CALT Lighten Up Training Manual

Editors

Brian Baker, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, Energy Management Collaborative

James Bernardo, CLMC, CLCP, CLEP, LC, Candela Systems, Inc.

Randy Breske, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, Gexpro

Craig DiLouie, CLCP, LC

Erik Ennen, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, Center for Energy & Environment

Jimmy Hammonds, Jr., ME, CSLT, Candela Systems Corp.

Jeffrey Kinney, CLMC, CSLC, CLEP, Stones River Electric, Inc.

Dan Lareau, CLMC, CLCP, Lighting Services, Inc.

Bill Sgro, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, CEM, Eco Engineering, Inc.

Doug Stoneman, CLMC, CSLC, Voss Lighting

Chuck Smith, Current Electric Co.

Brian Baker, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, Energy Management Collaborative

James Bernardo, CLMC, CLCP, CLEP, LC, Candela Systems Corp.

Randy Breske, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, Gexpro

Erik Ennen, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, Center for Energy & Environment

Jeffrey Kinney, CLMC, CSLC, Stones River Electric, Inc.

Dan Lareau, CLMC, CLCP, Lighting Services, Inc.

Bill Sgro, CLMC, CSLC, CLCP, CLEP, CEM, Eco Engineering, Inc.

Doug Stoneman, CLMC, CSLC, Voss Lighting

With Contributions by NALMCO Certification Committee Cover Illustration

Echo Factory, Inc.

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

CHAPTER

FIGURE 1-2

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING

THE LIGHT

Light is radiant energy which can be sensed or seen by the human eye. When light strikes an object, it is reflected back to our eyes, and that’s how we see. Therefore, to see requires two things—an eye and light.

We rely on light to do everything. Wherever and whenever the sun doesn’t shine, we use electric lighting systems to be able to see. We use lighting.

Lighting has an art and science to it. The science of lighting looks at how much light different people need to be able to do different things. For example, it would take more light to read a label with fine print on an apple than to simply pick it up and eat it. An old man would need more light to read the label than a young man.

The art of lighting looks at how people respond to where we put the light. We can light an object from above and create a shadow, from behind and create a silhouette, etc. By adjusting the lighting in a room, we can affect what kind of room people think it is, how comfortable they feel in it, and set a mood.

Good lighting can tell a story on a theater stage, draw attention to merchandise in a store, provide security, and allow people to perform necessary tasks accurately, efficiently and safely.

To provide lighting, architects, designers and engineers design lighting systems, manufacturers make them, sales professionals and electrical distributors sell them, electricians install them, and building owners and managers buy them.

Afterwards, lighting management companies maintain them and may upgrade them so that they work even better than first designed. That’s where you fit in as an upcoming Apprentice Lighting Technician.

Lighting systems require ongoing maintenance based on rated life,

FIGURE 1-1

FIGURE 1-3

hours of operation and environment. Building owners pay a lot of money to have their lighting systems designed, engineered and installed. Ongoing and proper lighting maintenance is critical to ensure that problems are fixed, allowing the system to perform as good or better than originally designed. That’s where you fit in.

Lighting management is a profession as old as the light bulb. Lighting management companies are comprised of professionals who clean, maintain, troubleshoot, diagnose and repair problems on all types of lighting systems, ensuring they perform as designed. In addition, lighting professionals audit, engineer, specify and install the correct lighting technology for the application. The correct technology may include new and emerging lighting products, a direct replacement of the existing products, or a combination of the two. The focus of the lighting project is determined by combining the customers’ needs and wants with the expertise of a lighting professional and is typically designed to reduce energy and operational costs while improving performance. There’s an art and science to lighting management.

The intended result is lighting that helps people do things accurately and safely for the lowest ongoing cost.

The first step to understanding lighting management is to

Courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc.

Courtesy of Ledalite Architectural Products.

FIGURE 1-4

Courtesy

understand lighting. To understand lighting, we must know the types of lighting, how lighting works, and the language used when discussing it.

THE LIGHTING SYSTEM

To become an Apprentice Lighting Technician, you must understand how a lighting system functions so you can keep it performing at its best.

While there are thousands of variations on the basic lighting system, most lighting systems can be broken down into four basic parts:

Light Source: The light source produces the light. The light source may be referred to as a light bulb or tube, but in the lighting industry, we use the term “lamp.” A lamp is defined as “the complete light source package, including the inner parts as well the outer bulb or tube.”

Ballast: Some light sources need a device called a ballast to start up and run the lamp. A ballast is defined as “an auxiliary piece of equipment required to start and to properly control the flow of current to gas discharge light sources such as fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps.” Typically, magnetic ballasts

FIGURE 1-5

Lamps. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

FIGURE 1-6

Ballasts.

(also called electromagnetic ballasts) contain copper windings on an iron core, while electronic ballasts are smaller and more efficient and contain electronic components.

Luminaire: The light fixture is referred to as a luminaire by lighting professionals. A luminaire is defined as: “the complete lighting unit, including the lamp, reflector, socket, wiring, diffuser and housing.” The luminaire houses the lamp and ballast (when required), provides a connection point for supply voltage and directs the light by means of reflection known as optics.

FIGURE 1-7 Luminaire. Courtesy of Lightolier.

Control: An extended and essential part of the lighting system is the control, which may be as simple as a wall switch or dimmer, or as sophisticated as a computerized system allowing you to control a defined area or an entire building’s lighting system from a PC or even your smart phone. The control can either modify the power flowing down the circuit to the lighting system so that the lights dim, or can open or close the circuit to turn the lighting system on or off.

The lighting system is connected to a lighting circuit. A lighting circuit is wiring that provides power to electric lights. Multiple luminaires can be connected to a circuit, depending on the load-

of Current Electric Co.

Courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc.

FIGURE 1-8

Lighting control. Courtesy of Lutron Electronics.

carrying capacity of the circuit (measured in amps) and the size of the lighting load (measured in watts).

REMEMBER

The control allows electric power to flow to the luminaire, the ballast starts and operates the lamp, the lamp produces light, and the luminaire controls the direction and intensity of the light emitted by the lamp.

THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Electricity is a form of energy created by the movement of electrons. Directing these electrons through a circuit, we can energize electrical systems.

Lighting systems are electrical systems, like electric motors and fans. Electrical systems convert electrical input into work output. In the case of a lighting system, this work is the delivery of illumination. Because they are electrical systems, they require electric power to operate. This power is fed to the lighting system through the building’s electrical system, which is made up of electrical circuits.

The electrical systems’ wire is called a conductor because it conducts electricity along a defined path. Copper is a good conductor and is therefore used for electric wiring. Materials such as wood, plastic or glass are not good conductors. Poor conductors are called insulators.

Conductors are used to create circuits. In an electric circuit, electric power starts at a generator (power provider), flows into the building’s electrical distribution equipment and through the electrical devices attached to the circuit (such as lighting systems), and returns to the generator.

Lighting systems have their own circuits that connect to the building power lines. Each circuit can supply multiple luminaires depending on the lighting load (wattage), wire size, the loadcarrying capacity of the circuit, and circuit breaker size.

REMEMBER

Luminaires are connected to lighting circuits, which allow electric power to flow from the generator to the lighting system, through the lighting system, and back. A circuit is created using conductors, insulated material such as copper that allows easy, orderly, directional flow of electricity. The rate of flow is called current, the result of voltage and resistance. A given circuit can support a number of luminaires.

TYPES OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS

There are four common types of lighting systems that you will work on as an Apprentice Lighting Technician: incandescent, fluorescent, high-intensity discharge (HID) and light-emitting diode (LED). While these lighting types will be covered in greater detail in subsequent chapters, the following should start to familiarize them. Incandescent: The common light bulb. Incandescent lamps produce light through a process called “incandescence,” in which electricity is passed through a filament which is heated until it glows. Not only is light produced, but a lot of heat.

FIGURE 1-9 Incandescent. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

Another type of incandescent lamp is halogen, which is found in luminaires ranging from torchieres used in houses to track lighting to car headlights. Halogen lamps produce a brighter, whiter light than incandescent lamps, and last longer.

FIGURE 1-10 Halogen. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

Incandescent and halogen lamps do not require a ballast.

Fluorescent: The common white tube you have seen in ceiling luminaires in offices and retail stores. Fluorescent lamps produce light using a process called “fluorescence,” in which electricity is passed through a gas until it emits energy that in turn is converted into visible light by a phosphor coating on the lamp envelope.

Fluorescent lamps need a ballast.

FIGURE 1-11

All fluorescent lamps need a ballast to operate. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

Table 1-1.

LIGHTING SYSTEM MEASUREMENTS Unit Abbrev.

How long does the lamp last? Life (hours) hrs

How much light does it produce? Light output (lumens) lm or L

How much electricity does the system require? Wattage (watts) W

How efficient is it compared to others? Efficacy lm/W

What’s the color of the light? Color appearance K

How accurate do colors look in the light? Color rendering CRI

part of lighting maintenance is about replacing lamps. How long a lamp is predicted to last by its maker is called its rated life, and is measured in hours. There are three other things that are important for you to know about lamp life at this point.

High-Intensity Discharge (HID): HID lamps produce light similarly to fluorescent lamps, but at much higher pressures, producing a lot more light in the process. You have seen HID lamps in streetlight poles, parking lots and nighttime sporting events.

HID lamps need a ballast.

Light Emitting Diode (LED): LED lamps are actually an organic chip mounted to a circuit board that is energized by a driver (similar to a fluorescent ballast), producing an intense and highly directional light source. LED lamps are becoming a common source for downlights, track lighting and display lighting.

LED lamps need a driver.

REMEMBER

There are four major families of lighting—incandescent (including halogen), fluorescent, HID and LED.

Fluorescent and HID lamps need a ballast to operate, and LED lamps need a driver. There are many types of lamps (ballasts and drivers) within each family.

HOW LIGHTING SYSTEMS ARE MEASURED

We can learn a lot about any lighting system we come across by understanding common lighting words, some of which are shown below. They tell us the basics of what we need to know about the lighting system.

How long does the lamp last? Lamp life is expressed as a number of operating hours as rated by its manufacturer. You can find a given lamp’s rated life in the manufacturer’s catalog.

Lamp life is very important in lighting maintenance because a big

First, lamp life is based on correct and proper installation. High line voltage, connecting the lamp to the wrong type of ballast, and other problems can shorten lamp life.

Second, fluorescent, HID and LED rated lamp life is an average. For fluorescent and HID lamps, that means at 100% of rated life, 50% of a large group of lamps can be expected to have failed.

For LED lamps that life is typically determined when the systems have experienced a 30% depreciation in lumen output. The rate of failure is shown on the lamp’s mortality curve (see Figure 1-12).

For example, given 100 fluorescent or HID lamps with a rated life of 20,000 hours, then at 20,000 hours only 50 of the lamps are expected to have failed, not all of them. If we look at the mortality curve for this lamp, we see that at 70% of their rated life, only 7% have failed. After 70-80% of lamp life, the rate of failure accelerates dramatically.

Third, rated lamp life is based on hours per start. Fluorescent lamps,

FOOTCANDLES AND CANDLEPOWER

Two important measurements of light are frequently confused—footcandles and candlepower.

Footcandles, expressed as lumens per square foot, measure the light that falls on a surface (illuminance). A footcandle minimum, for example, may be written into lighting specifications based on the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America’s (IESNA) recommended light level for a particular room or task.

Candlepower measures the intensity of a light source in a specific direction. Candlepower measurements are expressed in candelas and are independent of any object or surface that is being lighted.

for example, are typically rated at 3 hours per start and HID lamps are typically rated at 10 hours per start. If a fluorescent lamp’s service life is rated at 3 hours per start, this is the lamp life if it is turned on for 3 hours, then off for 15-20 minutes, then on again for 3 hours, etc. The reason for qualifying rated life this way is that most of the wear and tear that happens to a fluorescent or HID lamp happens on start-up. Therefore, a fluorescent lamp rated at 20,000 hours at 3 hours per start is rated at 26,000 hours at 10 hours per start. If the lamp is left on and never turned off, it can last as long as 30,000 hours or longer.

How much light does it produce? In review, controls provide electric power to lighting systems, ballasts start and run lamps, lamps produce light, and luminaires control the direction and intensity

FIGURE 1-12

Typical mortality curve for fluorescent lamps. Large groups of lamps tend to follow this curve. Courtesy of the Lighting Design Lab.

FIGURE 1-13

Lamp lumen depreciation curves for common lamp types. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.

of the light. The goal of all of this is to produce useable light.

The light produced by lamps is called lumen output and is measured in lumens. If you look at a lamp catalog, you will see that a given lamp produces a quantity of lumens. A typical T8 fluorescent lamp, for example, produces 2900 lumens. Fluorescent, HID and LED lamps are operated on ballasts or drivers, which affect the lumen output.

The important thing about lumen output is that the amount of lumens produced by a lamp goes down over time. This is called lumen depreciation (see Figure 1-13). The amount of lumen depreciation a given lamp experiences over time is called lumen maintenance. As the lamp ages, it produces less light.

How much electricity does the system require? Lighting systems depend on electricity to be able to work. The amount of electric power required is expressed as its rated wattage.

In reviewing a lamp and ballast manufacturer catalog, you will again notice that the lamp wattage is not the system wattage for fluorescent, HID and LED systems. This is because these lamp types need a ballast or driver to work. The ballast manufacturer shows the total wattage for the ballast plus the lamps that it operates.

You can have two 32W lamps, drawing a total of 64W, but when connected to a ballast, the system draws a combined 58W for both lamps and the ballast. This is a direct result of the ballast factor (BF), which will be explained later.

Why is this important? Because lighting costs money. First, it costs money to buy and install a lighting system. Then it costs money to run it and maintain it. One of the biggest costs of a lighting system is the electric bill from the local power company.

Wattage tells us how much electric power the lighting system requires to operate. Energy is power (W) x time (hours). So a lighting system drawing 114W of power that runs 8000 hours a year consumes 114W x 8000 hours ÷ 1000 = 912 kilowatthours (kWh) of energy. The local power company charges a dollar amount per kWh. If the kWh charge is $0.10/kWh, then our 114W lighting system costs $91.20 per year to run.

How efficient is it compared to others? Because lighting systems present an ongoing energy cost, building owners and managers have begun choosing lighting systems that have a lower operating energy cost. This is important for building owners, as reducing costs will increase profit. It’s also important for the country, as using less energy can reduce air pollution and fuel consumption at the power companies’ power plants.

Efficiency is important. It is important when designing a new lighting system and it is an important reason why building owners and managers are upgrading their existing lighting systems with new, energy-efficient, longer-life systems.

Once we know how much lumen output we want from the lighting system, we can specify a system that will produce the appropriate level of output for the lowest amount of energy use. That’s a simple way of comparing lighting systems.

Another way is to look at the lighting system’s efficacy. Energyefficient lighting systems produce more lumen output per unit of electrical input. Efficacy is the expression of the number of units of lumen output per unit of electrical (watt) input; it is defined as lumens ÷ watts, or lumens/watt (lm/W or LPW).

Lighting System A produces 8500 lumens and draws 150W.

Lighting System B produces 12000 lumens and draws 200W. Which one is more efficient?

Lighting System A’s efficacy is 8500 ÷ 150 = 57 lm/W. Lighting System B’s efficacy is 12000 ÷ 200 = 60 lm/W. Lighting System B therefore has a higher efficacy.

What’s the color of the light? If you shine a flashlight through a glass prism, you’ll see a rainbow come out the other end. This is because light is made up of colors, and all colors combine to create white light.

FIGURE 1-14

Lamp-ballast system efficacies. Courtesy of the Lighting Design Lab.

FIGURE 1-16

How we see. Light is emitted by a light source. The light strikes an

Lamps produce light that has a color appearance, which affects the color of objects when the light strikes them, and affects the color appearance of the lamp itself.

The “color of the light” is expressed as the lamp’s color temperature and measured in degrees Kelvin (K). A low color temperature means the lamp is “warm” in appearance (reddish-white), a medium color temperature means the lamp is “neutral” in appearance (white), and a high color temperature means the lamp is “cool” in appearance (bluish-white). A typical household incandescent light bulb is a very warm light (2700K). Daylight is a very cool light (6500K).

The right color temperature is often a matter of preference. At home, people tend to prefer warmer light sources, while at the office, cool or neutral light sources are preferred.

How accurate do colors look in the light? When light hits an apple, the apple reflects light back into our eyes, and that’s how we see it. But what makes an apple red? The apple’s skin is chemically disposed to absorb all colors of the light spectrum except for red. Red is reflected back to our eyes, and we see the apple as red.

Electric lighting systems, however, are not like the sun. The light produced usually isn’t perfectly balanced in all colors. Under some types of lighting, in fact, an apple can even look gray. When choosing a lamp, how are we supposed to know that it will render colors accurately—that is, how we would expect them to look?

The answer is color rendering, expressed as a lamp’s Color Rendering Index (CRI) rating. The CRI scale starts at 0 and goes up to 100. A high CRI rating means the lamp can render colors very well. A low CRI rating means it doesn’t. An incandescent lamp has a CRI rating of 100. Fluorescent lamps have CRI ratings from the 60s

to the 90s, depending on the lamp. Only compare CRI between two lamps of the same color temperature.

LET’S LEARN ABOUT LAMPS AND BALLASTS

In following chapters, you will learn about the four major families of lighting and the devices used to control them. Using the information in this chapter, you will begin to understand, identify and compare different lamps and ballasts. There are two other important things you should keep in mind.

FIGURE 1-17

Typical CRI values for common lamp types. Courtesy of the Lighting Design Lab.

REMEMBER

When we examine a lighting system, we must know the lamp’s rated service life, how much light the lamp or lamp-ballast system produces, how much electric power the system requires to produce light, how efficient it is compared to other lighting systems, what the color appearance of the lamp is, and how accurately it renders colors.

Lighting families are always in competition to provide a better product with higher quality and efficacy. Incandescent lamps, for example, were the light source of choice for exit signs until lightemitting diodes (LEDs) came along. Magnetic ballasts dominated fluorescent lighting until the demand for more energy-efficient lighting systems caused electronic ballasts to gain a leading market share in just 10 years. Each type of lamp and ballast is constantly evolving to meet market needs and stay competitive.

That being said, the most important thing to remember is, in a lighting system, there is no “one size fits all” solution and there is no such thing as a perfect lamp or ballast for every application. The best lighting always starts and ends with the customer’s needs.

Take the Introduction to Lighting Quiz, turn the page, and get set to become an expert on lamps and ballasts.

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. Light output is measured in …?

a) Footcandles

b) Lumens c) Watts d) Electrons

2. Rated lamp life is the time when …?

a) Lamps reach 20,000 hours of operation b) 1/2 of a large group of lamps are expected to have failed c) All lamps are expected to fail d) It’s the best time to group relamp

3. The Color Rendering Index is a scale that describes how accurate colors look when struck by the light from a given lamp. How is the scale defined?

a) 0-100, with 0 being worst and 100 being best b) 0-75, with 0 being worst and 75 being best c) 0-100, with 100 being worst and 0 being best d) 0-75, with 75 being worst and 0 being best

4. Which of the following is NOT a typical function of a lighting system?

a) Ballast starts and operates the lamp b) Lamp produces light c) Ballast records energy consumption on an LCD display d) Luminaire controls the direction and intensity of the light coming out of the lamp

5. Voltage is the “push” of electricity, which reaches resistance, and the resulting rate of flow of electric power down the line is called …?

a) A conductor b) An insulator c) The circuit d) The current

6. Which of the following is NOT one of the major families of lighting?

a) Incandescent/Halogen b) Electroluminescent c) High-intensity discharge d) Fluorescent

7. The amount of electric power a lighting system draws is measured in …?

a) Watts b) Ohms c) Amps d) Volts

8. A lighting system’s efficacy is measured in …? a) Lumens/Watt b) Amps/Volt c) Lumens/kWh d) $/kWh

9. Which is NOT one of the most important questions we typically need to ask to be able to understand and compare one lamp to another?

a) How long does the lamp last? b) How much light does it produce? c) How much electricity does it require? d) What is its noise rating?

10. ____ describes the gradual decline in a lamp’s light output as it ages. a) Light efficacy b) Lamp consolidation c) Lumen depreciation d) Hours per start degradation

11. A lamp with a very low color temperature is considered …? a) Warm light source (reddish) b) Neutral light source (white) c) Cool light source (bluish) d) Energy-efficient

12. A lamp’s color rendering ability describes how well it can relatively …? a) Prevent color shifting over time b) Raise color temperature over time c) Show colors accurately d) Produce light per unit of consumed energy

13. If a lamp is rated at 20,000 hours at three hours per start, this is the lamp life if the lamp is …? a) Turned off and on quickly every three hours b) Left on for three hours and off for 15-20 minutes c) On for three hours and off for three hours d) None of the above

CHAPTER 2: INCANDESCENT LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION

The first working model of an incandescent lamp was developed by Thomas Edison in 1879. Today, its ancestors continue to light millions of homes and many spaces in hospitals, schools, churches, restaurants, apartment complexes, offices and factories.

By reading this chapter, you will gain an understanding of the two major types of incandescent lighting—incandescent and tungsten halogen lamps.

By the time you’re done reading this section, you will be able to identify common incandescent and halogen lamps and read a lamp label and catalog.

FIGURE 2-1

Incandescent lamps. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

INCANDESCENT LAMPS

Incandescent lamps are simple compared to fluorescent and HID lighting systems. They feature familiar Edison bases so they can screw directly into sockets. They don’t need a ballast. However, the standard light bulb common in the home is only a partial view of incandescent lamps, of which there is a wide variety of types, shapes, styles, wattages and colors.

All incandescent lamps produce light using a method called “incandescence,” in which a solid material is heated until it glows. An incandescent lamp is essentially a glass bulb over screw-in base, which connects the lamp to the power supply. Inside the bulb is a coil of fine wire, the “squiggle” often seen in drawings of light bulbs. Electricity is passed through the filament, which heats until it becomes white hot and produces light.

Incandescence makes the lamp a point source—the light is emitted from a point rather than the phosphor-coated bulb wall, as is the case with fluorescent lamps. This means incandescent lamps can be too bright to look at directly but can create “sparkle” in a space, which can be desirable for applications such as restaurants, and the light beam can be easily aimed and focused using reflectors and lenses.

Incandescent Lamp Types

Incandescent lamps are available in a wide variety of wattages, configurations, shapes and colors for a broad range of applications. The basic incandescent lamp is called a general service or standard lamp, with the most common lamp shape being A lamps—the household light bulb. Additional types include:

REMEMBER

When replacing incandescent lamps that have been operating, always let them cool down before attempting replacement, as the bulb will be very hot.

Reflectorized Lamps: The lamp may feature an integral reflector that aims the light forward in one direction. Without the reflector, the lamp would emit light in all directions. Popular reflector designations include BR (bulge reflector), PAR (parabolic aluminized reflector) and ER (elliptical reflector). A layer of glass in front of the lamp distributes the light output in a controlled beam pattern. There is a range of beam patterns from narrow spot to wide flood.

Infrared Lamps: These lamps are designed to produce heating instead of light.

Long-Life Lamps: These lamps are designed to provide 1,5003,000 hours of service life, up to 2-4 times longer than standard incandescent lamps.

Rough Service: Rough service lamps are designed for construction sites, factories, elevators and other applications where shock, vibration or the weather can damage the filament or the bulb. These lamps are shock-, vibration-, shatter- and weather-resistant.

Clear Vs. Frosted: The lamp bulb may be frosted or clear. Clear incandescent lamps are point sources while frosted lamps diffuse the light emitted from the lamp.

FIGURE 2-2 Common incandescent lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

FIGURE 2-3

Common incandescent lamp bases. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

REMEMBER

Two fundamental types of incandescent lamps include bulbs in different shapes and reflectorized lamps, which include an integral reflector and lens to aim and focus the light beam in a desired direction.

• Instant starting and re-starting.

• Wide range of styles, light outputs, shapes, wattages.

• Easy to dim.

• Light output not affected over wide range of ambient temperature, hot or cold areas.

• No ballast is required.

Disadvantages of incandescent lamps include:

There are many other types of incandescent lamps, such as blacklights, energy-saving lamps, daylight or full-spectrum lamps, bug lights, plant lights, colored lamps, appliance and indicator lights, signal lamps, and night lights.

Now that we know the basic types of incandescent lamps, we can ask the questions posed in Chapter 1, to help us understand how they perform. How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What’s the color of the light? How accurate do colors look in the light? The answers for several major lamp types are shown below:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of incandescent lamps include:

• Lowest initial cost—lowest cost to purchase.

• Simple to install—simply screw into socket until an electrical contact with the power supply is established.

• Excellent color rendering (100 CRI); people are used to seeing things under incandescent light.

• Point source creates sparkle in a space and is easy to control, direct and focus using reflectors and lenses.

• Incandescent lamps are highly inefficient, making them more expensive than other types of lighting when the electric bill comes in the mail. When looking at a light source, there are two types of costs. One is the cost of purchase (low in the case of incandescent), and the other is the cost of ownership, including lamp replacement, maintenance and energy costs (high in the case of incandescent). A typical incandescent lamp converts only 10-15% of its electrical input into light output; the rest is converted almost entirely into heat.

• Short service life. Standard incandescent lamps are rated to last only 750-1,000 hours. Long-life lamps last 2,000-3,000 hours. A compact fluorescent lamp, designed to replace incandescent lamps, is rated to last 10,000 hours. Incandescent lamps must be replaced more frequently, creating replacement costs.

• Incandescent lamps are sensitive to shock and vibration, which can disable the filament. Rough service lamps are available for applications where the lamps are prone to shock and vibration.

• Incandescent lamps are also sensitive to variation in the voltage coming off the line. Operating a 240V lamp on 226V (-6%), for example, reduces wattage by 10% and light output by 20%, while increasing lamp life by 30%. Operating the same lamp on 254V (+6%) increases wattage by 10% and light output by 22%, but decreases lamp life by 30%.

•

As a point source, incandescent lamps can cause stronger shadowing. This may be beneficial in some applications and detrimental in others.

Lamp Identification

The lamp manufacturers use different codes to describe their lamps. However, most incandescent lamps use similar elements: lamp wattage + lamp shape + bulb size in 8ths of an inch. Here’s an example: 65BR30.

65 = lamp wattage.

BR = shape; this lamp has an integral reflector to aim the light in a controlled beam. Additional shapes include A, R, PAR, T, G and others.

30 = lamp diameter in 8ths of an inch; this lamp is 30 ÷ 8 = 3 3/4 inches in diameter.

After that, you may see a variety of codes that the manufacturers use and explain in their catalogs. These codes may address beam pattern (example: FL = flood, SP = spot, etc.), color (example: W = soft white, A = amber, etc.), service life (example: LL, DL = long-life, double-life), and number of lamps that come in a package (example: 24PK = 24 lamps per package).

Reading the Lamp Catalog

Incandescent lamps are typically grouped in ascending order of wattage (10, 20, 30, etc.). Each product listing answers most of our

basic questions about the light source: How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? The listing provides other information, such as the lamp’s ordering code so that people can buy them. The order codes differ between manufacturers, but cross-references are usually shown in the catalogs by brand name.

Below is a partial cross-reference between the three largest lamp manufacturers from the Osram Sylvania catalog:

GE OSRAM/SYLVANIA PHILIPS

Bug-Light

House Garden – Bug-Lite Bug-A-Way

Double Life Long Life Longer Life

Daylight Reveal Natural

Energy Saver Soft White Soft White Miser Energy Saving

Excel-Line Extended Service Extended Service

Rough Service Ruff-in-Tuff Rough Service

Soft Pink Soft Pink Pink Softone Pastels

Garden – Plant Light Agro-Lite

Cross Reference of Manufacturers from the Osram Sylvania Catalog

Although there are some differences in the way the information is arranged and labeled, the catalog’s categories contain the same basic information. Below are sample catalog listings showing lamps from different manufacturers:

HALOGEN LAMPS

Incandescent lamps produce light when electric current is passed through a tungsten filament, which heats until it glows. Tungsten is the filament material of choice because it has a very high melting point.

In a halogen lamp, the filament is housed in a clear quartz or hightemperature glass capsule, which is filled with halogen gas. This design enables the filament to operate at even higher temperatures. As a result, halogen lamps can produce more light output, more efficiently, from a smaller size, than a standard incandescent lamp.

The light that halogen lamps produce is a crisp, white light with less heat output, particularly with concentrated beams of light. They last up to five times longer than standard incandescent lamps and experience less lumen depreciation. And because the light source is smaller, its light output is easier to control using reflectors. Like incandescent lamps, halogen lamps can include an integral reflector and lens that directs the light output in a controlled beam, from narrow spot to wide flood.

Due to these characteristics, halogen lamps are popular for use in track, display, downlighting and other lighting designs in retail stores, supermarkets, automobile headlights, lobbies, restaurants, hotels, homes and other applications.

Note that while most incandescent lamps have Edison screwin bases, halogen lamps can feature screw-in bases as well as recessed single-contact, double-contact and bi-pin bases.

Lamp Types

Basic halogen types include linear (also called double-ended), singleended, capsule (single-ended but with no outer bulb), PAR (capsule

FIGURE 2-4

Common halogen lamp shapes. Courtesy of Philips Lighting Company.

FIGURE 2-5

Common halogen lamp bases. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

REMEMBER

Halogen lamps produce a cool, white light from a very compact source, and are often reflectorized to focus the light in a desired direction and beam pattern.

in a reflectorized lamp), and low-voltage reflectorized lamp.

Linear halogen lamps feature a slim tubular design and with a recessed single-contact base at each end. Some linear halogen lamps may be IR lamps, which are more efficient than standard halogen lamps.

Single-ended and low-voltage reflectorized lamps (MR16, MR11, etc.) feature bi-pin bases. Halogen lamps are typically line-voltage lamps, using the voltage coming off the power line (120V, etc.). Lowvoltage lamps use a transformer to step down the voltage to a lower voltage (12V, etc.).

PAR lamps are reflectorized lamps that feature a screw-in base. Now that we know the basic types of halogen lamps, we can ask the questions posed in Chapter 1, to help us understand how they perform. How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What’s the color of the light? How accurate do colors look in the light? The answers for several major lamp types are shown on the next page.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of halogen lamps include:

• Excellent beam control.

• Crisp, white light output.

• Little lumen depreciation as the lamp ages.

• Low cost to purchase.

• Compact size.

• High efficiency.

• High color rendering ability.

REMEMBER

Halogen lamps may be line-voltage or low-voltage. Line-voltage lamps use power coming directly off the power line. Low-voltage lamps use a transformer to step down the line voltage to a desired low voltage needed to operate the lamp.

Halogen Lighting Questions

TYPE HOW LONG DOES THE LAMP LAST? (HOURS)

HOW MUCH LIGHT DOES IT PRODUCE? (INITIAL LUMENS)

HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY DOES IT NEED? (WATTS)

HOW EFFICIENT IS IT COMPARED TO OTHERS? (LUMENS/WATT)

WHAT’S THE COLOR OF THE LIGHT? (COLOR TEMPERATURE)

HOW ACCURATE DO COLORS LOOK IN THE LIGHT? (COLOR RENDERING INDEX)

90PAR38 2000 1350 90W 15 about 3100K 100 CRI

90PAR38 (130V) 4000 1000 79W 11.1 about 2900K 100 CRI

60PAR38/IR 3000 1110 60W 18.5 about 3100K 100 CRI

60PAR38/IR (130V) 6000 850 53W 16 about 2900K 100 CRI

35MR16/ IR-24º 5000 800 37W w/transformer 21.6 about 3100K 100 CRI

• No ballast is required.

Disadvantages of halogen lamps include:

• High temperature, shorter life and lower efficiency compared to fluorescent lamps.

• Low-voltage lamps require a transformer.

Lamp Identification

The lamp manufacturers use different codes to describe their lamps. However, most halogen lamps use similar elements: lamp wattage + lamp shape + bulb size in 8ths of an inch/lamp designation/beam spread + beam angle. Here’s an example: 75PAR30S/HAL/SP10.

75 = lamp wattage.

PAR = lamp shape; this lamp is a reflectorized lamp.

30 = lamp diameter in 8ths of an inch. This lamp is 30 ÷ 8 = 3-2/3 inches in diameter.

S = short neck lamp design (as opposed to L = long neck design).

HAL = lamp designation.

SP = spotlight (as opposed to FL = flood, etc.).

10 = beam angle.

You may also see codes for brand name, finish and other manufacturer-specific information.

Reading the Lamp Catalog

Halogen lamps are typically grouped in ascending order of wattage (10W, 20W, 30W), etc.). Each product listing answers most of our basic questions about the light source: How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What is the color of the light? The listing provides other information, such as the lamp’s ordering code so that people can buy them. The order codes differ between manufacturers, but cross-references are usually shown in the catalogs by brand name. Below is a partial cross-reference

between the three largest lamp manufacturers from the GE catalog: Although there are some differences in the way the information is arranged and labeled, the catalog’s categories contain the same basic information. The Sample Catalog table on the next page has sample catalog listings showing lamps from different manufacturers.

YOU KNOW THE BASICS

Congratulations. If you score well on the Incandescent Lighting Quiz, consider yourself on the way to becoming a lighting management expert. Now you’re ready to take on the second major type of lighting—fluorescent.

Cross Reference of Lamp Manufacturers from the GE Catalog

Sample Catalog

60 A-19 Med 11715 60A/BLACKLIGHT/RP 120 1000 Blacklight 4-7/16

60 A-19 Med 16794-0 60A/CL/LL 12/2 120 1500 900 Clear Long Life 4-7/16

60 A-19 Med 22384 60A/GD 24PK 120 3000 635 Light IF-Garage Door, Vibration Resistant

NOMINAL WATTAGE Wattage of the lamp.

BULB

Describes the shape of the bulb (letter) and the diameter of the bulb in 8ths of an inch (number).

PRODUCT NUMBER Also called an “order code” or “ordering code,” this number allows you to identify a single, specific lamp when you want to buy one.

ORDERING ABBREVIATION

VOLTS

This is the lamp’s code, which reveals some of its primary characteristics.

The line voltage the lamp is designed for.

AVG. RATED LIFE (HRS) Indicates median life expectancy—the point at which 50% of a large group of lamps is expected to fail.

LUMENS

This is the amount of light produced by the lamp.

DESCRIPTION Description of the lamp.

MOL

Maximum overall length of the lamp.

4.43

OTHER Other information may include LCL, which is the distance between the center of the filament and the Light Center Length reference plane, in inches; color temperature (K); beam spread (reflectorized lamps); case or package quantity; approximate center beam candlepower; and class (B, vacuum, or C, gas-filled) and filament (designation describes the shape and mount structure of the filament).

INCANDESCENT LIGHTING QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. A reflector fitted onto an incandescent lamp is used to …?

a) Increase color rendering ability b) Push light in a direction c) Make the lamp last longer d) Decrease heat produced by the lamp

2. In incandescent lamp typically converts _____% of its electrical input into light output.

a) 10-15% b) 20-25% c) 30-35% d) 50%

3. Incandescent lamps are rated to provide only ___ hours of service life, so when we want an incandescent lamp but we want it to last longer, we can choose a long-life incandescent lamp, which provides ___ hours of service life

a) 2000 ; 4000 b) 1000 ; 4000 c) 750-1000 ; 1500-3000 d) 800-2000 ; 2000-4500

4. Rough service lamps are resistant to …?

a) Color shift b) Line voltage variations c) Shock and vibration d) Wide range of ambient temperatures

5. Clear incandescent lamps are a …?

a) Point source b) Linear source

6. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of incandescent lamps?

a) No ballast required b) Lowest initial cost c) High energy efficiency compared to fluorescent d) Easy to dim

7. If we have an incandescent lamp with the designation 65BR30, what is its wattage?

a) 30W b) 65W c) R class d) 3-2/3

8. MOL stands for …? a) Maximum overall light b) Maximum overall length c) Minimum overall light d) Minimum overall length

9. Which of the following is NOT an advantage of halogen lamps?

a) Uses a line-voltage ballast b) High efficiency c) Crisp, white light d) Compact size

10. A PAR lamp is an example of which, most specifically, of the following?

a) Rough service lamp b) Capsule lamp c) Double-ended linear lamp d) Reflectorized lamp

11. Which of the following is NOT a halogen lamp base? a) Single-pin b) Bi-pin c) Double-contact d) Screw-in

12. If we see 75PAR30/HAL/SP10 as a lamp designation, which of the following statements do we know to be true about the lamp?

a) 30W b) 10W c) 3 3/4 inches in diameter d) 9-3/8 inches in diameter

CHAPTER 3: FLUORESCENT LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION

Fluorescent lamps (sometimes called fluorescent tubes) and ballasts are the most common lighting system you’ll be working with. Fluorescent is the most popular indoor lighting system for commercial applications, commonly seen in offices, schools and other applications.

FLUORESCENT LAMPS

Fluorescent lamps were first commercially introduced at the World’s Fair in 1939 and have since become the most popular type of lighting for indoor commercial spaces such as office buildings.

By the time you’re done reading this section, you will be able to identify common fluorescent lamps and read a lamp label and catalog.

FIGURE 3-1

Fluorescent lamps. Courtesy of Philips Lighting Company.

How They Work

The ballast provides voltage that causes an arc of electricity to jump between the electrodes at each end of the lamp. Electric current is now flowing through the lamp. This excites mercury vapor inside the glass tube and causes it to emit mostly ultraviolet energy. The ultraviolet energy is converted into visible light by the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube.

FIGURE 3-3

Fluorescent lamps are much more efficient than incandescent lamps in using energy to create light. Rather than using a wire filament, fluorescent lamps produce light by the passage of electric current flowing through a vapor of mercury atoms at low pressure. Such action produces ultraviolet radiation, which is converted to visible light by the phosphor powder on the glass wall of the lamp. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

FIGURE 3-2

Fluorescent lamp composition. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA, Inc.

Connecting to the Power Supply

All lamps have a base that allows them to connect to the power supply. Incandescent light bulbs, for example, have a screw-in base—the lamp screws into the socket, an electrical connection is established, and when power is supplied, the lamp can produce light. Most fluorescent lamps don’t have a screw-in base. They use one, two or four metal pins, or a recessed double-contact base, which allows the lamp to be properly fitted into the sockets in a luminaire. Lamps that feature one pin at each end of the lamp are called single-pin lamps. Lamps that feature two pins are called bi-pin lamps. Most fluorescent lamps found in commercial applications such as office buildings are bi-pin lamps.

FIGURE 3-4

Common fluorescent lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

FIGURE 3-5

Common fluorescent lamp bases. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

REMEMBER

All lamps have a base, which connects the lamp to the power supply. Most fluorescent lamps have one or two pins in the base that, when fitted properly in the luminaire socket, establish an electrical connection.

Types of Fluorescent Lamps

Since there are so many fluorescent lamps available, there are a number of different ways to describe them.

Size: You may hear fluorescent lamps described as “large-sized fluorescent” and “compact fluorescent” (CFLs). Large-sized fluorescent lamps are all lamps except for CFLs, which are smaller fluorescent lamps often used to replace incandescent light bulbs to save energy.

The CFL can be plug-in (separate from the ballast, plugs into a socket using pins) or self-ballasted.

When the CFL is plug-in, it does not have an integral ballast and features 2 or 4 pins on its base for plugging into the socket. Be sure to match the CFL to the right socket for proper operation. Also note that 2-pin lamps run on magnetic ballasts and cannot be dimmed, while 4-pin lamps run on electronic ballasts and can be dimmed if the ballast has that capability.

When the CFL is self-ballasted, the lamp and ballast come together

FIGURE 3-6

Common compact fluorescent lamp shapes (plug-in lamps). 2-pin plug-in lamps are generally for magnetic ballast operation, while 4-pin plug-in lamps are generally for electronic ballast operation and can be dimmable. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

FIGURE 3-7

Common lamp shapes for self-ballasted compact fluorescent lamps. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

FIGURE 3-8

Common compact fluorescent plug-in lamp bases. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

in a single unit with a screw-in base for direct replacement of incandescent lamps. Self-ballasted CFLs may also feature an integrated glass globe or a reflector to diffuse (soften) or direct the lamp’s light output.

Diameter: One way to describe fluorescent lamps is by their diameter. Common lamp types include T12, T8 and T5, although the full range is T2 to T17. The T means the lamp is shaped like a tube. The number tells the width of the lamp in 8ths of an inch. So a T8 lamp is a tubular lamp that is 8 ÷ 8 = 1 inch in diameter. A T12 lamp is 12 ÷ 8 = 1.5 inches in diameter. This sounds like a simple

difference, but T12, T8 and T5 lamps represent entirely different families of lamps. T12 lamps represent the traditional lamp size. T8 lamps are a more recent introduction but have become very popular as an alternative because they are more energy-efficient. T5 lamps are the latest introduction (the late 1990s) and are much rarer in the field than T8 and T12 lamps.

Shape: Fluorescent lamps can also be described by their shape. Most lamps you will see on the job are linear, meaning they are shaped like a straight line. Some lamps are U-shaped, also called “U-bend lamps,” and others are circular, also called “circline lamps.”

REMEMBER

T8 and T12 lamps are not interchangeable in the same luminaires unless you also change the ballast. T5 lamps are in metric sizes (centimeters) and T8 and T12 are in Imperial sizes (inches). This means T5 lamps and ballasts can’t replace T8 and T12 lamps and ballasts in existing luminaires.

FIGURE 3-9.

Fluorescent lamps are often identified as a T followed by a number, such as T5, T8 or T12. The “T” means the lamp is shaped like a tube; the number is the lamp diameter in 8ths of an inch. To a T8 lamp is 8 ÷ 8 = 1 inch in diameter. Courtesy of Philips Lighting Company.

Lamp Starting Method: Fluorescent lamps can be classified according to the starting method the ballast uses to power them. Fluorescent lamps may be preheat, instant start or rapid start. Preheat lamps take a few seconds to warm up before they light. Most preheat lamps are CFLs that have bi-pin bases. Instant start lamps light immediately. Instant start lamps may be T8 or T12 lamps and feature single-pin bases. Instant start lamps may be 8-ft. lamps nicknamed “Slimline” lamps. Rapid start lamps light in about one second, feature bi-pin bases, and may be T5, T8 or T12 lamps.

Note that T8 lamps may be instant start or rapid start, and that some rapid start T8 lamps can be used on instant start ballasts.

Light Output: Some lamps are called HO or VHO lamps. This means the lamp produces a higher amount of light (“high output” or “very high output”) than a standard lamp of the same type. A T5 lamp, for example, produces about 3000 lumens, while a T5HO lamp produces about 5000 lumens. T5HO lamps have bi-pin bases. High-output T8 lamps are either “Super T8” or HO lamps, both of them rapid start lamps. Super T8 lamps have bi-pin bases and T8HO lamps have recessed double-contact bases. High-output T12 lamps are HO or VHO lamps. Both types are rapid start lamps with recessed double-contact bases.

Review: If somebody says, “That’s a linear rapid start T8HO lamp,” we know a lot about the lamp in just a few words: The lamp is shaped like a straight tube, works only with a compatible rapid start ballast, will light in less than a second, is one inch in diameter, has

a recessed double-contact base, and produces more light than a standard T8 lamp.

If somebody says, “That’s an instant start T12 lamp,” we know that it is 1.5 inches in diameter, lights instantly, and has a single-pin base.

If somebody says, “That’s a preheat lamp,” we know that it is probably a plug-in CFL with a bi-pin base.

Now that we know the basic types of fluorescent lamps, we can ask the questions posed in Chapter 1, to help us understand how they perform. How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What’s the color of the light? How accurate do colors look in the light? The answers for several major lamp types are shown below:

Looking at the table, we see, for example, that a T5HO lamp produces a lot of light but is not as efficacious (efficient) as T5 or T8 lamps. It is offered in a range of color temperatures, from neutral (white) to cool (bluish-white), and offers good color rendering.

Advantages and Disadvantages

There is clearly an immense variety of fluorescent lamps available, developed over time to meet every lighting need for which fluorescent lamps offer distinct advantages.

These advantages include:

• High energy efficiency, which presents a lower ongoing energy cost to the building owner

• Long service life

• Low surface brightness, making most lamps comfortable to look at directly.

• Fully dimmable

• Choice of color rendering abilities, with excellent color rendering available.

• Wide choice of color temperatures

• Broad variety of shapes, lengths and sizes

• Fast starting (with the exception of preheat lamps)

Fluorescent lamps do have some disadvantages compared to incandescent and HID, however.

These disadvantages include

• Higher initial cost than other sources such as incandescent • Cost of adding a ballast to the system, compared to incandescent • Sensitivity to temperature (extreme cold, but particularly heat)

• Shorter lamp life with high frequency of starts (low hours per start) on some ballasts

Reading the Lamp Label: Large-Sized Fluorescents

Fluorescent lamps are designated by a series of letters and numbers. There are rules, but many exceptions to the rules, as each manufacturer likes to do things a little differently to help brand their products.

Preheat and Rapid Start: Preheat and <40W rapid start lamps use a single code, although you will likely find minor variations depending on the manufacturer. Here’s an example, consider a fluorescent lamp with this designation: F34T12/CW/RS/ES/ECO. What can we learn about it?

F = fluorescent. You may sometimes see a letter after the F, which is an abbreviation of the first letter of the lamp’s brand name. Example: F032T8 = fluorescent Octron-brand 32W T8 lamp from Osram Sylvania.

34 = wattage. This lamp draws 34W of electric power.

T = lamp shape; the lamp is tubular. You may also see other letters, such as B, that indicate U-shaped lamps, or C, that indicate circular lamps.

12 = lamp diameter in eighths of an inch; 12 ÷ 8 = 1.5 inches in diameter.

CW = color of the light. This particular lamp is a cool white lamp. Manufacturers may use different designations here. Osram Sylvania’s designation of 830, for example, indicates that the lamp has a CRI rating in the 80s and a color temperature of 3000K. GE Lighting’s

designation of SPX30 means the lamp has a color temperature of 3000K. Philips Lighting’s designation of TL830 means the lamp has a color temperature of 3000K.

RS = Optional letters that indicate the starting method used by the ballast. This lamp is a rapid start lamp. An instant start lamp may be designated IS.

ES = Optional letters that indicate whether this lamp is an energysaving T12 lamp. ES is the generic designation; you may see EW (Econ-o-Watt), SS (SuperSaver) or WM (Watt-Miser).

ECO = Optional letters that indicate that the lamp complies the EPA’s TCLP test and therefore can be disposed as municipal garbage instead of hazardous or universal waste. GE and Osram Sylvania use ECO; Philips uses ALTO.

Instant Start Lamps: These lamps have a somewhat different code. Here’s an example: F96T12/CW/ES.

F = fluorescent

96 = the lamp’s length in inches

T = the lamp is tubular

12 = the lamp’s diameter in eighths of an inch

CW = series of letters and numbers that designate the color of the light (color temperature).

ES = the lamp is an energy-saving version of the standard model.

Reading the Lamp Label: Compact Fluorescent Lamps

In review, CFLs are small fluorescent lamps that are available as plug-in lamps (with bi-pin or 4-pin bases) or self-ballasted (with integral ballast and screw-in base for easy replacement of incandescent light bulbs).

The generic designation code for this type of lamp is made up of five parts: CF + shape + wattage/base/color quality. Let’s look at an example: CFT9W/G23/35.

CF = compact fluorescent.

T = twin parallel tubes (can also be Q = four tubes in a quad configuration, TR = triple tube, M = combination, such as a spiral, or S = square shaped).

W = lamp wattage; this lamp is a 9W lamp.

G23 = simple bi-pin base; there are many types of bases designed for different types of luminaires. A self-ballasted base may have a code such as MED, indicating a medium screw-in base.

35 = color of the light; this lamp has a color temperature of 3500K. Manufacturers may use different designations, such as 835, which means the lamp has a CRI rating of 82 and a color temperature of 3500K.

Additional codes, depending on the manufacturer, can include:

E or EL = the integral ballast is an electronic ballast; electronic ballasts are lighter and more efficient than magnetic ballasts.

RS = the lamp is a rapid start lamp.

REMEMBER

There are many diameters of fluorescent lamps, from T2 to T17, but the most common are T8 and T12, with T5 being the most recent introduction and growing in popularity. The T means the lamp is tubular. Divide the number by 8 and you get the lamp’s diameter in inches. So a T8 lamp is 1 inch in diameter.

Reading the Lamp Catalog

Lamp manufacturers publish catalogs that list the characteristics of their lamps along with order codes so that people can buy them. Manufacturers usually group their lamps in ascending order of wattage (10, 20, 30, etc.) and by product lines (incandescent, tungsten halogen, fluorescent and HID).

Although there are some differences in the way the information is arranged and labeled, the listed categories contain the same basic information. The ordering codes and brand names generally differ between manufacturers, but cross-references are often provided in the catalogs for lamps that are roughly comparable in performance characteristics. Here are a few examples of a brand cross-reference table from the GE catalog:

All catalogs contain data that answer our basic questions: How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What’s the color of the light? How accurate do colors look in the light? Below are sample catalog listings showing lamps from different manufacturers:

NOMINAL WATTAGE Wattage of the lamp.

Nominal Length

This is the length of the lamp from socket to socket in the luminaire. Since T5 lamps are metric, the nominal length shown will be the nearest familiar length. For U-shaped lamps, the length is measured from the base to the bend. For circular lamps, the length is the outside diameter. Some manufacturers add a column for Maximum Overall Length (MOL), which is the total length of the lamp, including the base.

Base The type of base.

Product Number Also called an “order code” or “ordering code,” this number allows you to identify a single, specific lamp when you want to buy one.

Ordering Abbreviation

This is the lamp’s code, which reveals some of its primary characteristics.

Pkg. Qty. Also called “case quantity,” this is the number of lamps packed in a case.

Avg. Rated Life (hrs) Indicates median life expectancy—the point at which 50% of a large group of lamps is expected to have failed.

CCT (K)

Correlated color temperature. This is the lamp’s color temperature, indicating the color of the light.

CRI Color Rendering Index rating. This indicates how “natural” colors look under the light produced by the lamp on a 0-100 scale, with 100 being the best.

Approx. Lumens – Initial This is the amount of light produced by the lamp on a “reference ballast” after a “burn-in” time of 100 hours.

Approx. Lumens – Mean This is the amount of light produced by the lamp at 40% of rated life, which is considered the mean. Mean lumens are typically less than initial lumens because the lamp produces less light as it ages, a phenomenon called lumen depreciation.

FLUORESCENT BALLASTS

In review, a ballast is an electrical device used to start and operate fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps. They provide the correct voltage to start the lamp, and then regulate the current to make sure the lamp works correctly while it’s on. By regulating the current flowing through the lamp, the ballast acts as a stabilizer against fluctuations in the voltage coming down the power line. That’s how the ballast got its name. In the days when ships were powered by wind and sail, “ballast” was heavy material that kept the ship steady during stormy weather that made the waters choppy.

Every fluorescent lamp needs a ballast. Together, they form a lighting system or lamp-ballast system. To understand how fluorescent lighting systems work, you not only must understand the lamp, but the ballast. It’s especially important for maintaining lighting systems, so that you can match the right lamp to the ballast.

Ballast’s Effect on Lamp Performance

The light output and wattage of fluorescent lamps, published by manufacturers in their catalogs, is based on their operation on a “reference ballast,” a laboratory device. When used on actual

FIGURE 3-10

The ballast delivers the proper voltage to start the lamp, regulates the current flowing through it after startup, and compensates for variations in line voltage. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

ballasts in the field, the lamp and ballast become a system and perform differently than what the lamp ratings would tell us.

For example, consider an electronic ballast that operates two F32T8 lamps. If we take the two lamps x 32W each that gives us 64W. Each lamp produces 2900 lumens, so again two lamps x 2900 = 5800 lumens of light output.

NOMINAL

When these two lamps are operated on a given ballast, however, the total system draws only 59W, not 64W. And because the ballast has a ballast factor of 0.90, the actual light output of the total system is 5800 x 0.90, about 5200 lumens. The ballast factor should be thought of as a multiplier.

When the ballast is considered as an essential companion to the lamp, it’s important to start thinking about fluorescent lighting as a system.

Ballast Types

Ballasts are most often classified as electronic or magnetic.

Magnetic Ballasts: Magnetic ballasts, also called “core and coil” ballasts, are the traditional ballast. They are called magnetic because electromagnetic components (the steel core and copper coils) do the job of 1) transforming the incoming line voltage to the right voltage to start the lamp, and 2) regulating the current to ensure smooth lamp operation. These components are surrounded by asphalt, which helps conduct heat away from the core and coils, and then packed in a metal case, also called a can.

FIGURE 3-11

Magnetic ballasts for fluorescent lamps. Courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc.

FIGURE 3-12

Heat is the number one cause of early ballast failure. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

Magnetic ballasts typically often contain two other components that are important to know about. The first is a capacitor, which makes the ballast more efficient and designates it as a high power factor ballast. The second is an internal thermal switch which designates the ballast as a Class P ballast. The Class P switch disconnects the ballast from the power line if it starts to get too hot while it’s running, which prevents a fire hazard and also extends the life of the ballast. Excessive heat, in fact, is the number one reason why ballasts fail. Magnetic ballasts can last about 12-15 years.

A single ballast can operate 1, 2, 3 or 4 fluorescent lamps. Magnetic ballasts for typical indoor applications operate 1 or 2 lamps. Magnetic ballasts are available to operate rapid start, instant start and preheat lamps. They can also operate CFL, T8, T12 and other lamp types. Each specific ballast is designed for a certain number of lamps and certain lamp type, and are not interchangeable with ballasts operating other lamp types. That means given an existing building, if you change the type of lamp— say, from T12 to a T8—you have to change the ballast.

Magnetic ballasts were once considered the standard in ballasts,

but electronic ballasts have overtaken them in popularity in recent years because electronic ballasts save energy and offer other benefits.

Electronic Ballasts: Electronic ballasts are the most energyefficient ballasts available for rapid start and instant start luminaires. They may include a mixture of core and coils with electronic components, or all electronic components. Besides operating fluorescents more efficiently, electronic ballasts are also quieter (virtually no buzz or hum coming out of the ballast), reduce flickering in lamps, and produce less heat, which can prolong ballast life to up to 25 years.

A single ballast can operate 1, 2, 3 or 4 fluorescent lamps. Electronic ballasts are available to operate rapid start and instant lamps. They can operate CFL, T5, T8, T12 and other lamp types. Only electronic ballasts can be used with T5 and T5HO lamps, and they are the most popular ballast for T8 lamps. While ballasts are generally not interchangeable, the trend in ballast manufacturing is to consolidate ballast models so that a single ballast could operate multiple lamp types, wattages and number of lamps on different line voltages. The ballast label and listing in the manufacturer’s catalog will tell you what the ballast can and can’t do.

Another trend in electronic ballasts is the increasing popularity of dimming ballasts. Dimming ballasts dim the lamps from 100% light output down to as low as 1% of light output, depending on the lamp and ballast. Dimming has several applications that are considered beneficial, from a single workstation or room to an entire building. All the lights in a building, for example, can be programmed on a PC to be dimmed at different times of the day to save energy. Workers can dim their own light levels to exactly where they want them. A room can be dimmed for A/V presentations. And the dimming ballast can be connected to a photosensor, which continually measures the light level in a room

with access to daylight. As the amount of daylight goes up and down based on the position of the sun, the photosensor signals the dimming ballast to lower or raise the light levels so that the overall light level stays in a consistent range, thereby saving energy. Looking at these two types of ballasts, magnetic and electronic,

understanding that ballasts and lamps work together as a system, we can ask several of our lighting performance questions again and get more precise answers:

REMEMBER

Based on their construction, there are two basic types of ballasts, electromagnetic (magnetic) and electronic. Electronic ballasts have grown in popularity since the early 1990s due to their higher energy efficiency. They are also lighter, quieter and minimize lamp flicker.

Starting Methods

Ballasts are also often categorized according to starting method or circuit. The ballast may be preheat, rapid start, instant start or program start.

Preheat Ballasts: Preheat lamps take a few seconds to warm up and start, using an added device called a starter or manual switch. Preheat ballasts are magnetic ballasts designed to operate mostly <20W CFLs with bi-pin bases.

Instant Start: Instant start ballasts provide a high starting voltage that starts the lamps immediately. Instant start ballasts can be magnetic or electronic ballasts. Most instant start magnetic ballasts are designed to operate 1 or 2 T12 lamps with single-pin bases. Instant start electronic ballasts are designed to operate 1, 2, 3 or 4 T8 lamps with bi-pin bases or T12 lamps with single-pin bases.

Rapid Start: Rapid start ballasts apply a lower starting voltage but use another method to ensure rapid starting, usually in about one second. Rapid start ballasts can be magnetic or electronic ballasts designed to operate 1, 2, 3 or 4 T5, T8 or T12 lamps.

Program Start: Another type of rapid start ballast is the programmed rapid start ballast. Programmed-start operation minimizes stress on the lamp cathodes during start-up (remember

that each time the lamp starts, there is wear and tear on the cathodes, wearing them out until the lamp fails). This maximizes lamp life. Programmed start ballasts are ideally suited to any application where longer lamp life is beneficial, particularly spaces where the lamps are turned on and off very often during the day.

REMEMBER

Before installing a fluorescent lamp, make sure that it is rated for the ballast—the lamp and ballast must be compatible for the lamp to operate properly. Matching the wrong lamp and ballast can also damage the lamp and ballast.

Wiring Configuration

The ballast and lamps can be wired together in several different ways, which impacts how the lamps perform. There are three types of wiring configurations: series-sequence, parallel and series-parallel.

Series-Sequence: Series-sequence ballasts operate two lamps in series. This means that the circuit connects the ballast to the first lamp to the second lamp and back. When one lamp fails, the other will also fail to light or light only dimly. Rapid start, programmed rapid start and instant start magnetic ballasts are typically wired in series.

Parallel: Parallel ballasts operate two, three or four lamps in parallel. This means that the circuit connects the ballast to each lamp independently, which in turn means if one lamp fails, the others on the circuit will continue to light normally. Instant start electronic ballasts are typically wired in parallel. A majority of T8 lamps are operated by instant start ballasts. Some instant start magnetic ballasts are called lead-lag ballasts and also operate in parallel.

Series-Parallel: Some four-lamp ballast designs are available that are series-parallel. The ballast isolates one two-lamp “leg” from the other two-lamp leg. The two lamps within each leg are operated in series. The legs themselves are operated in parallel. What this means is that one lamp fails, its companion in its leg may also fail to light, but the other two-lamp leg will continue to operate normally.

Special Application Ballasts

A wide range of ballasts have been developed for special applications, such as wet and cold locations. Below is a sample of these special-application ballasts:

Trigger Start Ballasts: These ballasts act similarly to rapid start ballasts and are designed to operate preheat lamps, eliminating the need for a separate starter.

Cold Weather Ballasts: These ballasts provide a higher starting voltage to start fluorescent lamps in cold applications such as freezers and outdoor spaces, as fluorescent lamps typically experience starting problems in cold temperatures. The lamps can also be jacketed to prevent problems operating. (Cold weather ballasts should not be used for normal temperature conditions, as the higher starting voltage can shorten lamp life.)

Reading the Ballast Label

Like fluorescent lamps, ballasts are given codes by manufacturers, who each do their codes differently and explain them in their catalogs. Most product codes, however, have a combination of this information: product family, input voltage, starting method, number of lamps the ballast operates, the lamp type and wattage (or length), the wiring configuration (series, parallel, etc.), case or can description or size, and ballast factor.

The ballast label, affixed onto the face of the ballast itself, also provides basic information you need to make sure you’re matching the right ballast to the right lamp, and choosing the right ballast for the application.

Refer to the generic label on this page to follow a short guided tour of a typical ballast label.

The ballast label will tell you:

(1) Manufacturer and brand name

(2) The catalog number for the manufacturer who supplied the ballast. So if you need to order more, you can easily look the ballast up in the catalog.

(3) Line voltage. The voltage rating tells you what value the supply voltage should be—e.g., 120, 277 (the most common) or other voltage. The ballast must match the circuit. Universal-voltage ballasts cover the voltage range of 120-277V.

(4) Hertz. This figure tells you the input frequency.

(5) Ballast/lamp compatibility. Instructions will specify what general types of fluorescent lamps can be operated by this ballast. If you install T8 lamps on this sample ballast, the lamps will not perform properly or may not light at all.

(6) Amps. This value lets you know how much current the ballast draws as part of the total lighting system.

(7) Minimum starting temperature. Cold temperatures affect lamp performance. This ballast would not work well in a cold area such as a walk-in freezer. In that situation, you’d need a “cold weather” ballast.

(8) Certifications. Several logo symbols are stamped on the label, telling you what organizations have certified the ballast to operate properly and safely. These organizations include American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the Electrical Testing Laboratories (ETL) and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL), or its Canadian counterpart, the Canadian Standards Association (CSA). These organizations certify that the ballast performs according to industry standards and that it is safe if used correctly. The designation (E) tells you that the ballast complies with energy laws that require that most ballasts meet a minimum standard of energy efficiency.

(9) Class P designation. This tells you that the ballast has thermal protection.

(10) Type. Ballasts are rated as Type 1 or Type 2 for outdoor use. Type 1 are non-weatherproof ballasts that can be used in outdoor luminaires or in luminaires for wet or damp areas according to UL requirements. The ballast must be used within a metal enclosure. Type 2 ballasts are similar except they can be used in a non-metallic enclosure.

(11) Power factor—high or low (normal). Power factor is the relative efficiency of the use of electricity. High power factor ballasts draw less current.

(12) Sound rating. The label shows the sound rating of the ballast. In ballasts with electromagnetic components, the action in the core and coil component causes a slight hum. Ballasts are typically rated Type A, B, C or D, with Type A being most quiet.

(13) PCBs. PCBs are a substance banned from use in ballasts in 1979 due to their possible harmful effects on the environment and human health. The label will indicate whether the ballast houses a capacitor with PCBcontaining fluid. All ballasts containing a capacitor and manufactured after 1979 should say, “No PCBs.” If the ballast doesn’t say this, it must be treated in accordance to state and federal guidelines for its disposal. And if the PCBcontaining ballast is leaking fluid, do not expose your skin to the fluid; immediately follow special safety procedures in this situation.

(14) Wiring diagram. The diagram shows how the ballast should be wired to the sockets to properly operate the lamps.

Reading the Ballast Catalog

The ballast manufacturers provide catalogs that list the characteristics and ordering codes for their ballasts. The catalog usually categorizes ballasts by family: preheat, rapid start, instant start. Within these families, the ballasts are listed in ascending lamp wattage (25, 50, 75, etc.) or lamp length (24”, 36”, 48”, etc.).

As with the lamp manufacturer’s catalogs, some differences exist in the way the data is arranged or labeled. The significant difference is the catalog number. Again, each manufacturer has its own designation system. Cross-reference guides are provided by the manufacturers to assure interchangeability.

INDUCTION LIGHTING

An induction lighting system is a gas discharge lamp which produces light by electromagnetic field(s) instead of using electrodes or filaments. Induction is also known as electrodeless vacuum, electrodeless fluorescent, electrodeless lamp or E-lamp. Induction comes from the same family as the fluorescent due to its operation. The Induction lighting system is made of three parts: electronic ballast (also known as a generator), induction lamp, and internal or external inductor.

Nikola Tesla is credited with the principle of the invention for induction back in 1890. It wasn’t until the late 1960 that other companies, like GE, started experimenting with induction. In the 1990s, there was a growth in the development of induction and at the same time available on the market. Induction popularity grew around 2005 for a direct replacement of HID lighting.

Induction lighting systems have become very popular for their energy savings of up to 65% when replacing an HID light source.

How Induction Works

The electronic ballast sends high-frequency energy through the wires, which are wrapped around the lamp’s coil (coupler). This couples the energy and creates an electromagnet also know as inductor. The powerful electromagnetic field travels through the glass, exciting the mercury atoms within the glass vessel. The mercury atoms are provided by an amalgam (a solid form of mercury). The excited mercury atoms produce ultraviolet energy. The ultraviolet energy is then converted into visible light by the phosphor coating on the inside of the glass vessel.

Sample Ballast Catalog Listings

TYPE

F32T8 2 IS ICN-2P32-SC 120 0.88 59 .49 >.98 <10 0/-18 X X 277 0.88 59 .22 >.98 <10 X X 2 IS B-232-S-IS-277 277 0.87 58 0.22 >.99 <10 0/-18 X X

2 PS EEB-232-L-PS-277 277 0.71 47 0.17 >.99 <10 0/-18 X X

Lamp Type

This shows the lamp type operated by the ballast, including the wattage.

No. Lamps The number of lamps the ballast can operate. You may see 1/2, which means the ballast can operate 1 or 2 lamps.

Starting Method The method the ballast uses to start the lamps. IS = instant start, PS = programmed rapid start, RS = rapid start. You may also see DIM, which means the ballast is a dimming ballast.

Catalog Number The manufacturer’s catalog number.

Line Voltage The input voltage the ballast is designed for. A growing number of ballasts are universal-voltage ballasts, which operate on multiple line voltages.

Ballast Factor Measure of light output from a commercial ballast compared to a reference ballast (which the lamp rating is based on). The first ballast has a ballast

3-15

Lamp Types

Induction has two types of lamps which are distinguished by the form of ignition. All induction lamps have an inductor, which is also referred to as the coil or the ferrite inductor. The first type is an external inductor lamp type which has the inductor on the outside of the lamp, normally at the two opposite ends. Two coils also work as a mounting base and heat sink. The coils are glued to the glass vessel and are tightened down with an aluminum heat sink.

The second type is the internal inductor which is also referred to as a power coupler. The coupler is still your basic coil, which acts as an antenna in the center of the induction lamp creating the magnetic field. This type of induction lamp allows for the power coupler to be removed from the glass vessel.

All induction lamps have an amalgam tip, where the solid amalgam pellet is located. During production, an exhaust tube is used and sealed to provide the pressure within the glass vessel. The exhaust tube is located opposite to the amalgam tip.

FIGURE 3-16

External inductor induction lamp. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

two at each end. The tubular induction lamp is designed in a rectangular shape that varies in length from 8 to 42 inches.

Circular Induction Lamps

Circular induction lamps are designed with a donut or round shape with two external coils for optimal heat sink and mounting options. The circular induction lamp starts from 6 inches diameter to 19 inches. It is normally use for high-bay applications and shoebox luminaires.

FIGURE 3-18

Induction lamps. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

FIGURE 3-17

Internal inductor induction lamp. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

Screwbase Induction Lamps

Screwbase induction lamps are available in a medium and a mogul base. These induction lamps should not be matched or connected with HID magnetic transformers. This will result in a failure or electrical issues within the wiring circuit. Screwbase lamps are available in circular and bulb induction, which normally operate by the standard induction ballast for the non-screwbase lamp.

FIGURE 3-19

Screwbase induction lamps. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

Lamp Shapes

Induction lamps come in various shapes and sizes. There are a few similarities within some manufactures on the lamp shape, but the sizes vary and are not a one-to-one replacement. The most common shapes are the bulb, tubular (rectangular, racetrack), and circular (round, donut) induction. The lamp glass vessel still consists of the glass, pressurized vessel, inert gas, amalgam pellet and phosphor coating on the inner glass tube. A majority of lamps come with a plug-and-play connection for the dedicated electronic ballast. The lamp wires do not have a polarity when connecting it to the induction ballast.

Bulb Induction Lamps

Induction bulb lamps operate with an internal inductor. The internal inductor also provides the mounting base and heat sinking for the lamp. The lamp wattages for this type run from 35W to 250W, depending on the manufacture. The advantage of this system is the shape of the lamp is common to the HID lamp replicating the light distribution much easier when doing a retrofit.

Tubular Induction lamps

The tubular induction lamp is formed in a rectangular shape that varies in length from 8 to 42 inches. The tube diameter also varies per wattage. The tubular lamp operates with the external inductor,

Reading The Lamp Label and Lamp Specification

Manufacturer lamp codes vary by manufactures and by induction lamp family. For more information, consult the manufacturer’s catalogs or spec sheet.

There are common codes for the lamp types and shapes, for example a letter follow by a number. The letter tells us the lamp shape: T = Tubular, C = Circular, B = Bulb, G = Globe. The number tells you the rated wattage of the lamp: 55 = 55W, 100 = 100W. Some manufactures will indicate the lamp Kelvin temperature on the lamp.

On the next page are sample specifications for a circular induction lamp.

Electronic Induction Ballast

The induction electronic ballast is also referred to the induction generator. The majority of the current induction electronic

ballasts typically operate at around 250KHz. Depending on the manufacturer, there are a few that will operate at 13.6MHz and at 2.65MHz. The induction electronic ballast have the following characteristics: input frequency of 50/60Hz, high power factor, low total harmonic distortion, high system efficiency, dedicated voltage, or universal voltage (120V-277V).

Below are sample system electrical specifications for an induction generator:

Induction electronic ballasts can be remote-mounted up to 50 ft. for specific lamp types. The remote mount option varies per induction manufacturer. For more information, consult the manufacturer’s catalog.

Induction ballasts come in several shapes and sizes. The ballast case design is typically per application use. The most common one is the standard aluminum profile ballast similar to your fluorescent electronic ballast.

Connecting To the Electronic Ballast

The induction electronic ballast normally comes with a connector on the output leads which plug in with the induction lamp connector. Some manufactures do not use a plug-and-play connectors which might require wire nuts or some sort of

FIGURE 3-20

Induction electronic ballasts. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

connector. The minimum wire specification requirements for induction are as follows: 90C, 600V, 18AWG and stranded wire type is recommended.

Induction System Specification

Induction lighting is sold as a system: lamp and ballast. The standard information for a lighting system should be provided by the manufacturer: input power, input current, rated initial lumens, efficacy, lumen maintenance, CRI, correlated color temperature and rated life.

Induction Lamp Dimensions Dimensions vary per lamp type and manufacturer. Detailed dimension should be available per the manufacturer.

Amalgam Content

The mercury in the induction lamp is in solid form as opposed to all other technologies using mercury, in which it is liquid. If the lamp is broken, this liquid mercury can find its way into and contaminate the water supply. It can also evaporate, creating low level contamination of the atmosphere. With induction, the mercury is compounded with other metals to create a solid form called amalgam. This is solid pellet that can easily be removed and easily disposed of and recycled with little or no risk of contamination of the surrounding area. Since the induction lamp life is 100,000 hours, much longer than other lamp technology, the amount of mercury usage with induction is far less than other common lamps.

Amalgam content should be provided by manufacture stating the amalgam pure weight content in milligrams.

Advantages

• Long lifespan due to the lack of electrodes—rated lamp life of 100,000 hours.

Circular Lamp System Specifications

FIGURE 3-21

Dimensions for a circular induction lamp. Image courtesy of Fulham Co., Inc.

HH-IL-C40W5K 6.49 2.78 6.04 15±1”

HH-IL-C70W5K 7.89 3.04 7.22 15±1”

HH-IL-C80W5K 7.89 3.04 7.22 15±1”

HH-IL-C100W5K 9.46 3.04 8.57 15±1”

HH-IL-C120W5K 10.75 3.04 9.82 15±1”

HH-IL-C150W5K 12.58 3.04 11.62 15±1”

HH-IL-C200W5K 14.97 3.04 13.92 15±1”

HH-IL-C250W5K 15.76 3.02 15.28 15±1”

HH-IL-C300W5K 18.20 3.02 17.28 15±1”

3.00 17.80 15±1”

• High system efficiency from 60 to 90 lumens per watt.

• High power factor due to the low loss of the high-frequency electronic ballasts, which are typically between 95% and 98% efficient.

• Low lumen depreciation (>70% at 60,000 hours).

• Wide range of color temperature options—2700K to 6500K.

• Instant ON and hot restrike; lamp life not affected by switching.

• No flickering.

Circular Induction Lamp Amalgam Content

• The long life and superior lumen maintenance of induction significantly reduces maintenance costs and provides a significant reduction in the total cost of ownership.

• CRI >80.

• S/P Ratio of >1.80.

• Enhanced visual performance, improving security and safety.

• Very low mercury content.

• Remote mounting up to 50 ft. for some lamp types.

• Suitable for cold-temperature applications.

• Fixed-output or dimming option available.

Disadvantages

• Hazardous materials mean induction lamps must be recycled separately. The mercury pellet must be removed from the lamp and recycled before disposing of the lamp itself.

• Large lamps compared to HID.

• Not a direct retrofit in many applications.

REMEMBER

The induction lamp amalgam temperature is the most important test point for the lamp.

Induction Temperature Chart

TEST POINT TEMP. TEST POINTS RATED TEMP. MAX TEMP.

1 BALLAST: TC < 65°C (149°F) 65°C (149°F)

2 BALLAST: SIDE 1 < 65°C (149°F) 65°C (149°F)

3 BALLAST: SIDE 2 < 65°C (149°F) 65°C (149°F)

4 BALLAST PLATE/ MOUNTING LOCATION N/A N/A 5 BALLAST AMBIENT N/A N/A

6 LAMP BASE (HEAT SINK) < 130°C (266°F) 130°C (266°F)

7 LAMP COIL < 160°C (320°F) 200°C (392°F)

8 LAMP AMALGAM TIP 55°C (131°F)125°C (257°F) 125°C (257°F) 9 LAMP AMBIENT < 80°C (176°F) < 100vC (212°F)

10 COIL WIRE RATING < 140°C (284°F) 150°C (302°F) 11 N/A N/A N/A 12 LAMP TUBE ON INSIDE CENTER < 140°C (284°F) 180°C (356°F) 13 WIRE CONNECTOR < 105°C (221°F) 105°C (221°F)

Intended Use

Induction is intended as an alternative for HID light sources that can be found in outdoor and indoor lighting. Due to the 100,000-hour rated life, the induction system is suitable for hard-to-reach places and areas with limited access. Typical applications include airport, tunnel, swimming pools and stairways. Induction is commonly used in parking lots, garage lighting, area lighting, roadway lighting, decorative lighting, gas stations, warehouses and large retail stores.

Retrofit and Replacements

Induction lighting systems are commonly used for retrofitting in order to save energy. A 400W HID lamp source can be replaced with a 200W induction system. This provides a savings of 50% over the original source. There are some applications that cannot be retrofitted with induction due to the size of the luminaire, light distribution or thermal considerations.

When performing a retrofit, certain aspects of the lighting system should be kept in mind in order to achieve the long life of the system:

• Induction system must be grounded.

• Retrofit installation must meet state and local electrical codes.

• Maximum manufacturer ballast case temperature rating cannot be exceeded.

• Induction lamp temperatures should not exceed the maximum specified by the manufacturer.

• Optics for induction systems and luminaries must meet application requirements.

• The induction lamp amalgam temperature must be maintained within the manufacturer’s specifications.

For replacement, the manufacturer of the induction system should be contacted. Normally, induction systems are not interchangeable between manufactures, and the manufacturers should always be consulted before matching different induction lamps and induction ballasts.

YOU KNOW THE BASICS

Congratulations. If you score well on the Fluorescent Lighting Quiz, consider yourself on the way to becoming a lighting management expert. Now you’re ready to take on the third major type of lighting—high-intensity discharge.

FIXTURE.

CONTACT FULHAM FOR THE INDUCTION TEMPERATURE TEST PROCEDURE.

FLUORESCENT LIGHTING QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. The best way to describe an energy-efficient lamp is one that …?

a) Produces less light and saves energy b) Last longer c) Provides better color rendition d) Produces more light per unit of consumed energy

2. In a fluorescent lamp, UV energy produced inside the lamp impacts the inside of the glass bulb and is converted into visible light. What substance on the bulb converts UV energy into visible light?

a) Fluorescence b) Halogen gas c) Phosphor d) Mercury

3. Which of the following is not a fluorescent lamp type?

a) Preheat b) Metal halide c) Rapid start d) Instant start

4. What do rapid start lamps need to operate? a) A ballast b) A starter c) An ignitor d) A key

5. Which of the following is not an advantage of a fluorescent lamp?

a) Flexibility b) High efficiency compared to incandescent c) Fast starting d) Lamps can last beyond 90,000 hours.

6. On a parallel circuit, if one lamp goes out, the other lamp will …?

a) Fail to light b) Continue to operate normally c) Light only dimly d) Experience severe end blackening

7. What is the diameter of a T8 lamp?

a) 0.5 inches b) 5/8 inches c) 1 inch d) 1.5 inches

8. An instant start F96T12 lamp is how many inches long? a) 9 b) 12 c) 96 d) 48

9. In a lamp code, “T” means the lamp is …? a) Circular b) Tall c) Tubular d) Tested by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)

10. Which of the following is NOT a fluorescent lamp base? a) Bi-pin b) Recessed double-contact c) Single-pin d) 8-pin

11. 11. Which of the following is NOT a fluorescent lamp shape? a) Circular b) Star-shaped c) Linear d) U-shaped

12. If somebody says, “That’s a T5HO lamp,” what would we know about its light output? a) Produces more light than a T5 b) Produces less light than a T5 c) Light output degrades rapidly compared to T5 d) It produces the same amount of light as a T8 lamp

13. Some compact fluorescent lamps have bi-pin or 4-pin bases, and others have screw-in bases. Which of the following do we know to be true about CFLs with screw-in bases?

a) They have a warm color temperature b) They are shatter-proof c) They are preheat lamps d) They are self-ballasted

14. A ballast is required for all lighting systems except …? a) Fluorescent b) Metal halide c) Incandescent and halogen d) CFLs

CHAPTER

FLUORESCENT LIGHTING

15. Which of the following does a ballast do? a) Start the lamp b) Control the current c) (a) and (b) d) None of the above

16. Which of the following is not a fluorescent ballast type? a) Preheat b) Rapid start c) Instant start d) High pressure sodium

17. Trigger start ballasts, which operate like rapid start ballasts, were designed to operate …?

a) Rapid start lamps b) Instant start lamps c) Preheat lamps d) Slimline lamps

18. A Class P ballasts is one which contains …?

a) A beeper to call you when there’s a problem b) A thermal protection device that shuts down the ballast if it overheats c) A device that allows the ballast to start lamps at cold temperatures d) None of the above

19. Electronic ballasts offer which benefit? a) Less flicker b) Greater efficiency c) Quieter operation d) All of the above

20. If a lamp produces 3000 lumens and the ballast has a ballast factor of 0.90, what is the lamp’s light output when operated by the ballast? a) 3000 b) 2700 c) 2500 d) 3236

21. The most common failure in an induction luminaire is …? a) Generator / driver b) Vessel/Lamp c) Socket d) Igniter

22. What is the primary cause of shortened generator life in an induction luminaire?

a) Occupancy sensors b) Frequency of starts c) Heat d) High kWh rates

23. Typically, induction luminaires use what type of socket? a) Medium bi-pin b) Mogul c) Edison d) None

24. Where might induction luminaries be appropriate? a) Tight spaces b) Hard-to-access locations c) Stadium lighting d) Accent lighting

CHAPTER 4: HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION

High-intensity discharge (HID) lighting systems are typically used to light large areas. HID lamps are compact light sources that can produce very high light output. They are point sources, so it is relatively easy to control and direct the light output. Due to these characteristics, HID luminaires can be mounted high above a large area, lighting it with a minimum number of luminaires. HID lighting systems are also very rugged, able to start and operate in a wide range of ambient temperatures, making them suitable for outdoor use in applications such as parking lots, sports stadiums and roadways.

FIGURE 4-1

Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.

HID LAMPS

In this section, we will describe the major HID families, how to identify common lamp types, and how to read a lamp catalog.

High-Pressure Sodium Lamps

High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are basically constructed of a rugged arc tube inside a quartz bulb, capped by a base. The arc tube contains mercury and sodium. As a result, HPS lamps are highly efficient and long-lasting, but typically produce a somewhat orangish light. They are a good choice for applications where we want high efficiency and long service life but do not consider color of light and how accurate colors appear to be very important. The bulb may be clear or phosphor-coated. Some HPS lamps include an integral reflector to direct and aim the lamp’s light output. Typical applications include parking lots, warehouses and street lights.

HPS lamps not only need a ballast, but a starter (ignitor) to start the lamp. These ignitors deliver very high voltages.

HPS lamp bases are most often of mogul design, although 35W lamps feature a medium base and wattages up to 150W are available with a medium base. Double-ended lamps are also available.

FIGURE 4-2

High pressure sodium lamp composition. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA, Inc.

HID lamps are like fluorescent lamps in that a ballast provides a starting voltage that establishes an arc between two electrodes in the arc tube. These compact arc tubes are pressurized, delivering more light and generating considerable heat.

There are four major families of HID lighting systems, named for the primary elements in the arc tube that are used to turn electrical input into light output. These are high pressure sodium (HPS), metal halide (MH), mercury vapor (MV) and, by some definitions, low-pressure sodium (LPS). Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

HID lighting is commonly used in a broad spectrum of applications, including sports arenas, roadways, factories, warehouses, signage, landscapes, security and other applications.

In this chapter, we will describe these families, then review HID ballasts.

REMEMBER

HID lamps are compact light sources that can produce very high light output, making them ideal to light a large area with only a few luminaires. The major HID families are named for the elements used in their arc tubes to turn power into light. HID lamps may often look like large incandescent lamps, including a screw-in base, but function more similarly to fluorescent lamps.

FIGURE 4-3

Common high pressure sodium lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

CHAPTER 4: HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LIGHTING

Metal Halide Lamps

Metal halide (MH) lamps contain mercury and various metals in their arc tubes. As a result, they are somewhat less efficient than HPS lamps but produce a clean, white light while rendering colors more accurately. The lamp bulb may be clear or phosphor-coated; phosphor-coated lamps have even better color quality. These characteristics have made MH lamps popular for sports arenas, factories, car dealership lots, gas station canopies, and other applications. While MH lamps offer the best color qualities of all HID lamps, standard models tend to shift in color appearance as they age, from white to slightly pink or bluish. Some MH lamps include an integral reflector to direct and aim the lamp’s light output.

Standard MH lamps are called probe-start or switch-start lamps. Pulse-start lamps are now becoming more popular because they offer higher light output and better lumen maintenance.

Ceramic metal halide lamps are also becoming popular for applications where color quality is important. Ceramic metal halide lamps offer higher efficiency, color rendering, and greater color stability than standard metal halide lamps. They have long been used in low wattages (35-150W) and are now available in larger sizes (250-400W).

Like all HID lamps, MH lamps need a ballast and low-wattage (and all pulse-start) lamps also need a starter (ignitor). MH lamp bases are most often of screw-shell design, although medium bases are available for lamps operating on 175 or fewer watts, and mogul bases are featured on most high-wattage lamps.

FIGURE 4-4

Metal halide lamp composition. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA, Inc.

FIGURE 4-6

Ceramic metal halide lamps offer higher efficiency, color rendering, and greater color stability than standard metal halide lamps. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA, Inc.

FIGURE 4-5

Common metal halide lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

Mercury Vapor Lamps

The mercury vapor (MV) lamp’s arc tube contains mercury and argon gas. As a result, MV lamps are less efficient than HPS and MH lamps, produce a bluish-white light, and do not render colors as accurately as HPS lamps. The lamp may be clear or phosphorcoated. The lamp has a long service life. MV lamps were once the standard in HID lighting, replacing incandescent, but have since lost much of their popularity to HPS and MH lamps.

FIGURE 4-7

Mercury vapor lamp composition. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA, Inc.

Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps

Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps use sodium and neon and argon gas in their arc tubes. As a result, LPS is the most efficient HID lamp and experiences very little lumen depreciation, but produces light concentrated in one color—yellow—while rendering colors very poorly. In fact, anything lit by an LPS lamp that is not yellow—cars, people, houses—appears black or a flat gray. As a result, this lamp’s application is limited to area lighting applications where efficiency is important but color quality is not.

FIGURE 4-8

Common

FIGURE 4-9

FIGURE 4-10

Now that we are familiar with the four major families, we can ask the questions posed in Chapter 1:

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of HID lighting include:

• Compact light sources.

• High light output per watt.

• Low operating costs.

• Low maintenance costs.

• Long life.

• Ability to operate over wide range of temperatures.

REMEMBER

If you’re looking for efficiency, HID lamps are ranked: LPS, HPS, MH and MV. If you’re looking for color quality, HID lamps are ranked: MH, MV, HPS and LPS. HPS and MH lamps are most popular. All HID lamps need a ballast.

• Choice of color temperature.

• Options for good color rendering.

• Small metal halide designs to replace halogen lamps.

Disadvantages of HID lighting include:

• Limited color capabilities with HPS and MV lamps.

• Most clear lamps can produce shadowing.

• MH lamps can fail “non-passively,” requiring special measures.

• Probe-start MH lamps can experience color shift over the life of the lamp.

• Most lamps are not economical or practical for low ceiling heights.

• During dimming, color shift may occur at below 50-60% of light output (below 50% is not recommended by the lamp manufacturers).

• A period of time is required to achieve full light output when starting and restarting.

• Color-improved HPS lamps tend to experience color shift as they age.

• Lamps must be properly shielded to prevent UV leakage.

Starting

HID lamps need ballasts to start. HPS, all pulse-start MH lamps, and all low-wattage MH lamps also need a starter (or ignitor). One of the disadvantages of HID lamps is that they do not immediately reach full light output, requiring a warm-up time. The amount of time it takes to reach full light output depends on the lamp type, but ranges from 2 to 10 minutes. Standard HPS lamps start almost immediately and achieve full light output in 3-5 minutes. Probe-start MH lamps reach full light output in 2-10 minutes. Pulse start lamps reach full light output in 2 minutes. MV lamps take 5-7 minutes and LPS lamps take 7-10 minutes.

HID lamps can experience a momentary power interruption or

mercury vapor lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

Common low-pressure sodium lamp shapes. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

Common HID lamp bases. Courtesy of GE Lighting.

sudden voltage drop from the power coming off the line, causing the lamp to “extinguish.” Even though the lamp is still hot, it will not restart immediately because the arc tube must cool down first. HID lamps, depending on the lamp type, take up to 20 minutes to hot re-strike. HPS lamps take about a minute to re-strike, then achieve full light output in 3-4 minutes. Probe-start MH lamps take about 12-20 minutes to re-strike and restart the warm-up process. Pulse-start MH lamps take about 3-4 minutes to re-strike and restart the warm-up process. MV lamps take 3-6 minutes.

For applications where instant starting is required, special HPS and MH lamp designs are available which start and restart the lamps immediately. The HPS design starts immediately because it has two arc tubes.

Lamp Identification

Manufacturer lamp codes vary by manufacturer and by HID lamp family. For more information, consult the manufacturers’ catalogs.

There are common codes for lamp bulb shapes, however, a letter followed by a number. The letter tells us the bulb shape: E or ED = ellipsoidal shape, BT = bulbous tubular, R = reflector, PAR = parabolic aluminized reflector. The number tells us the lamp’s width in 8ths of an inch. A BT56 lamp, therefore, has a tubular shape mixed with a bulbous shape, and is 56 ÷ 8 = 7 inches in diameter.

FIGURE 4-11

HID lamps take a few minutes to warm-up and reach full light output. After being shut off, the lamps must cool down, then warm-up again. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

FIGURE 4-12

HID lamps, as a rule, are identified with an ANSI Lamp Code, as shown below. This Code is most helpful when locating a replacement lamp, or when selecting the correct ballast. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

is arranged and labeled, the listed categories contain the same basic information. The ordering codes and brand names generally differ between manufacturers, but cross-references are often provided in the catalogs for lamps that are roughly comparable in performance characteristics. Here are a few examples of a brand cross-reference table from the Osram Sylvania catalog:

Metalarc

Lumalux

REMEMBER

It is possible for the arc tube in an MH lamp to rupture upon lamp failure and leak UV radiation that can cause skin burn and eye inflammation. Special MH lamp and ballast designs include safety features to protect occupants. The National Electrical Code now includes a provision that requires all metal halide luminaires to either be shielded or have a safety-design lamp if the luminaire is open.

Reading the Lamp Catalog

Lamp manufacturers publish catalogs that list the characteristics of their lamps along with order codes so that people can buy them. Manufacturers usually group their lamps in ascending order of wattage (10, 20, etc.) and by product lines (HPS, MH, etc.).

Although there are some differences in the way the information

All catalogs contain data that answer our basic questions: How long does the lamp last? How much light does it produce? How much electricity does it need? How efficient is it compared to others? What’s the color of the light? How accurate do colors look in the light? Below are sample catalog listings showing lamps from different manufacturers:

HID BALLASTS

Like fluorescent lighting systems, HID lighting systems require a ballast to start the lamps and regulate the current. Most HID ballasts are magnetic ballasts. Electronic ballasts are available, but their use is presently limited. Generally, one ballast operates one lamp. Lamps and ballasts must be compatible for the system to work correctly. If you change the lamp type, you typically have to

GE OSRAM/SYLVANIA PHILIPS

change the ballast. The most significant reason why ballasts fail before they should is high ambient temperatures.

Types

Basic types of magnetic HID ballasts include core-and-coil ballasts, the most common type, plus potted core-and-coil, encased and potted, indoor enclosed, outdoor weatherproof and post line ballasts. We will also briefly review electronic HID ballasts.

Core-and-Coil: This is the basic electromagnetic ballast. It can

4-13

be used by itself or as part of an assembly in five other ballast configurations, shown below.

Potted Core-and-Coil: This is a basic ballast encased and potted in a high-temperature resin to minimize ballast noise and conduct heat away from the ballast’s operating components. The potted core-and-coil is typically used in indoor applications where audible noise is an important consideration.

Encased and Potted: This ballast, also designed for indoor use, has a core-and-coil that is encased and potted in cans that look similar to fluorescent ballast cases. The insulating materials minimize noise. These ballasts are also called F-can ballasts.

Indoor Enclosed: These ballasts are used in indoor applications where the ballast must be installed separately from the luminaire. In some factories, for example, luminaires mounted high above the floor can experience heat rise to a level that ballast life is greatly shortened. To keep the ballast away from these high temperatures, the ballast is mounted on a wall instead of in the luminaire. These ballasts can also be used when the luminaire is hard to reach or the weight of the ballast poses problems.

Outdoor Weatherproof: These ballasts are designed to operate separately from the luminaire under all weather conditions. They are vulnerable to flood situations, however. The core-and-coil

ballast with a capacitor (and starter where required) is mounted to a base; the entire assembly is then protected by an aluminum cover. Some are filled with resin.

Post Line: These ballasts are designed for lantern-type outdoor luminaires mounted on slender poles, which require a ballast that can fit in the poles. Elongated core and coils are encased and potted in a high-temperature resin. The capacitor and starter (where required) are included within the can.

Electronic Ballasts: Electronic ballasts perform the same functions as magnetic ballasts, but are more efficient and compact, produce minimal heat, can be dimmable, and can improve lamp performance. Some luminaires, such as downlights and track lights using low-wattage HID lamps in indoor applications such as office and retail spaces, are manufactured with electronic HID ballasts.

Now that you know the basic types of ballasts, we can ask our questions from Chapter 1 again, recognizing that lamp performance changes once we add a ballast and create a lighting system:

FIGURE 4-14

How to Read a Ballast Catalog

The ballast manufacturers provide catalogs that list the characteristics and ordering codes for their ballasts. The HID section is generally categorized by lamp family (HPS, MH, etc.). Within each family, the ballasts are listed in ascending lamp wattage (25, 50, 75, etc.).

FIGURE

HID ballasts. Courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc.

HID ballast replacement kit. Courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies, Inc.

Lighting Questions

LAMP BALLAST HOW LONG DOES THE LAMP LAST? (HOURS)

HOW MUCH LIGHT DOES IT PRODUCE? (DESIGN LUMENS)

HOW MUCH ELECTRICITY DOES IT NEED? (WATTS)

HOW EFFICIENT IS IT COMPARED TO OTHERS? (LUMENS/WATT)

WHAT’S THE COLOR OF THE LIGHT? (COLOR TEMPERATURE)

HOW ACCURATE DO COLORS LOOK IN THE LIGHT? (COLOR RENDERING INDEX)

HPS Magnetic 10,000-24,000 2200-130,000 35-1000W 80-130 2100K 20-85+ CRI

HPS Electronic 10,000-24,000 2400-143,000 35-1000W 90-140 2100K 20-85+ CRI

MH Magnetic 3,000-30,000 2000-110,000 32-1500W 80-130 3200-5200K 60-96+ CRI

MH Electronic 3,000-30,000 2300-126,000 32-450W 92-150 3200-5200K 60-96+ CRI

MV Magnetic 10,000-24,000 1500-58,000 40-1000W 40-50 5700K 15-50 CRI

LPS Magnetic 16,000-18,000 1800-30,000 18-180W 110-120 1800K -44-0 CRI

Each manufacturer has its own designation system for identifying its ballasts, with explanations of these systems in their catalogs, but also publishes generic American National Standards Institute (ANSI) designations that match various ballast types (H33, H36, H37, M98, M102, M130, etc.). The lamp manufacturers also publish the ANSI designations so that you will know that ballast types work with each of their lamp models. The manufacturers typically publish a cross-reference guide as well so that you know what ballasts are comparable and interchangeable. A sample partial cross-reference guide, from Universal Lighting Technologies, is shown below:

Below is a sample catalog listing with products from two of the major manufacturers:

YOU KNOW THE BASICS

Congratulations. If you score well on the HID Lighting Quiz, consider yourself on the way to becoming a lighting management expert. Now you’re ready to take on a relatively new light source that is rapidly gaining acceptance in lighting—LED.

REMEMBER

HID ballasts start and operate lamps similarly to fluorescent ballasts and like fluorescent ballasts, the biggest reason for shortened life is excessive heat that breaks down the windings. The ballast must be properly matched to the lamp for the lighting system to work properly. Unlike fluorescent ballasts, one ballast can operate only one lamp. The ballast can be mounted at a distance from the luminaire in areas where there is typically a lot of heat present around the luminaire.

Brand Cross Reference Table from Universal LIghting Technologies

HID LIGHTING QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. What do HPS, all pulse-start MH lamps, low-wattage MH lamps need to start?

a) A key b) Parallel circuit c) Starter or ignitor d) Two ballasts

2. Which of the following lamp types does not belong in the HID family?

a) Metal halide b) High-pressure sodium c) Halogen d) Mercury Vapor

3. Which of the following is NOT a typical application for HID lamps?

a) Offices b) Parking lots c) Factories d) Street lights

4. Which of the following HID lamps has the best color rendering ability?

a) Standard HPS b) MV c) LPS d) MH

5. Which of the following HID lamps is the most efficient? a) HPS b) MV c) MH d) LPS

6. If you light an object using an LPS lamp, what color will the object appear?

a) Gray, black or yellow b) Reddish-yellow c) Bluish-white d) Bright white

7. If you replace an HID lamp with another HID lamp type, which of the following are you most likely to have to replace as well …?

a) The luminaire b) The pole if it’s mounted on one c) The ballast d) The nearest circuit breaker

8. Which of the following is NOT a ballast used to operate HID lamps? a) F-can b) Core-and-coil c) Preheat CFL d) Post line

9. Which of the following is every ballast’s biggest enemy? a) Noise b) Heat c) Dirt d) Line voltage

10. If an HID lamp bulb is phosphor-coated, the lamp generally has better ____ than clear lamp bulbs. a) Color qualities b) Efficiencies c) Service life d) Voltage ratings

11. Due to their high light output and compact sizes, HID lamps are ideal for lighting ____ spaces. a) Small b) Restricted c) Large d) Office

12. If a pulse-start MH lamp experiences a momentary power interruption, when the power returns, it takes 3-4 ____ to re-strike and begin the warm-up process because the arc tube must ____ before the lamp can restart. a) Seconds ; heat sufficiently b) Minutes ; heat sufficiently c) Seconds; cool down d) Minutes ; cool down

13. A BT56 lamp is ______________ in shape. a) Tubular b) Bulbous tubular c) Reflector d) Ellipsoidal

14. A BT56 lamp is _____________ in diameter. a) 56 inches b) 5.6 inches c) 8 inches d) 7 inches

CHAPTER 5: LED LIGHTING

INTRODUCTION

Light-emitting diode (LED) lighting is solid-state, highly efficient, long lasting and environmentally friendly source of light. Because of its design, it is inherently controllable—enabling traditional and new applications of light. For years, LED was confined to calculator displays and science projects. Today, LED-based solutions illuminate landmarks, bridges, retail shops, television studios, theatre stages, hotels, casinos, hospitals, restaurants, night clubs and other building types around the world. LED lighting can be found in applications as small as the vehicle key fob and as grand as illuminating the top of the Empire State Building.

LED lighting brings a new kind of luminaire and a new kind of light to the marketplace. Because of the design of LED light sources and the integration of technology and solid state lighting, the distinction between lamp and luminaire is often erased. In many cases, the LEDs are inseparable from the luminaire itself.

LED lighting brings efficiency to a new level. Even though the efficacy may be similar in LED as some forms of conventional lighting, LEDs are often part of a much more efficient lighting system. LEDs are inherently directional, making them more efficient than lamps that project light in all directions. Lensing, positioning, and aiming features are integrated into most LED luminaires. Additionally, LED is the only light source that significantly increases in efficacy when it is dimmed.

Fixed-color and white-light LED lighting supports the full range of outdoor lighting applications, including roadway and tunnel lighting, sports and arena lighting, streetlighting and area lighting, landscape lighting, signage and airport runway lighting,

Well-designed LED lighting systems offer features, performance, and economy rivaling comparable conventional lighting systems. LED lighting offers:

• Direct abundant useful light to tasks, work surfaces and targeted areas.

• Reliable delivery of consistent, high-quality color and white light with nearly imperceptible color variation from luminaire to luminaire.

• Luminaires and solutions for almost any lighting application.

• Full spectrum, tunable, solid color and white light for dynamic color-changing effects.

• Energy efficiency comparable or higher than conventional lighting systems.

• Often longer life than other light sources.

• Often lower long-term overall cost of ownership as a result of energy efficiency, durability, reduced maintenance and low failure rates.

Well-designed retrofit options provide a variety of form factors delivering many of the benefits of LED technology to existing lighting systems and infrastructures. LED white light is beginning

to make extensive inroads into indoor and outdoor general illumination. White-light LED luminaires in widespread use include cove lighting, task lights, and downlights.

FIGURE 5-1

Color-changing LED lighting systems are used to dramatically and dynamically illuminate the Avenue of the Arts in Philadelphia. Image courtesy of The Lighting Practice.

HISTORY OF LED LIGHTING

• 1960s: Nick Holonyak, Jr. invented the first LED at GE. These first LEDs were red and used as indicators in many applications. George Craford of Philips Lumileds invented the amber (yellow) LED.

• 1970s: Green, yellow and orange LEDs were created, expanding market acceptance and variety of applications for LED light. LED displays became standard in calculators, digital watches and test equipment.

• Early 1980s: LEDs continued to improve in light output and energy efficiency. Brightness increased tenfold compared to previous versions. LEDs began to be used for message and outdoor signage.

• Late 1980s-early 1990s: Performance continued to improve and high-brightness LEDs were developed. Traffic lights became one of the first widespread applications of LED. LEDs gained deeper market penetration as they were placed in more rugged applications.

• Mid 1990s: High-brightness blue LED is invented. This was later used as the basis for white LED, which combined blue LED and a phosphor to convert blue to white light.

• Today: LEDs have reached performance levels far exceeding early projections. LED lighting systems are viable for a wide range of applications. White LEDs have achieved more than 100 lumens per watt making them viable option for significant energy-saving general illumination applications.

REMEMBER

White light is often produced by blue LEDs coated with a phosphor, which converts blue to white.

HOW DO LEDS WORK?

The structure of the LED is completely different than incandescent or gaseous discharge (fluorescent and HID) lighting. LEDs are based on electronics and chip technology. As indicated by its name, the LED is a diode that emits light. A diode is a device that allows current to flow in only one direction. Here is how it works:

• Two conductive materials are placed in contact with each other, allowing current to flow only one direction.

• When electricity is passed through the diode, the atoms in one material (within the semiconductor chip) become excited to a higher energy level.

• The atoms in that first material have too much energy and need to release that energy. The energy is released as the atoms shed electrons to the other material within the chip.

• During this energy release, light is produced.

• The color of LED light results from the ingredients (materials) and recipes that make up the chip.

BASICS OF LEDS

The two basic types of LEDs are indicator-type LEDs and illuminator-type LEDs.

Indicator type LEDs are usually inexpensive, low-power LEDs and are suitable for use only as an indicator light in panel displays and electronic devices such as instrument illumination in cars and computers.

Illuminator-type LEDs, also known as surface-mount LEDs, highbrightness LEDs or high-power LEDs, are durable, high-power devices capable of providing functional illumination with light output equal to or surpassing that of conventional light sources.

Indicator-type LEDs dissipate heat internally since they are low power. However, illuminator-type LEDs are surface-mounted and provide a thermally conductive path for extracting heat. This thermal path is critical for proper thermal management, operation and longevity of the LED.

When specifying LED lighting, either for a new installation or when retrofitting an existing lighting system, the LED system often needs to be properly designed in order to achieve the desired results. Most light sources produce uncontrolled light. The light can then be directed via a lens, baffles, luminaire optics (reflectors) or a combination of these. Even with the best designed luminaires, uncontrolled light results in “hot spots” and other discontinuities in illumination. Many LED luminaires can provide optical control. And with optical control comes the elimination of uncontrolled light. As a result, LED lighting systems typically need to be properly designed. This may require taking measurements, making

FIGURE 5-2

LED luminaires and lamps contain three basic sets of components: (1) optical, (2) electrical and (3) mechanical and thermal. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

diagrams and preparing photometric layouts. This allows the best luminaire or the luminaire with the best optic type to be specified. Improved performance includes more uniform lighting, uniform color, lower wattage requirements and overall better appearance.

FIGURE 5-3

Application comparison. Below is a computer rendering comparing the uniformity of lighting in a parking garage application using metal halide (left) and LED lighting systems (right). Courtesy of Cree Lighting

FIGURE 5-4

Application comparison. Below is a rendering comparing the uniformity of lighting in a parking lot application using metal halide (left) and LED lighting (right). Courtesy of Acuity Brands Lighting.

Performance indicators to consider:

• Total light output (lumens)

• Efficacy (lumens per watt)

• Color quality (color temperature, CRI, color consistency)

• Rated life (hours) (for source and other components)

• Light distribution (directional, omnidirectional, optic type)

ADVANTAGES OF LEDs

As advances continue to be made in LED technology, the advantages of LED become more pronounced:

• High levels of brightness and intensity.

• High efficiency.

• Low voltage and current requirements.

• Low radiated heat.

• Highly reliable.

• No ultraviolet radiation.

• No warm up or reset time delay.

• Contains no lead.

• Dimmable.

• Can be cycled ON/OFF without detrimental effects to the LED.

• Do not contain mercury.

YOU KNOW THE BASICS

Congratulations! If you understand well and score well on the LED Basics Quiz, you have learned the basics of LED lighting. You are now ready to learn about lighting controls.

LED LIGHTING QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. The acronym LED stands for:

a) Linear, Energy, Directional b) Lighting Efficiency Demands c) Light Emitting Diode d) Luminaire Efficacy Diagnostics

2. What factors contribute to a LED lighting system’s efficiency? Select all that apply:

a) LED lighting systems contain no lead b) LED lighting is inherently directional resulting in less wasted light c) Conventional lighting systems cost less to install d) LED lighting systems are solid state electronic systems with highly efficient components

3. As LED is dimmed, it is the only light source that: a) Increases in efficacy b) Changes color c) Becomes brighter d) Generates more heat

4. Select the two basic types of LEDs: a) Indicator-type b) Electronic-type c) Illuminator-type d) Radiant heat-type

5. Which of the following statements regarding LED lighting systems is/are correct? Select all that apply:

a) The beam of light contains low levels of UV light b) There is no warm-up or reset time c) LED contains no lead and therefore requires no special disposal handling d) Radiant heat in the light beam is eliminated through the use of a heat sink

6. What factor(s) contribute to the overall efficiency of a LED lighting system? Select all that apply:

a) 120V lighting systems operate at a lower primary voltage than 277V lighting systems

b) LED lighting is inherently directional c) Heat management is built into LED luminaires d) 100 lumens per watt or more can be achieved with white light luminaires

7. Which of the following may have a bearing on the overall uniformity of light of a LED lighting system: a) System voltage b) Dimming control system c) Temperate of the area being illuminated d) Luminaire optics

8. Which of the following may be considered as an advantage of a LED lighting system when compared to a conventional HID lighting system? Select all that apply: a) Overall system wattage b) Initial System Install Cost c) Warm up and reset time d) Available color temperature(s)

9. Management of heat in LED luminaires is important because: a) LED luminaires generate more heat than conventional light sources

b) Heat management is not an issue because LED luminaires do not generate heat c) Solid state and electronic components are susceptible to reduced life as a result of uncontrolled heat d) The consumer is becoming more aware of global warming

10. White-light LED is produced by: a) Combining blue LED and a phosphor b) White LEDs c) White lensed luminaires d) White-light LED is not possible

CHAPTER 6: LIGHTING CONTROLS

THE ESSENTIAL COMPONENT

Lighting controls are an essential part of every lighting system. They can perform basically two functions: they can switch the lighting system on and off, or they can dim the light output of the lamps.

The term lighting controls is typically used to indicate stand-alone control of the lighting within a space. This may include occupancy sensors, timeclocks and photocells that are hard-wired to control fixed groups of lights independently.

The term lighting control system refers to an intelligent networked system of devices related to lighting control. These devices may include relays, occupancy sensors, photocells, light control switches or touch-screens, and signals from other building systems (such as fire alarm or HVAC). Adjustment of the system occurs both at device locations and at central computer locations via software programs or other interface devices. Automated lighting controls can be localized, global or a mixture of the two. Localized control means a given control system can control a limited area. Global control means a control system can control an entire building or even multiple buildings.

This ability to control multiple light sources from a user device allows complex lighting scenes to be created. The ability to alter a space through dimming or color changing adds flexibility by allowing users to instantly adapt a space to different uses. Lighting controls and lighting control systems enhance workspaces with a technology that has visible effects, and potential increased worker satisfaction by enabling users to control their own light levels.

Lighting controls can also adapt electric lighting systems to allow for daylight harvesting strategies, enhanced security and decreased “light pollution” (skyglow, light trespass and glare) by dimming or switching outdoor lights based on time of night or occupancy.

A major benefit of lighting control systems is reduced energy consumption. Longer lamp life may also be gained when dimming and switching off lights when not in use. However, frequent switching or “over cycling” can cause shorter lamp life.

Wireless lighting control systems provide additional benefits including reduced installation costs and increased flexibility over where switches and sensors may be placed.

In a 2012 report, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) analyzed 240 energy savings estimates from 88 papers and case studies. Using filtering to focus on lighting energy savings only produced by lighting controls only in actual field installations only (as field simulations were found to overestimate savings), LBNL produced best estimates of average lighting energy savings for various popular lighting control strategies. Specifically, LBNL estimated average 24 percent for occupancy controls, 28 percent for daylighting, 31 percent for personal tuning, 36 percent for institutional tuning and 38 percent for a combination of these approaches.

Related to a reduction in energy consumption is peak demand reduction, which can reduce demand charges imposed by the utility.

REMEMBER

Most commercial lighting systems include a lamp, a ballast, and a control. The control can switch the lights on and off and/or can dim the lamp’s light output. Lighting control can be manual (based on human intervention) or automatic (no human intervention). It can be localized or global—from a single room to an entire building.

FIGURE 6-1

A complete lighting upgrade can save energy on multiple levels, including fixed load reduction through reduced luminaires or lowerwattage lamp-ballast systems, and variable load reduction through strategies such as occupancy recognition, scheduling and personal dimming. Source: Light Right Consortium.

FIGURE 6-2

A growing number of luminaires are now available with integrated automatic lighting controls such as this recessed basket, which includes an integrated sensor. Source: Lightolier.

Table 6-1. Benefits of automatic dimming controls in various space types. Source: Lighting Controls Association.

SPACE TYPE BENEFIT

Discount Retail Store In an open retail space with daylighting, dimming can reduce electric lighting use but allow the lights to be on, making the store seem "open for business."

Conference Room, Classroom, Auditorium, etc.

Dimming lighting can facilitate a variety of visual presentations.

Health Care Facility Daylight-driven dimming can provide a smooth and unnoticeable transition to electric lighting as daylight levels decrease, while maintaining the desired light level.

Restaurant Preset scene dimming controls can make changing the ambiance as the day goes on consistent and as easy as pressing a button.

Office Area Even in an open office area, occupants can be given the option of dimming the luminaire over their workstation to suit their personal preferences.

CONTROL FUNCTIONS

Lighting controls can perform one or more of seven basic functions related to on/off and dimming control: on/off, occupancy recognition, scheduling, task tuning, daylight harvesting, lumen depreciation compensation and demand control.

On/Off is the basic control function, achieved through switching. Occupancy/Vacancy recognition is used in areas that are not occupied all the time but only occasionally. When a person enters the room, the lights turn on automatically. When the person leaves the room, the lights turn off automatically. People often forget to turn off the lights; this strategy is very popular and saves more energy than you might think. Some occupancy recognition devices are manual-on/automatic-off (aka, vacancy sensors), meaning the lights are automatically shut off when a person leaves the room, but not automatically turned on when a person enters the room.

Tuning entails adjusting the light output of a lighting system to a desired level needed for a task or other purpose, such as aesthetics or mood-setting. This can be achieved through either dimming or switching layers of lighting (such as bi-level switching, in which half of a lighting system is shut off in a space while the other half continues operating).

Daylight harvesting is used to enable lighting systems to respond to available daylight by dimming or enacting some level of switching. A photosensor measures the amount of light in a room that has access to daylight from outside the building. If the measured light is above the designated target light level, then a signal is sent to automatically dim or switch the lamps until the desired target light level is reached. The more daylight that is coming into the space, the more the lighting can be reduced to save energy.

Lumen depreciation compensation takes advantage of the fact that most lighting systems are overdesigned to account for a gradual reduction of light output of lamps as they advance in operating age. Similar to daylight harvesting, this strategy entails measuring available light in the space and dimming the light output to maintain a constant level.

Demand control involves switching or dimming lighting systems during utility peak demand periods, which results in energy cost savings and also potentially significantly lower demand charges.

POPULAR CONTROLS

Control options can be grouped as switching controls, dimming controls, and integrated lighting control systems.

Switching Controls

Local Wall Switches (AC snap switches) are the most commonly used control devices for local lighting control. For best results, switches should be located conveniently for users and to encourage them to turn off the lights when they leave the area. Wall switches also can be layered for flexibility, with different layers of lighting controlled by different switches.

Key-Activated Switches: Key-activated switches are wall switches that turn lighting on and off using a key. This means only authorized lighting users (those who have a key) may turn the lights on and off.

REMEMBER

Automatic lighting controls are growing in popularity to save energy and provide other benefits. Automatic control switches or dims the lamps based on an automatic input. This input can be a detected lack of occupancy in a space, measured light levels, a predetermined schedule, or other input.

Scheduling is used for areas of predictable occupancy, meaning we know typically when the space will have people in it and when it won’t. The scheduling system dims, turns on or shuts off the lighting system on a predetermined schedule. Local manual overrides are usually provided so that people using the space when it’s supposed to be empty can still turn the lights on and use it.

Timeclock: Timeclocks turn the lights on and off based on a defined schedule, best used when one can predict when a given area will have people in it and when it won’t. The timeclock is programmed to turn the lights on and off at preset times.

Occupancy/Vacancy Sensors: Occupancy sensors are automatic switches that control lighting based on the presence or absence of people. They turn the lights on automatically when people enter a room and turn them off automatically, after a preset period of time, after they leave the room. Vacancy sensors require the user to turn the lights on manually and subsequently the lights turn off automatically.

Photosensor Controls: Photosensors, also called daylight or light sensors, measure the amount of light in a space and control the lights according to that amount. When the amount of light in the designated space increases to a certain level, the lighting is switched

off. When it falls to a certain level, the lighting is switched on. This technology is often used for daylight harvesting.

Low-Voltage Controls: Low-voltage switching systems provide a more flexible switching platform than standard line-voltage switches. Low-voltage controls can be used to create a network of controllers that communicate via low-voltage wiring. A simple low-voltage control system includes a network of relays that in turn are used to control different areas, or lighting zones. A single signal can be sent to all relays and instruct them to switch the lights on or off.

FIGURE 6-3

Low-voltage control system schematic. Courtesy of National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

FIGURE 6-4

Schematic of two-level HID lighting control system. Courtesy of National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

Wireless Controls: Wireless lighting control devices and systems utilize wireless technology to communicate commands between sensors, switches and the ballasts or LED drivers connected to luminaires. Radio-frequency (RF) wireless communication is a vastly emerging lighting control technology. While traditional lighting control systems use controllers that are hardwired to each device, wireless RF system control devices communicate through the air using radio waves, eliminating the need for control wiring. The resulting advantages enable elevated lighting control with increased installation flexibility and lower labor installation costs. Wireless RF control systems are ideal for hard-to-wire applications, non-accessible ceilings and asbestos abatement issues.

Step-level HID Controls: Step-level HID lighting controls are relay systems that operate mercury vapor, metal halide, and high-pressure sodium lighting at either full light output or less (e.g., 50%). For example, during times when a warehouse is occupied, the lights could be fully on, and when it’s not occupied, the lights could be switched to 50%.

Dimming Controls

Wallbox dimmers: Wallbox dimmers are manual controls that give people in a space more control over their light levels.

Integrated Dimmers: Integrated dimmers integrate a variety of features into a wallbox. One feature might be the ability to dim all the lights in a space on a single dimmer. Another might be the ability to create and use presets, where at the touch of a button an exact light level is achieved for a given purpose.

System Dimmers: System dimmers offer lighting control for larger applications where wallbox and integrated products are impractical or higher performance is required. These systems consist of dimmer cabinets and control stations, typically connected with low-voltage control wires.

FIGURE 6-5

Dimming system. Courtesy of Leviton Manufacturing.

FIGURE 6-6

Dimming panel. Courtesy of HUNT Dimming.

Dimming Ballasts: Variable output ballasts integrate dimming capability into fluorescent and HID ballasts, so that they can dim the lamps according to manual, scheduled or event-based input.

Commissioning

When the installation is complete, the controls should be programmed, calibrated and functionally tested. This often includes 1) light-level or delay-time set points are set, 2) dip switches are set, 3) sensors are aimed for maximum accuracy, 4) preset dimming scenes are set, and 5) the system is tested to make sure it functions as intended. These activities are often essential to achieve and maintain energy savings.

Table 6-2. Selection of controls for various types of spaces: room by room analysis. Source: Lighting Controls Association.

SPACE TYPE USE PATTERN IF... THEN...

Cafeterias or Lunchrooms Occupied Occasionally Daylighted

Consider daylight-driven dimming or on/off control

Occupied occasionally Consider ceiling-mounted occupancy sensor(s). Make sure minor motion will be detected in all desired locations.

Multi-tasks like overhead projectors, chalkboard, student note taking and reading, class demonstrations

Classroom Usually Occupied Occupied by different students and teachers

Consider manual dimming

Consider ceiling- or wall-mounted occupancy sensor(s) and manual dimming. Make sure that minor motion will be detected. Occasionally Occupied Lights left on after hours

Computer Room Occupied Occasionally Lights are left on all the time

Consider centralized controls and/or occupancy sensors.

Consider occupancy sensors with manual dimming. Be sure that minor motion will be detected and that equipment vibration will not falsely trigger the sensor.

Conference Room Occupied Occasionally Multi-tasks from video-conferencing to presentations Consider manual dimming (possibly preset scene control)

Small conference room

Consider a wall box occupancy sensor

Large conference room Consider ceiling- or wall-mounted occupancy sensor(s). Be sure that minor motion will be detected in all desired locations.

Gymnasium or Fitness Usually Occupied Requires varied lighting levels for activities

Consider manual dimming and occupancy sensors. Be sure that the HVAC system will not falsely trigger the sensor.

Hallways Any Occasionally or usually occupied Consider occupancy sensors with elongated throw. Be sure that coverage does not extend beyond the desired area.

Daylighted Consider daylight on/off control

Health CareExamination Rooms

Occasionally occupied Different lighting needs for examination Consider manual dimming

Small areas Consider a wall box occupancy sensor

Health CareHallways Usually occupied Daylighted Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Requires lower lighting level at night Consider centralized controls to lower lighting levels at night

Health CarePatient Rooms Usually occupied Different lighting needs for watching television, reading, sleeping and examination

Hotel Rooms Occasionally occupied Use primarily in the late afternoon through evening for sleeping and relaxing

Consider manual dimming. Occupancy sensors may not be appropriate

Consider manual dimming

Laboratories Usually occupied Daylighted Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming in combination with occupancy sensors.

Laundry Rooms Occasionally occupied Requires high light levels, yet lights are usually left on

Consider occupancy sensors

LibrariesReading Areas Usually occupied Daylighted Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Lights left on after hours Consider centralized controls

SPACE TYPE USE PATTERN IF... THEN...

Libraries - Stack Areas Occasionally occupied Stacks are usually unoccupied

Lobby or Atrium Usually occupied but no one "owns" the space

Daylighted and lights should always appear on

It isn't a problem if lights go completely off in high daylight

Lights are left on all night long, even when no one is in the area for long periods

Office, Open Usually occupied Daylighted

Consider ceiling-mounted sensor(s)

Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming or on/off control

Consider occupancy sensors. Be sure that minor motion will be detected in all desired areas.

Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Varied tasks from computer usage to reading Consider manual dimming

Lights left on after hours

Office, Private Primarily one person, coming and going Daylighted

Occupants are likely to leave lights on and occupants would be in direct view of a wall box sensor

Occupants are likely to leave lights on and partitions or objects could hide an occupant from the sensor

Consider centralized controls and/or occupancy sensors.

Consider manual dimming, automatic daylight-driven dimming, or automatic on/off

Consider a wall box occupancy sensor

Consider a ceiling- or wall-mounted occupancy sensor

Photocopying, Sorting, Assembling

Occasionally occupied Lights are left on when they are not needed

Restaurant Usually occupied Daylighted

Requires different lighting levels throughout the day

Consider an occupancy sensor. Be sure that machine vibration will not falsely trigger the sensor.

Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Consider manual dimming (possibly preset scene dimming)

Requires different lighting levels for cleaning Consider centralized control

Restroom Any Has stalls

Single toilet (no partitions)

Retail Store Usually occupied Daylighted

Different lighting needs for retail sales, stocking, cleaning

Warehouse Aisles are usually unoccupied Daylighted

Lights in an aisle can be turned off when the aisle is unoccupied

Consider a ceiling-mounted ultrasonic occupancy sensor for full coverage.

Consider a wall switch occupancy sensor

Consider automatic daylight-driven dimming

Consider centralized controls or preset scene dimming control

Consider daylight-driven dimming or daylight on/off control

Consider ceiling-mounted occupancy sensors with elongated throw. Select a sensor that will not detect motion in neighboring aisles, even when shelves are lightly loaded.

CHAPTER 6: LIGHTING CONTROLS

FIGURE 6-7

Fluorescent dimming ballasts. Courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.

FIGURE 6-8

HID dimming ballast. HID dimming ballasts are relatively new and are growing in popularity. Courtesy of Philips Lighting.

OCCUPANCY SENSORS

Occupancy sensors are rapidly becoming a standard feature of new buildings, but are not as common in older buildings, creating a significant upgrade opportunity. Occupancy sensors detect when a room has no people in it, and turn the lights off automatically after a short period of time to save energy. Occupancy sensors can also turn the lights on automatically when a person enters the room, or include a switch so that the lights are turned on automatically by the person entering the room.

Occupancy sensors are most often one of two types, according to what type of technology they use to sense whether a person is in the area or not. Occupancy sensor technology is typically ultrasonic, passive infrared or a combination of the two.

With a passive infrared occupancy (PIR) sensor, the device senses changes in heat radiation in the area. PIR sensors need a clear “line of sight” between the sensor and the person occupying the room. It is important to note that PIR sensors do not detect or measure “heat” per se; instead, they detect the infrared radiation emitted from an object which is different from but often correlated with the object’s temperature.

PIR sensors need a clear “line of sight” between the sensor and the person occupying the room. If the person walks behind a large object and is hidden from the sensor, the sensor will think the room is empty and eventually turn off the lights after the preset time delay. PIR sensors work well outdoors because they do not need to be in an enclosed space to operate.

With an ultrasonic occupancy sensor, sound waves are emitted by the device, which bounce off of room surfaces and return to the device. If there are changes detected in this reflected pattern, the sensor triggers the lights. Ultrasonic sensors are generally more sensitive and can cover larger areas than PIR sensors, and do not need a clear line of sight between the sensor and the person occupying the room, as long as the space is enclosed with hard surfaces that can reflect the sound waves back to the sensor’s receiver.

Dual-technology sensors use both technologies to get the advantages of each and cancel out the disadvantages. Another

type of dual-technology sensor, offered by at least one control manufacturer, was developed as an alternative to ultrasonic occupancy sensors. This sensor combines a PIR sensor with acoustic technology so that the sensor literally “sees” and “hears” the occupant—suitable for applications with obstructions such as restrooms, partitioned offices and classrooms.

Occupancy sensors have an adjustable time delay before the lights go off. You can set the occupancy sensor to turn the lights off from immediately to up to 30 minutes after the room is registered as unoccupied. Time delays avoid continual on/off cycles of the lighting as people may go in out of the space frequently. The shorter the time delay, the greater the energy savings but the greater reduction in

FIGURE 6-9

Occupancy sensors. Courtesy of Leviton Manufacturing.

FIGURE 6-10

Drawing of a ceiling mounted dual-technology (PIR/ultrasonic) sensor. Courtesy of WattStopper.

Table 6-3. Ideal applications for different types of occupancy sensors. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Ultrasonic wall switch x x x x

Ultrasonic ceiling mount x x x x x x

PIR wall switch x x x

PIR ceiling mount x x x x x

Ultrasonic narrow view X

PIR high mount narrow view x X

Corner mount wide view x x

lamp life; the converse is also true. In many applications, a minimum time delay of 15 minutes is used.

Application

Occupancy sensors have many uses. Outdoors, they can be used to provide low-cost security. Any time a person or animal approaches a building, the lights will go on. Indoors, the sensor provides both security and a way to save energy. Buildings typically go through a daily lighting usage that peaks, similar to shape of an iceberg. In the morning, many lights that are turned on may not actually be needed. As the day continues, light usage peaks—the time of the day when they’re used most. Use of the lights will then slope off until the end of the day. The occupancy sensor chops off the unused lighting time, which saves energy.

The sensors are mounted on the walls, ceilings, workstations or above the doors of the space being monitored. There are several different kinds of coverage patterns and mounting configurations for occupancy sensors, such as ceiling-mounted controls with 360° coverage, ceiling-mounted controls with elongated “corridor” coverage, wall-mounted controls with a fan-shaped coverage pattern, ceiling-mounted controls with a rectangular coverage pattern, workstation sensors that can also control “plug loads” such as computer monitors and other devices, and other types of sensors. In short, a variety of distribution coverage styles and mounting options are available so that the best sensor can be chosen to suit the dimensions and needs of the area. Regardless

FIGURE 6-11

Coverage pattern for a sample ceiling-mounted PIR occupancy sensor. Courtesy of WattStopper.

FIGURE 6-12

Coverage pattern for a sample wall-switch occupancy sensor. Courtesy of WattStopper.

of where the sensor is located, the control box which contains the relay/switch and a low-voltage power supply for the sensor is usually located in the ceiling.

Of these sensors, wall-mounted sensors are the most simple to install. They are self-contained units and replace the wall switch. Applications include individual offices, storage rooms and bathrooms.

No matter what sensor is installed, it must be time-set. Sensors have built-in timers that allow users to adjust the amount of time the lights will stay on after detecting the room is unoccupied. This prevents the lights from snapping on and off every time somebody goes in and out of a room.

Different sensors also have different levels of sensitivity to major motion (walking or half-step activity) versus minor motion (working

SENSOR PRIVATE OFFICE LARGE OPEN OFFICE PLAN PARTITIONED OFFICE PLAN CONFERENCE ROOM REST ROOM CLOSETS / COPY ROOMS HALLWAYS / CORRIDORS WAREHOUSE AISLE AREAS

FIGURE 6-13

Occupancy sensor system. Courtesy of National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

PIR sensors are fairly resistant to false triggering but are still susceptible to detecting occupancy if a person walks by an open door outside the controlled room. A masking material can be applied to the lens in these cases to block the line of sight from the sensor into an adjacent room or hallway. PIR sensors cannot detect motion through glass of any type or clarity.

Be sure that the occupancy sensor is compatible with the electronic ballasts in the space, if these are present; make sure the sensor is rated for the size of the lighting load (in terms of total watts) it is assigned to switch; and be sure the sensor is rated for the voltages that are present.

Table 6-4. Typical energy savings with occupancy sensors. Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

OCCUPANCY AREA ENERGY SAVINGS

Private Office 13-50%

Classroom 40-46%

Conference Room 22-65%

Restrooms 30-90%

Corridors 30-80%

Storage Areas 45-80%

at desk). This sensitivity may be tunable based on the sensor. For example, you want a person to be able to sit perfectly motionless for a period of time without the lights going off, which can quickly turn the sensor into a perceived nuisance.

Tuning and Troubleshooting

Occupancy sensors should be tuned after installation. This entails adjusting the sensor’s sensitivity and time delay settings, and making sure the sensor is properly applied for the given space. To make sure it is properly applied, several simple tests can be performed.

One test is the entry test. If the sensor is used to automatically turn on the lighting, then it should do so within two seconds after the person gets three feet into the space. The sensor should NOT turn on the lights when a person passes outside the room with the door open. The second test is the hand motion test. The sensor should turn the lights on if you wave your hand in different directions a foot away from the sensor. And the third test is the perimeter test. Walk and wave your hand in different places around the room to try to find spots where the sensor is least effective in detecting motion.

Note that ultrasonic sensors can be accidentally turned on by vibrations in the room, such as the startup of an air conditioner, or moving air, such as from a heating supply grille. Also make sure the sensor does not have a false trigger if people walk by an open door outside the controlled space. Adjust sensitivity and location as needed.

A final aspect of sensor application that all lighting managers should be aware of is that frequently turning the lights on and off can reduce lamp life, as most wear and tear on the lamp occurs during startup. This is why lamp life is based on hours per start.

If the sensor frequently turns the lamps on and off, the increased cost of lamp replacement is typically less than the energy savings, but should be included in any economic benefit calculations. In other words, the sensor provides a larger benefit from the energy savings than the loss of lamp life, so the user just lives with it.

Another option is to use programmed-start ballasts, which are rapid-start ballasts that start fluorescent lamps with less wear and tear on the lamp cathodes, which increases lamp life. As a result, programmed-start ballasts can provide up to 100,000 starts, ideal for applications where the lamps are frequently switched.

YOU’RE READY

Congratulations. If you score well on the Lighting Controls Quiz, consider yourself well on your way to becoming a controls expert. Now you’re ready take on the next chapter: Service Basics.

LIGHTING CONTROLS QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. Which of the following is a benefit of automatic lighting controls?

a) Energy savings b) Flexibility c) Security d) All of the above

2. A standard toggle wall switch is an automatic lighting control. a) True b) False

3. What is the function of a scheduling system?

a) Turns the lights on and off based on occupancy b) Controls the lights based on a preset schedule c) Dims or switches the lights based on available daylight d) None of the above

4. What is the function of a daylight harvesting system?

a) Turns the lights on and off based on occupancy b) Controls the lights based on a preset schedule c) Dims or switches the lights based on available daylight d) None of the above

5. A timeclock is an example of what type of control? a) Photocell control b) Step-level HID control c) Scheduling control d) Lumen depreciation control

6. What is the primary advantage of a low-voltage control system?

a) Allows network of relays to be set up, each controlling a lighting zone, for flexible, large-scale on-off control of a large building area b) The amount of light in the space is measured continually and light output from the lamps is continually adjusted to maintain the target light level c) Lighting is activated by a key, meaning only authorized personnel can control the lighting system d) Encourages occupants to turn off the lights when they leave the room

7. Dimming ballasts are available for both fluorescent and HID lamps.

a) True b) False

8. PIR occupancy sensors automatically switch lamps based on detected occupancy using a technology that reads ____________ in an area.

a) Changes in reflected sound waves b) Changes in heat radiation c) Changes in availability of daylight d) All of the above

9. Ultrasonic occupancy sensors automatically switch lamps based on detected occupancy using a technology that reads ____________ in an area. a) Changes in reflected sound waves b) Changes in background heat radiation c) Changes in availability of daylight d) None of the above

10. Occupancy sensors can be used both indoors and outdoors. a) True b) False

11. Why should occupancy sensors be time-set after installation?

a) To set their sensitivity to motion in the room b) To establish their coverage pattern c) To avoid false activation of lights d) None of the above

CHAPTER 7: SERVICE BASICS

INTRODUCTION

Lighting management means providing the best lighting for the lowest operating and maintenance costs.

Lighting systems are trending towards higher efficiency. As more efficient lamps and ballasts become available, we have the opportunity to replace existing components with these new components and save energy. The cost of replacement is paid for over time by savings on the electric bill, and after that the building owner makes a profit. Lighting management companies often provide these upgrade services.

Lighting systems experience deterioration in performance as they age. Lamps produce less light over time than when they are new. Dirt and dust collect on luminaires and block light from leaving the luminaire. Problems occasionally occur with lighting system performance and must be solved, often requiring troubleshooting to determine the real problem. In short, lighting systems must be maintained. Lighting management companies provide these maintenance services.

As a lighting manager, you will do just that—help manage lighting systems. Light is essential for sight, and lighting is essential to help people work most efficiently and safely, provide security for buildings, promote merchandise, and create mood. Your job will be to make sure the lighting system does every job it is assigned, and provide the best lighting system performance for the lowest cost.

By the end of this chapter, you will understand why lighting

systems need to be upgraded and maintained, common maintenance operations, benefits of planned maintenance and, last but certainly not least, job safety.

LIGHTING UPGRADES

As noted in Chapter 1, lighting systems are constantly evolving to meet new market demands, and various lamps, ballasts, controls and luminaires are in constant competition to see which will be specified, purchased and installed.

Buildings have a long life. Many of these buildings are decades old and feature lighting systems that at the time were state of the art, but today may be obsolete, particularly in regards to energy efficiency.

Energy costs have been increasing, and new energy-efficient lighting systems are available. Energy-efficient lighting systems produce the desired light output but for less wattage. Years ago, somebody first came up with the bright idea that if we replace older lamps and ballasts with these new energy-efficient lamps and ballasts, we could save enough money on the electric bill over time to pay for the cost of replacement. This replacement is sometimes called a retrofit but is more often called a lighting upgrade.

There is a multitude of energy-efficient lighting systems, including T8 lamps, electronic ballasts, compact fluorescent lamps, automatic lighting controls, and others used to replace T12 lamps, magnetic ballasts, incandescent lamps, light switches and others respectively. Let’s look at a simple example. Supposed we replace a 100W incandescent light bulb with a 27W CFL in your house. Purely from an energy perspective, what we want to know is: Do they produce about the same amount of light?

How much electricity do they need? What is the energy savings?

How long will it take to pay for itself?

How much profit will we earn after it pays for itself?

Below is the basic information that we need to answer these questions:

Let’s explain how we got some of these numbers. Again, we want to see if it makes good economic sense to replace a 100W incandescent light bulb with a 27W CFL. The light output, color of the light, and color rendering are all roughly comparable. The incandescent needs 100W to operate while the CFL needs 27W— that’s 73% energy savings, pretty significant. In other words, the CFL needs only about one-fourth of the energy the incandescent lamp does.

But the CFL costs $7 at the local hardware store, while the incandescent lamp costs only about a buck. The CFL costs 700% more. Regardless of how much energy they can save and profit they can earn on an upgrade, this initial cost difference makes a lot of building owners balk at upgrading.

Whatever lamp we use, we will run it 2,920 hours per year. In other words, we will have it on 8 hours a day x 365 days per year = 2,920 hours per year.

The local utility charges a dime per kWh of energy used.

The CFL lasts about 10 times longer than the incandescent lamp.

Now let’s see how the numbers add up, if this makes economic sense to replace. First, we want to know how much energy each lamp consumes each year. Why? The utility charges a dollar amount per kWh of energy consumed. So we have to know the kWh so we can figure out how much we’re paying for energy to operate the lamp.

Energy Consumption: W x operating hours/year ÷ 1000 = kWh.

Incandescent Energy Consumption = 100W x 2,920 hours = 292,000 watt-hours (Wh) ÷ 1000 = 292 kWh.

CFL Energy Consumption = 27W x 2,920 hours = 78,840 watthours (Wh) ÷ 1000 = 78.84 kWh.

Now let’s translate this to dollars. We know that the utility, in this situation, charges $0.10/kWh for energy.

Incandescent Energy Cost = 292 kWh x $0.10 = $29.20. The 100W incandescent lamp, based on these operating hours and utility cost/kWh, costs you nearly $30 to operate per year.

CFL Energy Cost = 78.84 kWh x $0.10 = $7.88. The 27W CFL, based on these operating hours and utility cost/kWh, costs you about $8 to operate per year.

When you look at it this way, the incandescent lamp becomes very expensive and the CFL pretty cheap! To operate a 100W incandescent lamp in the socket for a year, it costs $1 to buy and

about $29 to operate = $30. Since the lamp lasts only 750 hours, you’ll have to buy 2,920 ÷ 750 = 3 more of them, for a total annual cost of ownership of $33. Operating a 27W CFL in the socket for a year costs $7 to buy and about $8 to operate = $15.

In this case, the lamp that costs 700% more to buy actually is less than half as expensive to own! If we replace the incandescent lamp with the CFL, we will save $29.20 - $7.88 = $21.32 per year, cash in our pocket.

Now we want to know: How long does the new lamp take to pay for itself? This is called the payback or simple payback. For now, we will not include the lamp replacement cost and keep it simple, just dealing with energy savings.

Payback (Months) = Cost ($) ÷ Annual Energy Savings ($) x 12

The cost is $7.

The annual energy savings is $21.32. Payback (Months) = $7 ÷ $21.32 = 0.33 x 12 = about 4 months. Many building owners measure all investments according to ROI— return on investment. It expresses the annual rate at which an investment is paid back.

ROI (%) = Annual Energy Savings ($) ÷ Cost ($) x 100

ROI (%) = $21.32 ÷ $7 = about a 300% ROI. A 300% ROI means the owner will make 300% of his initial investment—in other words, he will triple it.

The last thing we want to know is how much profit we will make from the investment after it pays for itself, up to the point where we have to pay $7 again for another CFL to replace the old one. Assuming the CFL lasts 10,000 hours, it will provide 10,000 ÷ 3.42 years of operation.

Profit/Cash Flow ($) = Annual Energy Savings ($) x 3.42 Profit/Cash Flow ($) = $21.32 x 3.42 = about $73.

In summary, the 100W incandescent lamp costs about $1 and the CFL costs $7, but the incandescent lamp is much more expensive to own when you factor in costs on the electric bill, and also lamp replacement costs, since the CFL is rated to last more than 10 times longer than the incandescent lamp.

If we replace the 100W incandescent lamp with a 27W CFL in this situation, spending just $6 more, it will pay for itself in about 4 months, put about $21 back in our pocket each year, and put $73 in our pocket until we have to pay $7 to get another CFL.

That’s a pretty good deal.

Lighting management companies routinely provide these numbers to building owners, take out old lighting systems, and install new ones that save energy and put more money back in the owner’s pocket. Lower operating costs help companies become more profitable and competitive.

LIGHTING MAINTENANCE

Lighting system performance deteriorates as the lighting system ages. Lamps burn out and must be replaced. Lamps produce less light over time. Dirt and dust collect on luminaires and lamps and block light from getting to where it’s needed.

Many lighting systems are poorly maintained. Lamps are replaced individually as they fail, requiring numerous wasteful trips up a ladder to replace a lamp when otherwise we could simply replace all the lamps at once just before we know most of them will fail. Dirt and dust is left on luminaires, meaning the owner is spending a lot of money to operate lamps and ballasts, while only a fraction of the light is going where it’s needed.

There’s a better way, and it’s called planned maintenance. It’s one of the primary roles that lighting managers take on. In a planned maintenance program, we predict when most of the lamps will fail, and replace them all at once before they do, eliminating hundreds of trips up the ladder to replace lamps individually as they fail. We also periodically clean the lamps and luminaires so that the lighting system can get more light where it’s needed instead of the light being trapped in the luminaire by dirt and dust. Finally, during relamping or cleaning operations, we spot and fix lighting system problems.

In short, planned lighting maintenance economizes on lamp replacement labor costs and keeps the lighting system operating virtually like new, ensuring that people in the space get the right amount of light they need to perform tasks efficiently and safely.

Society of North America (IESNA) publishes a range of tasks and the recommended light level range for each task. This is because you don’t need the same amount of light to read a book compared to pushing a large red button. Obviously, the large red button is much easier to see than the book’s print.

The recommended light levels are shown as a range because several factors come into play, including age, time, size and contrast.

Age: As people get older, their visual acuity tends to decline. So an older man would likely need a higher light level to effectively read a book than a younger man.

Time: If you only have a brief amount of time to perform the task, you will need a higher light level.

Size: If a book’s print has larger lettering than another book, it will be easier to read. The smaller the print, the higher the light level we would need to read it.

Contrast: The red button would not be easy to press if it was on a red machine. The less contrast between the task and its surrounding background, the higher the light level required.

Light level is important because it’s a big part of what planned maintenance is all about—making sure that people get the minimum amount of light they need to perform tasks efficiently, accurately and safely.

Contributors to Light Loss

To understand the benefits of planned maintenance, it’s important to understand those forces that degrade a lighting system’s performance over time.

Lamp Burnouts (LBO): Eventually, all lamps essentially fail to relight and need to be replaced. This is typically because each time the lamp starts, the cathodes lose a small amount of material they use to start the lamp.

REMEMBER

Planned lighting maintenance is what Apprentice Lighting Technicians do, helping building owners save money and get the best lighting from their lighting systems through periodic group lamp replacement and luminaire cleaning.

Light Level

Before we talk about planned maintenance, it’s important to understand a new metric called light level, measured in footcandles (fc). In Chapter 1, we talked about how each lamp emits light and that emission is called the lamp’s light output.

After the lamp’s light output strikes an object, the light is reflected to our eyes, which allows us to see the object. The light striking the object is called light level.

Light levels are important because they’re a basic building block for the design of lighting systems. The Illuminating Engineering

In Chapter 1, we talked about how large groups of lamps tend to fail at a predictable rate. The rate of failure depends on the lamp. If the rated life of a given lamp is 20,000 hours, we know that after 20,000 hours of operation, 50% of a large group of lamps will have failed, and the other 50% will still be lighted.

We also talked about how the rate of failure for a particular lamp is shown on the lamp’s mortality curve. Looking at a fluorescent lamp’s mortality curve, we see that the rate is not consistent. At 70% of rated life, less than 10% of the lamps are likely to fail. After 70% of rated life, they start failing at a much faster rate until 100% of rated life, when again 50% of the lamps will have failed.

Lamp Lumen Depreciation (LLD): In Chapter 1, we talked about the fact that lamps produce less and less light over time than when they are new. This happens because the phosphors on the inside of the glass bulb break down over time. The percentage of decline of light output is called lamp lumen depreciation. The percentage of light output the lamp produces over time is called the lamp’s lumen maintenance. The rate of decline is predictable on a lumen maintenance curve and can vary depending on the

lamp type.

For example, a 400W probe-start metal halide lamp can experience 30-35% lumen depreciation when it reaches 40% of rated life (mean lumens), while a 400W pulse-start metal halide lamp can experience 20% lumen depreciation.

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation (LDD): Remember that a luminaire is the industry term for “light fixture.” Because luminaires contain electrical devices and generate heat, they attract dirt and dust. Because dirt and dust absorb light instead of reflect it, they reduce the luminaire’s light output. The extent of dirt depreciation depends on a lot of factors, including the luminaire’s design and the amount of dirt and dust in the building. A factory typically has a lot more dirt and dust flying around than an office.

All of these light loss factors waste energy and money and degrade light levels that people need to perform tasks efficiently, accurately and safely. That’s where planned maintenance comes in.

Planned Maintenance

An effective planned maintenance program typically includes:

• Group relamping

• Luminaire cleaning

• Troubleshooting

Group Relamping: All lamps eventually fail and must be replaced. The rate of failure is predictable on the lamp’s mortality curve. Most lamps fail after 70% of rated life. So if we have a building with 1,000 lamps in it, we know that about 100 will fail before 70% of rate life and 900 after. Too often, building owners spot relamp— that is, they replace each lamp individually as it fails. That means the owner has to have a worker take out a new lamp, set up a ladder, and replace the lamp 1,000 times. In some buildings, the luminaires are very high off the floor, requiring a scaffold or cherry picker. The lamp replacement usually takes place while people are working, which can be disruptive and result in lost productivity, a very real cost to businesses.

There’s a better way, and it’s called group relamping. It’s a core service that lighting management companies offer. Group relamping means we replace all of the lamps at the same time, just before we know most of the lamps are about to fail. Why take 1,000 trips to the lighting system when we can take one? By taking an assemblyline approach, the time required to replace a lamp can be reduced from about a half-hour to less than five minutes. While operating lamps are being thrown out and replaced with new lamps that cost money, the labor savings exceed this cost.

Meanwhile, the lamps are also replaced before lamp lumen depreciation can degrade their light output severely. The result is that group relamping can improve light levels. In addition, group relamping can take place after normal work hours, meaning no work interruptions; result in cleaner luminaire appearance and a brighter space; and reduce the number of lamps that must be kept in storage.

As an Apprentice Lighting Technician, you will provide group relamping services to your customers. Group relamping can take place on its own or be economically combined with luminaire cleaning. Group relamping is also a good time to replace existing lamps with energy-saving lamps, economizing on labor costs while gaining the benefits of energy savings.

Luminaire Cleaning: Besides lamp burnouts and lamp lumen depreciation, the other major condition that keeps light output from being light level is luminaire dirt depreciation. Not only does dirt absorb light instead of reflecting it, the problem becomes worse over time because dirt left on luminaires can dull the reflective paint. The only way to reduce this depreciation is with periodic luminaire cleaning.

Why is this important? If a building lighting system costs $100,000 per year and 10% of light output is lost due to dirt depreciation, then that building owner is paying $10,000 for nothing— unnecessarily wasting money and light. Strangely, some building owners would fire an employee who spent 10% of his time and salary doing nothing, but then fail to make sure his lighting system wasn’t wasting 10% of his money as well.

In some buildings, dirt depreciation can reduce light output by as much as 25%. Just like in our above example, the building owner is paying 100% of his electric bill but only getting 75% of the light he’s paying for.

Luminaire cleaning provides the customer the most amount of light he’s paying for. It essentially means washing the luminaire surfaces, the lenses or louvers, and sometimes the lamps themselves. The whole cleaning operation takes place in minutes, then on to the next luminaire, until the entire building is done.

Special care must be given to clean the luminaire surfaces correctly so they do not become scratched or marred in any way. These scratches or blemishes also absorb light. We don’t want to solve one problem (dirt) and replace it with another (scratches). The frequency of cleanings depends on how dirty the area is and the type of dirt. Factories, for example, are generally dirtier and produce darker, sootier dirt than office buildings.

Luminaire cleaning can take place on its own or be economically combined with group relamping.

Troubleshooting: Before and after group relamping and cleaning operations, you will inspect the lighting system to make sure it is working properly. If you detect problems, you must troubleshoot them. In many cases with lighting system problems, the symptom will be obvious but not the disease. Troubleshooting entails a process of elimination to identify the cause of the problem and fix it.

All of these services—group relamping, luminaire cleaning and troubleshooting—are designed to make sure that people in a building consistently have the maximum recommended light level the lighting system can produce. Again, light level is important because that’s what people use. In any situation, if you have the best light recommended to perform a task, you can do it better— faster and with fewer mistakes.

Other benefits of consistently having the right amount of light can include higher safety and security, fewer accidents (lower insurance), higher worker satisfaction, reduced absenteeism and less eyestrain, an improved image to visitors and staff, and improved appearance of merchandise for retail customers.

Now that you know the basics of planned maintenance operations, including their purpose and benefits, it is time for you to join a job crew and understand basic procedures used to group relamp and clean lighting systems.

10. Watch out for overhead obstacles while on platforms or while a scaffold is moving.

11. Check with your customer before moving furniture or other equipment out of your way.

12. Leave the job site as neat and clean as you found it, preferably neater and cleaner. Sweep the floor and remove all trash.

REMEMBER

Group relamping can increase light levels, and reduces lamp replacement costs by replacing all lamps at the same time just before most of them will predictably fail. Luminaire cleaning improves light levels by removing dirt and dust. Troubleshooting ensures that faulty parts are replaced and every luminaire is working properly.

Planned Maintenance Procedures

This is where we get down to the nuts and bolts of performing a group relamping and cleaning program. First, some general pointers:

1. Keep unused equipment out of the way.

2. Do not soil the carpet. Avoid marring, spotting or scratching the floors.

3. Protect furniture with drop cloths, while being careful with some furniture and what’s on it that could be damaged by the drop cloth, or by placing items on the drop cloth.

4. Keep scaffolds and equipment clean—do not take dirty equipment into the job site. Your company sells the benefits of cleanliness, so everything about your crew and its equipment must convey an image of cleanliness.

5. Never put the cleaning tank (used to wash luminaire lenses) on a carpet. If you must, lay down drop cloths or a rubberized mat first.

6. Avoid dragging ladders across the floor.

7. Don’t leave spilled water on waxed floors, as this can cause spotting.

8. Avoid knocking equipment off a scaffold because you can injure people and damage property. Lower this equipment to the floor if the scaffold is to be moved.

9. Never stand on furniture.

Group Relamping: Replacing a lamp in a luminaire is not as simple as it might seem. If it’s installed incorrectly, the lamp could flicker, fail to light, or burn out in just a few weeks. That’s why it’s important to remember the right way to install a lamp. During relamping, be sure to observe all appropriate safety rules and also common sense.

1. Turn off power to the luminaire.

2. Remove old lamps.

3. Check the lamp catalog number to make sure you are installing the right lamp. Make sure the lamp is compatible with the ballast in the luminaire by checking the labels to make sure the ballast is rated for the lamp type.

FIGURE 7-1

When group relamping, all of the old lamps are removed from the luminaires. Courtesy of Current Electric Co.

FIGURE 7-2

When group relamping, after old lamp removal, new lamps are installed. Check the lamp catalog number to make sure you are installing the right lamp. Make sure the lamp is compatible with the ballast in the luminaire by checking the labels to make sure the ballast is rated for the lamp type. Courtesy of Candela Systems Corp.

FIGURE 7-4

When group relamping is completed, turn on the power to the luminaires and do a visual inspection to make sure all of the lamps are working properly. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-3

Be sure to keep the new and old lamps separate. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-5

After group relamping, put leftover new lamps in a separate part of the vehicle or storage area if left on-site. Return unused lamps to stock. Dispose of old lamps as directed by your supervisor. Courtesy of Current Electric Co.

4. When installing a fluorescent lamp with a bi-pin base, connect the lamp base to the socket. The base has a small tip—a dot or dimple—that must be set up to align with the center line of the socket. Once the lamp is turned into place, both pins need to be deep inside the socket to establish an electrical connection.

5. Keep new and old lamps separate.

6. Turn power to the luminaires on to make sure they all work.

7. Pick up all boxes and packaging for disposal.

8. Put leftover new lamps in a separate part of the vehicle or storage area if left on-site. Return these unused lamps to stock. Dispose of old lamps as directed by your supervisor.

Cleaning: Washing a luminaire is also not as simple as it would seem. If washed incorrectly, you could receive an electric shock or the luminaire could be damaged, causing reduced light output or the need to replace the socket. It’s important to know the right way to wash luminaires.

Getting started

1. Help your crew leader get the right equipment you will need for the job—the correct-sized OSHA-approved (Occupational Safety and Heath Administration-approved) ladders and/ or scaffolds, the cleaning tank, hose, electrical cord and drip trays. Make sure all equipment works correctly. Also help him gather the cleaning cloths, sponges, drop cloths, spray bottles and other cleaning equipment you will need.

2. Load your vehicle in an organized manner so that it’ll be easy to unload.

3. Tie down all equipment securely in the vehicle.

4. Arrive at the job site on time, preferably a few minutes early.

5. Once you arrive at the job site, unload the vehicle, keeping the lamps and equipment out of the way of people walking through the area.

6. Keep drop cloths neatly folded and cords neatly coiled.

7. Locate the nearest water supply once you’re in your work area.

8. If your company uses a cleaning tank, put it where your customer tells you to or to where it’ll be convenient for your work. Protect the floor and furniture from dripping with a drop cloth or a big piece of plastic.

9. Check your scaffold wheels (if required) to make sure they work correctly. Clean them if they look dirty.

10. Protect carpets from any chance of spill. Put drop cloths over the desks, chairs and any other furniture.

11. Help your crew leader get a light meter reading before you set up any equipment. Because your work affects the light levels in the room, you will want to show your customer the different in light levels before and after cleaning so he can see how valuable your service is. The light meter tells you the light level in the room measured in footcandles. Most of your work will be done after normal work hours, but if sunlight enters the room, your crew leader must take two readings in the same spot, one with the lights on and one with the lights off. The readings should be taken within seconds of each other. The difference is the light produced by the lighting system and is your crew leader’s official reading.

12. When using ladders, use the correct-sized ladder for the job. Never stand on the top two rungs. Pick up the ladder when moving it, instead of dragging it. And when you are cleaning, do not extend more than an arm’s length away from the center of the ladder, to prevent falling. Keep your body centered on the ladder.

13. Overall, treat your ladder well, as you will be depending on it for your safety. Report any problem with it immediately and discontinue further use.

14. You may use many types of scaffolds during your work— rolling, mobile-powered platforms, manually operated platforms and others. Whatever scaffold you use, it should have at least one locking wheel. Before working, check the wheel and other parts for damage and proper assembly. Safety rails should be in place and securely locked. And the scaffold should be of a height that will allow your head to be at the same height as the luminaire. Do not start work until you can do so completely confident of your safety.

During any use, make sure at least one wheel is locked tight. Keep the scaffold clear of anything other than the equipment you need to do your job. The scaffold should never be moved while somebody else is on it (unless that person knows it’s being moved), and should not be rolled over large objects that might cause it to tip over and damage a wall, furniture or you.

Doing the work

There are many techniques used during the actual cleaning of the luminaires. Usually, the application will guide the method you should use, just as it guided you as to what equipment and staff you’d need. Although your company may do it differently, here is one common method of cleaning luminaires.

The cleaning is performed by a two-man (person) crew. The topman carries the two buckets, each holding a sponge or rag. He also carries a spray bottle containing water or cleaning solution. One sponge is used for washing and the other for rinsing. Always turn off the power before cleaning, and observe all OSHA safety procedures and regulations.

1. The top-man hands the luminaire cover (lens or louver) and lamps to the floor-man.

2. The floor-man cleans the luminaire cover in the cleaning tank and gives as much time to dry as possible.

3. The floor-man cleans the lamps if the luminaire is not being relamped. Like the top-man, he has two buckets, one with a wash sponge and one with a rinse sponge. He sprays the lamp with cleaning solution. Then he holds the lamp end with the rinse sponge and pulls wash sponge down the lamp, wiping the dirt off. Then he slides the rinse sponge to meet the wash sponge, and so on—one, two, one two—until he gets to the end of the lamp. This done, he drops the wash sponge into its bucket and finishes the rinse. Finally, he wipes the lamp down with a dry cloth. Because the lighting system is an electrical system and water is an excellent conductor of electricity, it’s very important completely dry all parts being cleaned.

4. While the floor-man is cleaning the lamps, the top-man cleans the luminaire. First, he sprays the inside of the luminaire with solution from his spray bottle. Then he wipes the inside of the luminaire with the wash sponge or rag, removing the dirt. Then he flips the sponge over and wipes again in the opposite direction. He drops the wash sponge into its bucket and repeats the whole process with the rinse sponge. When he’s finished with this cleaning, he cleans around the sockets carefully (but thoroughly) using his index finger draped in a cloth. He is careful not to get the sockets wet—if he does so and power returns, they could short out. If he is touching them, he could be shocked. An electric shock can be fatal. Note that if the luminaire contains specular reflectors, there are other cleaning techniques and solutions that should be used.

5. The floor-man hands the clean—or, during group relamping, brand-new—lamps to the top-man, who installs them. The clean luminaire covers are handed to the top-man for replacement and sprayed with a special solution that slows down dust accumulation.

6. Do not leave a single luminaire unwashed; it’ll stick out like a sore thumb.

7. When finished, turn on all the power to make sure all the luminaires work properly and that no luminaire is left unwashed.

Special procedures

1. For incandescent luminaires, turn off power as far in advance as possible so that the lamps can cool, as incandescent lamps produce a lot of heat and can be very hot to touch. Remove the lamp. Wash the reflector inside and out. Rinse thoroughly. If the luminaire is covered by a glass diffuser, wash it in the cleaning tank and return it only after it’s thoroughly dried. Make sure the entire luminaire is completely dry before turning the power back on.

2. For incandescent lamps with glass globes, again, turn off the power. Remove the globe and wash with an ammonia and water solution or glass cleaner. Remove the lamp and wash the reflector with a sponge. Return the lamp and globe.

3. Before and during any wash-and-relamp procedures, observe all safety procedures outlined in the next section. Always remember: SAFETY FIRST. If ever in doubt, check with your crew leader.

FIGURE 7-6

When cleaning luminaires, protect carpets and furniture from spill using drop cloths. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-7

Help your crew leader get a light meter reading before you set up any equipment. Because your work affects the light levels in the room, you will want to show your customer the different in light levels before and after cleaning so he can see how valuable your service is. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-8

The light meter tells you the light level in the room measured in footcandles. Most of your work will be done after normal work hours, but if sunlight enters the room, your crew leader must take two readings in the same spot, one with the lights on and one with the lights off. The readings should be taken within seconds of each other. The difference is the light produced by the lighting system and is your crew leader’s official reading. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-10

Example cleaning procedure. The top-man removes the luminaire cover (lens or louver). Courtesy of Current Electric Co.

FIGURE 7-9

When using ladders, use the correct-sized ladder for the job. Never stand on the top two rungs. And when you are cleaning, do not extend more than an arm’s length away from the center of the ladder, to prevent falling. Keep your body centered on the ladder. Treat your ladder well—you will be depending on it for your safety. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-11

Example cleaning procedure. The floor-man cleans the luminaire cover (lens or louver) and gives as much time to dry as possible. The floorman also cleans the lamps if they are not being replaced. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-12

Example cleaning procedure. The top-man cleans the luminaire. When he’s finished with this cleaning, he cleans around the sockets carefully (but thoroughly) using his index finger draped in a cloth. He is careful not to get the sockets wet—if he does so and power returns, they could short out. If he is touching them, he could be shocked. An electric shock can be fatal. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

FIGURE 7-13

Example cleaning procedure. The floor-man hands the clean—or, during group relamping, brand-new—lamps to the top-man, who installs them. Courtesy of Colorado Lighting, Inc.

JOB SAFETY

Your life and health are more important than a luminaire. Safety always comes first. Avoid horseplay, observe common sense caution and observe all safety rules and regulations set by OSHA and federal, state and local governments. The consequences of not observing safety rules and using caution on the job can be permanent, and even fatal.

Electric Shock Hazards

FIGURE 7-14

Example cleaning procedure. The clean luminaire covers are handed to the top-man for replacement and sprayed with a special solution that slows down dust accumulation. Courtesy of Current Electric Co.

Electricity is always trying to get to the ground, and takes shortcuts whenever it can. If electricity meets a conductor that is an easier path to the ground, it will take that path. The best conductors are metal and water. Since your body is mostly made of water, you are a good conductor. If you are touching an electric circuit and the ground at the same time, you will become the easiest path to the ground. You don’t have to be standing on the ground for this to happen. If you are standing on a ladder that is made of a material that is also a good conductor, for example, you and this other object will both become the easiest path to the ground. Electricity will flow through you, and you could be seriously hurt or even killed.

The effects of electric shock depend on the type of circuit, its voltage, resistance, current, pathway through the body, and duration of contact. Effects can range from just a tingle to cardiac arrest. The difference between these two is less than 100 milliamps. Muscular contraction caused by the shock may not allow the victim to free himself from the circuit, increasing the duration and the damage from the shock.

Lockout/Tagout Rule: Shut off power to the circuit before attempting to do any maintenance work on luminaires connected to the circuit. Be sure to be away from the luminaire when the power is returned. All equipment and circuits that are de-energized must have tags attached at all points where such equipment or circuits can be energized. The tags identify plainly the equipment or circuits being worked on.

Customer Satisfaction

As an Apprentice Lighting Technician, you present a professional image to the customer. Because your customer’s ongoing, longterm business is so important, you are always accountable to the customer, more than in other types of service businesses. Therefore, maintain a professional appearance. Horseplay on the job is not tolerated. Do not smoke in non-smoking spaces and keep the work area clean. Avoid talking to your customer’s workers unless you need to in order to do your job. Do not shout or use profanity. Remember that when you are on the job, you represent your company.

In addition, make sure you observe all safety procedures—do not leave lamps on the floor, for example. And do not put any equipment on the carpet or furniture that could damage it.

Now that you understand the basics of planned maintenance procedures, you must learn to perform them safely, and that brings us to job safety. This is the most important information that you will learn. You will be working on electrical systems, and electricity can be harmful and even fatal.

Keep Luminaires Dry: After washing luminaire surfaces, luminaire covers and lamps, be sure to dry them thoroughly before returning power to the luminaire.

Follow Instructions: Electrical equipment should only be used or installed in accordance with any instructions included in the listing or labeling.

Marking: Electrical equipment cannot be used unless the manufacturer’s name, trademark (or other descriptive marking by which the organization responsible for the product can be identified) is placed on the equipment. Other markings should be provided giving voltage, current, wattage and other ratings if necessary.

Working Space: Ensure that you have sufficient access and working space to be able to safely perform maintenance work.

Defective Components: Report to your crew leader any damaged sockets and wires with insulation worn down so as to expose the wire.

Illumination: The power will be shut off to the lighting system during maintenance work. Make sure you have sufficient light to do your job properly.

Clothing: Because you will be working with electrical hazards and glass, wear gloves, safety glasses, head protection and boots with rubber soles.

High Voltage: Don’t work near high voltage lines unless they are switched off and locked. Similarly, low voltage can also be dangerous, particularly if you are exposed to a circuit for a high duration.

Lifting: Avoid lifting heavy objects alone.

Platform Safety

REMEMBER

Your safety is more important than a luminaire. Observe all safety rules and common sense caution. When in doubt, ask your crew leader.

PCB Ballasts

PCB ballasts were banned in 1979 when the Federal Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) went into effect. A number of these ballasts are still in operation. Ballasts manufactured after 1979 say, “No PCBs” on their labels. If you don’t see this notice, it should be assumed that the ballast contains PCBs. PCBs are considered a toxic substance and should be avoided.

If you encounter a PCB-containing ballast and it is leaking fluid, avoid any contact with the fluid and contact your crew leader.

Equipment Use and Maintenance

The dangers of electrical equipment and other job hazards make it extremely important for you to learn the right methods of handling electrical hazards as well as setting up and using equipment. Always remember that every single time you use your equipment, you’re relying on its proper performance with your health.

Equipment Inspection: Inspect your equipment before leaving the shop for defects, dirt and other potential safety problems. Check your vehicle’s brakes, fuel, oil and other parts too make sure it’s working properly.

De-energizing Luminaires: Turn off power before working on a luminaire. Note: Turning off wall switches does not ensure the power to all luminaires is terminated. Always double check.

Conduct: Avoid horseplay on the job.

Scaffolds: Use safety rails on scaffolds and platforms.

Accidents: If you have an accident and are hurt in any way, report it immediately, no matter how small the accident is.

Broken Lamps: If the lamp is broken while in the luminaire, remove it carefully. If the power is on, live wires could be exposed, which can shock you. Make sure the power is turned off while working on a luminaire.

Ladders: Never use the top two rungs of a ladder, since that can make the ladder unstable and easier to tip over. Don’t reach more than an arm’s length away from the center of the ladder to maintain balance. The ladder must be open all the way, the braces locked. And make sure you are using the right ladder for the job.

Aerial platforms are extremely useful in outdoor applications and those hard-to-reach spots. Basically, there are three types of aerial platforms: the manual vertical aerial platform, the powered vertical aerial platform and the extendible aerial platform. When aerial platforms are attached to trucks, you will need to be aware of additional safety rules relating to this type of equipment.

Dress for Safety: Wear the right clothing. Not only do you want to dress professionally, you want to dress correctly to protect yourself. Wear shoes appropriate to the surface of the platform so you don’t slip. Because you’re working with electrical equipment and glass, wear gloves and safety glasses. Wear a safety belt that ties you securely to the safety rail.

Don’t Bet Your Safety: As always, check your equipment before relying on it with your life. Clean joints and check for defects such as cracks or broken safety pins, etc. and repair as needed. The platform surface and all other parts should be clean—the surface should be dry so you don’t slip. Make sure the tank is nearly full or batteries are charged, and the tires have enough air, as an underinflated tire can make the machine unstable and too much air can make the tire explode. This inspection should take place before you leave the shop, as a defect that can’t be corrected onsite will waste time and effort.

Be a Good Scout: Inspect your work area. Plan your moves before setting up equipment so you know you have enough overhead clearance and a safe work area. Clear away trash and other objects that could disrupt your movement and the operation of your equipment. The platform needs a clear, level surface to move on. Avoid mistakes before they happen to make sure the job gets done on time. Be sensitive toward and protect your customer’s property.

Respect Others’ Safety: Respect your fellow workers. Don’t move the platform until you’ve checked to make sure all other workers are clear from getting hurt. Don’t board or get off the platform while it’s moving, and discourage others attempting to do so while you’re moving the platform.

Only One Captain on the Bridge: When two people are on the platform, one should be designated as in charge. If this is a mobile platform that can be driven, avoid sudden stops, turns or changes in direction. Keep your arms and legs—your entire body—inside the platform railing. Make sure fellow workers on the ground are clear of the platform. Don’t leave the platform until it is safely on the ground.

Drive Safely: Do not move the platform unless it is lowered and all outriggers, stabilizers, etc. are clear of the ground. Make sure the platform is clear of collision with any objects. Travel slowly.

Move the platform to the luminaire, then raise the platform to the luminaires.

Untie the Rope: If your platform is tied to a wall for security, make sure you untie the rope or cable before you move the platform.

Minimize Equipment: Take only the equipment necessary to do your work on the platform. In particular, don’t take a ladder up with you.

Remember Next Time: When breaking down the equipment, do so carefully, again checking for defects and broken parts. Notify your supervisor of any defects.

Use Common Sense: If your particular work area calls for special safety considerations, protect yourself appropriately. When in doubt, ask your crew leader.

Scaffold Safety

Scaffolds are one of your best tools, used to reach high places to work in comfort and efficiency. It can be dangerous equipment to work with, however, which is why it’s important to know the safety rules and correct use of scaffolds. The company you work for can provide general guidelines on safety, and OSHA provides clear rules on safety, but safety is ultimately your responsibility.

Keep It Steady: The scaffold must always be level, not tilted. If you discover a tilt when people are on the scaffold, don’t adjust it until they’re off. Leg adjustments are used to level the scaffold, never to stretch the platform height. If you need the scaffold to go higher, add more sections.

Use the Scaffold Only: Avoid leaning ladders against the scaffold, and don’t put one on the platform.

When to Lean: If the scaffold is tied to the building, then you may push or lean against the wall; otherwise, avoid pushing or leaning.

Lock It Up: All locking mechanisms, such as locking hooks, pins and latches, must be securely locked. The scaffold must have at least one locking wheel. Lock this wheel when the scaffold is occupied.

Safety Rails: According to OSHA, on a single-width-span scaffold, the platform must be framed by a safety railing and toe-boards if the platform height is four feet or more. On a double-width-span scaffold, safety railing and toe-board must be used if the platform height is 7.5 feet or more.

Look Both Ways: Look both ways—and up—before moving the scaffold, and don’t move the scaffold if somebody is on it.

Stick to Your Platform: Avoid climbing on or standing on diagonal braces. Work only on the platform. When climbing onto the platform, go over the top of the ladder to get onto the platform. Don’t swing around the outside of the ladder.

Steer Clear of Electrical Hazards: Avoid using the scaffold near live electrical apparatus or machinery in operation.

Be on the Lookout: Always be on the lookout for defective or dirty joints, locks, wheels and other components. If you see any

defect or other problem, correct if possible. Otherwise, report the problem to your crew leader immediately.

Use Common Sense: Be aware of potential hazards in your work area. When in doubt about safety, talk to your crew leader.

YOU KNOW THE BASICS

Congratulations. If you score well on the Service Basics Quiz, consider yourself a lighting management expert. You’re now ready to learn about safety and codes.

SERVICE BASICS QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of group relamping?

a) Replacement labor savings b) Consistent light levels c) More luminaires can be installed d) Opportunity to replace lamps with energy-efficient lamps

2. One factor which decreases a luminaire’s light output is __.

a) Dirt buildup in the luminaire b) Scheduled periodic cleaning c) Replacing the lamps d) Closing the blinds on the windows

3. A failed lamp is commonly called a ___.

a) Lumen depreciation b) Payback c) Burnout d) Bi-pin lamp

4. Rated lamp life is the time when …?

a) Lamps reach 20,000 hours of operation b) 50% of a large group of lamps is expected to fail c) All lamps are expected to fail d) It’s the best time to group relamp

5. Light level is measured in __________. a) Watts b) Footcandles c) Lumens d) Electrons

6. Light level is measured using a ___________.

a) Volt meter b) Lightometer c) Light wand d) Light meter

7. Which of the following is NOT a benefit of raising light level to a consistently maintained proper light level?

a) Fewer work interruptions b) Fewer errors c) Increased productivity d) Fewer accidents

8. Which of the following organizations sets safety regulations for the workplace?

a) Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) b) The Lighting Research Center(LRC) c) The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) d) The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

9. Horseplay on the job can result in ____________. a) Poor customer relations b) Injury or damage to customer property c) Quick suspension or termination d) All of the above

10. Electrical equipment can be fatal if ___________.

a) You stand too close to it b) It uses you as a conductor c) It’s in operation d) None of the above

11. Which of the following safety rules does not apply?

a) Do not stand on the top two rungs of the ladder b) Remove broken lamps carefully c) Turn off power to the luminaire before working on it d) Do not put your hand over the scaffold railing

12. Which of the following is NOT necessary to wear when on a scaffold?

a) Appropriate shoes b) Safety belt c) Safety glasses d) Whistle

13. Before moving a scaffold, you should ____________. a) Make sure people on the scaffold know you’re moving it b) Make sure there are no obstructions in the way c) (a) and (b) d) None of the above

14. When, if ever, is it okay to lean against the wall when on a scaffold?

a) When the scaffold is tied securely to the wall b) When the scaffold is tilted against the wall c) When your supervisor tells you it’s okay d) Never

15. If a lamp draws 100W and runs for 5,000 hours per year, how many kWh of energy does it consume per year?

a) 50 b) 100 c) 500 d) 1000

16. If we achieve energy savings of 200 kWh and the utility cost per kWh is $0.10, what is the dollar value of the energy savings?

a) $2 b) $10 c) $20 d) $40

17. If a new energy-saving lamp costs $10 and it saves $5 per year in energy costs, what is the payback period?

a) 16 months b) 24 months c) 36 months d) 50 months

18. Which of the following is NOT included in a typical planned maintenance program?

a) Periodic group relamping b) Periodic luminaire cleaning c) Troubleshooting d) Periodic luminaire replacement

19. At what point of rated lamp life, among the following choices, does group relamping typically take place?

a) 100% b) 90% c) 70% d) 40%

20. Why is group relamping a good idea?

a) Can raise light levels b) Economizes on labor c) (a) and (b) d) None of the above

21. Why is luminaire cleaning a good idea?

a) Can raise light levels b) Economizes on labor c) (a) and (b) d) None of the above

22. Why is the OSHA lockout/tagout rule essential?

a) Reduces energy consumption, which can reduce owner operating costs b) Economizes on labor, which can reduce owner operating costs

c) Raises light levels, which can increase worker satisfaction and make the building appear brighter d) Prevents electric shock by ensuring all lighting circuits are deenergized and identified as being worked on

CHAPTER 8: SAFETY & CODES

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

Lighting systems are electrical systems, and, therefore, maintenance technicians are exposed to the potential for contact with hazardous voltages. For this reason, only qualified and properly trained people should conduct maintenance on lighting systems. The supply voltage should be turned off prior to any maintenance or repair of lighting systems. In addition, every lighting management company should maintain a good safety program that should cover personal protective equipment (PPE), scaffolding and lift equipment, hand tools, fall protection, emergency preparedness, hazardous communications, and all applicable regulations and precautions.

For each project, there will be a designated crew lead responsible for the supervision of the field crew, and as such is key person responsible for ensuring the crew is thoroughly briefed on his company’s safety program and record. He is the one who controls the working environment of his crew—the equipment they use, their working conditions and work habits. He sets the working standards. He must exercise good safety practices that strictly follow all applicable state, local and Federal regulations, and his employer’s and his customer’s safety rules and procedures.

Whether you are a crew lead or a crew member, never ignore an unsafe condition. Take immediate action. Silence implies consent.

On the job safety meetings should focus on discussing safety conditions pertinent to the area or the work to be done, identifying any potential hazardous conditions, soliciting crew member comments and suggestions, and creating a team effort and team involvement for safety as well as productivity.

As a CALT, you must set the example. What you practice, others may practice. The exceptions you take, others may take.

Labor’s section of the Code of Federal Regulations.

Standards published in section 29 CFR 1910 pertain to General Industry.

Standards published in section 29 CFR 1926 pertain to Construction Industry.

For more information, consult the U.S. Department of Labor’s OSHA web site, www.osha.gov.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): OSHA 29 CFR 1926.28 PPE at its most basic consists of gloves, safety glasses, head protection and proper boots. However, it can extend greatly depending on the work being performed (i.e., fall protection, respirators, insulated clothing). As its name states, this equipment is designed to protect you personally. It is your responsibility to keep your PPE in good condition and functioning properly. Your company should advise you as to what PPE you are required to have as well as inform you of any additional PPE required for job specific duties. Ultimately, you are responsible for your own safety. If you do not have the proper PPE for a specific duty, do not perform the task and inform your company immediately.

Ladders

Ladders shall be maintained in good condition at all times, the joint between the steps and side rails shall be tight, all hardware and fittings securely attached, and the movable parts shall operate freely without binding or undue play. Safety feet and other auxiliary equipment shall be kept in good condition to ensure proper performance.

Ladders with broken or missing steps, rungs, or cleats, broken side rails or other faulty equipment shall not be used; improvised repairs shall not be made. Ladders shall be inspected frequently and those which have developed defects shall be withdrawn from service for repair or destruction and tagged or marked as “Dangerous, Do Not Use.”

REMEMBER

Every person working a field crew is responsible for their professionalism and safety. Set the right example and make sure the entire crew observes all applicable Federal, state and local regulations in addition to your own company’s and your customer’s safety rules.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (OSHA)

With the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, Congress created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to assure safe and healthful working conditions for working men and women by setting and enforcing standards and by providing training, outreach, education, and assistance.

View all OSHA standards in Title 29 of the CFR, the Department of

Ladders shall be maintained free of oil, grease and other slipping hazards.

Ladders shall not be moved, shifted or extended while occupied. Ladders shall have nonconductive side rails if they are used where the employee or the ladder could contact exposed energized electrical equipment.

Ladders shall not be loaded beyond the maximum intended load for which they were built, or beyond their manufacturer’s rated capacity.

Ladders shall be used only for the purpose for which they were designed.

Allow sufficient room to step off the ladder safely. Keep the area around the bottom and the top of the ladder clear of equipment, materials, and tools.

Use 3-point climbing (one hand, two feet or two hands, one foot).

FIGURE 8-1

Safe use of a ladder.

TABLE 8-1

Step Ladders: Stepladders longer than 20 feet shall not be supplied. Stepladders specified shall be of three types: IA, I or II.

A metal spreader or locking device of sufficient size and strength to securely hold the front and back sections in open positions shall be a component of each stepladder. The spreader shall have all sharp points covered or removed to protect the user.

The top or top step of a stepladder shall not be used as a step.

Extension Ladders: Two-section extension ladders longer than 60 feet shall not be supplied. All ladders of this type shall consist of two sections, one to fit within the side rails of the other, and arranged in such a manner that the upper section can be raised and lowered.

No ladder should be used to gain access to a roof unless the top of the ladder shall extend at least 3 feet above the point of support, at eave, gutter or roofline.

Set the ladder at the proper angle. When a ladder is leaned against a wall, the bottom of the ladder should be one-quarter of the ladder’s working length away from the wall.

For access to an elevated work surface or roof, extend the top of

the ladder three feet above that surface.

Before starting work, survey the area for potential hazards, such as energized overhead power lines. Ladders shall have nonconductive side rails if they are used where the worker or the ladder could contact exposed energized electrical equipment. Keep all ladders and other tools at least 10 feet away from any power lines.

Set the base of the ladder so that the bottom sits securely and so both side rails are evenly supported. The ladder rails should be square to the structure against which it is leaning with both footpads placed securely on a stable and level surface.

When using a ladder in a high-activity area, secure it to prevent movement and use a barrier to redirect workers and equipment. If the ladder is placed in front of a door, always block off the door.

FIGURE 8-2

The base of a straight ladder should be one foot for every four of height to the point of support.

Scaffolds

Scaffolding can provide an efficient and safe means to perform work. However, unsafe scaffolding procedures can lead to accidents, serious injuries and death.

The scaffold should be capable of supporting its own weight and at least four times the maximum intended load to be applied or transmitted to the scaffold and components. Suspension ropes should be capable of supporting six times the maximum intended load. Guardrails should be able to withstand at least 200 pounds of force on the top rail and 100 pounds on the midrail. On complex systems, the services of an engineer may be needed to determine the loads at particular points.

If you are to select your own scaffold, begin by determining where scaffolds should be used and the type of scaffolding needed. Make sure that the scaffolds meet all government regulations and job specific requirements, plan for any special features of

the building structure in relationship to the scaffold, including distinctive site conditions.

Scaffolds are generally rated light, medium and heavy duty.

Light duty scaffolds can support a limited number of employees and hand tools.

Medium duty scaffolds must be capable of safely holding workers, hand tools and the weight of construction materials being installed.

Heavy duty scaffolds are needed when the scaffold must sustain workers, tools and the weight of stored materials.

The footing or anchorage is to be on a solid foundation; sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum intended load without settling or displacement.

REMEMBER

Never allow debris/materials to collect on scaffold.

Do not stand on ties, guardrails, or extensions.

Do not overreach outside the guardrails.

Use 3-point climbing.

Exit mobile scaffolds before they are moved.

Fall Protection

Guardrails must be installed on all scaffold platforms in accordance with required standards and at least consist of top rails, midrails and toeboards (if more than 10 feet above the ground or floor). The top edge height of toprails or equivalent member on supported scaffolds shall be installed between 38 inches and 45 inches above the platform surface.

When it is necessary to remove guardrails (for example, to off-load materials), they must be replaced immediately upon completion of that specific task.

Hard hats should be worn to protect against falling objects. Mesh, screens, intermediate vertical members or solid panels should be used to safeguard employees and the public at lower levels. Ground-level safety can be further provided by erecting canopies; by prohibiting entry into the fall hazard area by barricades and signs, and by the proper placement of materials, tools and equipment on scaffolding.

The full body harness is a belt system designed to distribute the impact energy of a fall over the shoulders, thighs and buttocks. A properly designed harness will permit prolonged worker suspension after a fall without restricting blood flow, which may cause internal injuries. Rescue is also aided because of the upright positioning of the worker.

A lanyard connects the safety harness to the platform or the lifeline. Materials should be made of 5⁄8-inch nylon rope or nylon webbing. Lanyards shall be kept as short as possible to limit fall distance or rigged such that an employee can never free fall more than 6 feet.

FIGURE 8-3

Body harness and lanyard.

Aerial Lifts

Aerial lifts include the following types of vehicle-mounted aerial devices used to elevate personnel to job-sites above ground: extensible boom platforms, aerial ladders, articulating boom platforms, vertical towers and a combination of any of this equipment.

It may be powered or manually operated. Aerial lifts must be designed and constructed in conformance with the applicable requirements of American National Standards for “Vehicle Mounted Elevating and Rotating Work Platforms,” ANSI A92.21969.

Boom and basket load limits must not be exceeded.

Lift controls must be tested each day prior to use to determine that such controls are in safe working condition.

Only authorized individuals can operate an aerial lift

The practice of “tying off” to an adjacent pole, structure or equipment while working from an aerial lift is not permitted.

Operators are required to always stand firmly on the floor of the basket. Never sit or climb on the edge of the basket or use planks, ladders or other devices for a work position.

A body harness must be worn and a lanyard attached to the boom or basket when working from an aerial lift.

Do not move the platform unless it is lowered and all outriggers, stabilizers, etc. are clear of the ground. Make sure the platform is clear of collision with any objects. Travel slowly. Move the platform below the luminaire, and then raise the platform to the luminaires

FIGURE 8-4

Aerial lifts.

OSHA Lockout/Tagout Regulations

OSHA 1910.147, “The Control of Hazardous Energy,” commonly referred to as the lockout/tagout standard requires employers to establish a program and utilize procedures “for affixing appropriate lockout devices or tagout devices to energy-isolating devices, and to otherwise disable machines or equipment to prevent unexpected energization, start-up or release of stored energy in order to prevent injury to employees.”

An energy-isolating device is one that physically prevents the transmission or release of stored energy, such as a manually operated electrical circuit breaker or disconnect switch (but not push buttons, selector switches or other control circuit type devices). The energyisolating device isolates the luminaire from the power supply.

Lockout occurs when a lockout device is placed on the energy-isolating device so that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled cannot be operated until the device is removed. If multiple technicians are working on the same locked-out circuit, they all must install their own lock on a multi-lock hasp. The lockout ensures that a luminaire, for example, cannot be accidentally re-activated.

If the energy-isolating device cannot be locked out, the employer must use a tagout system. Tagout occurs when a tagout device is placed on the energy-isolating device to indicate that the energy-isolating device and the equipment being controlled may not be operated until the tagout device is removed.

Hazardous Materials Communications

The Hazardous Communication Standard (HazCom), OSHA Standard 1920.1200, was introduced in 1991. It requires employers to inform and train their employees about the hazardous materials they are working with or around. Four principal factors are involved: MSDS, label, employee training and a written communication program all of which are described below.

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), issued by the manufacturer, describes a product and how it should be handled. An MSDS is needed for every hazardous material in your inventory.

Each hazardous product must also have a label which sums up the possible dangers of handling the material. The manufacturer also supplies this.

All employees who could be exposed to the hazardous material must go through employee training, including those who may only walk through the areas.

Your company must design and produce a written communication program which posts:

1. forms of warning (labels, MSDS, etc.);

2. employee information and training; and

3. a list of hazardous materials present.

If your customer’s employees may be exposed to hazardous materials, a written communications program must be developed for them as well.

For more information, refer to OSHA Standard 1910.1200, Hazard Communication.

LIGHTING DISPOSAL

Planned lighting maintenance and lighting upgrade operations can result in wholesale replacements of lamps and ballasts. Once lamps and ballasts are destined for disposal, they become “waste” and state and Federal regulations may come into effect.

Provided in this section is a brief summary and description of lamp and ballast recycling. The Federal government mandates minimum requirements, state governments may create more stringent requirements. It is your responsibility to know and understand the regulations surrounding recycling in all areas you perform lighting maintenance. Each lamp or ballast removed potentially becomes universal waste and must be recycled.

Lamps

All lamps may be considered hazardous waste when they are being disposed. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines a hazardous waste lamp as a lamp that is characteristically hazardous, meaning it fails EPA’s Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) for mercury.

Disposing of hazardous waste has significant regulatory requirements. In 2000, EPA changed the rules for mercurycontaining lamps to allow them to be classified as universal waste, with fewer regulatory requirements, if they are recycled. A number of companies in the U.S. provide lamp and ballast recycling services.

Options for managing the disposal of mercury-containing lamps according to Federal requirements, therefore, include treating them as hazardous waste, treating them as universal waste (recycling), or to use a type of lamp that is not characteristically hazardous. Recycling typically costs more than hazardous waste landfill costs, but with less regulation and paperwork, and lower storage, collection and transportation fees. The owner also benefits from reduced liability. Require a certificate of destruction from the recycler, naming the generator (facility owner), the involved contractor, the type and quantity of products recycled and date of destruction. This should be shared with your customer as proof of recycling.

In recent years, however, the major lamp manufacturers have voluntarily reduced the amount of mercury in their lamps and made other changes in the operating design of their fluorescent lamps so that they pass the TCLP test and therefore can potentially be disposed of in a municipal landfill, depending on state laws. It’s important to note that while the Federal government mandates minimum requirements, state governments may create stricter requirements. California, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Minnesota, Rhode Island and Vermont, for example, have banned all mercury-containing lamps from solid waste landfills and Pennsylvania has eliminated the small-quantity exemption.

General guidelines for fluorescent lamp disposal, published on the EPA’s website, are shown on the next page. For a list of lamp recyclers and links to lamp disposal regulations that can vary from state to state, visit www.lamprecycle.org, a web site produced by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association.

FIGURE 8-5

At a recycling facility, lamps enter the system on a flat conveyor (on the right side of the photo) that moves them into a crusher and separator where their components are stripped of the phosphor powder. Mercury is concentrated into a drum and placed in a thermal retort for mercury recovery (not shown). The other lamp components are sorted into glass by particle size and aluminum endcaps, all of which exit the system on the left side, to re-enter the economy as raw materials. Courtesy of Resource Technology, Inc., Van Meter, Iowa.

PCB Ballasts/Capacitors

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are a hazardous waste regulated by the EPA and are primarily found in the following equipment and materials:

1. Capacitors (Dielectric Fluid)

2. Transformers including fluorescent lightings ballasts (Dielectric Fluid)

3. Hydraulic Systems (Hydraulic Fluid)

4. Circuit Breakers (Dielectric Fluid)

5. Heat Transfer Systems (Coolant)

Disposal Methods

1. Place waste lamps in the box in which replacement lamps arrived, or in special cartons provided by the lamp recycler.

2. Store lamps in a safe place to avoid breakage, marking the area and recycled material receptacles appropriately to prevent others from accidentally throwing trash in it.

3. Separate and put broken lamps in a heavy plastic bag placed inside a rigid container. If you cannot locate a lamp recycler who will accept them, treat broken lamps as hazardous waste. Many recyclers provide a specific plastic-lined drum for the storage and transportation of broken lamps.

4. Do not place broken fluorescent lamps in metal receptacles. Metal boxes will absorb mercury and become hazardous waste containers.

Collection and Transportation

1. Most lamp recyclers offer transportation services. Waste lamp generators may also contract with a solid or hazardous waste transporter to take lamps to a recycler, or safely transport their lamps themselves.

2. Lamp generators may collect waste lamps from several locations and store them in a central facility to ease transport and recycling.

3. Transportation to another state may require use of a transporter licensed in that state and in compliance with that state’s hazardous waste transportation laws.

The U.S. banned the manufacture and distribution of PCBcontaining ballasts in 1979, but they are still found in older installations. When handling and storing PCB contaminated materials or any other hazardous materials you should use proper procedures to ensure that such wastes are managed in a safe and environmentally responsible manner. These procedures apply to the packaging, labeling, and record-keeping required.

Ballasts manufactured after 1979 say, “No PCBs” on their labels. If you don’t see this notice or there is no ballast label at all, it should be assumed that the ballast contains PCBs. The EPA requires that PCBs eventually be disposed in a federally approved incinerator. If the ballast is not leaking PCB-containing fluid, often the surest and simplest method of disposal is to bring in a ballast recycler. If the ballast is leaking, then it must be treated as hazardous waste and incinerated. Whether the ballast is leaking or not, a qualified disposal contractor should handle its disposal.

Non-PCB Ballasts

After 1979, a “non-PCB” alternative known as di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, commonly referred to as DEHP, became the standard for use as the dielectric fluid. While DEHP has a low lethal toxicity, studies have shown that it can affect certain organs in low concentrations. DEHP is a known hazardous substance and landfilling non-PCB/DEHP lighting ballast does potentially expose you and your customer to liability. Verify your local requirements for the proper handling and disposal.

HAZARDOUS BUILDING MATERIALS

There are other hazardous materials that may or may not be present as it pertains to your specific lighting project. Please be aware of the risks and take all precautionary steps to ensure that you and your crew are aware of your surroundings and that you have reviewed any and all building reports and MSDSs.

Asbestos

Asbestos is the name given to a group of naturally occurring minerals that are resistant to heat and corrosion. Asbestos became increasingly popular among manufacturers and builders in the late 19th century because of its sound absorption, average tensile strength, affordability and resistance to fire, heat, electrical and chemical damage. It was used in such applications as

electrical insulation for wiring and in building insulation. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement (resulting in fiber cement) or woven into fabric or mats.

In the construction industry, exposure occurs when workers disturb asbestos-containing materials during the renovation or demolition of buildings. The inhalation of asbestos fibers by workers can cause serious diseases of the lungs and other organs that may not appear until years after the exposure has occurred. For instance, asbestos can cause a buildup of scar-like tissue in the lungs and result in loss of lung function that often progresses to disability and death. Asbestos fibers associated with these health risks are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Many lighting projects today revolve around the removal of asbestos and PCB containing materials. These projects are coordinated between two teams, the abatement (removal) contractor and the lighting contractors. The abatement team contains the work area, removes or encases the contaminated materials, and performs air tests to ensure that the area is safe for the lighting contractors to enter the workspace to replace luminaires and associated wiring.

At no point should any unauthorized personnel enter the containment area before an air clearance has been issued in writing. Please follow all posted warning signs and inform your crew to remain clear of any and all sealed work areas.

Asbestos does not pose a threat when handled properly and all precautions are taken. However to the general public, the mention of the word “asbestos” causes fear and panic.

Due to this fact, when speaking of asbestos on the job or near a worksite, as professionals we use the term ACM, which means “asbestos containing material” so as not to cause undue stress or anxiety to bystanders.

Lead

Lead and lead compounds have been used in a wide variety of products found in and around our homes, including paint, ceramics, pipes and plumbing materials, solders, gasoline, batteries, ammunition and cosmetics.

Lead is particularly dangerous to children ages 1-5 years because their growing bodies absorb more lead than adults do and their brains and nervous systems are more sensitive to the damaging effects of lead. Adults may be exposed to lead by eating and drinking food or water containing lead or from dishes or glasses that contain lead. They may also breathe lead dust by spending time in areas where lead-based paint is deteriorating, and during renovation or repair work that disturbs painted surfaces in older homes and buildings.

Federal law requires contractors that disturb painted surfaces in homes, childcare facilities and schools built before 1978 to be certified and follow specific work practices to prevent lead contamination.

NFPA 70 - NATIONAL ELECTRIC CODE

The purpose of this code is the practical safeguarding of persons and property from hazards arising from the use of electricity. This code contains provisions that are considered necessary for safety. Compliance there with and proper maintenance results in an installation that is essentially free from hazard but not necessarily efficient, convenient or adequate for good service or future expansion of electrical use.

The NEC is the minimum requirement and all installations should be completed above these standards. Good workmanship practice exceeds the NEC.

Disconnecting Means During Re-Ballasting

Industry data shows that a leading cause of fatalities among electricians is electrocution while working on 277V lighting systems. Some believe that this is partly because electricians often chose to change out ballasts while circuits are energized to avoid removing light from the area being serviced, causing them to ignore applicable warnings and instructions.

The National Electrical Code (NEC) has addressed this situation in Article 410.73(G), “Disconnecting Means,” which addresses changes to how fluorescent luminaires are disconnected prior to electrical work to prevent the possibility of shock hazard.

This Article states: “In indoor locations, other than dwellings and associated accessory structures, fluorescent luminaires that utilize double-ended lamps and contain ballast(s) that can be serviced in place or re-ballasted must have a disconnecting means, to disconnect simultaneously all conductors of the ballast, including the grounded (neutral) conductor if any. The disconnecting means must be accessible to qualified persons.”

This requirement became effective January 1, 2008. If you encounter a luminaire without a disconnect installed, you must terminate and secure power and install a means of disconnect before repairing the luminaire and restoring voltage.

NEC Requirements for Luminaire Support

The installation of adapters, such as compact fluorescent units or an HID conversion kit, into incandescent sockets has raised questions concerning the NEC. Similar questions arise concerning outlet boxes and suspended ceilings when existing luminaires are maintained or new luminaires are to be installed.

The below sections of NEC apply to these situations:

410-15 Supports.

(A) General. Luminaires and lampholders, rosettes and receptacles shall be securely supported. A fixture that weighs more than 6 pounds (2.72 kg) or exceeds 16 inches (406 mm) in any dimension shall not be supported by the screw shell of a lampholder.

410-16 Means of Support.

(A) Outlet Boxes. Where the outlet box or fitting will provide adequate support, a fixture shall be attached thereto or be supported as required by Section 370-13 for boxes. A fixture

that weighs more than 50 pounds (22.7 kg) shall be supported independently of the outlet box.

(B) Inspection. Fixtures shall be so installed that the connections between the fixture conductors and the circuit conductors can be inspected without requiring the disconnection of any part of the wiring. Exception: Fixtures connected by attachment plugs and receptacles.

(C) Suspended Ceilings. Framing members of suspended ceiling systems used to support fixtures shall be securely fastened to each other and shall be securely attached to the building structure at appropriate intervals. Fixtures shall be securely fastened to the ceiling framing member by mechanical means, such as bolts, screws or rivets. Clips identified for use with the type of ceiling framing member(s) and fixture(s) shall also be permitted.

XV. Lighting Track

410.104 Fastening. Lighting track shall be securely mounted so that each fastening is suitable for supporting the maximum weight of luminaires that can be installed. Unless identified for support at greater intervals, a single section 1.2m (4 ft.) or shorter in length shall have two supports, and where installed in a continuous row, each individual section not more than 1.2m (4 ft.) in length shall have one additional support.

Circuit Breakers Used for Switching

NEC 240.83(D) states:

Circuit breakers used as switches in 120-volt and 277-volt fluorescent lighting circuits shall be listed and shall be marked SWD or HID. Circuit breakers used as switches in high-intensity discharge lighting circuits shall be listed and shall be marked HID.

Grounding

Luminaires and lighting equipment shall be grounded in accordance to the National Electric Code.

NEC 410.20 states: Luminaires with exposed metal parts shall be provided with a means for connecting an equipment grounding conductor for such luminaires.

NEC 410.21 states: Luminaires and equipment shall be considered grounded where mechanically connected to an equipment grounding conductor as specified in 250.118. See NFPA 70 NEC250.118 for more information on approved grounding conductors.

Conductors

NEC 410.22 states: Wiring on or within luminaires shall be neatly arranged and shall not be exposed to physical damage. Excess wiring shall be avoided. Conductors shall be arranged so that they are not subjected to temperatures above those for which they are rated.

NEC 410.24 states: Luminaires shall be wired with conductors having insulation suitable for the environmental conditions, current, voltage, and temperature to which the conductors will be subjected.

NEC 410.33 states: Branch circuit conductors within 75mm (3 in.) of a ballast shall have an insulation temperature rating not lower than 90 degrees Celsius unless supplying a luminaire listed and marked as suitable for a different insulation temperature.

NEC 402.6 states: Fixture wires shall not be smaller than 18 AWG.

YOU’RE READY

Congratulations! You’re now a safety expert. After taking the Safety & Code Quiz, you have completed the Apprentice Lighting Technician course and will be eligible to test toward becoming an Apprentice Lighting Technician.

SAFETY AND CODES QUIZ

Check your understanding of this chapter’s material by completing these multiple-choice questions. The answers are on Page 85.

1. What is the most significant reason that electrical safety is so important?

a) Electricity can cause property damage b) Electricity can cause fires c) Exposure to electricity can be fatal d) None of the above

2. The “lockout” part of the lockout/tagout rule essentially means ___.

a) After the lighting system is disconnected from the power supply using an energy-isolating device, a lockout device is added to make sure that it stays disconnected b) After the lighting system is disconnected from the power supply using an energy-isolating device, a tagout device is added to make sure that it stays disconnected c) A lockout device is installed on the circuit to disconnect and isolate an energy-using device from the power supply d) If the energy-isolating device cannot be locked out, then a tagout device must be placed in the energy-isolating device

3. The “tagout” part of the lockout/tagout rule essentially means ____.

a) After the lighting system is disconnected from the power supply using an energy-isolating device, a lockout device is added to make sure that it stays disconnected b) After the lighting system is disconnected from the power supply using an energy-isolating device, a tagout device is added to alert people not to re-energize the lighting system c) A lockout device is installed on the circuit to disconnect and isolate an energy-using device from the power supply d) None of the above

4. Branch circuit conductors within ________ of a ballast shall have an insulation temperature rating not lower than 90 degrees Celsius. a) 3 inches b) 6 inches c) 2 inches d) 1 inch

5. If a circuit breaker is used as a switch in a fluorescent lighting circuit, it shall be listed and rated as: a) GFCI b) AFCI c) SWD or HID d) WMD or PDM

6. The supply voltage to the luminaire must be turned off before servicing or maintenance activities. a) True b) False

7. Proper grounding is required, in accordance with the ____. a) NIOSH Code b) Regional Electrical Code c) National Electrical Code d) Underwriters Laboratory Code

8. Luminaire wires should not be smaller than what size AWG. a) 2 AWG b) 14 AWG c) 16 AWG d) 18 AWG

9. Who is responsible for my personal safety on a job site? a) I am b) The owner c) OSHA d) Safety manager

10. When managing a crew, the most important responsibility is to: a) Follow all safety rules and regulations b) Provide a smoking area c) Provide great customer relations d) Ensure productivity

11. A single section (of track for lighting) 4 feet or shorter in length shall have a minimum of how many supports? a) One per foot b) Two c) Three d) One total

12. What does PPE stand for? a) Personal Protective Equipment b) Practice Perfects Efficiency c) Proper Planning & Education d) Profit Projection Estimate

13. What term do we use to speak publically about asbestos? a) ECM b) HOT c) ACM d) PPE

14. When installing recessed luminaires in a grid ceiling, it is required to have two separate means of support.

a) From the building structure

b) From the ceiling grid with electrical tape

c) From the nearest pipe or duct work

d) Only when no existing support clips are factory installed on the luminaire

15. Which of the following is NOT an option for disposal of failed mercury-containing lamps?

a) Use a lamp that is not characteristically hazardous and can be disposed in the municipal garbage

b) Recycle the lamp as universal waste

c) Donating them to charity or an applicable non-profit organization

d) Treat the lamp as hazardous waste and send it to a Federally approved incinerator

GLOSSARY

ANSI (American National Standards Institute): Group that generates product performance standards for many U.S. industries.

ANSI Watts: Measurement of electrical power used by the ballast and lamps when tested per ANSI standards.

Arc (Arc Tube): Intense luminous discharge formed by the passage of electric current across a space between two electrodes.

Auto-Restrike: Circuitry used to restart the lamps without resetting the power to the ballast.

Ballast Efficacy Factor (BEF): Measure used to compare various lighting systems based upon light output and input power. BEF = Ballast Factor x 100 / Input Watts.

Ballast Factor (BF): Measure of light output from lamp operated by commercial ballast, as compared to laboratory standard reference ballast specified by ANSI.

Ballast Losses: Power that is supplied to the ballast but is not converted into light energy.

Capacitor: Device in ballast that stores electrical energy.

Centigrade (C): Celsius temperature scale where 0°C = 32°F and 100°C = 212°F.

Coil: Windings of copper or aluminum wire around the core in electromagnetic ballast that transforms the voltage from input to output.

Color Rendering Index (CRI): An international system used to rate a lamp’s ability to render object color. The higher the CR, the better colors appear.

Constant Wattage Autotransformer (CWA): An HID ballast in which the primary and secondary coils are electrically connected.

Core: Steel laminations of electromagnetic ballast that transforms electrical power from input to output.

Core and Coil Ballast: Another term for electromagnetic ballast.

Correlated Color Temperature: A specification of the color appearance of a lamp relating its color to that of a reference source heated to a particular temperature, measured in degrees Kelvin (K).

Crest factor (Lamp Crest Factor): A measurement of current supplied by a ballast to start and operate the lamp.

Design Lumens: The amount of light that the lamp produces after it has operated for approximately 40 percent of its rated life.

Efficacy: Lumen output per unit of power supplied to the lamp (lumens per watt).

Electrical Testing Laboratory (ETL): Independent electrical testing laboratory, which performs ballast testing.

Electrode: Metal filament that emits electrons in a fluorescent lamp.

Electromagnetic Ballast: A low frequency (50 or 60 Hz) ballast that uses a “Core and Coil” assembly to transform electrical energy (voltage and current) to start and operate fluorescent and highintensity discharge (HID) lamps.

Electronic Ballast: A ballast that, with the aid of electronic components converts 50 - 60 Hz. input voltage and current to high frequency (> 20,000 Hz.) to operate fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps.

EMI (Electromagnetic Interference): Electrical interference (noise) generated by electrical and electronic devices. Levels generated by high-frequency electronic devices are subject to regulation by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Two classifications exist: Non-Consumer (also referred to as Class A or Commercial) and Consumer (also referred to as Class B or Residential).

Emitter: The electrode in a transistor where electrons originate.

Energy: A measure of work done by an electrical system over a given period of time. Expressed as Kilowatt-hours (kWh).

5-Tap™ (Five-Tap): Feature within a ballast which gives you a choice of 5 different input voltages.

Filament: Coated coil of special wire that emits electrons or light when heated.

Filament Voltage: Voltage applied to heat the lamp filament coil. Also called electrode or filament heating.

Fluorescence: Emission of visible light by the absorption of energy from another source.

Fluorescent Lamp: Gas filled lamp in which light is produced by the interaction of an arc with phosphors lining the lamp’s glass tube.

Footcandles (fc): Measure of light level on a surface that is being illuminated.

Frequency: The number of times per second that an alternating current system reverses from positive to negative and back to positive, expressed in cycles per second or hertz, Hz.

Harmonic Distortion: A measurement of the magnitude of voltage and current harmonics as compared with the amplitude of the fundamental frequency current.

Harmonics: Refers to components of the overall frequency, an integral multiple of the fundamental sine wave frequency.

Hertz (Hz): Current or voltage operating frequency equal to one cycle per second.

High Flux: LEDs that are approximately 1.0 watts or more and provide a significantly high light intensity. Operate at 350mA.

High Frequency Ballast: See electronic ballast.

High Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamp: A lamp containing a filled arc tube in which the active element becomes vaporized (a gaseous state) and is discharged into the arc stream to product light.

High Power Factor ballast (HPF): Ballast with a power factor of 0.90 or greater.

High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamp: High Intensity Discharge light source which produce light by an electrical discharge sodium vapor operating at relatively high pressures and temperatures.

Hot Restart Time: Time it takes for a High Intensity Discharge (HID) lamp to reach 90% of light after going fro on to off to on.

Ignitor: A device that generates a voltage pulse to start certain discharge lamps without having to pre-heat the electrodes.

Incandescence: Emission of visible light by a heated material.

Incandescent Lamp: Lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated by an electric current.

Initial Lumens: The measure of the amount of light a lamp produces after it has been operating 100 hours.

Input Voltage: Voltage provided by a power line or power supply to the ballast or driver.

Instant Start: An electromagnetic or electronic lighting circuit without lamp filament heating that produces instant light.

Kilowatt Hour (kWh): The standard measure of electrical energy and the typical billing unit used by electrical utilities for electricity.

Lamp Current: Ration of peak lamp current to RMS or average lamp operating current.

Lamp Efficacy: Lamp efficacy is lamp light output divided by lamp power (lumens/watt).

Lamp Watts: Power used to operate a lamp.

Life (Average Rated) or Lamp Life: The median time it takes for a lamp to burn out.

Light: Radiant energy which can be sensed or seen by the human eye. Visible light is measured in lumens.

Light Emitting Diodes (LED): A semiconductor device that illuminates by the movement of electrons in the material.

Low Flux: LEDs that are typically .1 to .4 watts each, and are arranged in clusters or arrays to create a collective light source. These systems operate a 12VDC or 24VDC.

Low Power Factor Ballast (LPF): Ballast with a power factor of 0.79 or less - also called normal power factor (NPF) ballast. LPF ballast requires about twice the line current of HPF ballast so fewer LPF ballasts can be installed on a circuit, which increases installation cost.

Lumen Depreciation: The decrease in lumen output of a light source over time. Also called Lumen Maintenance.

Lumen Maintenance: The rate at which light output declines over time.

Lumens: Measurement of light emitted by a lighted lamp.

Lumens Per Watt: Units of light produced per unit of power.

Luminaire: A light fixture; the complete lighting unit, including lamp, reflector, ballast, socket, wiring, diffuser, and housing.

Luminous Efficacy: The light output of a light source divided by the total power input to that source. Expressed in lumens per watt.

Mean Lumens: Average light produced when lamp has been operating about 40 percent of rated life.

Mercury Lamp: A High Intensity Discharge (HID) light source in which the light is produced by radiation from mercury, plus halides of metals such as sodium, scandium, indium and dysprosium.

PCB (Polychlorinated Biphenyls): Chemical pollutant used in oilfilled capacitors outlawed by the EPA in 1978.

Phosphor: Material lining the interior of a fluorescent lamp, which emits light.

Power: The rate at which energy is taken from an electrical system or dissipated by a load, expressed in watts (W); power that is generated by a utility is typically expressed in volt-amperes (V-A).

Power Factor (PF): A measurement of how efficiently an electrical device uses power supplied by the power line. PF = Watts/(Volts x Current).

Power Factor Corrected Ballast (PFC): Ballast with a power factor from 0.80 to 0.89.

Preheat Ballast: Electromagnetic ballast that requires separate starter in order to ignite the lamp.

Preheat Lamp: A fluorescent lamp in which the filaments must be heated before the lamp ignites.

Programmed Start Ballast: Electronic ballast that provides precise heating of the lamp filaments and tightly controls the preheat duration before applying starting voltage to ignite the lamp.

Rapid Start Ballast: Electromagnetic or electronic ballast that provides both filament heating and starting voltage to the lamp at the same time in order to ignite the lamp.

Rapid Start Lamp: Fluorescent lamp that requires filament heating before igniting and producing light.

Reference Ballast (Standard Reactor): Laboratory device used to provide ANSI specified operating parameters for fluorescent and HID lamps.

RFI - (Radio Frequency Interference): Form of electromagnetic interference with radio communications as defined by the FCC.

Slimline Lamp: Fluorescent lamp, which has single pin contacts, that requires no filament heating to ignite.

Starting Temperature: The minimum ambient temperature at which the lamp will start.

Striation: Spiraling or swirling of fluorescent lamps at initial turn-ON, mostly with energy-saving lamps operating at low temperature or low current.

System Efficacy: System efficacy (also lumens/watt) is lamp light output divided by the sum of the lamp power plus

T12, T10, T8, T5: Industry standard naming for a fluorescent lamp. (T= Tubular and the numbers that follow represent the diameter in 1/8 inch increments.)

Thermal Protector: A self resetting switch that disconnects power to the ballast if internal temperatures rise above the trip pointtypically 105C. Thermal protectors are used in some ballasts to limit maximum case temperature and meet UL Class P safety standards.

Third Harmonic: Third multiple of the fundamental frequency that will add in the neutral wire of a three phase, 4 wire, Wye system and will could cause over-heating of the neutral wire should it exceed 33 1/3 percent.

Three Phase Current: Current delivered through three wires with each wire serving as the return for the other two.

Total Harmonic Distortion: The combined effect of Harmonic Distortion on the AC waveform produced by the ballast or other device.

Transients: Transients are sudden but significant deviations from normal voltage or current levels.

Trigger Start Ballast: Electromagnetic ballast that starts and operates preheat lamps similar to a Rapid Start lamp. No separate starter is needed to ignite the lamp.

UL (Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc.): Laboratory that sets safety standards for building materials, electrical appliances and other products.

Voltage (V): A measure of electrical potential, express in volts (V).

Voltage Sag: Drop in voltage levels of electrical distribution system, which interferes with the operation of electrical and electronic equipment. Commonly called “brownout,” voltage sag results when demand for electricity exceeds capacity of the distribution system.

Watts (W): Unit for measuring electrical power.

CHECKING YOUR UNDERSTANDING: ANSWER KEY

Chapter 1: Introduction to Lighting

1b, 2b, 3a, 4c, 5d, 6b, 7a, 8a, 9d, 10c, 11a, 12c, 13b

Chapter 2: Incandescent Lighting

1b, 2a, 3c, 4c, 5a, 6c, 7b, 8b, 9a, 10d, 11a, 12c

Chapter 3: Fluorescent Lighting

1d, 2c, 3b, 4a, 5d, 6b, 7c, 8c, 9c, 10d, 11b, 12a, 13d, 14c, 15c, 16d, 17c, 18b, 19d, 20b, 21a, 22c, 23d, 24b

Chapter 4: High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lighting

1c, 2c, 3a, 4d, 5d, 6a, 7c, 8c, 9b, 10a, 11c, 12d, 13b, 14d

Chapter 5: LED Lighting

1c, 2b,d, 3a, 4a,c, 5b,c, 6b,d, 7d, 8a,c,d, 9c, 10a

Chapter 6: Lighting Controls

1d, 2b, 3b, 4c, 5c, 6a, 7a, 8b, 9a, 10a, 11d

Chapter 7: Service Basics

1c, 2a, 3c, 4b, 5b, 6d, 7a, 8d, 9d, 10b, 11d, 12d, 13c, 14a, 15c, 16c, 17b, 18d, 19c, 20c, 21a, 22d

Chapter 8: Safety & Codes

1c, 2a, 3b, 4a, 5c, 6a, 7c, 8d, 9a, 10a, 11b, 12a, 13c, 14a, 15c