What They Fought Against
Scars of the Nazi War Machine
THE GUIDE BOOK
On April 12, 1945, Generals Dwight D. Eisenhower, Omar Bradley, and George Patton inspected a recently liberated concentration camp. The scene was shocking. Eisenhower, realizing the significance of this discovery, forced himself to examine every corner of the camp. Anticipating that future generations might doubt such an atrocity could have happened, he decided that it must be documented, and he ordered every nearby unit that was not on the front lines to tour the camp, saying:
“We are told the American soldier does not know what he is fighting for. Now, at least, he will know what he is fighting against.”
What They Fought Against: Scars of the Nazi War Machine remembers the forced laborers, Holocaust victims, civilians, soldiers, prisoners of war, and so many others who suffered under Nazi oppression. The National WWII Museum’s Educational Travel Team, in collaboration with featured tour historian Alexandra Richie, worked to create a rich and impactful itinerary across Germany and Poland that delves into some fascinating aspects of the war seldom explored by Americans. At the same time, this tour pays homage to the overwhelming Allied effort that contributed to the Third Reich’s eventual downfall. While some moments on this tour will be emotionally challenging, its impact will stay with you for a lifetime as we honor the victims of Nazi oppression and reflect on the freedoms now embraced in modern Germany and Poland. The maps and diagrams in this book were produced by noted author and historian Jonathan Parshall and are meant to be a helpful companion piece for the tour.
ALBERT SPEER
Albert Speer (1905–1981) was a central figure in Nazi Germany, remembered both for the monumental buildings he designed as Adolf Hitler’s chief architect and for his critical role in sustaining the German war effort as Minister of Armaments and War Production. Speer was one of the few Nazi leaders to acknowledge his moral responsibility for Nazi atrocities after the war, yet his legacy remains controversial: praised for his organizational brilliance yet rightfully condemned for his complicity in the regime’s crimes.
Speer’s rise began in 1933 when he joined the Nazi Party, and he soon came to the attention of Hitler, who was deeply interested in architecture. Speer became a trusted confidant of the Führer and was tasked with giving physical form to Nazi ideology. His architectural designs combined neoclassical grandeur with totalitarian symbolism, reflecting Hitler’s desire to project the power and permanence of the Third Reich. Speer’s most famous work, the massive Zeppelin Field parade ground in Nuremberg, featured colossal proportions, martial iconography, and dramatic lighting that turned Nazi rallies into theater. Another of Speer’s ambitious projects was the redesign of Berlin into a “world capital” called Germania. This new city—a part of Hitler’s vision for postwar Nazi Germany—included a vast central boulevard and the world’s largest domed hall.
Though many of these designs were never completed due to the war, Speer’s architectural vision helped define the aesthetic of Nazi power. His buildings were meant not only to inspire awe but to impose order, control, and a sense of destiny; in essence, architecture as propaganda on an imperial scale.
In 1942, after the sudden death of engineer Fritz Todt, Speer was appointed Minister of Armaments and War Production. This marked a dramatic shift in his responsibilities: from shaping buildings to shaping the Nazi war economy. In this new role, Speer proved remarkably effective. He introduced sweeping reforms that centralized decision-making, streamlined supply chains, and increased industrial output. Under his leadership, German armaments production reached its peak in 1944, even as Allied bombing intensified and the war turned decisively against Germany.
Speer’s success was built on brutal efficiency. He oversaw a labor system increasingly reliant on forced labor, drawing from millions of workers across occupied Europe, including prisoners of war and concentration camp inmates. Despite his later claims of ignorance, Speer’s ministry was deeply involved in the exploitation and suffering of countless civilians and forced laborers. His logistical prowess undoubtedly extended the war.
At the Nuremberg Trials, Speer acknowledged general responsibility for the crimes of the regime, but he denied specific knowledge of the Holocaust. He was sentenced to 20 years in prison and later published memoirs that cast him as a repentant technocrat. Speer’s architectural and industrial achievements cannot be separated from the system of oppression they served.
Albert Speer reviews plans with Adolf Hitler for the project at the Obersalzberg. Source: Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-V00555-3
Nazi officials Albert Speer (from left), Admiral Karl Donitz, and Colonel General Afred Jodl after their arrest on May 23, 1945. The National WWII Museum, 2012.019.773
To learn more about the Nuremberg Trials scan the QR code.
THE COMBINED BOMBER OFFENSIVE
By John Curatola, PhD, Samuel Zemurray Stone Senior Historian, The National WWII Museum
Given the horrors of WWI trench warfare, airpower emerged as an alternative to the bloody slog of 1914–1918. When World War II began, both the US Army Air Forces (USAAF) and the Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Commands developed strategic bombing fleets aimed at destroying Axis morale and its ability to prosecute war.
While both air forces had similar goals, they practiced different bombing methodologies. Attacking Germany before the American entry into the war, the RAF quickly determined that daylight operations were too costly and switched to nighttime raids. Flying under cover of darkness, RAF crews conducted area bombardment, hitting entire cities and causing mass casualties among civilian populations. Before the United States entered the war, the USAAF embraced the doctrine of daylight precision bombing. For the Americans, avoiding civilian casualties was of paramount concern, with airmen flying in B-17 Flying Fortresses or B-24 Liberators. Equipped with the Norden bombsight, the USAAF bombers attempted to target only the German war machine’s factories, infrastructure, and industry. In this method, the Americans hoped to avoid unnecessary civilian casualties and minimize collateral damage.
Given this difference in methodologies, during the January 1943 Casablanca Conference the two nations agreed to conduct bombing operations in accordance with their prescribed doctrines. With this agreement the two air forces planned for the “progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military, industrial, and economic system.” As a result, RAF’s Lancaster and Halifax bomber aircraft attacked German cities by night while the Americans attempted to hit manufacturing centers, industrial parks, and other select targets by day. Hence, the Allies agreed to a Combined Bomber Offensive (CBO) that resulted in the round-the-clock bombing of Nazi-occupied Europe.
Lasting from 1942 to 1945, the CBO became a bloody affair, with the US Eighth Air Force flying out of East Anglia and Fifteenth Air Force operating from bases in North Africa and Italy. For much of 1943, Eighth Air Force bomber crews were lost at an unsustainable rate; airmen were statistically incapable of completing their required tours of 25 missions. While long-range escort fighters would provide some relief, by war’s end, the Americans suffered a combined total of over 27,000 killed in action with another 9,000 wounded in action. RAF crews also suffered severely, with over 55,000 men killed and approximately 18,000 wounded. An unprecedented campaign, the CBO lay waste to German cities, killing over 305,000, wounding another 780,000, and rendering 7,500,000 homeless.
The results of the campaign were equivocal as German industrial production rose in certain sectors but dropped in others. However, the bombing forced the Germans to reallocate fighters and antiaircraft artillery to defend the Nazi fatherland. In-depth studies conducted after the war served as fodder for debate regarding the aerial offensive’s contribution to the overall war effort. Despite the campaign’s controversial results, strategic aerial bombardment emerged as a wholly new military application that is still subscribed to by modern air forces.
Learn more about the “Bloody Hundredth” Bomb Group by scanning the QR code.
THE KATYN MASSACRE
By Alexandra Richie, DPhil
The Katyn Massacre, which saw the murder in cold blood of over 21,000 Polish military and police by the Soviet Union, was an infamous crime of World War II. The massacre was personally ordered by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in April and May 1940, and has been recognized as a war crime and a crime against humanity.
The background to the massacre is complex. On September 1, 1939, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany, and, in keeping with the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviets then invaded the eastern half of Poland on September 17, 1939. In an effort to prevent resistance, Stalin ordered the deportation of hundreds of thousands of people to the Soviet Union, including around 40,000 Polish prisoners of war which included military, police officers, and select members of the Polish intelligentsia. Polish soldiers and noncommissioned officers were sent to a number of camps where they were interrogated alongside those considered “anti-Soviet”; many were condemned to death.
Most prisoners were transported to an NKVD prison in Kalinin, where they were handcuffed and led one by one to a basement cell lined with sandbags. The victims were forced to kneel and immediately were shot in the back of the neck. Corpses were then carried to a waiting truck, and the next victims were then brought in. Others were brought to Katyn Forest, shot, and buried in mass graves. In all, almost half the Polish officer corps was murdered, and eight percent of the victims were Polish Jews.
In 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union; the mass graves were soon discovered. Josef Goebbels saw this as an opportunity to drive a wedge between Poland, the Soviets, and the Western Allies. On April 13, 1943, news of the discovery was broadcast, and a Red Cross committee was brought in to help prove that the murders had been carried out by the Soviets. Stalin immediately denied the German claims. Recently declassified US archival documents show that President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill recognized that the Katyn Massacre had been committed by the Soviets but kept quiet for the sake of the alliance.
Anger about the crime became widespread during the Cold War, when monuments to Katyn were unveiled in London and in other cities around the world. After decades of denial, Mikhail Gorbachev finally admitted that the Soviets had carried out the massacre in 1990; three years later, Boris Yeltsin knelt in front of the Katyn Cross in Warsaw asking for forgiveness. He also handed over the documents, signed by Stalin, proving once and for all that this was a Soviet crime.
The Katyn Museum was established in 1993 and is a moving testimony to those who were murdered in this tragic chapter of the war. It has won several awards for its innovative architecture and has become a landmark in Warsaw.
Learn more about the German Invasion of Poland by scanning the QR Code.
Personal belongings of victims found in the Katyn Forest. Source: Katyn Museum Warsaw
FRÉDÉRIC CHOPIN AND THE POLISH SPIRIT
After conquering Poland, the German occupiers set out to destroy Polish culture. One of the victims of the policy of the Third Reich was the statue of famous 19th-century composer and virtuoso pianist Frédéric Chopin. The General Governor of occupied Poland, Hans Frank, ordered the statue destroyed on May 31, 1940. Elements of the statue were melted down, and the several tons of metal were used as raw materials in German industry. The main goal of the occupier, however, was not to obtain material for the war, but to erase Polish culture and its most important symbols. Its location additionally motivated the Germans to destroy the statue. It was located near the Belvedere Palace, which Frank chose for one of his residences. The German officer despised Chopin’s music and reportedly did not want to see his image from the windows.
Polish pianist Władysław Szpilman’s last live broadcast was Chopin’s Nocturne in C-sharp minor on September 23, 1939, before the complete destruction of the national radio station. Yet, Chopin’s music continued to accompany Poles during the partitions, constituting an important element of maintaining national identity. It was a point of reference in particularly important historical moments. After the war, the statue was rebuilt and unveiled in 1958 at its original location in the Royal Łazienki Park.
The Holy Cross Church in Warsaw’s Old Town was heavily damaged during both the initial invasion of 1939 and during the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. Prior to retreating in January 1945, the Germans destroyed the church tower. Miraculously, the Holy Cross Church survived along with a very important relic: Chopin’s interred heart. In the days before his 1849 death in Paris, Chopin made the gruesome request of his family that after he died, his heart be taken from his corpse and buried in his home country.
After a poignant and emotional visit to the former Nazi extermination camp Treblinka, The National WWII Museum’s Educational Travel Program honors Polish culture and its legacy with a special Chopin concert. Although Chopin’s music was silenced when the Nazis occupied Poland, his works remain popular around the world and are cherished as a symbol of the Polish spirit and a reminder of those who fought against tyranny and oppression.
Monument to Chopin destroyed by the Germans in 1940.
THE GERMAN U-BOAT WAR
The German U-boat campaign during World War II, often referred to as the Battle of the Atlantic, was one of the longest and most crucial battles of the war. Fought between Germany’s Kriegsmarine—particularly its U-boat submarine fleet—and the Allied naval forces, it stretched from the first day of the war in 1939 to its final weeks in 1945. At stake was control of the sea lanes between North America and Europe, which were vital for the survival of Britain, the logistical buildup of Allied forces, and the flow of Lend-Lease assistance.
Germany’s Kriegsmarine entered the war with only 57 operational U-boats, far short of Admiral Karl Dönitz’s recommendation of 300. Despite this, U-boats quickly proved their value. In the early phase of the war, they inflicted significant losses on Allied merchant shipping. Operating primarily in “wolfpacks,” U-boats coordinated attacks against convoys, often striking at night and evading detection. By mid-1940, after the fall of France, Germany gained access to Atlantic ports like Lorient and Brest, which allowed U-boats to operate much farther into the Atlantic with less risk.
The U-boat threat first reached its height between July 1940 and April 1941. In what was called the “First Happy Time” by German submariners, the U-Boats wreaked havoc on Allied shipping in the North Atlantic and North Sea. Then, from January to August 1942, during the “Second Happy Time,” U-boats roamed the American coast and Atlantic shipping lanes with devastating effect. Thousands of merchant ships were sunk, and Britain came dangerously close to being starved of food, fuel, and supplies. The tonnage war—measuring U-boat success in the number of enemy ships sunk—was a central element of Dönitz’s strategy to choke Britain into submission.
But the tide began to turn in 1943. Allied advancements in radar, sonar (ASDIC), high-frequency direction finding (Huff-Duff), and codebreaking (particularly the cracking of the German Enigma code by British cryptanalysts at Bletchley Park) shifted the balance. Air cover from long-range patrol aircraft and escort carriers closed the “mid-Atlantic gap,” where previously U-boats operated without fear of detection. The introduction of more heavily armed escorts and better-defended convoys, combined with aggressive tactics, significantly reduced U-boat effectiveness.
By the end of 1943, U-boat losses had become unsustainable. Although Germany introduced new models such as the Type XXI “Elektroboot,” which featured greater underwater speed and endurance, these innovations came too late to affect the outcome of the war. From 1943 to 1945, the U-boat fleet continued to suffer heavy losses with diminishing results. Of the nearly 1,200 U-boats built during the war, over 750 were lost, and some 30,000 of the 40,000 men who served in the U-boat arm died—the highest casualty rate of any branch of the German military.
The German U-Boat War Badge and Kriegsmarine Jumper Top
The U-Boat War Badge (U-Boot-Kriegsabzeichen) was a military decoration awarded by Nazi Germany to honor the service and valor of German submarine crews in the Kriegsmarine. Instituted on October 13, 1939, by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, the badge became one of the most recognizable honors associated with the Kriegsmarine’s prolonged campaign to disrupt Allied shipping.
The original design, created by artist Wilhelm Ernst Peekhaus, featured a detailed side profile of a Type VII U-boat framed by a golden laurel wreath that symbolized victory and honor. Perched atop the wreath was a German eagle clutching a swastika reflecting Nazi state symbolism. Early versions were crafted from tombac, a brass alloy, while later badges used zinc due to material shortages.
To qualify for the badge, a sailor was typically required to complete two or more war patrols aboard a U-boat. In addition to standard eligibility, the badge was sometimes awarded posthumously to those killed or wounded in action, or to recognize outstanding courage or distinguished service. As the war progressed, a special version of the badge inlaid with diamonds (U-Boot-Kriegsabzeichen mit Brillanten) was introduced in 1943 and awarded at the discretion of Admiral Karl Dönitz to U-boat commanders who had already received the Knight’s Cross. Approximately 30 of these were awarded throughout the war.
The badge held deep personal and professional significance to the sailors who wore them. U-boat crews were often idealized in Nazi propaganda, portrayed as the elite of the German military. Yet their reality was harrowing, as submarine duty was among the most dangerous in the German armed forces. By war’s end, over 75 percent of U-boat personnel had been killed, the highest casualty rate of any German military branch.
During World War II, the German U-boat service developed its own distinct uniform culture, shaped by extreme conditions and a close-knit operational environment. Among the most characteristic garments was a dark blue or gray wool pullover, worn both at sea and ashore. Though originally issued without adornment, many of these tops—especially those worn by petty officers and seasoned crew—featured the Kriegsmarine breast eagle insignia, machine-embroidered or hand-sewn above the right chest as seen here.
The wool top was prized for its warmth, stretch, and functionality while aboard, where space was limited and conditions damp. The insignia, a stylized eagle clutching a swastika, denoted the wearer’s naval affiliation and rank and helped maintain structure even in the informal submarine service.
in the Atlantic Ocean in 1943, U-boat crewmen wearing life preservers watch attacking planes as they prepare to go over the side after an aerial attack from Lieutenant Junior Grade G.G. Hogan.
U-Boat badge. The National WWII Museum, 2009.402.007
German Kriegsmarine jumper top taken from U-boat pens. The National WWII Museum, 2012.186.001
THE NAZI V-WEAPONS PROGRAM
The Nazi regime’s Vergeltungswaffen, or “vengeance weapons,” were a series of advanced weapons systems deployed in the latter half of World War II with the aim of turning the tide of war in Germany’s favor. Conceived both as tools of terror and desperate technological breakthroughs, the V-weapons program produced three major systems: the V-1 flying bomb, the V-2 ballistic missile, and the lesser-known V-3 supergun. Together, they represented the world’s first modern strategic missile campaign and laid the foundation for postwar rocketry.
The most widely used of the weapons was the V-1, an early cruise missile launched from ramps or by specifically modified aircraft in Nazi-occupied Europe. First fired at London in June 1944, the V-1 traveled at about 400 mph and carried an 850 kg warhead. Its distinctive buzzing engine earned it the nickname “buzz bomb.” Though relatively easy to intercept with fighter planes and antiaircraft fire, V-1s caused significant civilian casualties and psychological damage, with over 6,000 deaths in Britain alone.
The V-2, by contrast, was a revolutionary leap in warfare. Developed under Nazi rocket engineer Wernher von Braun at the secret Peenemünde facility on the Baltic, the V-2 was the first long-range ballistic missile. It flew at supersonic speeds and reached altitudes of over 80 kilometers before descending at nearly Mach 3. First used in combat in September 1944, the V-2 struck targets in London, Antwerp, and Paris with no warning, rendering it impossible to intercept. Over 3,000 V-2s were launched, killing an estimated 9,000 people, mostly civilians.
A third project, the V-3, was an enormous multi-chamber gun intended to fire shells across the English Channel. Though never fully operational, several V-3 installations were constructed, most famously at Mimoyecques in France. Allied bombing raids, including one led by British Royal Air Force Mosquito bombers using Tallboy bombs in July 1944, prevented the V-3 from ever becoming a fully operational weapon.
The V-weapons program ultimately failed to achieve its strategic objectives. Though it killed approximately 15,000 people, it did not alter the course of the war. However, its legacy extended far beyond 1945. After the war, both the United States and the Soviet Union raced to recruit German scientists and leverage their rocket technology. Eventually, von Braun would go on to lead NASA’s Saturn V development, sending men to the Moon.
Learn more about the complicated life and legacy of Wernher von Braun by scanning the QR Code.
THE “STRENGTH THROUGH JOY” PROGRAM
By Alexandra Richie, DPhil
When Hitler came to power, he promised that he would bring full employment and self-sufficiency to the German people. He dissolved the once-powerful German trade unions and replaced them with a new body, the German Labour Front (DAF). In order to further convince workers that their lives would be better under the new regime, he created the Strength Through Joy (KdF) division under Robert Ley. The KdF started in November 1933, and by 1939 it had become the largest tour operator in the world.
The program was part of a massive propaganda machine and put on thousands of popular group activities, from sporting events to picnics to theater trips. As the program grew, Ley encouraged inexpensive mass tourism for ordinary Germans. At first these consisted of walking trips in Switzerland or skiing holidays in Bavaria, but by 1936, ships like the Dresden, Oceana, and Monte Olivia were being used for cheap cruises all over Europe. By 1939, the large cruise ships the Wilhelm Gustloff and the Robert Ley had been launched for cruises to Spain and Norway. Ley also oversaw the creation of gigantic resorts such as the Collossus at Prora, a massive 2¾-mile-long building with each room facing the beach. Guests could enjoy the outdoors or the massive wave swimming pool, or gather in the gigantic halls for concerts and speeches. Perhaps the best known KdF project was the Volkswagen or “people’s car,” which was meant to offer affordable transportation to the masses. These were sold to German workers on an installment plan; thousands of people signed up, but due to the war no worker ever received a car.
Every aspect of the KdF was underpinned by propaganda and the need to prepare the population for war. Mandatory exercise classes were meant to improve the general fitness of the population. General hygiene and improvements, like reduction of sound pollution and better washrooms, were meant to keep workers healthy. Adult education and travelling theater were meant to bolster Nazi ideas. Thanks to KdF, people could buy a Volksempfänger, or “people’s radio,” for a mere 35 marks and listen to antisemitic speeches or Hitler’s rallies in their own homes.
In the end, the Nazi dreamworld collapsed. Volkswagens were commandeered by the Wehrmacht. People could be sent to a camp for merely listening to the BBC on their new radios. The picnics and days at the beach turned into military training sessions. No tourists stayed in the beach rooms in Prora. By 1940, the Wilhelm Gustloff had become a military ship used to transport troops and supplies. On the night of January 30, 1945, during Operation Hannibal, in which millions of people were being evacuated from East Prussia to try to escape the oncoming Red Army, the ship was torpedoed. Between 6,000 and 9,000 people drowned near Gdańsk, making it the largest sea disaster in history. “Strength Through Joy,” which had convinced so many Germans that the future would be filled with leisure and fun, turned out to have been built on lies.
Learn more about The Sinking of the Wilhelm Gustloff by scanning the QR Code.
Front and back covers of a WWII Taschenatlas issued by the German Labor Front (DAF) featuring the slogan “Kraft durch Freude” (“Strength Through Joy”). These compact atlases provided geographical context to German citizens and workers during the war, often with a focus on the GrossDeutsches Reich (Greater Germany) and other areas under Nazi influence, aligning cartography with Nazi propaganda efforts. The National WWII Museum, 2006.209.007
THE POMERANIAN WALL: GERMANY’S LAST LINE OF DEFENSE IN THE EAST
The Pomeranian Wall (Pommernstellung) was a formidable line of German fortifications built in the 1930s and reinforced during World War II to protect the Reich’s eastern approaches. Stretching across the Pomeranian region in what is today western Poland, the wall played a key role during the final phase of the war in Europe, particularly in early 1945, as Soviet forces advanced rapidly toward Berlin.
Originally constructed between 1930 and 1937, the Pomeranian Wall was part of a broader strategy by the Weimar Republic and early Nazi regime to secure Germany’s eastern frontier. The line included bunkers, antitank ditches, minefields, and reinforced concrete pillboxes. It was primarily intended to defend against a Polish invasion—ironic, given that by 1945, it was the Soviet Red Army using Polish territory to storm the fortifications from the east.
When the Red Army launched the Vistula-Oder Offensive in January 1945, German defenses on the Eastern Front began to collapse. The Pomeranian Wall, still incomplete and manned by poorly equipped and hastily assembled units, including the Volkssturm (“people’s militia”), Hitler Youth, and retreating Wehrmacht forces became a desperate fallback position.
From February to March 1945, fierce fighting erupted along the Pomeranian Wall. The Soviets, particularly the 1st Belorussian and 2nd Belorussian Fronts, attacked from multiple directions supported by the Polish People’s Army eager to reclaim historic territory. Towns like Kolberg (Kołobrzeg), Szczecinek, and Wałcz became scenes of bitter urban warfare. Despite strong German resistance and difficult winter conditions, the Soviet and Polish forces gradually overwhelmed the defenders.
The fall of the Pomeranian Wall opened the path to the Oder River and placed Soviet forces within striking distance of Berlin. While the wall delayed the Red Army by several weeks, it could not halt the strategic collapse of Nazi Germany in the East. The fighting saw atrocities on both sides and devastated the civilian population in the region.
BEREK ROJZMAN, SURVIVOR OF TREBLINKA
Berek Rojzman was born on March 5, 1912, in the small Polish town of Grójec, located southeast of Warsaw. He was the second oldest of six siblings, and from an early age, he faced the harsh reality of antisemitism. His classmates often bullied him, taunting him and his family with slurs and discouraging others from patronizing his father and grandfather’s butcher shop. Despite these insults, Rojzman’s parents instilled resilience in their children, encouraging them to stay strong and pretend not to hear or see such behavior.
At 15, Rojzman left school to help at his father’s butcher shop. By 1938, at the age of 28, he married and moved to a suburban area of Warsaw, opening his own butcher shop. He and his wife were close with their Polish neighbors, and life was happy—until the Germans invaded.
On August 24, 1939, one week before the invasion, Rojzman joined the Polish Home Army as a medical orderly. He was a natural leader, often lifting spirits with humor. “When I went on patrol, I always took food and vodka,” he recalled. “I made sure to bring back treats for the officers, keeping their spirits high!” Rojzman was captured by German forces but escaped back to Warsaw, where he secretly reopened his butcher shop. Unfortunately, the situation for Jewish families continued to worsen, and soon his entire family was forced into the Warsaw Ghetto. Refusing to succumb to despair, Rojzman and his father secured a flat for their families and set up a butcher shop within the ghetto. On July 22, 1942, the “Great Deportation” began, with Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto sent to Treblinka. There, they faced a horrific fate, as the majority were gassed immediately upon arrival. On November 2, 1942, Rojzman and his family were among those sent from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka. In a stroke of luck, a friend who worked in the camp’s undressing barracks, recognized Rojzman and concealed him under heaps of clothes. Tragically, his wife and their two-year-old son were murdered within a few hours of arrival. An estimated 700,000 Jews were murdered at Treblinka between July and December 1942.
The friend who helped Rojzman upon his arrival in Treblinka used his connections with the SS to advocate for Rojzman’s “employment,” highlighting his skills that could be valuable to the camp. Initially, he was assigned to work in the undressing barracks but later transitioned to gardening.
Although Rojzman wasn’t one of its main leaders, he was given a crucial role in the Treblinka uprising. On August 2, 1943, he approached the corner guard tower where a Ukrainian SS guard, known as “Mira,” was sunbathing without his shirt. Berek rushed to him, urgently warning that the Russians were coming and urging him to flee. In the chaos, he grabbed Mira’s gun, and while Mira ran to safety, Rojzman, along with nearly 300 others, seized the opportunity to escape from the Treblinka extermination camp. For several days, Rojzman and five other escapees navigated through the woods, searching for shelter and assistance. They found refuge with Stascek, a local Polish farmer. However, two-thirds of the escapees were eventually tracked down and murdered.
Over the following year, the group remained hidden in the forest. They constructed an underground shelter, prepared meals, grew or hunted their own food, and occasionally ventured into the village, disguised as Polish farmers, to gather supplies and information. They would quietly inform the locals that they were partisans, but their main goal was simple: survival. From the village, the five escapees learned that the Russians were advancing as the war drew to a close. Rojzman and three others made their way to Otwock, where they divided their remaining money and resources before parting ways.
Not long after the war, Rojzman encountered the widow of the Polish couple who had been their neighbors and friends. The Germans had killed her husband, leaving her to care for their two young children. They reconnected and eventually married. Unlike the few remaining Treblinka survivors, Rojzman chose to stay in Poland after the war. He became a key source for Gitta Sereny’s book Into That Darkness: An Examination of Conscience, wherein she interviewed Franz Stangl, the commandant of Treblinka.
During the interview, Stangl remarked to Sereny that his most vivid memory of Treblinka was how the victims walked to their deaths passively, like cattle headed for slaughter. Yet, the story of Berek Rojzman, with its focus on determination, resistance, and resilience, shows that not all went passively to their deaths.
Under guard, Jewish men, women, and children board trains during deportation from Siedlce to the Treblinka killing center. Siedlce, Poland, August 1942. Source: United States
ARCHIVAL IMAGES
Holocaust Memorial Museum
Train station near the Treblinka killing center. This photo was found in an album belonging to camp commandant Kurt Franz. Poland, 19421943. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Portrait of Berek Rojzman, a member of the underground in the Treblinka camp. Photographed in 1943.
Portrait of Franz Stangl, the first official commandant of the Sobibor killing center. He is later transferred to the Treblinka killing center, where he served as commandant from September 1942 to August 1943. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Learn about the daring August 1943 Jewish prisoner revolt at Treblinka by scanning the QR Code.
A Short Snorter from Oflag 64
Among the rare artifacts of WWII prisoner-of-war life, few are as poignant and personal as the short snorter—a keepsake made from a strip of currency notes signed by comrades. Short snorters originated among aviators sometime in the 1930s and gained popularity during the war. Originally, a “short snorter” was a banknote signed by crew members or fellow servicemembers that was often carried for good luck or as a record of shared experiences. They evolved into stitched-together chains of banknotes from different countries, passed around in bomber crews, foxholes, and even POW camps.
At the POW camp Oflag 64, where hundreds of captured American officers were held, the creation of a short snorter served not only as a pastime but as a testament to resilience and camaraderie under captivity. Officers used whatever they had, including Polish zloty, German Marks, or worn US dollars, and passed the currency among barracks and mess halls to collect signatures from fellow prisoners. After the war, these notes became cherished mementos, documenting the bond among the men who had faced hunger, cold, and the psychological strain of imprisonment.
The short snorter seen here includes signatures of dozens of US officers, including men who would later write memoirs or contribute to the camp’s liberation narrative. Some added ranks, units, or personal notes. The practice was unofficial, unsanctioned, and yet deeply meaningful as it provided proof of identity in a world where freedom had been stripped away.
The tradition gained further significance in early 1945. As the Soviet Red Army approached, Oflag 64 was evacuated, with prisoners forced on a brutal march westward in the snow. Many short snorters were hidden in boots, belts, or sewn into clothes to avoid confiscation during searches. Survivors who later returned to the United States preserved these items as heirlooms.
Learn more about the saga of the Short Snorter by scanning the QR Code.
The back of Cole’s short snorter with additional names of fellow POWs. Cole served as a Division Chemical Officer in the 29th Infantry Division and was captured on June 19, 1944, during the Battle of Normandy, and was one of the 1,500 prisoners sent to Oflag 64. The National WWII Museum, Gift of the men of Olflag 64, 2006.130.018.
The front of Major Newton Cole’s POW short snorter made with scrip of different sizes and denominations. Often rendered worthless by the lack of goods they could purchase, Lagergeld (“camp money”) held little value for prisoners. Some used them as gambling tokens to overcome boredom. Cole used his to capture the signatures of fellow officers in the camp that experienced similar circumstances and suffered similar traumas. The National WWII Museum, Gift of the men of Olflag 64, 2006.130.018
Guards at the inner entrance to Oflag 64.
Courtesy of the Imperial War Museum
View of the camp yard with English prisoners of war during the camp’s time as Stalag XXI B.
Courtesy of the International Committee of the Red Cross Archives
American POWs playing baseball at Oflag 64. Courtesy of the International Committee of the Red Cross Archives
Scan QR codes below to access to additional content.
ARTICLE
Prelude to the Warsaw Uprising: Operation Tempest
ARTICLE
The People’s War: Women, Children, and Civilians in the 1944 Warsaw Uprising
LECTURE
Unconditional Extermination: Operation Reinhard and the SS Camps at Belzec, Sobibor, and Treblinka
ARTICLE
The Nazi Concentration Camp System
ARTICLE
Remembering the Sobibor Uprising
ARTICLE
Operation Gomorrah: The First of the Firestorms
INTERVIEW
Wernher von Braun and the Nazi Rocket Program: An Interview with Michael Neufeld, PhD, of the National Air and Space Museum
ARTICLE
The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
ARTICLE
The Invasion of Poland
ARTICLE
Sealing the Third Reich’s Downfall: Adolf Hitler’s “Nero Decree”
GUIDE BOOK PDF
Scan QR for digital guide book
ARTICLE
Nazi Germany’s Last Leader: Admiral Karl Dönitz
PHOTO: IDENTICAL FACADE OF WARSAW OLD TOWN MARKET SQUARE TODAY.