Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World

Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World

P LES FOR THE WORLD

Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World

Editing

Programming Section at the Department of Cooperation with Polish Community Abroad Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland

Bios

Joanna Stachyra / Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Henryka Karolewska / PBP Książnica Pedagogiczna

im. Alfonsa Parczewskiego in Kalisz

Róża Pomiecińska-Żarnowska / PBP Książnica Pedagogiczna im. Alfonsa Parczewskiego in Kalisz

Graphic design and layout

Paweł Maszerowski

Proofreading of the Polish version

Zuzanna Sala

Translation

Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Poland

Published by

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Department of Cooperation with Polish Community Abroad © Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Republic of Poland)

This publication is non-commercial and is not intended for commercial circulation.

Introduction

Among the achievements and contributions of Poles around the world, there is no field more universal or beneficial to humanity than medicine. It encompasses both experiential science and the practice of healthcare, including the treatment and prevention of disease.

We naturally approach the work of physicians, motivated by the selfless desire to bring medical aid and serve their fellow human beings, with the utmost respect. Such was the motivation of the individuals introduced in this publication, Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World. Known Unknown. They were chosen from a broader circle of our compatriots who had to live and practise during the difficult time of the Partitions of Poland – amid realities dictated by three great European powers – or in more or less remote countries and regions of the world. These medics understood the Polish identity and dedication to the national cause as a daily devotion to the idea and practice of providing assistance. They were needed and appreciated for their professionalism and humanitarian attitude. What connects them is the use of their knowledge, wisdom, heart, and deep empathy to serve others. Apart from providing treatment and assistance to the sick, they devoted much time to the affairs of their motherland. They thought of it with pride and respect, and it was never far from their minds.

Among those pages of the history of Polish medics abroad that are yet to be fully uncovered, one can still chance upon many intriguing names. And although some may be known to the medical community, this does not make them any less deserving of recognition. Their contribution to progress in medicine and the often pioneering nature of their activities must be emphasised and appreciated. One cannot help but mention, for example, the pioneering role of Polish women in overcoming the taboo associated with women’s education. Having been the first to graduate with medical degrees and begin medical careers, they paved the way for women to practise the profession in several countries (it was one such Polish woman who wrote Les Femmes et le Progrès des Sciences Médicales, a publication that found wide recognition in the early 20th century). It is worth keeping in mind the contributions of our compatriot to establishing first primary and then specialist healthcare in one of the countries of Africa. Nor should we fail to commemorate the life story of a social and educational activist labouring under the Russian Empire and Soviet Russia.

No less merit in the global field of medicine can be claimed by such Poles as the pioneer of the Roentgen method in Switzerland; the most prominent Bulgarian dentist at the end of the 19th century; a surgeon in the French National Guard in Paris and one of Fryderyk Chopin’s physicians; and a precursor of vascular surgery who was one of the first to operate on brain tumours and pioneered the establishment and subsequent

development of public healthcare in Türkiye. This publication also introduces the biographies of an internationally renowned specialist who studied the populations of Peru and Bolivia from the perspective of tropical diseases; a pioneer of neurology; a malariologist with world-class contributions to medicine; the creator of the first ophthalmology journal in France; a constructor of medical instruments; and an activist working on behalf of child victims of warfare (and thus a contributor to the establishment of UNICEF). By reading Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World…, you can learn about the fates of a co-founder of the medical academy in Rio de Janeiro and one of the most eminent physicians of 19th-century Brazil; the ailing Sultan Suleiman II’s doctor; the researcher who defined pressure points on the spine; the physician to Emperor Franz Joseph; the hero of the fight against the pneumonic plague in the Chinese city of Harbin; the chief medical officer to the Eastern Railway; an Australian medic and social activist; a co-founder of the Russian school of psychiatry; and a global precursor of healthy living and abstinence.

Having intentionally withheld their names and details of their activities in this introduction, we cordially invite you to read on. We hope this publication will provide insight into Polish physicians’ extraordinarily interesting lives, journeys, and experiences. After all, not only do we have a reason to take pride in them but also a duty to remember their legacy. And so we present this book, prepared by the Department of Cooperation with Polish Community Abroad at the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as the fourth instalment in a series of publications commemorating our compatriots, titled Known Unknown. The Poles’ Contributions to the World. May your reading be an exploration of both the individual fates and the histories of the countries or local communities in which Polish names, Polish humanism, and Polish patriotism have taken root and lasted till the present day, taking different forms – be it tales passed from generation to generation, numerous academic monographs, or various ways of commemorating contributions to the development of medicine in the nation. Sometimes, the contributions are very tangible, such as a fully equipped Polish-funded hospital and multi-functional medical centre.

We hope you enjoy this book. We trust that learning about the achievements of Polish physicians around the world and their individual life stories – including those of the welldeserving medical women whom we especially commend to the reader’s attention – will not only enrich your knowledge but also evoke pride and joy as you visit all the different corners of the world.

Department of Cooperation with Polish Community Abroad Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland

Polish Medics’ Contributions to the World

Ludwik Anigstein

Józef Julian Babiński

Adolf Abraham Beck

Mojżesz Beiser (Baiser)

Edmund Faustyn Biernacki

Wanda Błeńska

Teofil Chudziński

Antoni Cieszyński

Stanisława Dowgiałłówna

Edward Flatau

Ksawery Gałęzowski

Seweryn Gałęzowski

Jan Jonston

Antoni Tomasz Aleksander Jurasz

Antoni Stanisław Jurasz

Władysław Augustyn Kuflewski

Edward Landowski

Antonina Leśniewska

Melania Lipińska

Joachim Midowicz

Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski

Jan Antoni Mikulicz-Radecki

Marceli Wilhelm Nencki

Edmund Neusser

Ewa Odachowska

Wacław Olszak

Jadwiga Olszewska

Teodor Opęchowski

Florenty Orzeszko

Jadwiga Michalska Picado

Salomea z Rusieckich II° voto Pilsztynowa

Paweł Emilian Postempski (Postępski)

Adam Raciborski

Ludwik Rajchman

Robert Remak

Władysław Semerau-Siemianowski

Lucjan Skupiewski

Józef Struś

Ludwik Karol Teichmann

Teodor Teuttold Stilichon Tripplin

Adam Ernest Narymunt-Waszklewicz

Dionizy Wielobycki

Seweryn Wielobycki

Maria Zakrzewska

Ludwik Anigstein

(1891–1975)

Physician specialising in communicable diseases.

Born in Warsaw, the son of a Polish Jewish industrialist, Izydor Anigstein, and Helena Anigstein née Steinkalk. His father sent him to study natural sciences at Heidelberg, and his education included a year’s study of marine zoology in France. In 1913, he graduated magna cum laude, obtaining his doctoral degree. He earned another one – in medicine – from the University of Dorpat (now known as the University of Tartu) in Estonia. He also received a degree from the University of Poznań in 1923. He pursued postgraduate studies at the London School of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

In 1924, as a member of the League of Nations’ Malaria Commission, he completed a research tour of European Russia, the Balkan states, Italy, Spain, Palestine, and Syria. In 1929, on behalf of the British government, he studied tropical typhus in the Malay Peninsula. In the 1920s and 1930s, he worked as a parasitologist with the National Institute of Hygiene in Warsaw. Having been delegated by the Polish Maritime and Colonial League to Liberia as the Polish advisor to its government, he published an illustrated report of that journey in 1938 in Warsaw, titled Choroby i Stan Sanitarny Liberii (Diseases and Sanitary Conditions in Liberia).

In 1940, seeking refuge from the Nazis, he migrated to the United States and went on to become a professor at the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston.

Near the end of the war, he came to Poland on behalf of the United Nations with a series of lectures on communicable diseases.

In 1945, he was naturalised as an American citizen. From 1941 to 1962, Anigstein served as the director of the Rickettsial Laboratory at the University of Texas Medical Branch, and from 1962 to 1970, he headed the UTMB Tissue Immunity Laboratory. In 1950, he was named consultant to the Medical Division of the United States Atomic Energy Commission at the Oak Ridge Institute for Nuclear Studies.

In 1955, he travelled to Peru and Brazil to study tropical diseases. A year later, he joined the Royal Society of Health in London. His first important discovery concerned tickborne diseases originating from rickettsia. Anigstein found that one of these parasitic bacteria caused a disease that infected hundreds of soldiers during World War II.

His groundbreaking achievement was the discovery of an antibiotic derived from blood – previously, antibiotics had been extracted only from moulds and bacteria. Anigstein’s academic legacy spans approximately two thousand scientific treatises and papers for specialist journals and a textbook of which he was a co-author.

He died in 1975 in Galveston, Texas, USA.

A delegation of experts from the League of Nations taking a break during their journey to the USSR; Ludwik Anigstein is second from the left; 1935

Józef Julian Babiński

taken from: Orzechowski, Kazimierz (1878–1942), Józef Babiński w Dziejach Ubiegłego Okresu Neurologji: (Sylweta Badacza i Człowieka na Tle Środowiska)

Józef Julian Babiński

(1857–1932)

One of the most renowned neurologists in history and a pioneer of neurosurgery.

He was the son of Polish expatriates, Aleksander Babiński and Henryka née Waren, who migrated to France in 1848. He attended a Polish secondary school in Batignolles in Paris and, in 1879, graduated from the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Paris. In 1885, he became a Doctor of Medicine, having defended a dissertation on the anatomical-clinical correlations in multiple sclerosis. In 1890, Babiński passed the competitive examination for heads of wards in Paris hospitals (médecin des hôpitaux de Paris). Four years later, he was appointed to that position in a small division of the hospital in Porte d’Aubervilliers, followed by the Hôpital de la Pitié in Paris. In the latter position, he would serve until 1922.

In 1887, he became a member of the French Society for Biology, and in 1914 of the National Academy of Medicine. In 1899, he co-founded the French Society for Neurology, which he went on to chair from 1907 onward. In 1924–1925, he was an honorary member of the American Neurological Association and the Royal Society of Medicine. From 1925, he was also an honorary professor at the University of Vilnius.

Book cover: Orzechowski, Kazimierz (1878–1942), Józef Babiński w Dziejach…

Babiński authored more than 300 academic works. Some of these – in the physiology of the nervous system and neuropathology, such as the Babiński sign and anosognosia – were of groundbreaking importance to the development of neurology. He was nominated four times for the Nobel Prize. He maintained his association with his homeland, participating in conferences of Polish physicians, publishing in the journal Neurologia Polska, and facilitating foreign internships for compatriots.

He died on 29 October 1932 in Paris. He was interred in the family tomb at the Les Champeaux Cemetery in Montmorency.

Photograph

Adolf Abraham Beck

Adolf Abraham Beck (1863–1942)

Physiologist, co-author of a physiology textbook.

He was born into an impoverished Jewish family in Kraków. He graduated from Saint Hyacinth Gymnasium in his hometown and studied medicine. While still a student, he was employed by the Department of Physiology and Histology, chaired by Professor Napoleon Cybulski. He studied the physiology of nerve centres and especially the use of electrophysiology in brain research. Based on his analyses, he published a dissertation titled Oznaczenie Lokalizacji w Mózgu i Rdzeniu za Pomocą Zjawisk Elektrycznych (The Identification of Locations in the Brain and Spinal Cord Using Electrical Phenomena), for which, on 23 January 1890, he was awarded his doctoral degree in all medical sciences. His research also led Beck to discover the active independent current, laying the groundwork for modern electroencephalography.

He took his habilitation in 1894 and was offered the chair of physiology the following year along with a professorship at the University of Lviv. During the subsequent years of his professional career, he taught physiology and researched the nervous system. In the academic years

1903/1904 and 1916/1917, he served as dean of the Faculty of Medicine and, in 1912/1913, as rector of the university. With Professor Napoleon Cybulski, he compiled the first co-authored textbook on physiology, which was published in two volumes in 1915. After Professor Cybulski’s death, the second enhanced edition was published in 1924.

Beck was conferred the rank of Professor Ordinarius in 1897, retiring in 1932. He supervised the habilitations of seven physicians, including Professor Franciszek Czubalski. Two years after retirement, Beck was honoured by the medical faculty of the University of Lviv with a diploma and a ring bearing the inscription Bene merenti Facultas Medica and was titled its honorary professor one year later.

Beck was an ardent patriot. During World War II, he was taken to a camp and committed suicide by ingesting cyanide to avoid deportation to the extermination camp at Bełżec. He had two children: son Henry, who was also a physician, and daughter Jadwiga.

Adolf Abraham Beck in the company of Napoleon Cybulski

Title page of Cybulski and Beck’s physiology textbook

Mojżesz Beiser

Mojżesz Beiser (Baiser)

(1807–1880)

Physician, philanthropist, councilman, and honorary freeman of the city of Lviv

He was born in Lviv. He graduated from secondary school there and left to study at the University of Vienna, where, on 25 May 1835, he earned a master’s degree in ophthalmology and obstetrics. During his studies, he assisted his colleagues financially, himself having come from a wellto-do family. He began his medical practice in Ukraine, first in Hvizdets and then in Kolomyia, winning acclaim among the local community. The locals highly esteemed his selflessness and sacrificial service to poor patients.

In 1848, he was elected delegate to the National Council in Lviv. Through the agency of Austrian authorities, he found himself in Zhovkva, where he was permitted to establish a medical practice. Following fifteen months of police supervision, he left Zhovkva for Lviv, where he

stayed and worked for the remainder of his life. He was one of the founders of the Medical Society of Lviv. During an epidemic of cholera, Beiser, unlike other doctors, assisted the sick without regard for his own health and safety. Fees received from wealthier patients he passed on to the poor, himself living a modest life. Bringing gifts while visiting needy patients, he would say that he was: ‘going to a poor patient whose ailment he had diagnosed as hunger, for which he was carrying a suitable medication.’

For his merit and service to the poor, he was conferred the Honorary Freedom of the city of Lviv on 9 November 1876. He died on 12 October 1880 in Lviv, with thousands of grateful patients flocking to his funeral to pay their last respects to their doctor.

A page in Jan Beiser’s biography of Mojżesz Beiser

Title page in Jan Beiser’s biography of Mojżesz Beiser

Edmund Faustyn Biernacki

Edmund Faustyn Biernacki

(1866–1911)

Physician, pathologist, neurologist, haematologist and medical philosopher.

Born in Opoczno, son of Joanna Józefa Biernacka née Baranowska and Wincenty Adolf Biernacki of the Poraj heraldic clan. Due to his participation in the January Uprising of 1863–1864, his father lost his estates in Lithuania, suffered persecution, and was forced to settle in the Congress Kingdom of Poland. His brother, Wiktor Biernacki, was a professor of physics in Warsaw and a pioneer of Polish radio engineering and radiology.

Edmund Biernacki was educated at a gymnasium in Kielce and a secondary school in Lublin. Having graduated from the Imperial University of Warsaw in 1889, he completed internships at teaching hospitals in Heidelberg and Paris. Upon his return to the country, he was made head of a ward at a diagnostic clinic. He gained recognition as an experimenter and author of innovative academic dissertations, for which, however, he was attacked by Warsaw’s conservative medical establishment. In 1897, he was the first in the world to demonstrate the correlation between the erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) in blood plasma and overall health. He developed his own diagnostic methodology for that phenomenon, known as the Biernacki reaction – a clinical test used worldwide to this day. It helps save thousands of people every year by permitting the detection of dangerous conditions in their early stages of development. In most

textbooks not written in Polish, this discovery is attributed to two Swedish doctors, even though they published their research significantly later. In 1902, Biernacki and his family moved to Lviv, where in 1908 he took a professorship at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Lviv. During the summer seasons, he earned his living as a ‘bath doctor’ in Karlsbad.

Biernacki is the author of the first Polish textbook on haematology. He was also the first to describe the symptom of paralysis of the ulnar nerve in the course of syphilis, later dubbed the Biernacki sign.

In total, he published approximately one hundred academic treatises. In Lviv, he gave lectures popularising scientific developments in medicine. One was titled Z Autobiografii Człowieka Szczęśliwego (From the Autobiography of a Happy Man). In his free time, he was keenly interested in the fine arts, especially contemporaneous Polish painting. He collected works of artists from Lviv, thus promoting the city as a centre of art. In Karlsbad, his waiting room and office were known as ‘exhibitions of Polish painting.’ Biernacki died at the early age of 45.

He is buried at Łyczakowski Cemetery in Lviv.

The physics laboratory of Professor Edmund Faustyn Biernacki

A photograph of the Biernacki brothers

Wanda Błeńska

(1911–2014)

Physician, missionary, and specialist in leprosy treatment.

She was born in Poznań as the daughter of Teofil Błeński and Helena Błeńska. She received the basics of her education from her father. She attended the Girls’ Gymnasium in Toruń and, in 1934, graduated from the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Poznań. She was active in the Academic Mission Circle and edited a journal titled Annales Missiologicae during her studies. She became part of the Circle’s management, as well as that of the Association of Academic Mission Circles in Poland, as a second-year student, and one year later represented the Polish mission movement at the International Mission Congress in Ljubljana.

She worked at hospitals in Toruń and Gdynia and, during World War II, joined the Home Army. In 1946, she left for Germany, where her severely ill brother was living. She completed courses in tropical medicine in Hamburg and Liverpool while being employed in Polish hospitals in those cities. In 1950, she travelled to Uganda, fulfilling her dream of working in missions. From 1951, she served as the head physician of the Leprosy Centre in Buluba at Lake Victoria, a mission operated by Franciscan Sisters.

She was active in the international community of leprologists, becoming involved in researching a vaccine against leprosy and training local doctors. In 1983, she ceased to manage the centre, remaining at Buluba as a consultant.

In 1994, she returned to Poland, where she continued her social activism on behalf of Africa. She travelled to Uganda several times, including during John Paul II’s visit. She died in 2014, aged 103. In 2019, a beatification process was opened for her.

Others continue Wanda Błeńska’s mission and work. As part of a project to increase the accessibility and quality of healthcare for Ugandans, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland funded equipment for Wanda Matugga Health Centre (named after Wanda Błeńska) to provide basic healthcare, dental, surgical, obstetric, and emergency services. On 1 December 2019, a solemn inauguration of the hospital took place, and the first child born in it – a girl – was named Wanda in honour of the hospital’s patron.

Both photographs: Wanda Matugga Health Centre (named after Wanda Błeńska) in Uganda

Teofil Chudziński

Title page of Section 2, Anatomia porównawcza zwojów mózgowych. Dz. 2

Teofil Chudziński

(1842–1897)

Military doctor, anthropologist, and anatomist.

He was born in Brest (formerly Brest-Litovsk or Breston-the-Bug) to the family of Tomasz Chudziński and Dominika Chudzińska née Jakublewicz, who had settled there. He attended the gymnasium in Białystok and later studied natural sciences at the University of Moscow. He took part in the January Uprising of 1863–1864 and, after its fall, was interned in Austria, from where he went on to Belgium and, subsequently, France.

In Paris, he began medical studies. He worked as an extern at one of the hospitals, where he served as an assistant physician during the Franco-German war. Discouraged from medicine as a result, he abandoned his studies. He took employment as a preparator at the Anthropological Laboratory of the École des Hautes Études, headed by Paul Broca – one of the founders of anthropology. Despite his outstanding achievements, which include creating the foundations of the anthropology of soft parts of the body (muscles, the brain, and the viscera), due to his lack of a doctoral degree, Chudziński remained in the position of preparator till the last days of his life, also serving as the curator of the École d’Anthropologie’s collections until Broca’s death.

Dedicated exclusively to his work for twenty-five years, he occupied himself with dissecting corpses (as performing autopsies was then called) in the poor hygienic conditions

Broca’s Anthropological Laboratory and Museum (early 20th century). Laboratory shelves holding numerous series of skulls and brains in glass cases

of a small attic, surrounded by rotting specimens. He spent much time drawing the skulls of people of different origins according to several anthropometric standards. Years later, the drawings were framed in beautiful albums. Chudziński was the first person in the world to describe the anatomies of individuals from different regions of the world. At the museum, he left behind numerous moulages – that is, plaster or wax models which retain the shapes and surface structures of the object – as well as plaster casts of both human and animal muscles and brains.

He also authored 49 academic treatises, including several in the Polish language. The most important one is Anatomia Porównawcza Zwojów Mózgowych (Comparative Anatomy of Cerebral Ganglia) (1878 and, posthumously, 1898).

Left without Broca’s protection after the latter’s death, Chudziński, now without the income from the position of curator, struggled to make a living. Nevertheless, from time to time, he provided material support to his compatriots, with whom he stayed in touch. Near the end of his life, the Medical Academy and the scientific societies of Paris bestowed on him honours he had never sought, including the Prix Fauvelle for a treatise on ethnic differences in facial muscles.

He died in Paris at fifty-five years of age.

Antoni Cieszyński

Antoni Cieszyński

(1882–1941)

A pioneer of modern dentistry.

He was born in Oleśnica to the family of Tomasz Cieszyński and Emilia Cieszyńska née Chiżyńska. He attended gymnasium first in Poznań and later in Bydgoszcz. Having studied medicine and dentistry at the universities in Berlin and Munich, he graduated in 1911 with the highest distinction: summa cum laude. In 1913, he was appointed Professor Extraordinarius and took the leadership of the Dentistry Outpatients’ Clinic of the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Lviv, later named the Institute of Dentistry, and from 1930 called the Stomatology Clinic.

Cieszyński’s greatest accomplishments include the development of a method allowing dental X-rays to show the true size of a tooth. The method is called isometry.

Cieszyński was also the author of the world’s first atlas of dental radiology and co-author of an innovative illustrated four-volume encyclopaedia of health published in 1937–1939 in Warsaw. As part of his professional responsibilities, he focused on streamlining the diagnostic process

and refining operating methods, such as work on cassettes for stereoscopic images. Following the outbreak of World War I and the occupation of Lviv by the Russians, he left for Vienna, where he established a department for maxillary trauma and a dental polyclinic for Polish refugees. Before World War II, he became involved in relief efforts on behalf of Jewish physicians from Czechoslovakia persecuted by Germans. In 1936, he received the Willoughby Dayton Miller Prize for his contributions to the development of world dentistry. He was also an honorary member of dentist societies in Washington, D.C., Buenos Aires, Prague, and Vienna. His academic legacy includes more than 350 treaties on matters pertaining to all fields of dentistry. He was a publisher and editor of journals such as Kwartalnik Stomatologiczny, Polska Dentystyka, and Słowiańska Stomatologia.

He was shot by the Germans at Wzgórza Wuleckie on the night of 3–4 July 1941, together with twenty-five other university professors from Lviv.

Third Dental Conference in Kraków – participants include Professor Antoni Cieszyński on the left

Stanisława Dowgiałłówna (1865–1933)

Pharmacist and social and Polish diaspora activist in Latvia, one of the first female students of Jagiellonian University.

The scion of a landowning family from what is now Latvia, she studied at the clandestine Flying University in Warsaw. She passed the under-pharmacist examination and became an assistant pharmacist. Together with Jadwiga Sikorska and Janina Kosmowska, she was admitted to Jagiellonian University as a hospitante (that is, without permission to graduate). They were the first three women to attend a university in Poland.

Upon completing their studies in 1897, they were not permitted to take the examinations needed for the provisor diploma. Dowgiałłówna then filed the relevant papers with the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Moscow, and in 1897, she was conferred the degree of provisor with distinction. She subsequently ran a pharmacy in Viļāni and dedicated herself to promoting culture and hygiene among the rural population.

In 1907, she settled at the family estate in Rēzekne, which she administered on her own, relying on innovative scientific agricultural methods. After the October Revolution, she organised the Polska Macierz Szkolna in Rēzekne (an educational charity for Polish pupils and students), of which she became the first president. She was also active in the Livonia Polish Council and, following the formation of the Latvian state, she worked at the Rēzekne Land Education Commission as a representative of the Polish minority.

In 1922, she co-established the structures of the Polish Association in Latvia and served as its inaugural head, becoming, in 1925, the Polish delegate to the First International Congress of National Minorities in Geneva on its behalf. After the agrarian reform of 1927, resulting in the parcelling out of her landed property, she emigrated to Kraków and worked at the Okręgowy Związek Kas Chorych (Regional Association of Health Insurers).

First from the left in the first row: Stanisława Dowgiałłówna

Edward Flatau

Edward Flatau (1868–1932)

Pioneer of neurology.

He was born in Płock, the son of Ludwik Flatau and Anna Flatau née Heyman. He graduated from gymnasium in Płock and studied medicine at the University of Moscow. In 1892, he obtained the physician’s diploma cum eximia laude [with special praise]. After that, he left for Berlin and began specialisation in neurology at Emanuel Mendel’s clinic. In 1894, in Berlin, he published his Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres (published in Polish in 1896) – an innovative work by the standards of the time, subsequently translated into, among others, French. The atlas contained original photographs of cerebral sulci and ganglia, taken with a camera specially designed by the physician himself.

Subsequently, Flatau became interested in the composition of neurons – he endeavoured to demonstrate their homogeneity in anatomical and physiological structure. He published the results of his studies in German journals, among others. His work also focused on the course and layout of neural pathways in the spinal cord. He discovered that the longer the fibres, the closer they are situated to the periphery. This was called the Flatau law and was presented at a session of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin, allowing him to obtain the degree

of Doctor of Medicine. In 1899, together with Professor Louis Jacobsohn, he developed a textbook in anatomy and comparative mammalian anatomy. He was also the co-author of Hermann Nothnagel’s textbook on pathology.

Flatau returned to Poland and became a neurological consultant in the wards presided over by Teodor Dunin and Władysław Janowski and at the Infant Jesus Hospital in Warsaw. In his own apartment, he established a microscopic laboratory for young medical professionals, which he would later, in 1913, develop further under the Psychological Society in Warsaw. He was also the founder and lifetime head of the Marceli Nencki Neurobiological Laboratory. In 1904, Flatau won the competition for the position of head of the Neurological Ward of the Jewish Hospital in Czyste, which allowed him to combine research and clinical practice. His interests during that stage of his life included meningitis, neuritis, and CNS cancers.

Flatau was the author of more than eighty academic treatises and the founder of the Warsaw Neurological Society.

He died on 7 June 1932 in Warsaw.

One of the pages of Edward Flatau’s Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres

Title page of Edward Flatau’s Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres

Ksawery Gałęzowski

Ksawery Gałęzowski (1832–1907)

Ophthalmologist and inventor of medical instruments.

He was born in Lypovets, Kyiv Governorate. He studied at the Medico-Surgical Academy in St Petersburg, receiving his doctoral degree in medicine in 1858. After that, he left for Paris to join his uncle Seweryn and continue his pursuit of knowledge, especially in the field of ophthalmology. In France, Gałęzowski resumed medical studies and honed his skills at the private clinic of Louis-Auguste Desmarres. He also initiated successful work on modifying the ophthalmoscope, publishing the results in Polish in 1860.

From 1859 to 1864, he worked under Desmarres as an assistant professor in the latter’s clinic. One year later, he completed his medical studies in France and, in 1867, opened his own ophthalmological clinic, where he gave lectures and ran an outpatient wing. Patients from all over the world sought his aid, and Gałęzowski himself won broad renown and fame. He founded the first ophthalmological journal in France, Journal d’Ophtalmologie, published until 1878. Later, he founded the Recueil d’Ophtalmologie, which he presided over for the rest of his life. He spent much time on the publication of works relating

Title page of Ksawery Gałęzowski’s Hygjena Wzroku ( The Hygiene of Sight)

to the structure and treatment of the human eye, both in French (for example, the Traité des Maladies des Yeux – 1875, 1888) and in Polish (for example, a paper titled Pogląd na Terapię Chorób Oczu – A View on the Therapy of Eye Diseases, published in the journal Klinika). The German ophthalmological historian Julius Hirschberg believed Gałęzowski to be an amazing specialist in his field, practising with his own methods and tools, capable of diagnosing diseases ‘from the eyes.’

The Pole’s most prominent discovery was the invention of a pioneering method of surgical treatment of retinal detachment – a condition that led to blindness at the time. In 1903, at the French Ophthalmological Congress in Paris, Gałęzowski presented an instrument of his own construction that used heat energy to cauterise the retina in cases of retinal tear – cautery. It wasn’t until twenty-six years later, when reintroduced to the medical community by Jules Gonin, that the method won recognition. Gałęzowski was highly dedicated and kind-hearted to his patients.

He died on 22 March 1907 in Paris.

Gałęzowski

Seweryn

Seweryn Gałęzowski

(1801–1878)

Physician, social activist.

He was born in Knyazha Krynytsya near Lypovets, Kyiv Governorate. He graduated from the famed gymnasium of the Basilian Fathers in Uman, making friends such as Józef Malinowski. In 1819, he studied at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Vilnius. On 30 July 1824, following five years of instruction, he received a Doctor of Medicine, Surgery, and Obstetrics degree.

Gałęzowski dedicated himself to surgery and began cooperation with Professor Wacław Pelikan, whom he succeeded in managing a clinic. In 1828, he was appointed Professor Extraordinarius at the University of Vilnius. Due to the outbreak of the November Uprising in 1830, he served as a military doctor, earning the Golden Cross of Virtuti Militari.

Following the fall of the uprising, he left Europe and, in 1834, was employed at a silver mine in Mexico. There, he quickly gained recognition among the locals and made a fortune. He took fees from well-to-do patients but treated the poor free of charge. Gałęzowski was also one of the founders of the University of Mexico.

When the Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 broke out, he returned to Europe and settled in Paris, engaging in selffunded work for Polish émigrés. He assisted with their studies, helped them find employment in suitable industrial establishments, and lobbied for scholarships. In 1842, he opened the Polish School at Batignolles, which would become his life’s work. At its peak, the school educated three hundred students at a time. Gałęzowski devoted all his attention to the institution, abandoning his own medical practice as a result. He took care of both educational and financial concerns, endeavouring to raise funds from the French government and donors to maintain the school’s high profile. Its growth was cut short by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. Due to indebtedness, Gałęzowski sold the schoolhouse to the Department of the Seine and moved the facility to a small building on Rue Lamandé, where it continued to operate until 1910.

In 1879, a monument to the founder, by Cyprian Godebski, was unveiled in the courtyard of the school in Batignolles. Gałęzowski died on 31 March 1878 in Paris. He was the uncle of Ksawery Gałęzowski.

Seweryn Gałęzowski’s obituary

Photograph of Seweryn Gałęzowski’s monument

Jan Jonston

Jan Jonston

(1603–1675)

Physician, natural scientist, and philosopher of Scottish origin.

He commanded respect in European scientific circles as an author of works in natural history. He was also the first resident of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to create a natural compendium. Jonston was born in tuły to the family of Simon Johnston and Anna Johnston née Becker. He attended a school run by the Unity of the Brethren in Ostroróg and, subsequently, the gymnasia in Bytom Odrzański and Toruń.

From 1623 to 1625, he travelled to Scotland to study philosophy and theology, as well as the Hebrew language. On his return to Poland, he settled in Leszno and worked as a private tutor. In 1628, he once again left the country and, with his pupils, toured Europe’s most celebrated halls of learning. In 1634, he was conferred the degree of Doctor of Medicine and began to practice in England, France, and Italy. In 1636, he returned to Poland and became the personal physician to Bogusław Leszczyński, the son of the voivode (palatine) of Belz. Jan Jonston completed many journeys and published dozens of works throughout his life.

His most important achievements include the world’s first monograph in dendrology, titled Dendrographias Sive Historiae Naturalis de Arboribus et Fructibus Tam Nostri, Quam Peregrini Orbis Libri Decem Figuris Aeneis Adornati, and a medical textbook published in 1644 under the title Idea Universae Medicinae Practicae. Jonston was also the author of the ‘encyclopaedia of all sciences’ – Polymathia – published in 1666.

He died on 8 June 1675 in Składowice.

Title page of Jan Jonston’s Dendrographias Sive Historiae Naturalis de Arboribus et Fructicibus Tam Nostri Qvam Peregrini Orbis Libri Decem... ( Ten Dendrographic Books, or Natural Histories of Trees and Fruits, Both Ours and Foreign...)

Idea Universae Medicinae Practicae Libris VIII Absoluta (The Idea of Universal Medical Practice, Book VIII)

Antoni Stanisław Jurasz

Antoni Stanisław

Jurasz

(1847–1923)

The father of modern laryngology.

He was born in Spławie, near Poznań, to the family of Wawrzyniec Jurasz and Anna Jurasz née Przyjemska. He graduated from secondary school in Poznań. In 1867, he went to study medicine at the University of Greifswald, where in 1871 he obtained the physician’s diploma and degree of doctor. He returned to Poland to practice but, due to the lack of employment opportunities, resettled in Heidelberg, where he would spend thirty-five years of his life. In 1874, he was hired as an assistant at the university polyclinic in Heidelberg. He worked on improvements to laryngoscopic examinations.

His great success was the extraction of a polyp from a patient’s larynx, after which the patient regained the ability to speak, and Jurasz himself decided to devote his life to laryngology. He was one of the first physicians to use rhinoscopy in their work and is credited with the design of several medical instruments such as the nasal speculum.

He attended numerous international medical conferences as one of the most outstanding specialists in his field. In 1876, in Kraków, he published a treatise titled

Laryngoskopia, and in 1877 completed his habilitation process. Thereafter, he took on teaching duties and gave lectures in laryngoscopy and laryngology, laying the groundwork for the Department of Laryngology at Heidelberg University. In 1880, he was appointed Professor Extraordinarius and began to publish the first laryngological journal, Monatsschrift für Ohrenheilkunde sowie für Kehlkopf-, Nasen-, Rachenkrankheiten

In 1908, he returned to Poland and took the chair of laryngology at John Casimir University in Lviv. He was several times the dean of the Faculty of Medicine, and during World War I served as the rector of the university. From 1919 onward, he worked at the Department of Laryngology of the University of Poznań (also after retiring in 1920). His academic legacy includes more than a hundred publications not only in laryngology but also in paediatrics, for example, on lobar pneumonia. He was an editor of the Nowiny Lekarskie journal.

He died on 12 August 1923 in Poznań. From his marriage to the English-born Karolina Gaspey, he had a son, Antoni, who would become a prominent surgeon.

Antoni Stanisław Jurasz – portrait

Laryngoskopija, Stowarzyszenie do Wydawnictwa

Dzieł Lekarskich Polskich, Kraków 1878

Antoni Tomasz Aleksander Jurasz

Antoni Tomasz

Aleksander Jurasz

(1882–1961)

Surgeon.

He was born on German soil, in Heidelberg, the son of Antoni Jurasz – a Polish professor of laryngology – and the English-born Karolina Jurasz née Gaspey. He graduated from gymnasium and went on to study medicine at the university in Heidelberg. In 1907, he was conferred the degree of Doctor of Medicine and began to practice at the Institute of Pathological Anatomy in Heidelberg. He honed his skills under the eye of the most prominent professors of surgery, such as Erich Lexer. He also completed a study tour, visiting London, Königsberg, and Leipzig. Thereafter, from 1908 to 1910, he worked as an assistant at the surgical clinic of the German Hospital in London. From 1910 onward, he journeyed across North America, Africa, and India, serving as a ship’s doctor. After the outbreak of World War I, he took a managing position at St Mary’s Hospital in Frankfurt, where he was awarded a titular professorship. In 1920, he returned to Poland and was placed in charge of the Department of Surgery at the University of Poznań, which he led until World War II. He created the Poznań Surgical Clinic, opened in 1923. In academic years 1925/1926 and 1926/1927, he served as dean, and in 1930 as vice-rector.

He was a founder and co-editor of the Chirurgia Kliniczna journal. Following his departure for the United Kingdom, he campaigned for the establishment of the Polish School of Medicine at the University of Edinburgh. The unit

Praesidium of a surgical conference. Seated from the right: Professor Antoni Leśniowski, Professor Tadeusz Ostrowski, Professor Antoni Jurasz, and Professor Jan Glatzel. Standing from the right: Docent Dr Stanisław Nowicki, Dr Sławiński, and Dr Byszewski

was opened in 1941, with Jurasz as its inaugural dean. He taught general and trauma surgery. Two hundred and twenty-seven physicians were trained by the Polish School, nineteen of them with degrees of Doctor of Medicine. After the war, Jurasz left the university and became involved with the Paderewski Polish Hospital, which was established thanks to his efforts. He intended to move the institution to Poland but was prevented by the American authorities, who had provided financing for the hospital.

Jurasz was the author of numerous valuable works and discoveries in medicine, such as transgastric cystogastrostomy (the Jurasz procedure) and the modification of Haller’s operating method for abdominal contractions.

He died on 19 September 1961 in New York. His ashes were repatriated to Poland in 1997 and buried at the slopes of the Citadel in Warsaw.

Antoni Tomasz Jurasz – portrait

Władysław Augustyn Kuflewski

Władysław Augustyn Kuflewski

(1870–1945)

Surgeon, Polish diaspora activist.

He was born in Jaroszewo near Poznań. In 1886, he arrived in America and settled in Chicago. There, he completed the Chicago College of Pharmacy and moved on to medical studies at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Chicago, resulting in a diploma with distinction.

From 1895 onward, he practised at the Polish Saint Mary of Nazareth Hospital Centre. Simultaneously, he lectured as a professor of surgery at the Chicago Clinical School. In 1896, he was elected physician-in-chief to the Polish National Alliance, an office he would continue to hold for twenty-five years. He also served as surgeon to the 2nd Regiment of the state militia and as a member of an education board. His therapy method for lower-extremity fractures, providing patients with mobility immediately after the accident, was widely known.

Kuflewski also conducted research into ways of treating and inhibiting the development of consumption.

He published numerous expert papers about surgery and hygiene – for example, opportunities for the communication of diseases through books – Jak Oczyszczać Książki (How to Purify Books) (1901) – as well as translations of articles on politics and literature. He was active in the life of the Polish diaspora as president of the Polish National Alliance’s Library and Museum Division and a co-founder of the Polish Medical Society, which he chaired for many years. He was also active in the American Medical Association, the Chicago Medical Society, the Illinois Medical Society, the Chicago Athletic Club, and the Kraków Medical Society.

The position Kuflewski enjoyed in the Polish diaspora was demonstrated by his being appointed to the prestigious role of grand marshal for the celebrations of unveiling the monuments to Kazimierz Pułaski in Chicago and Tadeusz Kościuszko in Washington, D.C., in 1910. He was Chicago’s delegate to the First Polish Congress and chaired the Finance Committee.

Delegates from Poland to the Alliance Congress in Washington, D.C. –Władysław Kuflewski is standing in the upper row, first from the right

Edward Landowski

Edward Landowski (1839–1882)

Physician, anthropologist, and participant of the January Uprising of 1863.

He was born in Vilnius to a family of physicians, the son of Vincenzo Landowski, a military physician. He graduated from secondary school in Lublin and studied medicine in Wrocław and Warsaw – at the Medico-Surgical Academy and the Main School. Following the fall of the January Uprising, he continued his medical studies and political activities in emigration in Switzerland and France, where in 1867 he was conferred a doctorate in medicine. He became a member of the Polish Physicians Association in France and was awarded French citizenship for his medical activities during the siege of Paris in 1870. Eight years later, mainly through Landowski’s efforts and under his leadership, a section for Polish anthropology was set up in a public exhibition in Paris. In 1879, he moved to Algiers and founded a winter resort for tuberculosis patients at Mustapha Supérieur.

He conducted scientific studies into, among other things, the Piscidia erythrina plant and its applications in treating tuberculosis and in kumis therapy.

In 1879, he was honoured with the title and badge of an Officier de l’Académie. He worked as a scientist, published a dozen or so works on hygiene, anthropology, tuberculosis prevention and treatment, as well as the climate of Algiers. He usually published in the Journal de Thérapeutique.

From his first marriage to a Polish national (née Januszkiewiczówna), he had a son, Paweł (Paul Landowski, 1875–1961), who would become one of the most eminent sculptors of the fin de siècle and leave behind numerous celebrated works in France and abroad, such as the famed Christ the Redeemer Statue in Rio de Janeiro.

Landowski’s work titled Essai sur la Blennorrhagie Uréthrale Chez l’Homme ( Essay on Urethral Blennorrhoea in Men)

A photograph of Edward Landowski with children from the archives of the Paul Landowski Museum

Antonina Leśniewska

Antonina Leśniewska (1866–1937)

Pharmacist, social and educational activist.

She was born in Warsaw to a physician’s family. Until 1882, she studied at Henryka Czarnocka’s girls’ school in Warsaw. After that, she moved with her father to St Petersburg, where she continued her education in a Catholic school. Desiring to educate herself as a pharmacist, she attended Bestuzhev Courses for women. For a time, she worked as a teacher, and in 1892, she interned at one of the pharmacies in the city. Although permitted to enter studies, she was not allowed in the school’s laboratories.

In 1897, she passed the provisor examination at the Military Medical Academy. After four years, in 1900, she became the first woman in Russia to be given a master’s degree in pharmacy. One year later, she opened the first female-staffed pharmacy in the building of the Polish Charitable Society on Nevsky Prospect in St Petersburg. All personnel were women, a rarity not only in Tsarist Russia but also throughout Europe. In 1903, Leśniewska opened a two-year Pharmaceutical School for Women at her pharmacy. During thirteen years of the school’s operation, fourteen women were able to qualify as provisors and one hundred and eighty-four as pharmacist’s assistants. She also established the Stowarzyszenie Farmaceutek (Association of Woman Pharmacists) in St Petersburg (1905) and the Związek Równouprawnienia

Kobiet Polskich (Alliance for Equal Rights for Polish Women) (1910).

In 1913, a decision was made to transform the pharmacy into an Independent Academic Institute, but the outbreak of World War I halted implementation. At that time, having handed over the pharmacy to a co-worker, Florentyna Stankiewicz, Leśniewska occupied herself with assisting Polish prisoners of war and war refugees (at the Towarzystwo Pomocy Ofiarom Wojny – Society for Relief to Victims of War). She joined the Polskie Zrzeszenie Niepodległościowe (Polish Independence Association) and, from 1917, aided by the Danish Red Cross, she exerted herself on behalf of the liberation and repatriation of prisoners of war to Poland. She described her experiences in memoirs titled Po Neprotorennoj Doroge (On an Unpaved Trail).

In 1919, Leśniewska returned to Poland and engaged in social welfare activities (such as establishing a home for Polish repatriates in Ciechocinek and an orphanage in Stara Miłosna near Warsaw), for which she was honoured with the Order of Polonia Restituta. In 1933, she opened a pharmacy in Warsaw, which she ran for the rest of her life.

Museum of Pharmacy in Warsaw

Melania Lipińska

Melania Lipińska (1865–1933)

Physician, psychophysiologist, and medical historian.

She was born in Ostrołęka. At nineteen years of age, she developed glaucoma. She studied medicine in France, as well as in Stockholm and Zurich. She won great renown – both for the academic and the literary value – for her doctoral dissertation defended in 1900 at the University of Paris, titled Histoire des Femmes Médecins, recounting the history of women in world medicine from antiquity to contemporaneous times.

For a time, Lipińska lived in Warsaw, where in 1903, possibly because of the progressing glaucoma, she suffered a nervous breakdown. She returned to practising her profession after receiving the requisite assistance and course of treatment. In 1904, she settled as a physician in a French resort at the foot of the Vosges. The loss of sight in 1920 did not weaken her activity. She gathered research material, usually relying on female assistants to read source texts to her. Her interests included psycho- and physiotherapy. She travelled extensively, visiting clinics and resorts offering both relaxation and clinical treatment, especially balneological. She delivered lectures and papers, for example at conferences of women physicians in Bologna and Cairo, as well as the World

Conference on Work for the Blind in New York, 1931. She toured Polish health resorts and promoted them in her papers presented to the medical community in Paris.

She relocated to New York, where she was employed at an eye clinic, and subsequently moved to California. There, she researched blindness for the American Foundation for the Blind and met the prominent deafblind writer and activist Helen Keller. Later, she resettled in Paris, where she worked as a senior assistant at an ophthalmological hospital. Simultaneously, she was working on a new version of her doctoral dissertation, published in Paris in 1930 under the title Les Femmes et le Progrès des Sciences Médicales (Polish: Kobieta i Rozwój Nauk Lekarskich, Warsaw: 1932 – Women and the Development of Medical Sciences).

The following year, the Medical Academy in Paris awarded her the Prix Hugo for her activities in science. She was the author of numerous works in the history of medicine, psychology of the blind, and Polish balneology.

She died in Katowice.

Melania Lipińska during a visit to the United States in 1922, in the company of Jean Jules Jusserand (French Ambassador to the USA) and Albert Thomas (director of the International Labour Organisation at the League of Nations)

Joachim Midowicz

Joachim Midowicz’s work titled Über die Schlüsselbeinbrüche und deren Behandlung, mit Hilfe einer neuen, von Dr. Ludwig Bierkowski… ( On Clavicle Fractures and Their Treatment

According to the New Method of Dr Ludwig Bierkowski…)

Joachim Midowicz [Aćim Medović]

(1815–1893)

Physician, professor of forensic medicine, and author of the first manual of forensic medicine in the Serbian language.

He was born Joachim Midowicz in Galicia (Eastern Europe), at the family estate in Pogwizdów near Nieszkowice. A graduate of the University of Vienna and a student-member of the Stowarzyszenie Ludu Polskiego (Polish People’s Association), he was appointed physician to the district of Požarevac by decree of Prince Alexander Karađorđević of 6 December 1842. There, he engaged in scientific activities such as epidemiological research into the Golubac fly, which had caused losses in cattle herds in Serbia. His reports on the insect echoed widely even in Vienna, contributing to both his personal prestige and that of Serbian healthcare as a whole.

Subsequently, he was employed by the Ministry of the Interior in Belgrade, where he wrote health regulations.

He played a pioneering role in spearheading forensic medicine in Serbia, which ensured his selection to chair the new Department of Forensic Medicine at the Faculty of Law in Belgrade.

In later years, he also served as the first president of the Serbian Medical Society. He was active as vice president of the Serbian Red Cross Society, a member of the Serbian Society of Science, and, from 1892, an honorary member of the Serbian Royal Academy.

Midowicz (also known as Medović) is counted among the most eminent Serbian physicians of the 19th century.

Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski

Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski (1838–1908)

Co-founder of the Russian school of psychiatry.

He was born in Jędrzejów, into the noble family of Paweł Mierzejewski and Janina Rozalia Mierzejewska née Wróblewska. He graduated from gymnasium in 1855 with a silver medal for academic excellence. Having won a competition held by the Medical Council of the Kingdom of Poland, he was awarded a scholarship to study medicine at the Imperial Medico-Surgical Academy in St Petersburg. He completed his studies in 1861, again receiving a silver medal along with the Busch Prize, named after the Academy’s founder.

He took employment at the clinic managed by Jan Baliński, the father of Russian psychiatry. He quickly gained recognition and eventually succeeded Baliński. In 1865, he was conferred a doctorate based on a dissertation titled Clinical Studies into Madmen (Vesanici). Two years later, he became a physician in a psychiatric-neurological clinic. After that, to improve his medical knowledge, he toured the most prominent academic centres in Europe, including Berlin and Paris.

In 1876, following Baliński’s retirement, he took over the management of the clinic, subsequently modernising it. Under Mierzejewski, the clinic could serve one hundred

patients. He also initiated efforts to create a new paediatric-psychiatric ward.

The following year, he was given the title of Professor Ordinarius. He also lectured at the academy and in medical courses for women. An active member of the Medical Council of the Ministry of the Interior and the board of an asylum near Udelnaya Station, he was instrumental in organising Russian psychiatric conferences and served as president of the Society of Psychiatrists in St Petersburg in 1903.

Mierzejewski was also active in the Koło Lekarzy Polskich (Polish Physicians Circle) in St Petersburg and medical societies in Warsaw, Kraków, and Vilnius. He co-owned the Medycyna journal, where he published his papers. His students included Stanisław Felicjan Daniłło and Alfons Erlicki. His academic legacy comprises fifty-four works published in Russian, Polish, French, and German. Mierzejewski was among the global pioneers of research into neurohistopathological changes in neurosyphilis, as well as somatic alterations in patients with mental disorders.

He died in 1908 in Paris and was buried in St Petersburg.

Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski – portrait

Jan Antoni MikuliczRadecki

Jan Antoni Mikulicz-Radecki (1850–1905)

Surgeon, constructor of medical instruments.

He was born in Czerniowce, the son of Andrzej and the Austrian Emilia von Damnitz. He attended schools in his hometown, as well as in Prague, Vienna, and Klagenfurt. He enrolled in medical studies at the University of Vilnius despite his father’s objections and lack of financial support. In 1875, he was conferred the degree of Doctor of All Medical Sciences and was employed as a pupil at the surgical clinic of Christian Albert Theodor Billroth. There, he studied rhinoscleroma (called ‘Slavic leprosy’ at the time) and observed its characteristic vesicular cells, later named after him. After three years, he was appointed assistant and authorised to lecture.

In 1879, he published a dissertation titled Die Seitlichen Verkrümmungen am Knie und Deren Heilungsmethoden, which was favourably received in Vienna’s medical circles. He then toured Europe’s most important surgical centres, encountering pioneers of Lister’s antiseptic methods. His journeys bore fruit when he introduced antiseptic procedures at his clinic in Vienna.

Mikulicz was the designer of innovative surgical instruments for the endoscopy of the oesophagus and stomach. He was the first to use thread gloves, gauze pads, and mouth protection while operating. In 1882, he took the position of head of the Department of Surgery at Jagiellonian University and performed previously unknown surgical procedures, such as gastrectomy. He also designed medical instruments like the scoliometer, a tool to measure spinal deviations. His achievements include the complete elimination of contamination during operations.

In 1887, he moved to Königsberg and worked at a surgical clinic, where he introduced steam sterilisation and described the technique for pyloromyotomy. Mikulicz’s last years were spent in Wrocław, where he worked at the Department of Surgery. There, in 1897, he opened a modern operating theatre and two years later launched a clinic reputed as one of the best in Europe.

He died on 14 June 1905 in Wrocław.

Jan Antoni Mikulicz-Radecki – portrait

Jan Mikulicz-Radecki in the operating theatre of the University of Wrocław

Marceli Wilhelm Nencki

Marceli Wilhelm Nencki (1847–1901)

Global pioneer of microbial biochemistry.

Title page of Marceli Nencki’s Utlenianie Ciał Aromatycznych w Organizmie Zwierzęcym ( Oxidation of Aromatic Bodies in the Animal Organism)

He was born in Boczki, near Sieradz, to Wilhelm Nencki and Katarzyna Nencka née Serwaczyńska. He graduated from secondary school in 1863 in Piotrków and subsequently enrolled in philological studies at Jagiellonian University in Kraków. In 1864, he left for Jena to study comparative philology. From 1865 to 1867, he continued those studies in Berlin but after some time, influenced by his acquaintances, transferred to medicine. His particular interest in the chemistry of living organisms laid the foundations for what is now biochemistry.

Nencki also worked at the Technical Academy in the laboratory of Adolf von Baeyer, a chemist who would later win the Nobel Prize. An outstanding erudite familiar with eight languages, Nencki enjoyed the respect of his colleagues. His extraordinary abilities secured him the title of Professor Extraordinarius at the age of twenty-nine. For the next twenty years, Nencki was professionally associated with the University of Bern, where the Department of Physiological Chemistry was

established especially for him. He also headed the Institute of Medical Chemistry. He lectured in bacteriology and physiological chemistry, expanding the centres he managed into globally renowned institutions that attracted scientists from Europe and America.

In 1891, Nencki accepted the leadership of the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St Petersburg. He thus left behind teaching and focused solely on research and collaborating with scientists like Ivan Pavlov. His scientific interests included studies on urea and haemoglobin. His legacy encompasses more than fifty research studies in Polish, German, French, and Russian, as well as editorial contributions. A collection titled Opera Omnia, published in 1904, contained all his works, spanning 1,700 pages.

At the age of 54, Nencki fell ill with stomach cancer, leading to his untimely death on 14 October 1901 in St Petersburg. His son Leon also became a physician.

Title page of the publication containing all of Marceli Nencki’s work

Edmund Neusser

Edmund Neusser (1852–1912)

Haematologist, bacteriologist, academic teacher of Polish origin. Physician to Emperor Franz Joseph.

He was born in Swoszowice, near Kraków, with Austrian and Polish roots, as the son of salt mine official Cyryl Neusser and Anna Neusser née Grohman. He completed medical studies at Jagiellonian University, obtaining a Doctor of Medicine degree in 1877. He worked at clinics in Paris for several years and was an assistant at the University Clinic in Vienna, where he completed his habilitation. Subsequently, he left for Sofia to serve as the court physician to the Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria. Upon returning to Vienna he was a primarius in Rudolf Hospital, and later transferred to a university department as Professor Ordinarius of pathology and therapy.

The fame of an excellent diagnostician led many, including crowned heads, to eagerly seek his assistance but it was noted that ‘his work concentrated mainly around the poor.’ He enjoyed great trust from Emperor Franz Joseph and his family. In 1896, he was made a court councillor (Hofrat) and was later ennobled, writing his name as Edmund von Neusser from 1905 onward.

From morning to night, he would sit at his clinic, welcoming physicians from around the world and sharing his knowledge. Gifted with a phenomenal memory and original insights, he gave the impression that ‘man is glass to him.’ In his lectures, he discussed rare and interesting cases, leading to the adage that ‘Neusser teaches only that which in great textbooks is the fine print.’

He published exclusively in German but also spoke Polish. His interests included haematology, endocrinology, cardiovascular diseases, tuberculosis, and syphilis. He authored original theories in case studies of neurosis and anatomic anomalies. He also gained fame as the designer of the Austrian resort at Joachimsthal. A keen pianist, he married opera singer Paula Mark (1869–1956) in 1897.

He died at age 60 in Bad Fischau, Austria, from kidney cancer – a disease he had studied for many years. A plaza has been named after him in the Rudolfsheim-Fünfhaus district of Vienna (Neusserplatz).

Prof. Dr. Edmund Neusser, Biesiada Literacka 35 (1912), 174.

Ewa Odachowska

(1914–2016)

Physician, member of the Resistance during World War II, participant of the Warsaw Uprising; after its fall, deported for forced labour.

She was born in Niedźwiadka (Nowogródzkie Voivodeship) in 1914. Her father, Kazimierz Odachowski, died when she was a child, and she was raised by her mother, Hanna Pohl, in Nowopol and later in Warsaw. She enrolled in medical studies at the University of Warsaw in 1939. When the war broke out, she worked at an organising point for health patrols that tended to the civilian population. Following the September defeat, she joined the ranks of the Home Army, serving as a liaison. She began medical studies at the underground School of Massage run by Dr Zaorski, which she continued at the Secret University in the coal cellar of the Infant Jesus Hospital.

After the fall of the Warsaw Uprising, she was deported to Austria together with her husband, Marek Paleczek, for forced labour. The couple escaped through Switzerland to England. There, Odachowska donned the uniform of

the Women’s Auxiliary Service and commenced medical studies at Paderewski Teaching Hospital in Edinburgh.

In 1948, having received her physician’s diploma, she migrated to Chile, the home of her father’s relatives, the Domeyko family. From the nostrification of her diploma in 1954 until her retirement in 1984, she worked as a gynaecologist at San Juan de Dios Hospital in Santiago. She organised meetings of the Polish diaspora in Chile, which – along with the famed ‘meetings under the chestnut tree’ – became part of history.

Odachowska co-founded the John Paul II Polish Circle in Santiago. In 1995, the then Polish president decorated her with the Knight’s Cross the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland.

She died on 16 February 2016 in Coquimbo.

Ewa Odachowska, decorated in 1995 with the Knight’s Cross the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland

Wacław Olszak

Wacław Olszak (1868–1939)

Physician, national and social activist in Śląsk Cieszyński.

He was born in Šenov in the Moravian-Silesian Region, the son of Wacław Olszak and Marianna Olszak née Pasternak. He was first educated at the people’s school in his hometown and later at a gymnasium in Cieszyn, where he was active in the clandestine Polish association called Jedność (Unity). After passing his matura examination, he studied medicine in Vienna and was an activist in the Ognisko (Bonfire) Academic Association. In 1895, he obtained the Doctor of All Medical Sciences degree. He practised at hospitals in Vienna and Kraków and later worked as a physician in the foundry city of Trinec. On 1 October 1896, he took a position at the Kasa Bracka Przemysłu Węglowego (Coal Industry Fraternity Treasury) in Karvina. He was the first mine physician in the city and also provided medical care to the mine owner, Count Larisch-Mönnich, and his family.

During World War I, he saved the lives of many wounded soldiers brought from the front to the hospital in Karvina. During that period, he also published two popular

brochures: Coś o Chorobach Zakaźnych i Wskazówki Jak Się Ich Wystrzegać (Something About Communicable Diseases and Guidelines on How to Avoid Them) and Co Powinien Każdy Wiedzieć o Gruźlicy? (What Should Everyone Know About Tuberculosis?). From 1918 to 1920, on behalf of the Związek Śląskich Katolików (Silesian Catholic Alliance), he served as a member of the National Council of the Duchy of Cieszyn.

He contributed to the development of Polish schools in the Trans-Olza region. Following the division of Cieszyn Silesia, up to 1930, he was the president of the Central Board of the Macierz Szkolna in Czechoslovakia, and from 1929 to 1936, the mayor of Karvina. Starting in 1935, he chaired the Supreme Council of Poles in Czechoslovakia. He was awarded the Commander’s Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta.

He died as a result of injuries from a beating by the Gestapo in September 1939. He was buried in the communal cemetery in Karvina.

Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły’s inspection tour of Trans-Olza – in Karvina.

The Marshal is welcomed by Wacław Olszak

Jadwiga Olszewska

Jadwiga Olszewska

(1855–1932)

Physician and journalist, gynaecologist, specialist in public healthcare, advocate of equal rights for women and men.

She was born in Kuzawka, a Polish village in the Lubelszczyzna region, in the Russian partition at the time. In 1873, she graduated from the girls’ gymnasium in Warsaw. Subsequently, she moved to St Petersburg, where she began a course in gynaecology but could not complete it due to tsarist repressions against students. She migrated to Paris and, in 1881, began medical studies, marrying a year later. Although the union did not last, it resulted in a son, Włodzimierz, who became a road and bridge engineer and Tatra climber. Olszewska continued her medical studies and raised her son as a single mother.

She earned a living writing for newspapers and periodicals in Kraków and Lviv. In 1894, at the University of Paris, she was conferred the degree of Doctor in Medical Sciences based on a dissertation on typhus-related dysfunctions of the heart muscle in children. Planning to return to Poland with her son, she was thwarted when tsarist authorities refused to recognise her diploma. As a result, she left her son in Paris in the care of her friend, Bronisława Skłodowska-Dłuska (a fellow physician), and set out for Serbia. Beginning in 1895, she worked as an assistant at hospitals in Loznica and later in Požarevac.

In 1897, she applied for the position of official physician in Bosnia and Herzegovina (then occupied by Austria-Hungary). Initially, authorities rejected her candidacy, and she was only approved in March 1899 following the intervention of another Polish medical officer, Teodora

Krajewska, who nominated Olszewska to succeed her in Tuzla. After naturalising an Austro-Hungarian citizen in 1899, as required by authorities, Olszewska was appointed medical officer – official physician in Tuzla. She vowed to bring medical assistance to all women in the city, especially Muslims. The area under her responsibility had approximately 360,000 inhabitants.

From 1900 onward, Olszewska treated about 850 patients yearly, both in Tuzla and other localities in the district. She dealt with cases of, among others, syphilis and metabolic, digestive tract, genital, and skin diseases. In 1899, during an orf epidemic (a viral disease in sheep and goats), she vaccinated 872 people. She fought a pox epidemic that same year.

Living a modest life, she supported her son Włodzimierz and paid for his studies. In 1919, after the fall of Austria-Hungary, she remained the official physician in Tuzla, swearing allegiance to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.

In her press articles, Olszewska opposed the discrimination of women in educational and professional fields and advocated for equal rights for women and men. During her stay in Serbia, she was active in the Women’s Association in Belgrade. While working in Tuzla, she campaigned for equal pay for female and male physicians.

She died in Tuzla on 28 February 1932.

Teodor Opęchowski

Teodor Opęchowski (1853–1914)

Physician, discoverer of the starting locations of stomach ulcers.

He was born in Podolia. He graduated from a gymnasium in Warsaw in 1871 and enrolled in medical studies at the University of Warsaw. After one year, he transferred to Saint Vladimir University in Kyiv, graduating in 1876. He began his professional practice as a junior department head in the Military Clinic and an assistant in a dermatological clinic in Kyiv. Under the mentorship of Ludwik Górecki and on his request, Opęchowski researched the causes of psoriasis. He described his study, based on the observation of disorders of internal glands, in a work titled Diejstwije Chrizofanowoj Kisłoty Pri Psoriasis. Subsequently, he went on a scientific tour of Vienna, Paris, London, Berlin, and Strasbourg. His interests extended beyond dermatology to include physiology, anatomy, histology, and neurology. Travelling the world, Opęchowski expanded his medical knowledge and published research on, for example, pressure in the pulmonary circulation during breathing.

In 1884, he was conferred the degree of Doctor of Medicine at the University of Dorpat (now the University of Tartu, Estonia) and began to work as a lecturer at the Faculty of Medicine. From 1886 onward, he headed the university clinical department of the regional hospital in

Dorpat. In 1889, he received the Franz Hamburger Prize for his work on the innervation of the stomach. After that, he served as a consultant for internal and neural diseases at the Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna Clinical Institute, where he taught neuropathology. In 1891, he was awarded the title of Professor Extraordinarius, and in 1893 Professor Ordinarius, at the Therapy Clinic of the Imperial University of Kharkiv. His working conditions were severe; a large number of students who admired their professor assembled in two small hospital rooms and conducted their studies in the presence of patients. Through his efforts and personal financing, it was finally possible to organise a lecture hall and laboratories.

In 1903, Opęchowski took leadership of the Therapeutic Clinic Department, which he managed until the last days of his life. His greatest achievements included defining the pressure points on the spine that made it possible to pinpoint the location of stomach ulcers. In his honour, these were named the Opęchowski symptoms.

He died on 14 January 1914 in Berlin.

Innervation of the stomach according to Teodor Opęchowski

Florenty Orzeszko

Florenty Orzeszko (1834–1905)

Physician, participant in the January Uprising, and deportee to Syberia.

He was born in Tomsk, in the West Siberian Plain, into an affluent noble family with an estate in Kobryn District, Hrodna Governorate. He finished gymnasium in Jelgava (then known as Mitau) and, in 1861, obtained a diploma with distinction from the Medico-Surgical Academy in St Petersburg. After his studies, he lived in Ludwinów, in a manor belonging to his brother Piotr – the husband of the writer Eliza Orzeszkowa. The latter commemorated her brother-in-law in a collection of novellas about participants in the January Uprising of 1863–1864, titled Gloria Victis

Orzeszko practised medicine in Polesie. He campaigned for the abolition of serfdom and, during the January Uprising, served as a military physician in Romuald Traugutt’s unit. He was deported for hard labour, had his property confiscated, and his medical licence revoked. He travelled to Siberia on foot, together with his fiancée, Helena Milkiewiczówna. They were married in Tyumen. Their journey to Siberia took eighteen months. In 1864, they arrived

Book cover: W.A. Chaniewicz, The Catholics in Tomsk 1604–1917, Tomsk 2015

in Tomsk, where they settled for the rest of their lives. Orzeszko initially worked alongside other inmates, later as a pharmacy assistant, and after recovering his licence (thanks to having cured the governor of Tomsk), became a prison physician.

Having served his term, he was allowed to open a private practice and, due to the shortage of doctors in Tomsk, decided to stay there with his family. In 1872, he became the supervisor of all hospitals in the city. He engaged in social activism on behalf of Poles and founded – together with his wife – a Polish library and reading club, a Charitable Society, and a Polish orphanage.

Tomsk railway station, 1904

Jadwiga MichalskaPicado

Jadwiga

Michalska-Picado

(1874–1929)

The first woman physician in the history of Costa Rica, mother of Costa Rican President Teodoro Picado Michalski.

She hailed from Radomsko. In 1894, she graduated from gymnasium in Piotrków Trybunalski. She studied medicine in Geneva, where she met a Costa Rican doctor, Teodoro Picado Morina, whom she married in 1898 and in whose homeland she settled. Due to moving to Costa Rica, she was forced to halt her studies. In 1900, she resumed them at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Lausanne, and two years later defended her doctoral dissertation there before returning to America.

She was the first woman in Costa Rica with a medical diploma. In 1902, after months of striving for admission to the College of Physicians and Surgeons, she was licensed to practise. She treated the poor Creole, mestizo, and indigenous populations. Responding to the needs of the local community, she specialised in

gynaecology and paediatrics. She campaigned on behalf of the La Gota de Leche (A Drop of Milk) foundation, educating women in neonatal care. In Costa Rica, she was known as Doctora Jadwisia Michalski de Picado. She maintained her ties to Poland, which she visited with her sons in 1910–1911. Her elder son, Teodoro Picado Michalski, born in 1900, became the president of Costa Rica in the 1940s.

She died in San José in 1928 or 1929.

The historian Maria Paradowska wrote of her: ‘For many years, there persisted in Costa Rica the legend of a doctor – a Polish woman – who travelled the poor villages bringing succour to the poorest patients. Thus, people attributed to her almost supernatural strengths.’

Teodoro Picado Michalski, President of Costa Rica from 8 May 1944 to 8 May 1948, son of Polish immigrant physician Jadwiga Michalska-Picado

Salomea Regina Pilsztynowa

Salomea Regina née Rusiecka, married firstly Halpirowa, secondly Pilsztynowa

(1718–after 1763)

Ophthalmologist, traveller, and diarist.

She was born near Novogrudok, in the bourgeois family of the Rusiecki. Although she lacked formal medical education (denied to women during her lifetime), she is regarded as the first Polish woman physician. At fourteen years of age, she was married to the ophthalmologist Jakub Halpir, who practised in Constantinople. She was initially his assistant and later began to practice independently. Like her husband, she specialised in eye diseases, such as removing cataracts.

She moved with her husband to Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, in 1732. As a woman, she was allowed to treat other women, including those in the Sultan’s court. When her husband died, she briefly returned to Poland

and married Fortunat Pilsztyn. Thereafter, she relocated to St Petersburg, where she treated individuals in Empress Anna’s circle.

After separating from her second husband, she returned to Türkiye and became a physician in Mustafa III’s harem. The last mention of her originates from the court of the Khan of Bakhchisarai. Her memoirs are a valuable source of knowledge about social relations in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire.

Masquelier, Louis-Joseph (1741–1811), A View of Constantinople

First page of manuscript by Salomea Pilsztynowa

Paweł Emilian Postempski

Paweł (Paolo)

Emilian Postempski (Postępski)

(1851–1926)

Surgeon.

Born in Rome, the son of Roman, a Polish insurgent of 1831 and painter, and Agnese Ruffini, an Italian painter. He published his first academic work in Italian and Polish still as a student at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Rome. Due to financial difficulties, he was allowed to complete a two-year medical course in one year.

He earned his doctorate in 1873 based on a work on blood transfusion, where he described experiments done on dogs and a transfusion apparatus of his own design. Postempski successfully used it on a patient even though blood groups had not yet been discovered. After becoming the primarius of Roman hospitals, he had a surgical amphitheatre built for the benefit of students.

Postempski served as a docent of surgery at the University of Rome and, for twenty-one years, also as director of San Giacomo Hospital in Rome. He gained renown as a pioneer of abdominal and brain surgery. He was among the first to operate on brain tumours, which is why he is now regarded as a precursor of vascular surgery. He was famed for his exquisite technique, said to be not operating but ‘embroidering.’

He was a co-founder of the Italian Society of Surgery and published 104 academic works, mainly in Italian. In 1891, in Turin, he published one of the first neurosurgery textbooks in the country.

Some described him as an ‘aristocratic personage with a proud face framed by a small beard, the epitome of male beauty.’ He was not only a prominent surgeon but also the assessor of the municipal government of Rome for education and hygiene. As one of the founders of the Italian Red Cross, he participated in remedying the effects of an earthquake in Calabria and Sicily, organising medical services during the Ethiopian War and the Italo-Turkish War in Libya, and fighting against cholera.

For many years, he directed the fight against malaria in the Pontine Marshes, organising anti-malarial outposts. For all his meritorious service, he was rewarded with the rank of a Red Cross colonel and the title of Inspector General of Medicine. He took part in Polish and Italian surgical conferences, including the Conference of Polish Physicians and Naturalists in Kraków in 1891.

He died in Rome in 1926.

Paweł Postempski – portrait

Prof. Dr Paweł Postępski, Inspector General of the Red Cross in Italy

Adam Raciborski

Adam Raciborski (1809–1871)

Physician, author of medical works, co-founder and first secretary of the Paris Society of Polish Physicians.

He was born in Radom to Daniel Raciborski – an investigating judge and patriot who was removed from office following the November Uprising of 1830–1831 – and Marianna Raciborska née Majewska. He began medical studies in Warsaw in 1827 but paused them to join the insurgents as a physician to the 4th Regiment of Line Infantry of the Polish Armed Forces (known as the Czwartacy). He was decorated with the Golden Cross of Virtuti Militari for participation in the defence of Warsaw. After the fall of the uprising, he migrated to Besançon in France, where he gained fame for his active participation in treating locals during a cholera epidemic. Subsequently, he moved to Paris and, in 1834, obtained the degree of doctor. Shortly thereafter, he was appointed head of the La Charité University Clinic of Internal Medicine in Paris. He gradually built a large clientele, becoming one of Fryderyk Chopin’s physicians. During the French Revolution of 1848, he was appointed surgeon to the National Guard in Paris. His interests focused on pulmonary and gynaecological diseases.

He authored fifty-five works in French in the fields of anatomy, physiology, and pathology, which were awarded medals by the Paris Academy. He co-edited the medical journal L’Experience. His sole work in Polish, O Styczności Medycyny ze Sztukami Pięknymi i Literaturą (On the Intersection of Medicine with Fine Arts and Literature), was

published in 1858 in Paris in connection with the opening of the Medico-Surgical Academy in Warsaw. He was a physician to the Polish school in Montparnasse and later a professor at the Medical Academy. The Académie Française conferred distinction on his Nouveau Manuel Complet D’auscultation et de Percussion, which popularised the percussion and auscultation method. The book was translated into many languages but not Polish, as many native doctors regarded the method for a long time as indecent and scandalous. For his last voluminous work – O Regularności Kobiet (Menstruation, Ovulation, Secondation) (On the Regularity of Women…) – he received a monetary prize from the Académie des Sciences.

From 1860 to 1871, Raciborski was an honorary member of the Poznań Society of Friends of Sciences and a member of medical societies operating in Berlin, Brussels, Bordeaux, and Vilnius. In 1857, he received the Legion of Honour with Star. He was ‘gifted with sharpness and extraordinary aptness of mind, animated and with a cheerful disposition, ingenuous and righteous of character.’

He died in 1871, emaciated by starvation several days before the end of the siege of Paris by the Prussians.

Photograph of medallions belonging to Władysław Oleszczyński. Adam Raciborski at the bottom on the right

Ludwik Rajchman

Rajchman

Bacteriologist, social activist.

He was born in Warsaw to Aleksander Rajchman and Melania Rajchman née Hirszfeld. He studied medicine at Jagiellonian University, where he worked under the supervision of Professor Odo Bujwid. From the very beginning of his medical career, he was interested in bacteriology.

In Warsaw, where he completed his hospital internship, he was arrested for anti-tsarist activities in the Polish Socialist Party. After his family posted bail, Rajchman left prison and emigrated to Paris. There, he was employed by the Pasteur Institute. Subsequently, he accepted the position of head of the bacteriological laboratory at the Royal Institute of Public Health in London, where he made numerous acquaintances, including Sir William Robert Smith. His contacts enabled him to continue his activities serving Poland and later also China. In 1918, he returned to his homeland and was involved in establishing Centralny Zakład Higieny (Central Institute of Hygiene). He was also involved in fighting typhus.

From 1921 to the outbreak of World War II, he served as the director of the League of Nations Health Organisation. Functioning in the international arena, he also tried to work for the benefit of Poland by, among others, cooperating with the Rockefeller Foundation. He focused on designing a system for scientific collaboration in healthcare. Travelling around the world turned his attention to the need for the League of Nations to support China in fields such as healthcare, the economy, transport, and finance. For a time, Rajchman served as medical advisor to Chiang Kai-shek and to the minister of finance, T.V. Soong.

In 1939, for political reasons, he resigned as director of the League of Nations Health Organisation and began to campaign for child victims of war. His efforts contributed to the establishment of UNICEF on 11 December 1946. Rajchman became the president of the Executive Board of that organisation.

He died on 31 August 1965 in Chenu (France).

Ludwik Rajchman – portrait

Robert Remak

Robert Remak (1815–1865)

Physiologist, histologist.

Born to a Jewish family in Poznań, he graduated from Saint Mary Magdalene Gymnasium in his hometown and went on to study medicine in Berlin. During his studies, he engaged in microscopic tests under the direction of Professor Johannes Müller. He also worked at the ophthalmological clinic, the dissecting room, and the children’s clinic. In 1836, Remak’s first academic treatise, titled Vorläufige Mittheilung Mikroskopischer Beobachtungen Über Dem Inneren Bau der Cerebrospinalnerven und Über die Entwickelung Ihrer Formelemente, was published and gained recognition in the medical community. Thanks to that publication, Remak was offered employment in Vilnius, which he declined, preferring to continue his research. In 1838, he obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine and Surgery and published his doctoral dissertation (also in Polish) under the title O Budowie Nerwów i Zwojów Nerwowych (On the Structure of the Nerves and Ganglia).

Because of his Jewish roots, Remak initially faced obstacles in pursuing his career in Germany. Alexander von

Humboldt himself sought employment for him in St Petersburg, but to no avail. From 1843, Remak worked at Johann Lukas Schönlein’s clinic in Berlin, where, among his other occupations, he conducted embryological studies. In 1847, after obtaining a special permit, he completed his habilitation and became the first scientist of Jewish origin to become a lecturer at the University of Berlin. In 1859, he was given the title of Professor Extraordinarius.

Remak’s greatest achievements include developing a diagram of cell division and showing the formation of cells from other cells. He also described unmyelinated nerve fibres (named Remak fibres after their discoverer), as well as the use of electricity in the treatment of nervous disorders. He was the author of a publication describing how the ganglion influenced the automatism of the functioning of the frog heart (the Remak ganglion). He belonged to Medical Societies in Warsaw and Vilnius.

Remak died on 29 August 1865 from anthrax infection.

Cell division according to Robert Remak

Władysław SemerauSiemianowski

Władysław, Wspomnienia z Adampola, Ziemia 11 (1924), 201–204

Władysław Semerau-Siemianowski (1849–1938)

Physician and numismatist collector.

He was born at his family’s estate in Cierplewo, in Poznań Voivodeship. He changed gymnasium three times due to expulsions for national independence activism and passed his matura examination in Poznań. In 1870, he began medical studies in Warsaw, which he continued in Kraków after transferring there to avoid service in the Prussian army. For two years, he also attended lectures in archaeology, which awakened his interest in antiquity. In 1878, he obtained a medical diploma from the University of Vienna.

During the Russo-Turkish War, he relocated to the Ottoman Empire, where he served as a military physician for a year. After the end of hostilities, he was given the position of physician to Turkish railways headquartered in Rusçuk (Ruse), later in Thessaloniki, and from 1903 onward in Constantinople, where he was promoted to chief medical officer for Eastern Railways. There, he extended particular medical care to the Polish colony in Adampol.

Simultaneously, he became a collector of numismatics, valuable ancient glass, and pottery. He drew upon expert literature and established contacts with numismatists all

over the world. His collection quickly garnered fame, and in 1918, entities competing for its purchase included the Museum in Berlin and the University of Virginia. From the onset, however, the doctor anticipated that his collection would become a gift to the Polish nation. Thus, when in 1920 he left Türkiye after forty years, a transport of fourteen crates full of exhibits went with him back to Poland.

In July 1921, Semerau-Siemianowski transferred his collection of coins by notarial deed to the National Museum of Poland – a total of almost 27,800 items, including ones from the entire ancient world. The donor was appointed honorary curator of the collection. In recognition of his merit, he was awarded the Officer's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta. During World War II, the collection suffered losses; part of the exhibits were moved by the Germans to Lower Silesia, from where they were recovered in 1945. Nevertheless, it remains to this day the largest and richest collection of ancient coins in Poland.

Semerau-Siemianowski died in Kraków at eighty-nine years of age. His son Mściwój (1885–1953) is regarded as the father of Polish cardiology.

Ancient Coins Collection of the National Museum in Warsaw

Semerau-Siemianowski,

Lucjan Skupiewski

Piłsudski’s

Lucjan Skupiewski

(1876–1949)

Physician, social activist, and politician.

He was born in Warsaw in 1876. At nine years of age, he settled with his parents in Bucharest, where in 1902 he earned his medical diploma. He specialised in surgery, gynaecology, obstetrics, and neonatology. His areas of activity were public health, combating lifestyle diseases, and promoting a healthy lifestyle. He was active in an organisation called Schroniska dla Ubogich Położnic (Refuges for Poor Puerperae).

During World War I, he managed hospitals for the wounded in Bucharest and its vicinity. He played an important role in Romanian politics as a municipal

councillor and deputy mayor of Bucharest, as well as a member of the Romanian Parliament.

He had contacts with the royal court of Carol I of Romania, of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty.

Skupiewski was active in the life of the Polish diaspora and took an interest in the situation in the newly restored Poland. He was decorated with the Corona României, Bărbăţie şi Credinţă, Meritul Sanitar, Steaua României, and the Grand Cross of Polonia Restituta.

Marshal Józef

sojourn in Bucharest on his way back from Egypt. Lucjan Skupiewski on the left

Józef Struś

Józef Struś

(1510–1568)

Physician, author of a research work discussing the types of human pulse.

He was born in Poznań to Mikołaj Struś and Elżbieta Struś née Baderman. He began his education at St Mary Magdalene’s Collegiate Church in Poznań and continued at the Collegium Lubranscianum, founded in 1518 by the Bishop of Poznań, Jan Lubrański. In 1525, he relocated to Kraków and began studies at the Kraków Academy (Jagiellonian University), earning a master’s degree in liberal arts. Thereafter, he moved to Italy, embarking on medical and philosophical education in Padua. He remained in Italy until 1537 and, upon completion of his studies, began to work as a university lecturer there. He had command of Greek and Latin, which allowed him to translate the works of Galen, among others. Struś was extraordinarily diligent and inquisitive. He was given the title of vice-rector of the University of Padua and, after 1535, the degree of doctor and the rank of Professor Extraordinarius of theoretical medicine – all at the age of twenty-five.

Subsequently, he took up medical practice and began to study the problem of the human pulse, to which he dedicated his lifetime’s work titled Sphygmicae Artis Iam Mille

Ducentos Annos Perditae et Desideratae Libri V, published in 1555. In it, Struś described the core types of pulse and identified the influence of a person’s temperature and nerve condition on their pulse. The work took approximately twenty years to complete and was groundbreaking for its era.

Struś briefly returned to Poland. Then, in 1541, at the request of his benefactor, Andrzej Górka, he went to Constantinople to assist with the treatment of the ailing Sultan, Suleiman II. He successfully cured the monarch, for which he was given lavish rewards and offered employment at the court. He rejected it, however, and journeyed back to Poland. He similarly refused a proposal to work for King Philip II of Spain.

In 1559, he accepted the position of court physician to the King of Poland, Sigismund II Augustus, and became the mayor of Poznań.

He died on 6 March 1568 in his hometown.

Title page of Józef Struś’s Sphygmicae Artis Iam Mille Ducentos Annos Perditae et Desideratae Libri V

Józef Struś – portrait

Ludwik Karol Teichmann

Ludwik Karol Teichmann (1823–1895)

Inventor of a method enabling the detection of blood traces.

He was born in Lublin. He attended secondary schools in Radom and Warsaw. Subsequently, he began theological studies at the University of Dorpat (now the University of Tartu) but abandoned them after participating in a prohibited duel. He then went to study at the medical faculty in Heidelberg. He worked as a volunteer at Jakob Henle’s establishment and, in 1852, went with his professor to Göttingen. He finished his medical studies on 15 December 1855, receiving the degree of Doctor of Medicine, Surgery, and Obstetrics. Thereafter, he was employed as a prosector at the Institute of Anatomy in Göttingen and made several study tours, including to Vienna, where he met Professor Joseph Hyrtl.

The Pole’s greatest achievements include the discovery in 1853 of a method for the identification of blood traces. Teichmann based it on the use of hemin, whose crystals, observed under a microscope, attest to the presence of blood on a given item. The method was soon dubbed

‘Teichmann’s crystals’ and found application in forensics. In 1861, due to a conflict with Henle, Teichmann went to Kraków, where he received the title of professor and was placed in charge of the Department of Pathological Anatomy at Jagiellonian University. He was greatly surprised by the conditions prevailing at the university, including poorly equipped laboratories.

In 1868, he began to work at the Department of Descriptive Anatomy, which he attempted to modernise. In 1877–1878, he served as rector of Jagiellonian University and was also a member of the Academy of Learning (Akademia Umiejętności). His most important academic work was a treatise titled O Układzie Chłonnym z Anatomicznego Punktu Widzenia (On the Lymphatic System from an Anatomical Point of View), describing the structure and functioning of lymphatic vessels and the lymphatic system.

He died of cancer on 24 November 1895 in Kraków.

Ludwik Karol Teichmann – portrait

Teuttold Stilichon

Teodor

Lekarza Polaka z Wypadków za

Teodor Teuttold Stilichon Tripplin

(1812–1881)

Internist, soldier, writer, and traveller.

He was born in Kalisz, into a family of Huguenot origin. During the November Uprising of 1830–1831, he earned an officer’s commission. After its defeat, he began medical studies at the University of Königsberg. Later, he worked in London as a physician, teacher, and journalist. During the Carlist Wars in Spain, he served an internship as a military physician.

He obtained his doctorate in medicine and surgery from the medical school in Montpellier. He wrote for French newspapers and taught chemistry at the Polish School in Batignolles, Paris. He travelled extensively, alternating between the roles of a soldier – always on the side of the oppressed – and a physician. In the 1840s, he traversed Scandinavia and England and practised medicine in Alsace. Eventually, he settled in Warsaw, where he began to write adventure novels and memoirs of his journeys.

He was one of the precursors of Polish science fiction literature. In his works – for example, Maskarada w Obłokach, Czyli Podróż Napowietrzna na Morze Północne (Masquerade in the Clouds, or an Aerial Journey to the North Sea) and Podróż po Księżycu Odbyta Przez Serafina

Illustration from Teodor Tripplin’s book titled Nowa Podróż na Około Ziemi Odbyta na Fregacie Ermancya Przez Dra Antoniego Zanowicza ( A New Journey Around the Earth Completed Aboard the Fregate Ermancya by Dr Antoni Zanowicz), Warszawa: 1855

Bolińskiego (A Journey Across the Moon Completed by Serafin Boliński) – one can find elements anticipating the later acclaimed novels by Jules Verne. Tripplin’s great popularity was cut short by accusations of plagiarism levied by his critics. As a result, he took to his travels once again, serving as a military physician in Constantinople and later moving to Italy.

Answering Garibaldi’s call, he fought against the Austrians for the independence of Italy, receiving a decoration for bravery. He lectured and worked as a physician at the Polish school for military commanders in Genoa. In 1863, he departed for Jerusalem and found employment at a local hospital. One year later, he returned to Italy and opened a practice in Rome. During that time, he wrote numerous dramas and comedies in Italian.

Demilitarised, he settled with other Polish emigrants at a monastery in Calabria as a village doctor and organist at the local church. He practised in Florence and Siena and later went to Jerusalem for health reasons.

He died on 25 January 1881 in Warsaw.

Pamiętniki

Granicą Doznanych. Tom V (Memoirs by a Polish Medic of Adventures Met Abroad. Vol. 5), Warszawa: 1855

Adam Ernest NarymuntWaszklewicz

Adam Ernest Narymunt-Waszklewicz

(1812–1901)

Military physician and officer in the Dutch army.

He was born in Vilnius, the son of Joachim of the Narymunt family (1789–1837), starost of Bartoszyszki, legal practitioner in Vilnius, and Katarzyna née Sezarska. He completed secondary school, probably in Vilnius, where he enrolled in the medical faculty of the local university. After three years of studies, when the November Uprising of 1830–1831 spread to Lithuania, he joined the army as a cadet in a cavalry regiment from Poznań and was soon promoted to second lieutenant.

After the uprising was defeated, he went to France. In 1834, he earned a medical diploma from the University of Montpellier. Lacking financial means due to the sequestration of his family estates, he decided to dedicate himself to a military career. After completing a course in military medicine in Leiden, he moved to the Dutch East Indies. In Java, he joined the military medical service.

From 1838 to 1870, he lived in Indonesia, serving first as the organiser and later as the head of the Dutch army’s medical service in the Malay Archipelago.

There, he was the first to introduce a system of protective vaccination, which made it possible, among other things, to defeat a pox epidemic. The success was due to dividing the entire island into two hundred vaccination circuits. He published the results of his studies in the medical journal Geneeskundige Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, including articles like Bijdrage Tot de Kennis Van Chronische Dysenterie en Enterohelkose and De cholera-epidemie in 1864

In 1870, after almost thirty years of service, Waszklewicz retired with the rank of colonel. Later, he settled in The Hague, where he lived for the rest of his life. Although he ‘did not communicate with Poles abroad,’ he would go to Kraków on leave and there meet his family resident in Lithuania. He died at the age of eightyeight. His last wish was for ‘his body to be cremated at the crematory in Hamburg and the ashes buried by the family on Polish soil for whose freedom he had once fought, namely on the family estate – in Tarasowo.’

Dionizy Wielobycki

Dionizy Wielobycki

(1813–1882)

Physician and participant in the November Uprising.

Born in Byteń in Volhynia, he was the son of Stanisław Wielobycki, marshal of the Kovel district, and Tekla Wielobycka née Sobolewska; younger brother of Seweryn, also a physician. At the age of seventeen, he joined the insurgents of 1830, soon advancing to the rank of second lieutenant in the cavalry. He was seriously wounded in the Battle of Warsaw. Following the fall of the uprising, he emigrated to Germany, where he studied philosophy in Bonn and Berlin. Unable to settle there, he moved to England and began medical studies. In 1843, he earned a medical diploma in Edinburgh.

He practised for several decades, becoming popular, especially as a homoeopath, having lost trust in conventional medicine. Over time, Wielobycki became a man of consequence and means. He assisted fellow Poles in Scotland with counsel and financial aid. In 1857, newspaper reports of accusations against him for allegedly forging the last will of one of his female patients were received with surprise. He was sentenced to deportation to Australia for a term of fourteen years. The sentence was not enforced and

J., Dr. Dyonizy Wielobycki, Tygodnik

13 (1883), 93–94

did not affect his practice, although the circumstances of the appeal remained unclear.

Wielobycki belonged to numerous medical societies, including the British Homoeopathic Society. He wrote popular articles for English and French journals, was a long-term freelance writer for Modern Thought, and donated a rich collection of books to the municipal library in Edinburgh. He died there at sixty-nine years of age.

As reminisced by local papers: ‘He reached enthusiasm as a patriot – Pole.’ He belonged to the Polish Historical Circle in England and was a member of the Astronomic Institute in Kraków. He paid for Walerian Krasiński’s tombstone in Warriston Cemetery. Bearing witness to the great popularity enjoyed by the physician was a solemn funeral presided over by the archbishop of Edinburgh, the papal legate, and numerous clergy attended by crowds of inhabitants. After the casket: ‘the Eagle and the Vytis were carried, under which sign the deceased fought and lived.’

Polak

Powszechny

Seweryn Wielobycki

Seweryn Wielobycki

(1793–1893)

Physician, homoeopath, philanthropist, and campaigner for abstinence and a healthy lifestyle.

He was born in Byteń in Volhynia, one of the seven sons of the vice-chamberlain (subcamerarius) of Kovel district. With his brother Dionizy, he took part in the November Uprising as a lieutenant in the Volhynian cavalry; after the defeat, both left the country and made their way to Scotland. There, in Edinburgh, Seweryn made a living teaching foreign languages and, like his brother, began medical studies. In 1841, he earned a medical diploma and practised in Nova Scotia in Canada, followed by Northern England. In 1850, he returned to Edinburgh. Until his seventy-second year of age, he also practised in Leicester and London.

He gained fame throughout England as a promoter of abstinence and a healthy lifestyle. He vowed never to smoke tobacco or drink alcohol. For sixty years, he refrained from any sort of narcotic drugs, never smoked, and in 1878 turned vegetarian. Over time, he became involved in the homoeopathic movement. He was a member of the British Homoeopathic Society and, for several years, vice-president of the Society for the

Study of Inebriety, founded in 1884 to explore, among other things, the connection of alcohol and other narcotic drugs with heritability and eugenics.

Wielobycki did not limit himself to publishing articles on homoeopathy and abstinence. He regularly visited the poor quarters of the city, looked into pubs and dosshouses, and recruited alcoholics into abstinence societies he founded and co-financed. For his activities, he received applause from numerous members of medical and abstinence societies, as well as members of Parliament, who attended the jubilee held in London for the centenary of his birth.

Until the end of his life, he was described as a ‘rosycheeked, unbent [man] with a soldierlike countenance,’ walking twelve miles every day starting at six in the morning. He could read the finest print, even though he never wore glasses. He died in St John’s Wood near London. His funeral gathered activists from many pro-abstinence and philanthropic societies.

Dr Wielobycki at an alcoholic’s bed – drawing

Maria Zakrzewska

(1829–1902)

Physician, founder of the New England Hospital for Women and Children, and pioneer of women’s medicine in the United States.

She was born in 1829 in Berlin to a noble family that had lost its estates and wealth in the Russian partition. She was the daughter of Ludwik Marcin Zakrzewski, a scion of Polish aristocracy employed as a civil servant. From her youngest years, Zakrzewska assisted her mother, a midwife. Fascinated with medicine, she decided to follow in her footsteps and become a doctor.

In 1847, she became a student of the Berlin School of Obstetrics, later serving as the chief midwife at the Charité Hospital and designated successor of the school’s rector. From the beginning of her career, Zakrzewska had to contend with the aversion of medical circles that were unfavourably disposed toward women. Due to these prejudices, she was forced to resign from her position. In 1853, she left with her sister for the United States. After some early difficulties of expatriate life, Zakrzewska came into contact with Elizabeth Blackwell – the first woman in America to have received a Doctor of Medicine degree. The renowned physician took the Pole under her wing, enabling Zakrzewska to be admitted to medical school at the Western Reserve University in Ohio, from which she graduated in 1856.

After completing her studies, Zakrzewska worked at the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children, founded by Blackwell. Later, she moved to Boston, where she was employed at the New England Female Medical College. Unfortunately, prejudices against women practising as physicians once again pressured her to change employment.

In 1862, in Boston, she founded the New England Hospital for Women and Children – the second hospital in the United States to be run exclusively by women. The hospital, to which she dedicated forty years of her life, enabled women physicians to complete training and internships and allowed female patients to be treated by someone of their own sex. It became one of the most important medical institutions for women in the 19th century, challenging stereotypes that blocked women’s access to medical education in the USA. Zakrzewska was also a pioneer in hiring Black women as nurses. As a feminist and abolitionist, she made friends with William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and Karl Heinzen.

She authored numerous papers in medical journals. Zakrzewska’s hospital continues to serve patients today as a social healthcare institution under the name of The Dimock Centre.

Her groundbreaking project of building playgrounds for children in large urban areas (for instance, in Boston) dates back to 1885 (preceding similar initiatives in New York, where the first experimental playground in New York, at 2nd Ave/91st Street, did not appear until 1891–1894). Thanks to that initiative, she was dubbed the ‘Mother of Playgrounds.’

Zakrzewska died on 12 May 1902 in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts.

A photograph of the first New England Hospital for Women and Children in Boston, 1862

List of Illustrations

Anigstein Ludwik

Photograph based on: [in:] Polska Światu commons.wikimedia. org, CC A 4.0 International [online:] https://polskaswiatu.pl/ anigstein-ludwik-liberia-tajlandia-usa/.

A delegation of experts from the League of Nations while taking a break in their journey to the USSR; Ludwik Anigstein is second from the left; 1935: Polska Światu, public domain [online:] https:// polskaswiatu.pl/anigstein-ludwik-liberia-tajlandia-usa/.

Babiński Józef

Illustration based on photo: Józef Babiński – Central Medical Library, ref. GBL F-3837-2.

K. Orzechowski, Józef Babiński w Dziejach Ubiegłego Okresu Neurologji: (Sylweta Badacza i Człowieka na Tle Środowiska)

Beck Adolf Abraham

Structural diagram of a cell: Fizyologia Człowieka, vol. 1–11 https://polona.pl/item-view/7d9adf7a-4b24-4b28-99ad-03cb1285 3b2f?page=6

Adolf Abraham Beck – portrait based on: Polska Światu, public domain [online:] https://polskaswiatu.pl/beck-adolf/

Adolf Abraham Beck in the company of Napoleon Cybulski; Polska Światu, public domain [online:] https://polskaswiatu.pl/ beck-adolf/

Title page of Cybulski and Beck’s Fizyologia Człowieka textbook: Fizyologia Człowieka, vol. 1, Warszawa 1915 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/fizyologia-czlowieka-t-1, NDU4MjM2OTk/6/#info:metadata.

Beiser (Baiser) Mojżesz

Mojżesz Beiser – portrait: J. Beiser, Życiorys Mojżesza Beisera Doktora Medycyny, Obywatela Honorowego, Radnego Miasta Lwowa i t. d. Lwów: 1881 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/zyciorys-mojzesza-beisera-doktora-medycyny-obywatela-honorowego-radnego-miasta-lwowa,MTE2MDg1Mjky/4/#info:metadata.

Title page in Jan Beiser’s book describing the life story of Mojżesz Beiser: J. Beiser, Życiorys Mojżesza Beisera Doktora Medycyny…

A page in Jan Beiser’s biography of Mojżesz Beiser: J. Beiser, Życiorys Mojżesza Beisera Doktora Medycyny…

Biernacki Edmund Faustyn

J. Stumman – Edmund Biernacki – portrait – [1r] – d9578d2a-3e36-40ff-af54-3d5a00a696aa

Professor Edmund Biernacki’s physics laboratory: commons.wikimedia.org [online:] https:// creazilla.com/media/traditional-art/7301378/ pracownia-fizyczna-prof.-biernackiego-61519.

https://polona.pl/sets?searchCategory=objectSets&page=0&size=24&sort=RELEVANCE&searchLike=%22Edmund%20 Biernacki%22&copyright=false

Błeńska Wanda

Illustration based on photo: Wanda Błeńska – website of Wanda Błeńska’s beatification process at www.wandablenska.pl

Photographs by: MFA. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland’s photographic documentation of project monitoring by MFA representatives at Wanda Matugga Health Centre in Uganda (named after Wanda Błeńska), where the ‘Provision of Wanda Matugga Health Centre with necessary equipment for healthcare services’ project was being implemented and co-financed as part of Polish development collaboration by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland.

Chudziński Teofil

Illustration based on: Teofil Chudziński [in:] Loth, E., Teofil Chudziński (1842–1897), w 25 Rocznicę Zgonu, Archiwum Historii i Filozofii Medycyny 3 (1) 1925, 57.

Anatomia Porównawcza Zwojów Mózgowych. Dz. 2, extract from the diaries of La Société des Sciences Exactes à Paris, Paris 1880, vol. 12. Broca’s Anthropological Laboratory and Museum (early 20th century). Laboratory shelves holding numerous series of skulls and brains in glass cases. The photographs originate from album no. 2 SAP (p. 3). At the Archive of the Anthropological Society in Paris, deposited at the MNHN.

Cieszyński Antoni

Professor Cieszyński – portrait based on: https://www.szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/jednostka/-/jednostka/5967584 – public domain.

Third Dental Conference in Kraków – participants include Professor Antoni Cieszyński, Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 3/1/0/13/110 [online:] https://www.szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/ jednostka/-/jednostka/5970229/obiekty/459812#opis_obiektu – public domain.

Antoni Cieszyński, Polish professor of stomatology, before 1940, File:Antoni_Cieszy%C5%84ski_NAC.jpg

Dowgiałłówna Stanisława

Illustration based on photo: Stanisława Dowgiałłówna – Museum of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University, Collegium Medicum [online:] https://krakow.eska.pl/pierwsza-taka-drogeria-w-krakowie -otwarta-121-lat-temu-prowadzily-ja-wylacznie-kobiety-18-032024-aa-ZibP-kn6R-KRNV.html.

Flatau Edward

Edward Flatau – portrait: E. Flatau, Atlas Mózgu Człowieka i Przebiegu Włókien, Berlin 1895 [online:] https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/Edward_Flatau#/media/File:Edward_Flatau.jpg – public domain.

Title page of Flatau’s Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres [online:] https://polona.pl/item-view/61ea1e4e-34fa-4bc7-803d-a4c9c13263c2?page=4 – public domain.

One of the pages of Flatau’s Atlas of the Human Brain and the Course of the Nerve-Fibres: Edward Flatau, Atlas mózgu człowieka...

Gałęzowski Ksawery

Ksawery Gałęzowski – portrait: Tygodnik Illustrowany 14 (1907), 295 [online:] https://bcul.lib.uni.lodz.pl/dlibra/publication/89/edition/62/ content – public domain.

Title page of Ksawery Gałęzowski’s Hygjena Wzroku, K. Gałęzowski, Hygjena Wzroku, Warszawa: 1889 [online:] https://polona2.pl/search/?query=hygjena_wzroku&filters=public:1.

Gałęzowski Seweryn

Seweryn Gałęzowski – portrait – Source: https://polona.pl/ item-view/d22ad56b-eebc-484f-b699-21c6d00a57c2?page=0 –public domain.

Monument to Seweryn Gałęzowski – Source: https://polona.pl/ item-view/92c82234-38ac-45d0-b5cc-4f09d9153304?page=0 –public domain.

Seweryn Gałęzowski’s obituary – Source: https://polona.pl/ item-view/b25987b3-42b3-4130-b1e3-c7302cd1d100?page=0 –public domain.

Jonston Jan

Illustration based on: Jan Jonston – portrait, copper engraving by Christian Romstet, 1673, Ch. Romstet, Johannes Jonstonus Polonus [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Jonston#/media/Plik:Johannes_Jonstonus_Polonus.jpg – public domain.

Title page of Jan Jonston’s Dendrographias Sive Historiae Naturalis de Arboribus et Fructicibus Tam Nostri Qvam Peregrini Orbis Libri Decem…: https://polona.pl/preview/c2fc7c7f-6810-445d-877c-ef5f0db693bd –public domain.

Title page of Jan Jonston’s Idea Universae Medicinae Practicae Libris VIII Absoluta, https://polona.pl/item-view/97fb4947-0992-4097-bf4b-3cc82d9ac1f2?page=6 – public domain.

Jurasz Antoni Stansław

Antoni Stanisław Jurasz – portrait: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antoni_Jurasz_(otorhinolaryngologist)#/ media/File:Anton_Stanislaus_Jurasz_(HeidICON_28688).jpg –

Creative Commons Licence (Credit) – On the same terms 4.0 International – CC BY-SA 4.0.

Antoni Stanisław Jurasz – portrait: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antoni_Jurasz_(otorhinolaryngologist)#/ media/File:Antoni_Jurasz.jpg – public domain.

Title page of Antoni Stanisław Jurasz, Laryngoskopia, publ. by Stowarzyszenie do Wydawnictwa Dzieł Lekarskich Polskich, Kraków: 1878 [online:] https://polona.pl/item-view/6eb70223-f8a5-4075-9f62-6feae01e4230?page=4 – public domain.

Jurasz Antoni Tomasz Aleksander

Antoni Tomasz Jurasz – portrait: Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 3/1/0/10/248 [online:] https://www.szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/ jednostka/-/jednostka/5985356 – public domain.

Praesidium of a surgical conference. Seated from the right: Professor Antoni Leśniowski, Professor Tadeusz Ostrowski, Professor Antoni Jurasz and Professor Jan Glatzel. Standing from the right: Docent Dr Stanisław Nowicki, Dr Sławiński and Dr Byszewski: Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 3/1/0/10/925 [online:] https://www. szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/jednostka/-/jednostka/5958737/obiekty/248269#opis_obiektu – public domain.

Antoni Tomasz Jurasz – portrait: Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 3/1/0/10/249 [online:] https://www.szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/ jednostka/-/jednostka/5967624/obiekty/289098# opis_obiektu –public domain.

Kuflewski Władysław Augustyn

Kruszka W., Historya Polska w Ameryce, vol. 10, Milwaukee: 1907, photo: p. 133 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/historya-polska-w -ameryce-poczatek-wzrost-i-rozwoj-dziejowy-osad-polskich-w-polnocnej,ODk3NjI3OTM/136/#in.1fo:search:%22Kuflewski%22.

Orłowski J.K., Ignacy Jan Paderewski i Odbudowa Polski, vol. 1, Chicago cop.: 1939, p. 133, [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/ignacy-jan-paderewski-i-odbudowa-polski-t-1,ODk3NDg0Mzg/132/#info:search:kuflewski – public domain.

Landowski Edward

Illustration based on photo: Edward Landowski – Archive of Paul Landowski Museum, Museums of the City of Boulogne-Billancourt.

Leśniewska Antonina

https://muzeumfarmacji.muzeumwarszawy.pl/o-muzeum/ patronka-muzeum/

A. Grycuk, Muzeum Farmacji w Warszawie 2013 [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plik:Muzeum_Farmacji_w_Warszawie_05.JPG.

Obituary, Wiadomości Farmaceutyczne 12 (Yr 64), p. 14 [online:] https://polona2.pl/search/?query=%22Antonina_le%C5%9Bniewska%22&filters=public:1&highlight=1.

Lipińska Melania

Melania Lipińska, Polish physician living in France – portrait photograph: Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 1-Z-474 [online:] https://audiovis.nac.gov.pl/obraz/203386/38781bfadadddc3d8dd7407cf92ee5e7/ – public domain.

Melania Lipińska during a visit to the United States in 1922, in the company of Jean Jules Jusserand (French Ambassador to the USA) and Albert Thomas (director of the International Labour Organisation at the League of Nations) [online:] https://www.facebook. com/fundacjasplotpamieci/photos/a.907228112988674/144964751 8746728/?type=3.

Midowicz Joachim

Joachim Midowicz – portrait: [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/ wiki/A%C4%87im_Medovi%C4%87#/media/. https://polona.pl/item-view/ c12345f8-16bc-48f8-b389-5481d7912775?page=8

Mierzejewski Jan Lucjan

Illustration based on: Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski – portrait: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jan_Mierzejewski#/media/File:%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8 %D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0 %B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9.jpg – public domain

Jan Lucjan Mierzejewski – portrait: Nowości Illustrowane 14 (1908), 17 [online:] https://jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl/dlibra/publication/123209/ edition/115661/content – public domain

Mikulicz-Radecki Jan Antoni

Jan Antoni Mikulicz-Radecki – portrait: [online:] https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki#/media/File:Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki_(c._1878).jpg – public domain.

Jan Mikulicz-Radecki in the operating theatre of the University of Wrocław: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki#/media/File: Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki_w_ sali_operacyjnej_Uniwersytetu_Wroc%C5%82awskiego_(1899). jpg – public domain.

Jan Antoni Mikulicz-Radecki – portrait: [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Mikulicz-Radecki#/media/Plik:Jan_Mikulicz -Radecki_(1890).jpg – public domain.

Nencki Marceli Wilhelm

Photograph based on: https://polona.pl/item-view/ ec9494b0-4b1b-4340-b185-917b0387fb44?page=3

Title page of Marceli Nencki’s, Utlenianie Ciał Aromatycznych w Organizmie Zwierzęcym, M. Nencki, Utlenianie Ciał Aromatycznych w Organizmie Zwierzęcym, Kraków: 1871 [online:] https://polona2. pl/item/utlenianie-cial-aromatycznych-w-organizmie-zwierzecym,OTI4OTc3OTY/4/#info:metadata – public domain.

Title page of the publication containing all of Marceli Nencki’s work: M. Nencki, Opera Omnia: Gesammelte Arbeiten von Prof. M. Nencki. Bd. 1, 1869–1885, Braunschweig: 1904 [online:] https://rcin. org.pl/dlibra/publication/187268/edition/152812/content"https:// rcin.org.pl/dlibra/publication/187268/edition/152812/content –public domain.

Neusser Edmund

Edmund Neusser – Edmund von Neusser – Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia

Prof. Dr. Edmund Neusser, Biesiada Literacka 35 (1912), p. 174 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/biesiada-literacka-pismo-li teracko-polityczne-illustrowane-t-72-nr-35-31-sierpnia,MjU5NDUz OTg/15/#info:search:%22Edmund%20neusser%22.

Odachowska Ewa

Illustration based on photo: Ewa Odachowska – website of the World Union of Veterans of Home Army www.armiakrajowa.org. pl, tablet # 793.

www.armiakrajowa.org.pl and documentation from the archives of Polish Embassy in Chile.

Olszak Wacław

Illustration based on photo: Wacław Olszak – Archive of the Polish Academy of Sciences, ref. IV-116-001 [online:] https:// www.szukajwarchiwach.gov.pl/jednostka/-/jednostka/5902446/ obiekty/388268.

Olszewska Jadwiga

Illustration based on photo: Jadwiga Olszewska – Central Medical Library, ref. GBL-I-1327 (103).

Opęchowski Teodor

Teodor Opęchowski – portrait: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Teodor_Op%C4%99chowski#/media/File:Openchowski_stomach_innervation_b&w.jpg – public domain.

Innervation of the stomach according to Opęchowski: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Teodor_ Op%C4%99chowski#/media/File:Openchowski_stomach_innervation_b&w.jpg – public domain.

Orzeszko Florenty

Illustration based on photo: Florenty Orzeszko – Polacy w Tomsku (XIX–XX stulecia). Biografie.

Tomsk, railway station, 1904 [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Tomsk#/media/Plik:OldTomsk(1904).jpg.

Picado Jadwiga Michalska

Illustration based on photo: Jadwiga Michalska Picado – screenshot of the website of the Colegio de Médicos y Cirujanos de Costa Rica (medicos.cr), public domain.

Gomez-Miralles, Teodoro Picado Michalski [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teodoro_Picado_Michalski, photo: Gomez-Miralles, Costa Rica in 1944.

Pilsztynowa Salomea

Illustration based on photo: Salomea Regina Rusiecka – screenshot of the website of www.odb-office.eu, Wikimedia Commons, public domain.

https://polona.pl/item-view/d508f0fe-788a-45bc-9a0d-ae2b3641d2 4e?page=0

S. Halpir, first page of Salomea Pilsztynowa’s manuscript [online:] https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regina_Salomea_Pilsztyn#/media/ Plik:Salomea_Pilsztynowa_p1.jpg.

Postempski Paweł

Kraj: tygodnik polityczno-społeczny 1896 (Yr 1), app.: Dział Literacko-Artystyczny, vol. 2, no. 48, p. 221 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/kraj -tygodnik-polityczno-spoleczny-r-1-dod-dzial-literacko-artystyczny-t-2-nr-48,MTQ2MTQ1NzIx/4/#info:metadata.

Archiwum Historii i Filozofii Medycyny 1968, no. ¾, p. 379

Raciborski Adam

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Ludwik Rajchman

Ludwik Rajchman – portrait: Polish National Digital Archive, ref. 1-C-56a [online:] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ludwik_Rajchman#/media/File:Ludwik_Rajchman_-_dyrektor_ Sekcji_Higieny_Sekretariatu_Ligi_Narod%C3%B3w_NAC_1-C-56a. jpg – public domain.

Ludwik Rajchman – portrait: [online:] https://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/Category:Ludwik_Rajchman#/media/File:Ludwik_Rajchman_in_his_apartment_in_Paris.jpg – public domain.

Remak Robert

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Semerau-Siemianowski Władysław

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Ancient Coins Collection [in:] National Museum in Warsaw Skupiewski Lucjan

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Struś Józef

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Teichmann Ludwik Karol

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Tripplin Teodor Teuttold Stilichon

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Waszklewicz Adam Ernest Narymunt

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Wielobycki Dionizy

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Wielobycki Seweryn

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Dr Wielobycki at an alcoholic’s bed – drawing, Biesiada Literacka no. 48 (1893), 341, https://polona2.pl/item/biesiada-literacka-pismo-literacko-polityczne-illustrowane-t-36-nr-48-1-grudnia -1893,MjU5MzQ1Njk/4/#info:metadata.

Maria Zakrzewska

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Anigstein Ludwik

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Babiński Józef

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Beck Adolf Abraham

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Beiser (Baiser) Mojżesz

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Biernacki Edmund Faustyn

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Błeńska Wanda

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Chudziński Teofil

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Flatau Edward

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Gałęzowski Seweryn

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Jonston Jan

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Jurasz Antoni Stanisław

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Jurasz Antoni Tomasz Aleksander

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Kuflewski Władysław Augustyn

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Midowicz Joachim

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Mierzejewski Jan Lucjan

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Neusser Edmund

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Olszak Wacław

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Remak Robert

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Semerau-Siemianowski Władysław

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Szarejko Piotr, Semerau-Siemianowski Władysław [in:] Szarejko Piotr, Słownik Lekarzy Polskich XIX Wieku, vol. 1, Warszawa 1991, 498–499.

Üstüner Hacer Topaktaş, 180 Lat Historii – POLONEZKOY – 180 Yıllık Mazi, transl. by Paulina Dominik, (Adampol), Beykoz Kitalığ 2022 [online:] https://www.academia.edu/82712593/180_lat_historii_POLONEZKOY_180_Y%C4%B1ll%C4%B1k_Mazi_Adampol_[accessed: 10 April 2024].

Semerau-Siemianowski Władysław, Wspomnienia z Adampola, Ziemia 11 (1924), 201–204 [online:] https://www.wbc.poznan.pl/ dlibra/publication/109786/edition/125074 [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Dr Władysław Semerau-Siemianowski i jego kolekcja monet antycznych [in:] Skarbnica Narodowa [online:] https://www.skarbnicanarodowa. pl/kroniki-numizmatyczne/228-dr-wladyslaw-semerau-siemianowski-i-jego-kolekcja-monet-antycznych [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Ancient Coins Collection [in:] Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie (Polish National Museum in Warsaw) [online:] https://www.mnw.art.pl/o-muzeum/zbiory-studyjne/gabinet-monet-i-medali/kolekcja-monet -antycznych/ [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Skupiewski Lucjan

Dubicki Andrzej, Lucjan Skupiewski. Biografia społeczno-polityczna, Warszawa 2018.

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Struś Józef

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Sowa Tomek, Józef Struś, lekarz z Poznania [in:] CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl [online:] https://ciekawostkihistoryczne.pl/2023/03/12/ jozef-strus-lekarz-z-poznania/ [accessed: 4 April 2024].

Struś Józef (1510–1568) [in:] Region Wielkopolska [online:] https:// regionwielkopolska.pl/artykuly-wybitni-wielkopolanie/strus-jozef-1510-1568/ [accessed: 4 April 2024].

Teichmann Ludwik Karol

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Tripplin Teodor Teuttold Stilichon

St. M. Rz., Teodor Tripplin, Tygodnik Illustrowany 267 (1881), 81–82 [online:] https://bcul.lib.uni.lodz.pl/dlibra/publication/1607/ edition/1253/content [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Judycki Zbigniew Andrzej, Lekarze Polskiego Pochodzenia w Świecie: Popularny Słownik Biograficzny, Kielce 2020, 105.

Kośmiński Stanisław, Słownik Lekarzów Polskich, Warszawa 1883, 520.

Echa warszawskie, Przegląd Tygodniowy Życia Społecznego, Literatury i Sztuk Pięknych 5 (1881), 54–55.

Waszklewicz Adam Ernest Narymunt

Judycki Zbigniew Andrzej, Lekarze Polskiego Pochodzenia w Świecie: Popularny Słownik Biograficzny, Kielce 2020, 105.

Zembrzuski Ludwik, Dr Med. Adam Ernest Narymunt-Waszklewicz (1812–1901), Warszawa 1935.

Wielobycki Dionizy

Polak J., Dr Dyonizy Wielobycki, Tygodnik Powszechny 13 (1883), 93–94 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/tygodnik-powszechny1883-nr-13-1-kwietnia,ODYxOTgwMTA/0/#info:metadata [accessed: 20 April 2024].

Paryż [Fałszerstwo], Czas 21 (1857), 2 [online:] https://polona2.pl/ item/czas-r-10-no-21-27-stycznia-1857,Nzk3NTEyNjE/1/#info:metadata [accessed: 20 April 2024].

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Wielobycki Seweryn

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Emigrant Polski Stuletni w Londynie, Przegląd Emigracyjny = Review of the Polish Emigration 16 (1893), 177 [online:] https://polona2.pl/ item/przeglad-emigracyjny-review-of-the-polish-emigrationdwutygodnik,NTAyMjg2ODk/8/#info:search:%22Wielobycki%22 [accessed: 10 April 2024].

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[Seweryn Wielobycki], Kurjer Warszawski 264 (1893), 8 [online:] https://polona2.pl/item/kurjer-warszawski-r-73-nr-264-24-wrzesnia-1893,MTkzMDUxNTQ/7/#info:metadata [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Maria Zakrzewska

Panas-Goworska Marta, Goworski Andrzej, Maria Zakrzewska –Polska Lekarka w USA [in:] Polonika [online:] https://polonika. pl/polonik-tygodnia/maria-zakrzewska-polska-lekarka-w-usa [accessed: 10 April 2024].

Magowska Anita, Maria Zakrzewska – Pionier Kobiecej Służby Zdrowia [in:] Instytut de Republika [online:] https://iderepublica. pl/znani-nieznani/indeks/ maria-zakrzewska/ [accessed: 10 April 2024].

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FB_Warszawa_panorama.jpg, 4 September

Warsaw skyline seen from the Siekierkowski Bridge, 2013, photo by F. Bramorski,

2018

Ruins of the Church of the Holy Saviour, Prizren, 2007, photo: M. Manske, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Church_of_the_Holy_Saviour_-_Prizen.jpg, 28 August 2018

Great Wall of China, 2011, photo: Jsporysz, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/P1090059_ Ching.jpg, 11 July 2018

Baku seaside boulevard, 2011, photo: E. Jafarov, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bakuview.jpg,11 July 2018

Stockholm Old Town, 2014, photo: Brorsson, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stockholms_Old_Town_seen_from_Skeppsholmen.jpg, 11 July 2018

Panoramic view of Kiev, 2009, photo S. Ilski, https://www.panoramio.com/photo/104546169, 15 July 2018

National Park in Canada, 2024, photo: G. Wieschendahl, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikimedia/commons/8/83/Lake_Louise_Canada_Banff.jpg, 11 July 2018

View of Geneva, 2005, photo fr: Utilisateur: Ork.ch, https://upload.wikimeia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Geneve_2005_001_Ork.ch.jpg, 12 July 2018

Ljubljana, 2011, photo M. Grmek, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lublana_178.jpg, 21 June 2018

View of Urga, before 1924, [in:] J. Talko-Hryncewicz, Z przeżytych dni (1858-1908) , Warsaw 1930, BAPAN

Antarctica, 2006, photo A. Mandemakerot, https://commons.wikimedia.org/windex/php?search=Antarktyda&title=Special&go=Go&searchtokendq752edvc6dgqxi3xv4i2w#/media/File:Mt_Herschel,_Antarctica._Jan_2006.jpg, 4 July 2018

Africa, desert, 2010, photo Mehrdad68, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:-_panoramio__mehrdad68_(22).jpg, 4 July 2018

La Silla astronomical observatory, Chile, 2009, photo F. Kamphues, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A360_degree_panorama_of_a_unique_cloudscape_ over_La_Silla.jpg, 4 September 2018

Pakistan, Swat Valley, 2006, photo Drnajeebansari, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Falak_Sher.jpg, 12 July 2018

Sika deer, Hostin, Melnik county, Stredocesky Kraj, 2018, photo Horakvlado, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Jelen_sika_%28Cervus_nippon%29%2C_obora%2C_Host%C3%ADn%2C_okr._M%C4%9Bln%C3%ADk%2C_ St%C5%99edo%C4%8Desk%C3%BD_kraj_03.jpg, 12 July 2018

Hokkaido, botanical garden in Shiraoi, 2014, photo I. Arabas

Lake Baikal, 2008, photo: J. Arvaniti

Kresty Coast, St. Petersburg, 2012, photo Florstein, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kresty_prison_in_SPB.jpg, 3 September 2018

Panoramic view of Singapore, 2010, photo Chensiyuan, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1_Singapore_city_skyline_2010_day_ panorama.jpg, 3 September 2018

Village of Listvyanka on Lake Baikal, 2008, photo: J. Arvaniti

The mountain range behind Kelsey Creek, Australia, 2011, photo: Greditdesu, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kelsey_Creek-Dittmer_Mountains.jpg, 28 August 2018

Macedonia, 2013, photo: Dennis Jarvis, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Macedonia-02724_-_Samuel’s_ Fortress_%2810903998104%29.jpg, 11 July 2018

Lena, 2015,

The Lena, 2015, photo: H. Krajewska

Fotografia

Photo taken during Józef Morozewicz’s travels, 1903, MZPAN

The Siberian Taiga, 2015, photo: H. Krajewska

Tragarze

Porters from Leon Barszczewski’s expedition, n.d., photo: L. Barszczewski, KIS

Panorama of Tbilisi, n.d., tps://www.google.pl/search?q=Tbilisi&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiP88S3-e_ bAhVBxKYKHU0MBHQQ_AUIDCgD&biw=1366&bih=593#imgrc=DtYj_9Qbu8BD8M, 26 June 2018

Oslo city centre, 1899–1905, photo: L. Szaciński, Oslo Museum, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gardekasernen_i_Tordenskiolds_gate_9,ca._18991905, _Ludwik_szacinski_%29,Oslo_museum,_OB.F1864F.jpg?useland=pl, 23 June 2018

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