion in Lisa’s map was echoed, in great variety, in other student maps. Students showed physical features like canals, rivers, and islands on their maps in ways that were geographically impossible. One boy drew a bridge that took water back and forth between two islands. I asked the boy about the bridge, and he told me it was the Panama Canal! That the Panama Canal connects two oceans, not two islands, was lost on this student.
It occurred to me that I had encouraged my students to make maps from their imaginations, not from their experiences. Moreover, I came to realize that my bright, eager students lacked basic geographic experiences necessary to understand geography. I came to think of them as “experientially deprived,” in a geographic sense. If they could observe water running down a mountain slope into the ocean, they would more easily understand the flow of rivers. However, as there was no way we could travel to a vantage point to see the entire river system, from all its sources to its single mouth, I would need somehow to bring
this geographical experience into the classroom. Therefore, I decided to create a terrain model.
My first terrain model consisted of a large, crudely sculpted clay mountain, placed in a large drawer from a discarded dresser, lined with a black plastic bag. The same students who had just finished their fantasy maps the day before now gathered around the clay mountain in a drawer. I proceeded to ask them questions about what would happen if water was poured on the mountain. With some guidance, students used a compass to find the north and south sides of the mountain. They predicted what would happen if we poured blue colored water (mixed with tempera paint) on the north slope of the mountain, then the south slope. They created rivers that ran in all compass directions, with some branching off from others. By observing the water, the compass, and the terrain model, they concluded that rivers always flow from high to low, in any compass direction, and that rivers run down the mountain slopes to the sea. As rivers flowed in all directions, the sea began to fill up around the mountain.
“We’ve got an island!” one student shouted, triumphantly. I asked if someone could define what an island was.
“It’s a mountain that sticks up above the sea,” another student replied.
“It has water all around it,” added another.
“We’ve got an island!”
These students had both given a decent definition of an island based on their own observations. This seemed like a deeper, more active kind of learning—one where they were constructing knowledge rather than passively receiving it.3 I
realized with this clay mountain, some water, and a magnetic compass, students were learning important geographic concepts almost spontaneously. They were able to predict, experiment, observe, define, and communicate with each other as they gathered around the simple clay mountain in a dresser drawer. It seemed that the students were gaining the three-dimensional, dynamic geographic experiences (those involving movement) that two-dimensional, static map workbooks were unable to provide.
Why is it difficult to rely exclusively on twodimensional materials to teach about geographic concepts? The field of semiotics provides some explanations. Semiotics deals with the relationship of signs and symbols to phenomena in the world. When one looks at a cartographic symbol, it should evoke some image or memory of a real-world object or process.4 In order to “read” symbols, one must know the objects they refer to. For example, if a map reader has no experience of a shoal, the map symbol would call nothing to the reader’s mind beyond a learned definition, “a place of shallow water.” The symbol by itself could not convey the connotations of a shoal, its typical locations, its lighter color, or its threat to navigation. According to Nikolay N. Komedchikov in an article on semiotics and cartography, “… the relationship of the cartographic depiction and the reality of the surrounding world is both the main object and the central problem of mapping.”5
Semiotics can help us understand how experience gives meaning to symbols. Cognitive developmental scientists like Jean Piaget can provide insight into how children learn. Piaget categorized the stages of cognitive function in the growing child from infancy to adulthood. In Piaget’s stage of “concrete operations,” roughly the elementary school years, abstract ideas are rooted in and dependent upon manipulation and observation of concrete materials.6 For example, to observe water running down the sides of a terrain model in various compass directions is a concrete experience. From this concrete experience comes the abstract insight that rivers flow from higher elevations to lower elevations no matter in which compass direction.
Back to our question: Why is it difficult to rely exclusively on two-dimensional materials to teach
about geographic concepts? Both semiotics and cognitive stage theory suggest that it is premature to expect elementary school students to understand geographic maps before they have developed basic geographic concepts upon which these maps are based.7 Put another way, children need certain concrete geographic experiences in order to invest map symbols with meaning.
Many decades since my first experiments as a beginning teacher, I am still working with terrain models. Today the terrain model is no longer a crude lump of clay in a dresser drawer. It is a reproducible plastic shape, manufactured to my specifications. The terrain model represents no particular place, but is designed, instead, to teach every manner of landform nomenclature and a host of geographic concepts, concepts which traditional geography curricula largely ignore in favor of memorizing the location and names of continents, countries, and capitals. These often ignored geographic concepts include the form and function of river systems, the cycles of sea level rise and fall, the dynamics and importance of watershed regions, gravity-fed irrigation systems, the function of dams, reservoirs, and aqueducts in urban water systems, and the concept of relative elevation.
If a terrain model affords geographic experience to students, what exactly does a terrain model lesson look like? Typically, students gather around the model, often seated in two tiers to ensure a clear view. Using a pointer, they identify mountains, valleys, ridges, and plains. They pour water to observe how it divides along ridges and forms rivers. They trace river journeys from source to mouth, predict island formation, and navigate routes through barrier islands. Students debate where to place lighthouses, identify the deepest gorge and highest valley, and predict flooding patterns as sea levels rise—testing their hypotheses with more water.
I’ve created a color relief map that matches the contours, coastline, and rivers of the plastic terrain model, offering rich opportunities to teach map reading and symbol interpretation. In this introductory lesson, student pairs sit around the model with a map and pointing stick, aligning their maps to the model’s orientation. They spend 15 minutes identifying correspondences between physical
features and map symbols, then share an interesting discovery with the class.
The features on the terrain model correspond exactly to the symbols and names on the flat map.
During the share-out, one pair says, “We found the Algonquian Plains at 8, D–E,” using coordinates to direct classmates. Without prompting, they add, “We think these plains are vulnerable to sea level rise because they’re low and next to a bay.” Their prediction stems from prior terrain model work, where they watched this low plain flood. Without that experience—or the repeated phrase “vulnerable to sea level rise”—it’s unlikely the map alone would have prompted this insight or language.
Another pair shares: “Fools Inlet is at 10-B. The light-colored water means shoals—you’ll run aground going this way.” Their understanding of shoals, shaped by earlier lessons with the model and symbolic clay lighthouses, now goes beyond memorized definitions. The terrain model made the map’s symbols meaningful.
Because the students were able to experience physical geography on a terrain model before they were asked to read the map, the map symbols held meaning for them. Absent this prior experience with concrete materials, the symbols on the map would have been shorn of meaning, and the students would have been unable make the inferences they did about the potential for floods on the Algonquian Plains or how to safely navigate through the Great Barrier Archipelago. This was only one lesson out of many, but I think it demonstrates the pedagogy of moving from objects to symbols, from models to maps.
Making Terrain Models
My first terrain model—a clay mountain in a dresser drawer—was made of pottery clay. After repeated flooding with students, it began to dissolve, then dried, cracked, and crumbled. I switched to a
nonhardening, oil-based clay called plasticene. Because it doesn’t absorb water, plasticene can be flooded repeatedly to simulate rivers and coastlines. The trade-off is that it takes skill, hours of work, and results in a heavy model—about fifteen pounds for a usable size.
Over the years, I searched for a commercially made terrain model that met my needs but never found one. In 2018, I decided to create my own and looked for a company that could produce lightweight plastic versions. I sculpted a final plasticine model—refined over years of teaching to have just the right forms for geography instruction. This became the prototype for the current generation of plastic terrain models.
The best way to bring these models into classrooms is by letting teachers experience threedimensional geography themselves. In addition to teaching social studies at City College’s School of Education, I lead terrain model workshops for teachers several times a year. Each participant leaves with their own model and practical ideas to use in class. Many say they not only learned how to teach geography more effectively but gained a deeper understanding of geography and maps themselves.
Conclusion
Much effort has gone into developing standards for what should be taught in geography and map education. These standards are useful for guiding curriculum scope and sequence. However, this paper focuses not on what should be taught, but There were no commercially produced terrain models available, and so I began producing my own lightweight, plastic terrain models
how it should be taught. I argue that elementary geography pedagogy should draw on insights from semiotics and Piaget’s work on cognitive development. Teaching with three-dimensional terrain models helps students make sense of twodimensional maps. It aligns with young learners’ need for concrete, hands-on experiences. Over decades of using terrain models with elementary students, teacher candidates, and practicing educators, I have consistently seen their power to make geography meaningful. This article calls for greater emphasis on three-dimensional geography in elementary education. Ultimately, I hope terrain models will become standard classroom tools—alongside the world globe.
Notes
1. Sara Witham Bednarz, Gillian Acheson, and Robert S. Bednarz, “Maps and Map Learning in Social Studies,” Social Education 70, no. 7 (Dec. 2006), 399 - 400.
3. Eleanor Duckworth, “The Having of Wonderful Ideas,” and Other Essays on Teaching and Learning (New York City: Teacher’s College Press, 1976) 1-15.
4. Daniel Chandler, Semiotics: The Basics (New York City: Routledge, 2022).
5. Nikolay N. Komedchikov, “The General Theory of Cartography Under the Aspect of Semiotics,” Internet Journal for Cultural Studies, no. 16 (2005): InternetZeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften, https://www.inst.at/ trans/16Nr/07_6/komedchikov16.htm.
6. Hans Furth, Piaget for Teachers (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1957).
7. Lucy Sprague Mitchell, Young Geographers (New York City, NY: Bank Street College of Education, 1991), 29.
References
a Wonderful World: Effective Instructional Strategies to Promote Engaged Learning with Maps in K-12 Classrooms,” National Council for Geographic Education, The Geography Teacher 15, no. 4 (2018): 156–162.
Kam Leung Yeung, Shana K. Carpenter, Daniel Corral, “A Comprehensive Review of Educational Technology on Objective Learning Outcomes in Academic Contexts,” Educational Psychology Review 33, no. 4 (2021): 1583–1630.
Larianne Collins, “The Big Questions in Geography Education,” The Geography Teacher 19, no. 4 (2022): 141.
M. Hanus and L. Havelková, “Map Skills in Education: A Systematic Review of Terminology, Methodology and Influencing Factors,” Review of International Geographical Education Online 9, no. 2 (2019).
M. Hanus and L. Havelková, “Teachers’ Concepts of Map Skill Development,” Journal of Geography 118 no. 3 (2019): 101–116.
National Council for the Social Studies Task Force on Teacher Education Standards, NCSS Publications: Brentwood, Maryland (2018).
New York State K-8 Social Studies Framework, New York State Education Department, 2015-2024.
Patrick Wiegand, Bernadette Stiell, “Children’s Relief Maps of Model Landscapes,” British Educational Research Journal 23, no. 2 (1997): 179–192.
Thomas A. Wikle, Dale R. Lightfoot, “The Stream Table in Physical Geography Instruction,” Journal of Geography 96 (1997): 23–30.
Sam Brian is a Geographer in Residence at NYC Public School 59 for grades 4 and 5 and is an Adjunct Lecturer of social studies at City College of the City University of New York. He directs the nonprofit Geography and Mapping Institute (https:// geomappinginstitute.weebly.com). For more information on terrain models, maps, or other materials, reach him at Sbrian203@gmail. com
Carlos Carbonell Carrera, Bogdan Vlad Avarvarei, Elena Liliana Chelariu, Lucia Draghia, and Simona Catrinel Avarvarei, “Map-Reading Skill Development with 3D Technologies,” Journal of Geography 116 (2017): 197–205.
Daniel P. Shepardson, Jon Harbor, Bryan Wee, “Water Towers, Pump Houses, and Mountain Streams: Students’ Ideas about Watersheds,” Journal of Geoscience Education 53, no. 4 (2005): 381-386.
Elizabeth Casey, Lisa K. Pennington, and Puneet Gill, “What
