INDOOR FARMING IN FUTURE LIVING MODELS

University of Westminster, College of Design, Creative and Digital Industries School of Architecture and Cities MSc Architecture and Environmental Design 2018/19 Sem 2&3 Thesis Project Module

INDOOR FARMING IN FUTURE LIVING MODELS

Carine Berger Woiezechoski London, United Kingdom September 2019

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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I would like to express my deepest and most sincere appreciation for everyone who has enabled me to complete this thesis. Firstly, my family and colleagues for supporting me unconditionally through this journey, especially to my boyfriend, João Paulo, for always having been by my side, and to João Pedro, Nadya and Julia for facing this challenge together with me at the University of Westminster.

I am especially grateful to Dr Rosa Schiano-Phan, my mentor and course leader, whose contribution with stimulating suggestions, discussions and encouragement helped me truly believe in my research. Furthermore, I would also like to acknowledge the much appreciated and crucial role of Architect Mina Hasman, of Skidmore, Owings and Merril (SOM), who fully supported me beyond academic knowledge.

I am also thankful for the technical support of Chris Nelson, fundamental to the technical complexity of this topic.

Lastly, thank you Joana and Kartikeya, on behalf of all the tutors who have always helped me with their precious time and knowledge to bring out the best in me.

Danke shön, Grandma.

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ABSTRACT

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According to a UN report, by 2050, the world’s population will be of approximately 9.7 billion.

Nearly 80% of these people will reside in urban centres. Such growth, together with the changing climate, will strain natural resources, especially the food supply chain. There will also be fundamental issues in relation to human health, as well as to education and social wellbeing, stemming from people’s growing distance from and limitation on food supply. Previous speculative projects have attempted to solve problems using indoor farming. Producing food within a building in an urban environment suggests a different worldview for the next generation of living and a new urban lifestyle.

included solar studies of three building geometries to evaluate daylight availability and sun hours reaching the identified farming zones within the building. The thermal analysis, conducted in both the farm areas and the residential and office areas, revealed that the optimum footprint is based on a square geometry. As an example, one vegetable – the lettuce – was chosen to quantify and compare the production potential, food miles, energy and water consumption between the main farming systems.

The project’s suggested design maximises daylight and sunlight access in order to produce vegetables using the least amount of energy. In this manner, the hybrid farms minimise greenhouse gas In collaboration with SOM, this project explores emissions, transportation distances and land use. the feasibility of using a hybrid farm network to Keywords: indoor farms; food production; energy densify London for the next generation of urban consumption; urban agriculture; vertical community; living. The supporting evidence-based research densification.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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01. INTRODUCTION 10 01.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND 01.2 INDUSTRY COLLABORATION 01.3 CONTEXT 01.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT 01.5 RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS 01.6 METHODOLOGY 01.7 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 01.8 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS 01.9 STRUCTURE

02. LITERATURE REVIEW 16 02.1 BUILT ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE 02.2 AGRICULTURE AND URBAN FARMING 02.3 URBAN FARMING AND SOCIETY 02.4 OUTCOME

03. CONTEXT & PRECEDENTS 26 03.1 LONDON 03.2 SITE 03.3 PRECEDENTS 03.4 CASE STUDY 03.5 OUTCOME

04. ANALYTIC WORK 04.1 SOLAR STUDIES 04.2 OUTCOME 04.3. SQUARE SHAPE 04.3.1 FORM FINDINGS 04.3.2 VENTILATION STRATEGIES 04.3.3 BIOCLIMATIC SECTIONS 04.3.4 THERMAL ANALYSIS 04.3.5 PRODUCTION 04.4 OUTCOME

05. DESIGN APPLICABILITY

06. CONCLUSIONS 06.1. OUTCOME SUMMARY 06.2. FUTURE

07. APPENDICES

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TABLE OF FIGURES

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Figure 01.1 Indoor farming benefits diagram (Developed by the author)13Cre 02.1 Present and future diagram. (Developed by the author) 17

orientation

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Fig 04.1.3 Analysis of sunlight hours facing West orientation 43

Fig 02.1.1: UK density cities graphic (SOM, 2015) 18

Fig 04.1.4 Daylight Autonomy analysis facing South Fig 02.1.2: World densier cities graphic (SOM, 2015) 18 orientation 44 Figure 02.1.3: SOM London densification study (SOM, 2015) 18

Fig 04.3.1 Diagram of user profile

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Fig 04.3.2 Diagram of London typical typologies 46

Fig 02.2.1: Hydroponics systems

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Fig .02.2.2: Aquaponic systems

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Fig 04.3.3 Building program and area proportion graphic 47

Fig 02.3.1: The London Food Strategy 2018

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Fig 04.3.4 Concept diagram

Figure 03.1: Context map

27 Fig 04.3.1.1 Workflow diagram

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Figure 03.1.1 Köppen-Geiger climate map

29 Fig 04.3.1.2 Building zoning process diagram

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Fig 03.1.2 Relative and Absolute Humidity graphic 29

Fig 04.3.1.3 Straight façade solar access diagram 49

Fig 03.1.3 Daily Average Global Illuminance table 29 Fig 04.3.1.4 Tilted façade solar access diagram Fig 03.1.4 Monthly Average Dry Bulb Temperature graphic 29 Fig 03.1.5 London’s sun path

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Fig 03.1.6 London’s wind rose

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Fig 03.1.7 Greater London greenspace map

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Fig 04.3.1.5 CIBSE Guide glass proprieties graphic 49 Fig 04.3.1.6 Facades scenarios analysed

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Fig 04.3.2.1 Ventilation strategies diagrams

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Fig 04.3.2.2 Optivent simulations and apertures de29 sign 51

Fig 03.2.1 Map of potential areas to be densified 30

Fig 04.3.3.1 Bioclimatic section strategy in Summer 52

Fig 03.2.2 SOM New Covent Garden Market Mas- Fig 04.3.3.2 Bioclimatic section strategy in Winter 52 terplan 30 Fig 04.3.4.1 TAS detail inputs 53 Fig 03.2.3 Vauxhall Nine Elms Battersea Plan 30 Fig 04.3.4.2 Modular CLT system section 54 Fig 03.3.1 The Vertical Forest 31 Fig 04.3.4.3 Operable shading device floor plans 54 Fig 03.3.2 Parsona Group building interior 31 Fig 04.3.4.4 Single glazing Thermal Performances 55 Fig 03.3.3 Parsona Group façade 31 Fig 04.3.4.5 Double glazing Thermal Performances 55 Fig 03.3.4 The project Farmhouse developed by Precht Fig 04.3.4.6 Shade devise Thermal Performances 56 Studio 32 Fig 04.3.4.7 Buffer Zone Thermal Performances 57 Fig 03.3.5 The Home Farm project developed by Spark Architects 32 Fig 04.3.4.8 Production systems diagram 58 Fig 03.4.1The Farmhouse typical unit and floor plan 33 Fig 05.1 Study croqui

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Fig 03.4.1.2 Localization of farms typologies and floors Fig 05.2 Ground floor plan 62 in the building 34 Fig 05.3 Tenth floor plan 63 Fig 03.4.2.1. Vegetables general growing conditions 34 Fig 05.4 Twentieth floor plan 64 Fig 03.4.3.1. Shadow range analysis 35 Fig 05.5 Sections 65 Fig 03.4.3.4. Analysis of sunlight hours in Winter 36 Fig 05.6 Ground floor perspective 66 Fig 03.4.3.5. Analysis of sunlight hours in Midseason Fig 05.7 South West dynamic façade in Mid-seasons 66 36 Fig 05.8 Ground floor commertial units perspectiv67 Fig 03.4.3.6. Analysis of sunlight hours in Summer 37 Fig 05.9 South facade perspective 67 Fig 04.1 Analysed scenarios diagram 41 Fig 06.1 Masterplan proposal 69 Fig 04.1.1 The three buildings shapes analysed

42 Fig 06.2.1 Map of opportunities areas to be densified 71 Fig 04.1.2 Analysis of sunlight hours facing South in London

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01.

INTRODUCTION

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“ We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us.�

Winston Churchill

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

01.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND Fifteen thousand years ago, there was not a single farm on the planet. Agriculture triggered such change in society and on how people lived that its development has been dubbed the “Neolithic Revolution.” (Despommier, 2010). However, today, traditional agriculture is the primary reason for seventy percent of water consumption and eighty percent of global deforestation (FAO 2017). On average, fresh food produced travels 2000 kilometres in order to reach consumers.

Aside from transportation, this operation consumes additional energy for refrigeration in order to ensure fresh supplies. This process emits a significant amount of carbon to the atmosphere (Kozai 2015). Along with agriculture, increasing urbanisation worldwide is another primary source impacting the Earth’s conditions.

As the human population continues to increase, possibly to 9.7 billion people by 2050 (United Nations, 2019), nearly 80% of the people will reside in urban centres. Together with climate change, such increase will strain natural resources, especially the food supply chain. Global food production will need to grow by an estimated seventy percent in developed countries and one hundred percent in developing countries to match current trends in population growth (based on production information from 2005 to 2007). The UK, for example, uses 72 percent of its landmass for agricultural practices but imports nearly half of the food it consumes. It is necessary to consider new food production methods in order to ensure food security and prevent natural habitats from being destroyed for new farmland.

There will also be fundamental issues related to human health, as well as to education and social wellbeing, stemming from people’s growing distance from and limitation to access to their food supply.

01.2 INDUSTRY COLLABORATION Considering the available research on how to offer more liveable, sustainable and flexible living models for 2050, this thesis strives to contribute to explores the feasibility of using a hybrid farm network to densify London for the next generation of urban living. The purpose is to sustainably supply food and enhance occupant wellbeing, while also strengthening the community within

a built environment. This interest is shared by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) architects and lead to the formation of thesis collaboration.

01.3 CONTEXT The thesis is conducted in the form of a research based on theoretical studies and analytical work on the most effective scenario for year-round vegetable production in London, as well as the specific locations of the Covent Garden Market area in Nine Elms, London, UK. 01.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT As mentioned, the world is facing interrelated issues concerning urban environment, society and agriculture under increasing world population and climate change. All such factors may and are known to be mitigated by vertical farming within urban centres.

01.5 RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESIS Producing food within a building in an urban environment suggests a different worldview for the next generation of living, as well as a new urban lifestyle – in which access to food supply is made available at immediate proximity. The energy demand associated with indoor farming, however, is still higher than certain food production systems. In light of this scenario, in order to find balance between existing methods (conventional, greenhouse and vertical farm) and production, and to minimise natural resources consumption, this research has created a hybrid farm, which offers benefits mainly in three different scales.

• Built environment: Farms will improve air quality, decreasing pollution and noise levels.

By minimising food supply distance, it will reduce the urban heat island effects and reduce cost and emissions. It will also affect the microclimate and outdoor thermal comfort.

• Community: The farms will transform food habits in London, offering a sustainable alternative to fresh food consumption, distribution and supply, as well as job and educational opportunities, together with a shared area for people to enhance their sense of community.

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Figure 01.1 Indoor farming benefits diagram;

• Occupant’s wellness: Farms will enable occupants to live closer to their food, which will provide both psychological and physical benefits as well as visual comfort.

01.6 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Interest in this topic arises from the lead author’s own experience and observations: The rupture between the natural environment and its connection with people in urban centres causes a fundamental change - when compared to rural areas - in the way people relate to their food sources. This thesis aims to provide people living in urban centres with opportunities to break away from the unsustainable industrial distribution system and explore ways to grow and harvest their food as part of their lifestyle.

The “Tree” is a prototype of a new urban and social vision that goes beyond the boundaries of traditional environmental design, embracing a key issue associated with the sustainable future of our cities, which also relates to the environmental response and performance of buildings.

In addition, Tree promotes an opportunity for a new living vision of the future, merging a hybrid indoor farming, residential, offices and commercial typologies. To this end, an example building is created in the Covent Garden Market area of Nine Elms, London, UK. 01.7 METHODOLOGY The study begins with the industry’s interest in further understanding the future living model for 2050. It is a collaborative thesis with Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) architects who share the interest in how to design more liveable, sustainable and cost-effective residential buildings for the next generations.

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The study follows the literature review, based on the evidence that bringing people closer to vegetation can improve human wellbeing and liveability in living spaces. However, it questions the fact that this strategy is not being carried out through edible plants, using only ornamental plants for lack of knowledge and initial costs. In order to understand and support the hypothesis, this study is backed up by a section of researches to understand the vegetable necessities, growing conditions and available systems analysing precedents as well professional support to choose the most suitable species for the local climate and growing system.

As the concept is a novelty, there is no built precedent in residential typology, a research project called “The Farmhouse”, developed by Studio Precht in 2018, was chosen as the case study to test the solar performance in three different levels and two farm typologies facing South and North orientation in Nine Elms, London, UK. The shadow study is performed with the grasshopper and ladybug weather tools to define the optimal condition, with minimum surrounding obstruction. This data was studied to understand the concept effectiveness and limitations in the London climate.

Thus, the case study does not have enough solar exposure for the farms, and the production was hardly effective, raising doubts as to whether the design is in fact functional or merely aesthetic. For this reason, the next step was investigating the solar performance of three main building shapes: circle, triangle and square; in the same location of the case study in order to evaluate daylight availability and sunlight hours are reaching the identified farming zones within the building to know the most effective shape.

Consequently, thermal analysis was conducted in both the farm areas and residential and office areas, to determine the most effective geometry.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

One vegetable - lettuce – was chosen to quantify and compare the production potential, food miles, energy and water consumption between the four main farming systems (i.e. conventional, greenhouse, vertical farming and hybrid), for technical reasons.

01.8 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

The “Tree” is suggested as an urban, hybrid farm, delivering asocial transformation by reshaping the future of urban living. It offers a sustainable alternative to fresh food consumption, distribution and supply, as well as a healthy food source and a shared area for local community cohesion.

chosen as the Case Study; to wit, ‘The Farmhouse’.

Meanwhile. a study was carried out on vegetable growing conditions and systems. Chapter 4 discusses the second component, which is the leading research done on the same site location in London, and the numerical investigation carried in the building to analyse the performance of the three different shapes. The second section of this chapter deals with thestudy of the most effective shape. The analytical assessment addresses the performance of the current geometry exploring the design to maximise solar exposure, providing maximum production with least natural resource consumption.

The building has been designed to maximise daylight and solar access in order to produce vegetables using the least amount of energy. In so doing, the building with hybrid farms minimises greenhouse gas emissions, transportation distances, and the overall negative impact stemming from the agricultural industry. Furthermore, it provides a healthy, alternative food source for the increasing urban population, re-establishing local food sovereignty, and producing O2, while also capturing CO2, and minimising water consumption to 1 to 20 litres per square metre, and 43 food miles or less when compared to the traditional lettuce production system, whose consumption is 250 times and 47 times greater, respectively.

However, the concept is 56 percent less productive when compared to the vertical farm system, and it consumes 46 times less energy to grow 28 percent more vegetables than the conventional system.

01.9 STRUCTURE

The thesis is divided into three main parts: 1 - Literature Review 2 - Case Study 3 - Analytic Work

The Literature Review is linked to the description of the research work and further explains how the issues are connected. This section is divided into three main subparts, which focus on understanding the effects of agriculture related to built environment, urban farming and society. Chapter 3 briefly introduces the city of London and the context which will be studied. Furthermore, this chapter discusses precedents, one of which was

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

02.

LITERATURE REVIEW

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Figure 02.1 Diagram. (Source: Developed by the author)

Thoroughly reviewing literature is key to ensure the holistic understanding of the huge issues humans will face in the food supply chain. One of the biggest challenges of the rapid urbanisation phase is climate change and disconnection from our food supply. Nowadays, humans have the chance to break the standards and adopt a more real approach in the way one thinks, acts and changes behaviour to ensure the opportunity for next generations to experience a more liveable and sustainable society. It is impossible to

believe in urban farming without connecting all the triggers, stages and effects that a complex food system has today. It is essential to have a macro view of all factors to correlate Built Environment and Agriculture with Urban Farming and the social behaviour of modern times, and the legacy of the past. This chapter will interconnect all points that make up this complex structure, and the knowledge obtained allows for the prioritization of different aspects to formulate the research question for the fieldwork and analytical studies.

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02.1 ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE noisy and cramped spaces for the users.

According to the UN report entitled “World Population Prospect 2019”, by 2050, the human population will be of approximately 9.7 billion people. Nearly 80% of this population will reside in urban centres. The London Plan 2018 estimates the population will increase by 70,000 each year, providing warning on how essential it is to adapt the food system and diets to mitigate the impact of such increase on climate change, soil, biodiversity and quality of life.

As the population of large cities is projected to increase significantly, urban planning firms such as SOM have proven that cities such as London, for example, will not have to build on greenbelt land as it is possible to intelligently densify the city. Despite fear and lack of knowledge of London, densification decreases the population’s quality of life. This is not the case, as the capital of UK is four times larger than smaller cities like Brighton, which has a better quality of life (see fig. 02.1.1), even though both cities have the same density level. When compared to other denser cities in the world, such as New York, Paris, Barcelona and San Francisco (see Figure 02.1.2), London is in an even more favourable situation.

There is no doubt that the future is urban. For this reason, several big cities, such as London, for example, need to rethink the way they want to prepare for the next generations. London, on average, has a low density of just 20 units/ha.

The densest boroughs are Kensington & Chelsea, and Islington, which has 55 units/ha. According to (SOM, 2015) if the whole of Greater London’s density was increased to this level, it could accommodate 21.2 million people. Only 50% of that is necessary to house the predicted population in 2030 (see figure 02.1.3). It will also be possible to address the 2050 community growth. Having this in mind, it is important to highlight that the density provided by urban areas arguably offers means to achieve wellbeing, while minimising environmental impact (Simon, 2016). One of the advantages is mobility, as shorter journeys and less carbon footprint allows for the reduced emission of fossil fuels. Thanks to accessibility, dwellers have the chance to live closer to amenities and work, allowing them to walk, use a bike or public transport, promoting health benefits as well as reducing the number of cars, and consequently, of the pollution levels.

Density can be one of the keys to addressing important goals in cities that have the potential to reduce people’s environmental impact and contribute to regional sustainability, facilitate social cohesion and equity, create opportunities for innovation and economic improvement, and generate rich heritage (Simon, 2016). On the other hand, it could also have adverse effects on these same agendas, when applied in high proportions, which could also result in lack of space as well

Along with urbanisation, another primary concern is the increased demand for food, as traditional agriculture is the primary reason for 70 percent of water consumption and 80 percent of global deforestation (FAO 2017). Farming is the largest emitter of the greenhouses gases, reaching 30 percent in the world. It is estimated that food and drinks account for almost 10 percent of London’s total consumption-based greenhouse gas, mainly due to the type of food eaten and the way it is grown (PAS 2070).

Fig 02.1.1: Population (millions) in relation to the average gross urban density (persons/ha, urbanised areas)

Fig 02.1.2: Population (millions) with regard to the average gross urban density (persons/ha, urbanised areas)

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Figure 02.1.3: To accommodate the additional 1.5 million in population in 2030, London would only need 50% of its current area.

Indeed, the fresh food produced, on average, travels 2000 kilometres in order to reach consumers. Aside from transportation, this operation consumes additional energy in refrigeration in order to preserve the supplies fresh. This process emits a significant amount of carbon to the atmosphere (Kozai 2015).

Nowadays, urban areas consume more than twothirds of the global energy and account for around 70% of the planet’s CO2 emissions (IEA 2016).

As a result, sustainable solutions for food, water, energy, and transport are needed as integrated components of a city’s climate change adaptation.

Global food production will need to increase by an estimated 70 percent in developed countries and 100 percent in developing countries to match current trends in population growth (based on production information from 2005 to 2007). It is necessary to consider new food production methods to guarantee food security and prevent natural habitats from being destroyed for new farmland.

encouraging a food system based on more local, seasonal and sustainably produced foods, as well as by changing the eating habits of the population. The entire food supply chain impacts the environment, from production to transportation to packaging and wasted food, which accounts for 1.3 billion tons every year (Food Aid Foundation 2015). Residential proximity to food supply may be related to health-promoting factors such as reduced air and noise pollution, and may also provide ‘indirect’ exposure via views from the property. Residential proximity is also generally positively related to ‘direct’ exposure; i.e. people in greener neighbourhoods tend to report visiting greenspace more often.

As climate change is already a reality, organisations and governments need to rethink the way cities are built and people are fed. The last report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) focused on the consequences, should the temperature rise by 1.5 degrees Celsius above preindustrial levels. Also, the United Nations report entitled “State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2019” warns that climate change and increasing climate variability and extremes are affecting agricultural productivity, food production and natural resources, with impacts on food systems and rural livelihoods, including a decline in the number of farmers. All of this has led to major shifts in the way in which food is produced, distributed and consumed worldwide – food is set to become a vital architecture tool, not just to reshape urban centres, but also human lifestyle.

Food supply in most countries depends on a vast set of interactions, including global sourcing, timing supply chains and a reliance on other sectors, such as transport systems and trade routes, working in a structured way. Increasing the amount of local, sustainable food can play a crucial role in reducing vulnerability to future shocks or changes to international trade arrangements. For instance, the London Council has been investigating the impacts of Brexit on London’s complex food system (Tim Lang, Tony Lewis, Terry Marsden & Erik Millstone 2018), as the city uses 72 percent of its While measures are required to reassess the entire landmass for agricultural practices but imports system, it is still possible to prepare cities to face nearly half of the food it consumes. the alarming food crisis-related data. Actions such as a new reassessment of land use and agriculture It is possible to reduce the carbon footprint by

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

worldwide as well as consumer behaviour would be critical for this new system. Proposals include increasing productivity in urban areas, wasting less food and persuading more people to switch their diets to healthier eating habits. There is no doubt that minimizing the distance between citizens and their food will improve the environment reducing the heat island effects, the need to transform natural regions into cropland, maximizing resource use efficiency (e.g. vertical farms use less water compared to traditional system) reducing pollution caused by pesticides as well greening the city (reducing excessive runoff, increasing water treatment, improving air and sound quality through circular production patterns).

02.2 AGRICULTURE AND URBAN FARMING Urban farming may be defined as the cultivation, processing and distribution of food and other products for commercial purposes through crop production in urban areas, mostly to feed the local population (Greensgrow, 2018). In recent years, the popularity of urban food production has increased due to mitigating traditional system issues, climate change and the preservation of food security. Researchers and practitioners alike have thus looked for and developed means to break down the association of arable land and production to concentrate on the possibilities for large-scale food production in and on buildings.

Despommier (2010), was one of the first experts to write a book offering a rather straightforward solution: grow most food crops within specifically constructed buildings located within city limits using methods that do not require soil. Despommier developed the vertical farming model with in order to increase agricultural area by building the area upwards in a controlled environment.

are soilless and can control light, temperature, moisture and carbon dioxide artificially. The crop needs to be grown in optimum conditions of light, water, nutrients and carbon dioxide (CO2) to achieve maximum plant biomass (yield).

• Vertical Farms: Same as indoor farms, but in vertically stacked layers to maximise on growing space/m2.

Today there are different kinds of growth systems, but the three mainly used ones are: Hydroponics is a method of growing plants in a water-based, nutrient-rich solution which uses a range of gutters and channels to move the solution (see figure 02.2.1). Hydroponics does not use soil. Instead, the root system is supported using an inert medium such as perlite, rockwool, peat moss etc. (James E. Rakocy et al. 2010).

Aquaponics refers to any system that combines conventional aquaculture (raising aquatic animals such as snails, fish or prawns in tanks) with hydroponics (cultivating plants in water) in a symbiotic environment (James Clawson 1998). (see figure 02.2.2) Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium (see figure 02.2.1).

(The Earth Institute Columbia University 2015)

Fig 02.2.1: Different hydroponics systems used in the field

However, it is not easy to define the term, as it means different things to leading experts in the field. Plant factories, Urban Agriculture, rooftop farms, Controlled Environment farms are all terms in use.

The author distinguishes two definitions in this paper: • Indoor Farms –umbrella term used for the different alternatives on growing crops in controlled environment agriculture (CEA). This includes greenhouse agriculture, vertical farms, plant factories and certain rooftop farms. These systems

Fig .02.2.2: Aquaponic systems diagram.

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When compared to traditional land-based agriculture, indoor urban farming advantages include more efficient use of land and resources, year-round high-yield production, protection from weather events, guaranteed food security, limited or zero use of pesticides and fertilizers, water/ energy savings and lower logistics costs (T. Heath et al. 2012). It is possible to grow a variety of plant diversity, but fruits, vegetables and herbs are the most common ones. From the economic standpoint, such systems are capable of promoting bio-based economy in cities, which replaces fossil fuel-based resources with renewable ones, generating circular economy structures, resulting in more efficient urban logistics, reducing transportation needs, which also brings energy and cost savings and encourages the local economy by creating new job opportunities.

As for maintenance, the hydroponic system is relatively easy to keep as well, insofar as weeding, tilling, kneeling, and dirt removal are not material issues. Additionally, it provides a less labour-intensive way to manage larger areas of production. Furthermore, it may offer a cleaner process given that no animal excreta are used.

Moreover, it provides an easier way to control nutrient levels and pH balance. According to Ebba Hedenblad and Marika Olsson, “In soil, many factors, such as temperature, oxygen level, moisture, and microorganisms, affect how soilfixed nutrients are made accessible to plants since the nutrients are being dissolved in water through erosion and mineralisation.

Lighting is one of the essential components of the optimal condition for indoor agriculture. Available LED technologies provide only 28% efficiency, an efficiency ratio that must be increased to at least 50-60% to make indoor cultivation methods economic. Fortunately, Philips has developed a line to serve the indoor farming market, in which LEDs are 68% efficient while minimising method costs.

Unlike the sun, traditional assimilation lighting and TL lighting LED only omit one light colour.

No energy is wasted on unused light spectra by the plant” (Levenston, 2011). As such, the new lighting technology provides the right lighting colours that plants need for photosynthesis - blue, red and infrared light.

Furthermore, new lighting technology simulates the colour spectrum of sunlight to foster the growth of vegetables and fruits. “The light uses an electromagnet to excite argon gas as its light source, instead of a filament. For this reason, it

uses much less energy and can last up to 100,000 hours, twice as long as an LED light” (Matuszak, 2012). It also produces more heat than an LED light, but less than an incandescent bulb. Therefore, the lights create enough heat to grow plants, without wasting energy to heat the entire building.

Moreover, the light units are calibrated to create an “ideal” microenvironment by producing highquality lighting that is similar to daylight. These units are also long-lasting, with a life span of about one decade, and are sold at affordable prices.

It has been argued that the energy demand associated with vertical farming is much higher than traditional farming because its benefits have been put in check. Consequently, with Defra lettuce grown in traditionally heated greenhouses in the UK, an estimated 250kWh of energy per year is required for each square meter of growing area.

By comparison, lettuce grown on a vertical farm that uses artificial light all year round needs an estimated 3,500 kWh per year for each square meter of cultivated area. Notably, 98% of this energy use is due to artificial lighting, fans and heaters to control the microclimate.

Researchers also predict that farming operations will be fully automated shortly. For example, monitoring systems will be widely implemented to detect a plant’s need for water, nutrients and other requirements for optimal growth and development. Sensors can warn farmers by signalling the presence of harmful bacteria, viruses or other microorganisms that cause disease. Also, a gas chromatograph technology will be able to accurately analyse flavonoid levels, providing the optimal time for harvesting. These specific technologies are not new. Their development has been ongoing and will likely proliferate shortly (Matuszak, 2012).

Undoubtedly, this field has many benefits on an economic, environmental and social scale (the latter will be studied in the next subchapter), but there are still several areas that require further development to make it more feasible and sustainable, such as switching to alternative energies to minimise the use of artificial light. Understanding the local conditions and how they can be used before choosing the relevant methods and technologies is as essential as proper planning to minimise applicable costs and disadvantages. It is then possible to know what the tools may be used to design the project. Also, the economic feasibility of urban agriculture options is

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improving as potential use cases and application areas expand into multidisciplinary projects, and available technologies mature, making their use more feasible.

02.3 URBAN FARMING AND SOCIETY Fifteen thousand years ago, there was not a single farm on the planet. Agriculture triggered such a change in society and in the way people lived that its development was dubbed the “Neolithic Revolution” (Despommier,2010). Previously, human beings maintained houses where food was available, adopting a hunting-free lifestyle that directly interfered with the way in which they lived. Thus, it was necessary to carry on only the essential to survive. The mastery of agriculture led to the establishment of human beings and their roots in both directions: starting to base their food, as they were able to sow, water and reap, and at the same time, abandoning the nomad style since the guaranteed food spared them from running into all the dangers it posed. As such, the first civilisations grew up near rivers, where water played a crucial role in their lives.

It is correct to say that agriculture played a fundamental role not only in how human beings began to eat, but also changed society and how people related to each other. Proof thereof lies in the fact that civilisations planted just what they knew, limiting themselves to seeds available in the region, and began exchanging seeds and crops as a way of relating to other peoples. Therefore, agriculture was the first form of globalised economy that made people start to experience market values that are still the base of human society to date, as is case of the concept of supply and demand (Whelan, J. and Msefer, K. 1996).

Increased planting scales to feed people has also made civilisations develop from an architectural and urbanistic point of view. As the population grew and needed to settle, agriculture was at the centre of society; rural areas became places where people worked during the day, prayed at night for the rain and were still willing to fight for in the event of an invasion. This scenario made the buildings play the role of protecting the villages by planting in the centre.

Man and society have evolved without thinking about how to use agriculture sustainably. People have only focused on how to make it more productive to their benefit, scaling it up, creating more

powerful tools for sowing, watering and reaping, and humans play a crucial role in the food supply crisis that the world is about to face. The disruption of this traditional farming model is no longer a futuristic utopia. It is a key issue and the object of study of this thesis and one of the strategies that the city of London, in the United Kingdom has in its action plan to ensure the best quality of life for its people. Symbol of multicultural diversity, the English capital welcomes people from all over the world and consequently their eating habits and customs. More than restaurants and street markets, food is at the centre of the discussion of health, happiness and prosperity in general.

Sadiq Khan, mayor of London, stated in the report entitled “The London Food Strategy 2018” that his agenda is committed to offering all inhabitants access to good, healthy and affordable food, regardless of social or economic background.

The concern comes from the alarming fact that, according to the report, London has one of the highest rates of childhood obesity in Europe.

Based on “The London Plan 2016”, 38 percent of Londoners aged 10-11 years old is obese, when compared to 34 percent nationally, which also represents a peculiar scenario due to the complexity of its highly dependent food system in European countries. So far, the UK's exit from the EU bloc is uncertain, which accounts for different scenarios with respect to the issue of food.

It is arguable that as it is currently organized, the food system is unsafe, and it must be redesigned, as food is a change-making agent in the lives of people and communities, at all scales, when duly supplied. The new Food System Strategy has been led by Claire Pritchard, chair of the London Food Board. The starting point of this strategy is the definition of “good food”. Once treated generically, the explanation not only follows as a plan of the responsible organs and organisations but also helps to understand all the steps involved in the food chain of a major world metropolis.

(See fig.02.3.1) The report affirms: “Food growing in urban farms and other spaces are vitally important for society.

Food growing can bring communities together, help people make friends and feel less isolated, make areas safer, and improve people’s physical and mental health and wellbeing.” Easy access to fresh food for children would make cities a healthier place to live, encouraging them to eat more fruit and vegetables and minimising ques-

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Fig 02.3.1: Definition of good food accordingly The London Food Strategy 2018.

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

tions, such as where does my food come from and ment are being quantified like never before. For how is it produced? the first time, a private company has developed a system capable of quantifying and measuring the London has one of the most vibrant urban food impact of construction on the occupant's health growing networks in the world. In the last deand wellbeing. The Well Building Standard is a cade, more than 2,700 new food growing spaces performance-based system for certifying built have been set up as part of the Capital Growth environment monitoring capabilities that impact Network Program, with over 200,000 Londonhuman health and wellbeing through the air, ers involved so far (Capital Growth, 2019). These water, nutrition, light, fitness, comfort and of numbers consequently allow the community to mind. According to them: An individual's eating become more involved and coexist with nature, habits are affected by a variety of social, economic, offering social, physical and psychological benpsychological and environmental factors. Such efits. Human being’s connection with nature and as proximity to grocery stores, farmers’ markets, their benefits have been studied for decades. The greenmarkets, and gardening opportunities. Aspioneer was Erich Fromm in 1973; later the term pects of the spaces in which we live, learn, work, was used by Edward O. Wilson in his work in and play. If designed with human health as a top 1984, introducing the Biophilia Theory. Defined priority, spaces can encourage people their dietary as “humans possess an innate tendency to seek patterns within areas and in turn, contributing connections with nature and other forms of life” to overall health.

(Wilson, 1995), Wilson’s theory explored the need for nature premise as a hereditary human The FAO, Diet, Nutrition and Chronic Disease behavioural trait.

Prevention Expert Consultation Report recommend a minimum daily intake of 400 g (five Regardless of the extent to which individuals feel servings) of fruits and vegetables to prevent dietor perceive biophilia, researches have indicated related chronic diseases, like cancer, diabetes, that merely spending time in nature is beneficial cardiovascular disease and obesity. In many cases, for human health. The study published by Sciencountries do not encourage healthy eating habits. tific Reports, 2019, performed with 20,000 people Cities that access supermarkets and grocery stores in England, was based on people spending two within walking distance and have agricultural hours per week interacting with nature reported markets and green markets near workplaces and that living in greener urban areas is associated residential areas could help solve these problems. with lower probabilities of cardiovascular disAs mentioned earlier, in subchapter 02.01 within ease, obesity, diabetes, asthma, mental distress, a denser city, it is possible to offer more affordable and mortality, among adults; and lower risks of services equally and to more residents making obesity and myopia. More significant quantities the city more liveable. of neighbourhood nature are also associated with better self-reported health, and subjective wellbeing in adults, and improved birth outcomes and 02.4 OUTCOME cognitive development, in children.

In short, according to the available literature, it is Studies indicate that human dependence on technecessary to explore more sustainable possibilities nology has led to an increase in people's connecto ensure the food supply chain. “Food is vital to tion to nature. Wilson and experts argue that the sustaining life, but the food is also much more detachment from nature and food supply chain than just a meal. It connects everything we do in our daily routine could remove the meaning of as a society, affects the environment, drives our nature for humans, resulting in a loss of human economy, affects our health, and is a central part of respect for the natural world. Indeed, the loss of our cultural life” Claire Pritchard. Therefore, this desire of interaction, resulting in disrespect for thesis aims to provide dwellers with opportunities the ecosystem that underpins human survival, to break away from the unsustainable industrial has been cited as a potential factor contributdistribution system and explore ways to grow and ing towards the acceleration of environmental harvest their food production by placing them destruction, food crisis and species extinction. within a building in an urban setting.

Thus, re-establishing this connection has become The literature revealed the crucial importance of a significant conservation issue. the indoor urban farming as a pivotal answer to The benefits and effects of our building environ-

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improve occupant's wellbeing, promoting social engagement and minimising effects on the built environment.

As the writer Carolyn Steel says, “we need to radically rethink the way we build and feed the cities in the future. Food is set to become a key architectural tool, not just to reshape city and country, but our way of life.�

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CHAPTER 3: CONTEXT

03.

CONTEXT & PRECEDENTS

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Figure 03.1: Map of London showing site location.

Contextual studies are essential to understand the research setting and location. In the first part of this chapter, characterizing the climate of London and the consequences it implies, it is key to understand the factors that contribute to the success of the indoor farm. As a collaborative project with Skidmore, Owings and Merrill Architects (SOM), all theoretical and analytical research eventually leads to a specific application in London. Therefore, in this chapter, site analysis with a strong emphasis on local microclimate is considered.

close to the UK's largest fresh food and flower distributor, New Convent Garden Market. Even though such distribution follows the traditional food system method, such proximity enables the population to be aware that there is a new way of thinking about the food chain, using the farm itself to supply this market and thus play a critical role in the currently imposed model.

Lastly, due to the lack of built precedents in residential typology after the study of existing projects as prototypes, The Farmhouse project presented by Studio Precht was chosen as a case In the meantime, once the city has been defined, study to evaluate the project's productivity and the site location purpose hereof was the result of effectiveness in meeting the demand for sunlight research for areas with high densification poten- hours that vegetables need. tial, with broad access to public transport and

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CHAPTER 3: CONTEXT

03.1 LONDON

overcast sky, which could represent an increase in supplemental artificial lighting in the farms.

According to the Köppen-Geiger climate classifiWind speed will decrease from 3.6m/s to 3.3m/s. cation (fig 03.1.1), London is located on 51.51ºN, 0.14ºW and is classified as oceanic climate and Precipitation will increase from 620mm to typically features moderate climate with warm 680mm. Each month is likely to see more than summers and cold winters. The weather is often 43mm of rainfall and annual precipitation will overcast with high precipitation. From December be of 671mm, with 178 rainy days. In the future, to March, the average DBT is around 6-8°C, and we have to expect higher precipitation on fewer during summer from June to September, the days, which means an increase in the levels of UHI average DBT is around 16-19°C. However, due effects and extreme weather conditions, such as to the more common extreme weather events of flooding, desertification and altered precipitation heatwaves, the temperatures can reach 30° C. patterns. (see fig.03.1.3). The analysis of the future scenario allows us to understand the challenges The monthly average relative humidity is condesign must address to provide controlled food siderably even through the year, featuring values supply. To avoid a food crisis within a building, between 65% from April to August and 75% from the design should maximise the availability of November to January. The absolute humidity daylight hours and reuse most natural resources varies between 4g/kg in winter, and in July it to be self-sufficient. reaches 12g/kg which sits inside of the comfort zone. (fig 03.1.5). The annual rainfall is 620mm This is essential, considering London is currently total with 186 rainy days and more than 33mm the most populated city in the European Union, rainfall per month. The prevailing wind direc- with 8.8 million citizens. Berlin, the second upper tion is South-West, and the average wind speed runner, in comparison, represents one-third of is 3.50m/s (see fig. 03.1.2). the population (August 2019). The rapid development of London’s and increase in its people will As for sunlight hours, in winter, it is only of 8 qualify London as a megacity in less than a dehours. During the daytime, the sun is also at a low cade. Megacity means a metropolitan area whose angle, so it is often obstructed by buildings and population exceeds 10 million people. According there is limited solar access, especially in denser to the Office for National Statistics (ONS), London areas. The sun’s path during the winter solstice is expected to reach 10 million citizens by 2024 is low, the angle of the sunrays is 15° at 12 hours and 13 million by 2050 (Dearden, 2016). London’s and during summer solstice, 62° (fig 03.1.8). booming population is leading to continuously Façades facing NE to NW usually get limited increased demand for more sustainable food sunlight, South and West façades have the most supply and homes. exposure. In summer, the days are up to 16 and a quarter hours long. London enjoys under 1573 As mentioned before, the amount of food that hours of sun annually (ClimateData,2019). The London needs to import has a considerable imaverage outdoor illuminance is up to 50klux and pact on air pollution as the main responsible for radiation on the horizontal surface which peaks emissions is transport. Matthews-King says air at up 500W/m2 in July. The often overcast sky pollution was thought to have caused 64,000 sets the Design Sky Illuminance at under 6Klux. deaths in the UK in 2015, decreasing life expec(fig 03.1.6) tancy of about 1.5 years, in average.

Apart from analysing the current weather, it is essential for this study and the architecture, in general, to be driven by the future conditions considering the life span of the buildings, as the idea is to build more intelligent, liveable and sustainable cities for the next generations. For the future weather based on the IPCC A1B scenario, DBT will increase around 2°C and the peak days will be around 30°C in summer and -1.8°C in winter, with generally warmer summers and colder winters. The scenario allows observing an average decrease in global radiation due to the more

Based on the map of London's vegetation and water, it sees to be a green city, especially in zones 1,2 and 3 (fig 03.7.1). However, from 2009 to 2012 in London, 215 hectares of green areas disappeared (IPPR 2016). Thus, as the city is facing a housing shortage, the designer should treat this as an opportunity to design a new and desirable housing, as well as a point in time to rethink how we are impacting the environment and how is it possible to create homes that do not cause further degradation.

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Figure 03.1.1 Köppen-Geiger climate map.

Fig 03.1.3 Daily Average Global Illuminance (Klux).

Fig 03.1.2 Monthly Average Relative and Absolute Humidity.

Fig 03.1.5 London’s sun path.

Fig 03.1.6 London’s wind rose

Fig 03.1.4 Monthly Average Dry Bulb Temperature

Fig 03.1.7 Source: Greenspace Info for Greater London CIC

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03.2 SITE The choice of site began with the assessment of possible areas to be densified in London with the highest transport rating (PTAL) (see figure 03.2.1); according to the NLA Tall Building Survey published this year, 31 tall buildings will be delivered in the future in the Nine Elms and Battersea area. Based on such premises, the area was a good start point to analyse a new housing model. The proximity of the New Covent Garden Market was also a motivator as it represents the largest fruit, vegetable and flower wholesale market in the UK. The market serves 40% of fruits and vegetables eaten away from home in London. (New Covent Garden Market, 2019). Therefore, the proximity of the market will bring attention to another food system offered by hydroponic farms, as well as allowing more opportunity and sale of the building’s local organic production.

fication and development areas with the potential for a dynamic new quarter providing new 16,000 homes, 20,000 jobs, social infrastructure, local shops and transportation. This plan is for an area of 195 hectares, defined by the Lambeth Bridge across Vauxhall to Battersea Power Station and Chelsea Bridge (see fig. 03.2.3).

SOM’s current suggestion is for one of the stages (see fig. 03.2.2), which consolidates the market south of the Vauxhall Rail Viaduct, freeing up to 8 hectares of surplus land, which will be transformed into a high-quality mixed-use neighbourhood comprising approximately 3,000 new homes, 135,000 square feet of new offices and 100,000 square feet of retail, leisure and new community facilities. This thesis will use this area as an example of what could be reproduced in other areas in London with similar potential.

Fig 03.2.1 Map of potential areas to be densified. (SOM)

In the past, the site was known as a transportation link continued into the 1800s when Nine Elms Station was the terminus for the seminal Southwestern- Railway from Southampton.

Today, the area’s role as a connection hub continues. The Northern Line Extension to Battersea Power Station is underway, set to open in 2020.

However, the Power Station just opened a brand new, state-of-the-art pier for the MBNA Thames Clipper. (Nine Elms London, 2019).

The area was formerly primarily industrial but is now becoming more residential and commercial, as is the case of developments Chelsea Bridge Wharf or Embassy Gardens, as well as three significant municipal properties - Carey Gardens, Patmore and Savona. The London Core Strategy identifies Nine Elms and Battersea as one densi-

Fig 03.2.2 Masterplan of New Covent Garden Market proposed

by SOM.

Fig 03.2.3 Perspective of complete Plan Vauxhall Nine Elms Battersea

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Fig 03.3.3 Parsona HQ façade with ornamental plants. (Parsona Group)

Fig 03.3.1 The vertical Forest perceptive (Studio Boeri)

03.3 PRECEDENTS

Fig 03.3.2 Employers are encouraged to integrate with farms during work time. (Parsona Group)

The vertical and indoor farming in a controlled environment (CEA) system has been carried out by over 50 worldwide companies that focus exclusively on producing as much as possible in existing and new multi-storey buildings and greenhouses in various systems in different conditions and strategies. Such as underground, one example visited by the author was the company Growing Underground in London, where the idea is to grow food in useless spaces, in this case, a tunnel initially built as air-raid shelters during World War II was used.

The interest in this topic arises from the lead author's own experience and observations growing up on a farm and the disruptions that moving to a large urban centre has caused in one’s routine and wellbeing. After all, the urban indoor farm is a relatively new subject, and it was only discussed in 2010 by Despommier, as previously mentioned in the literature review. Unfortunately, this concept is still a research project when it is within residential buildings. Therefore, it is highly relevant to study existing similar cases to understand best practices as well as why they are The importance of green in our daily routine unavailable in the field. have been considering mainly inside of offices, the Parsona Group HR, in Tokyo, (see figure Currently, it is possible to see residential buildings 03.3.2) incorporated indoor farms into their that only explore the use of ornamental plants whole working environment which they felt had bringing occupants closer to green, through the enormous advantages, worker welfare and worker facade, walls or indoors. However, there are retention benefits. As a secondary benefit, it also questions about maintenance costs and future allowed them to develop a department for training efficiency. Such as The Vertical Forest Tower, agricultural workers to fill the demand for highly Milan by Studio Boeri, 2014 (see figure 03.3.1) skilled indoor farmers (Parsona Group, 2019).

The project was developed for a new district in Milan the two towers changed, but the region In the residential typology spectrum, two cases in ecosystem has many controversies as to its costs. research level were founded with the same concept

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to create a new sustainable network to provide Similar to the aforementioned solution, Spark food and resilient homes.

Architects office developed a conceptual Home Farm Retirement House in Singapore, in 2014 (see Studio Precht’s 2018 Farmhouse project (see figure 03.3.5) addressing two pressing challenges figure 03.3.4) was developed as a modular timber Singapore faces: the city-state needs to support A and V shape housing where residents produce a rapidly ageing society, and enhance its food their food in vertical farms, and for homeowners security, as 90% of the locally consumed goods is to have the opportunity to design their place, currently imported. The concept introduces verbased on living and farming needs and demands. tical aquaponics farms and rooftop soil planting The module catalogue includes structural and to the realm of high-density and flexible housing gardening elements, waste management units, that has been designed to cater to the needs and water treatment, hydroponics and solar systems preferences of seniors, where they may also find for homeowners to choose from, thereby ensuring employment. The environmental sustainability layout flexibility. The building was an organic lifeand efficiency of Home Farm would be enhanced cycle of by-products, in which the output of one by proposed features such as the collection of process is the input of the other, in order to reuse rainwater for use in the aquaponics system, and the heat produced by building to grow potatoes, the use of a biomass boiler generates on-site nuts or beans (Precht Studio 2019). energy. (Spark Architects 2019).

Fig 03.3.4 Modular shapes with different possibilities and project perspective. (Precht Studio, 2019).

Fig 03.3.5 Home Farm plans, a section of apartments typologies and perspective. (Spark Architects 2019).

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03.4 CASE STUDY

and it can work, the project needs to be designed for each site in a unique way to meet production Satisfactory daylight and quality availability are and site demand. essential for a plant, as light is vital to its survival. One of the challenges of urban farms is to The methodology applied started with the modelminimise the amount of energy consumption and ling the project in Rhino software, as the office did its dependence on this source. Mainly in cities not provide the project, a geometry with similar with denser areas such as London and limited dimensions was modelled in the site mentioned in availability of sunshine because of local weather chapter 03.2 in Nine Elms, London. The project conditions. The purpose of this thesis, in this case does not bring any information regarding the study, is to further examine the challenges that vegetable species. Thus, research was carried out farms located in central London could face if they to understand the suitable vegetables for the Lonwere naturally lit, analysing the viability of a more don climate, their conditions, needs and systems sustainable urban farm that uses artificial light that could be applied. In order to understand only as an additional source and not as a primary the site surroundings and the best spot for the one. To understand the performance of an internal tower, a shadow range analysis was performed urban farm and its real effectiveness when within using Honeybee plugin for mid-seasons, summer the housing units, the projects reviewed in the solstice and winter solstice. As the intention is to preceding were contacted for further information. understand the solar exposure in the farms, the As no response was obtained from the offices, Sunlight Hours simulation using Honeybee plugin one of the projects was chosen to perform solar was conducted for each season of the year in two studies in a hypothetical scenario. different farm cells in two different orientations, South and North, in three different floors, and Studio Precht’s 2018 Farmhouse Project was also in three different scenarios as well. chosen as a case study because it answers part of the questions this thesis brings, such as providing a more flexible housing model that allows people 03.4.1 GEOMETRY of all ages to live or work in. It is adaptable, it is developed with a modular timber structure, The building was developed with 3x3x3 meter and it is possible to attach as many units as the triangle; in this case, when attached, every two occupant needs to give him/her the freedom to floors can accommodate four studios and eight do everything according to their needs and life double-height lofts. The primary residential unit span, catering to all audiences, singles, families or consists of 9 triangles with an area of 81m² (see retirees. Moreover, it is a sustainable example of fig. 03.4.1.1). The 28-storey building is surrounded the urban farm using timber as structure, circular by two typologies of 46m², and 97m² farms, the life model and focuses on providing homeowners farms on the 3rd, 15th and top floor were analysed with daily contact with their food. However, to (see fig. 03.4.1.2). try to prove that the concept is not just aesthetic,

Fig 03.4.1.1 Drawings of a typical unit and floor plan.

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CHAPTER 3: CONTEXT

Fig 03.4.1.2 Localization of farms typologies and floors that the analysis was conducted.

03.4.2 VEGETABLE GROWING CONDI- ing their relationship with fresh food brings more TIONS relevance that the time of urban farms to be built is now and no more in future.

Over the past decade, people's attitude toward vegetables has changed. Suddenly people are eating vegetables voluntarily and not just because they feel they should. This change can be observed in countless signs, from sustainability, the increasing popularity of vegetarian diets, and the new generation of millennia claiming a cultural shift in our diet. However, as mentioned in chapter 02.3, the population still does not eat the recommended portion, mainly for three reasons: price, availability of tasty products and culture. According to Wilson (2018), “In Britain and many other Western countries, the smaller the social gradient, the less fruit and vegetables one will eat�. Because people are already chang-

As this thesis is performed in London, the inhabitants' eating habits and production systems were analysed to create two groups of the most consumed vegetables, also combining species that could be grown under the same conditions and the hydroponic system. Vegetables divided into two main groups are among the most consumed in the UK. Because each vegetable has nutrient, water, light, CO2, and temperature requirements, consultor Chris Nelson indicated the assessment of just one representative vegetable of each group.

The lettuce represents the cold group and the tomato, the warm group.

The conditions presented in the diagram (see figure 03.4.2.1) were structured with the guidance

Fig 03.4.2.1. Diagram with vegetables general growing conditions

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of Sr. Chris Nelson, also parameters for additional artificial lighting needs for the specific vegs were supplied with his support (see in appendix 06.2).

The hydroponic system chosen for the Warm group was the Drip System which works is just like it sounds, is a drip nutrient solution on the plants' roots to keep them moist. But they are especially useful for larger plants that take a lot of root space. As well as when using a more substantial amount of growing media for larger plants, more growing media retains more moisture than smaller amounts, and that's particularly beneficial to large plants because it's more forgiving to the plants (Home Hydro Systems, 2019).

The cold group is produced in the nutrient film technique, which is used to grow smaller and quick growing plants like different types of green salads, baby green, herbs and strawberries. The system uses a pump to deliver water to the grow tray and a drained pipe to recycle the unused water nutrient solution. The grow tray is placed at an angle (supported by a rack or on a bench) to let the water flow down towards the nutrient return pipe. The excess nutrient solution will flow out of this pipe and move into another channel or tube,

where it is recirculated through the system again (Green and Vibrant, 2019).

03.4.3 SOLAR STUDIES

- SITE ANALYSIS

Simulations performed in the plot show that sunlight hours vary greatly depending on the season, even when in a scenario with optimum conditions for a farm, with minimum obstructions in the surroundings which could be a challenge in dense cities. During summer, sunlight hours are the longest with approximately ten hours or more (see fig. 03.4.3.1). During the transitional seasons, the plot receives between eight and ten hours of sunlight per day. However, there is a sharp contrast between winter and summer sunlight hours: In winter, a maximum of eight hours of sunlight reach the area, as the shadow range results shows. The winter and mid-Season analysis were overlapped to identify the best spot, therefore are the seasons which the sun angle is lower, increasing the buildings obstructions’ shadow.

Fig 03.4.3.1. Shadow range in Mid-seasons (21Mar-21Jun/21Sep-21Dec), Summer (21Jun-21Sep) and Winter (21 Dec-21Mar).

- FARM ANALYSIS

To investigate the farm’s production and the number of sunlight hours reaching in South and North façade, three trays levels were analysed in both farm’s typologies; in lower, in medium and in top height. Is important to clarify that the reason for which simulation was performed in this orientation was to understand the best and worst scenario, as London has the prevailing sun penetration in the South façade. As mentioned in the methodology, three floors were addressed (3rd, 15th and 28th) in three different scenarios.

tower is positioned based on the results of shadow range analysis in the first scenario. In the second scenario, the building is rotated 30 degrees to the east, minimising the building exposition to the North façade. In the last one, the tower does not have the studio A shapes. which increased farming area by 10 percent. Furthermore, through simulation, it is possible to see where it is likely to grow cold and warm vegetables, as the first needs at least six hours of sun and the warm group, eight hours, respectively.

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Fig 03.4.3.4. Analysis of sunlight hours in Winter (21 Dec-21Mar).

Fig 03.4.3.5. Analysis of sunlight hours in Midseason (21Mar-21Jun/21Sep-21Dec).

- RESULT

in the assessment: the different seasons and three different floors. The purpose of the assessment is to evaluate the productive capacity of urban farming, according to the hours needed by each group of vegetables, which ranges from six to eight hours or more. It is important to note that the West and East faรงades have not been analysed, despite their production potential, especially of the West, due to its solar incidence.

By approaching the study results analytically, it is possible to draw conclusions that provide for specific and also comprehensive points of view, giving a macro overview of the study as a whole.

For this reason, scenarios one and two were initially compared and evaluated, as scenario three does not have the same built area. Thus, As expected, the first general conclusion drawn the comparison between the three would follow is that the best results were found on the twentydifferent patterns and affect the reading of the eighth floor, in scenario one and scenario two, results. Two other variables were then included with remarkably similar results and during the

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Fig 03.4.3.6. Analysis of sunlight hours in Summer (21Jun-21Sep).

summer solstice. The predictability of the out- three floors, where 30 percent of the analysed come confirms that the highest level, which is area receives eight hours of sunshine and about most exposed to the sun and unobstructed in the 10 percent 6 hours of sun. season, with the sunniest hours, would have the The number of residential units is decreased in best yields regardless of scenarios. scenario three, in the attempt to increase sun When results are individually assessed by sea- exposure, and the farm area was increased by 10 son, it is also clear that the Midseason period percent to test whether less density would obtain scenario is the best option, when compared to more hours of sunlight. This did not prove to be the twenty-eighth-floor results. However, in the a successful strategy, since the results had no second scenario, it is more active on the other significant variation, even with the elimination two floors analysed, due to its positioning facing of the studios for clearance. This indicates that the south faรงade, as it is the orientation with the the farm is susceptible not only to the intensity highest exposure and sun penetration throughout of sunlight and obstructions but also to the shape the year in London. of the building, depth and orientation.

Also as expected, summer had the best results.

The deciding factor for this is simple: there is more sun exposure this season than in the others.

Thus, the twenty-eighth floor gets the best results in scenario one and scenario two, with irrelevant variation in the measured values. However, in scenario one, the second and fifth floors had better angles for vegetable growth.

The overall conclusion of the study, based on the analytical interpretation of the aforementioned variables, demonstrates that this project model is feasible under London weather conditions only upon use of artificial light and auxiliary infrastructure to supply the insufficient sunlight demand, to achieve the desired year-round productivity, especially on the North faรงade, which proved to be unproductive even on the top floor. In short, it Following the contrary logic of summer, winter would be technically possible but would require holds the worst results measured in the study. a high energy demand, which does not meet the This is basically due to local weather conditions passivity objective proposed in this research. and the low angle of the sun in the winter solstice, making the area less productive due to the lack of natural light. Even in the face of this unproductive scenario at first glance, the result of sixty percent of productive hours in scenario one was surprisingly found. Although, conversely, scenario two is the owner of the largest sun exposure on all

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03.5 OUTCOME The context of this research covers several factors that must be taken into consideration while investigating the potential of urban indoor farming in future living models. From a broader perspective: the current change in people's behaviour with food may be the most exceptional opportunity to change the perception that indoor farming is an unfeasible, expensive and far-from-reality concept.

Since the results found in The Farmhouse project make the farm production unfeasible within the case study, they take into consideration that the project was placed on site after its completion and in a city that has no sun practically throughout the entire year. While knowing that this is not the real order of project design, it is essential to emphasize the relevance that these two factors demonstrate when designing such a project, from the outset, by thinking about the area it will be in and all its climate, social and behavioural variables.

The reflection proposed in this study refers to a new way of inhabiting, working and coexisting with food within cities, in a new building model that must take root in the local culture, far beyond simply occupying physical space. The concept may be a trigger for a change that will reach larger scales of thought and lifestyle of the population, so the provocation of this study goes beyond the interpretation of numbers and seeks the understanding of the whole, to create an opportunity for the new approach suggested in the next chapter.

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39

CHAPTER 4: ANALYTIC WORK

04.

ANALYTIC WORK

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Fig 04.1 Diagram with the scenarios analysed in this research.

The last chapter has revealed how investigating the building shape is for indoor farms. The literature and context reviews criticized concerns regarding the social impact and health of the population, by shortening the gap between food production and distribution. This also discussed and proved the potential urban farming may have in mitigating the urban heat island effect, noise and pollution levels. This chapter confirms

the importance of architecture for urban indoor farms by addressing solar studies in three main building shapes: circle, square and triangle, at the same location, to evaluate daylight availability and sunlight hours reaching the identified farming zones within the building. The thermal performance will be conducted at the end, in the farms and residential and office areas, to determine the most effective shape.

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04.1 SOLAR STUDIES

stand which one of them is the best orientation to evaluate the production of warm and cold vegetable groups in each shape.

- INTRODUCTION

Then, daylight autonomy simulations were conducted with the threshold of 12.000 lux for the The three shapes of buildings (circle, square and cold group and 20.000 lux for the warm group triangle) analysed were chosen as standard typolo- in the most productive orientation for the same gies built in the market to understand the most period, to find the most effective shape. effective shape for the indoor farm in the London climate. The towers have the same pattern: area

- ASSESSMENT OF SUNLIGHT of 900m², with the same amount of core and HOURS humid area, all are 20-storey buildings with floor height of three meters, all residential units have the same area, and the analysis is performed in The shape of the building is capable of changing the plot studied in the chapter 03.2 (Nine Elms). the search results for sun hours to make an indoor The total farm area is of 180m² in all shapes, for farm productive. As mentioned earlier, three the sake of reliable comparison. distinct shapes were analysed: triangle, circle and square shapes, in two different orientations, South and West. At the same time, another parameter was established in the study, or the optimization of the number of residential units per floor in order to keep the high densification and maintain the vertical circulation and wet areas equal in all compared shapes.

Fig 04.1.1 The three buildings shapes analysed in this research.

- METHODOLOGY

The daylight simulations performed with Ladybug and Honeybee were based on the following criteria:

The analyses were measured according to the growing conditions of each group. In other words, six to eight hours of sunlight represent the group that needs less sun for cultivation, so here called "cold" group. At the same time, in the "Warm group" are the vegetables that require at least 8 hours of sun a day for healthy growth. Analysing the results of shapes and orientations, the square facing South was 100% of the productive year, offering the best combination of typology and orientation (see fig. 04.1.2). All variables considered, the South façade was more productive in all building shapes compared to the West facade.

Regarding the South analysis, both typologies, circle and triangle, were inferior to square results.

However, the triangle was superior to the circle shape, having 70m² more productivity per year.

The circular shape got the worst results overall, only in Winter solstice did it perform better compared to the triangle shape (see figure 04.1.2).

- occupancy hours for 24 hours, window-towall ratio 100% glazing, glazing with visual light transmittance of 90% and wall and floor surface reflectance of 80% (approximate values of light The West position showed visibly lower results than the South (see figure 04.1.3). The obstrucreflectance according to Thomas (2006). tions in the sunlight were the main factor that Firstly, this investigation focuses on the orienta- contributed to the reduction of the productive area tion of the farms. For this reason, the simulations in all analysed scenarios, accounting for the worst on hours of sunlight were performed on the tenth result achieved by the triangle shape, with total floor in the South and West façade in Midseason, unproductive are of 384m² per year. Moreover, Summer solstice and Winter solstice to under- the circular shape showed a more favourable

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favourable result, reducing its unproductive area eter. Based on the foregoing, buildings facing to 245m² per year.

South are the most effective.

In conclusion, even considering that the analysed The amount of illuminance reaching the farms will situation is the optimum scenario within context, be assessed next, to understand the best shape it is essential to repeat that for the subject matter between the three. hereof, it was necessary as a comparison param-

Fig 04.1.2 Analysis of sunlight hours facing South orientation in Winter Solstice, Midseason and Summer Solstice

Fig 04.1.3 Analysis of sunlight hours facing West orientation in Winter Solstice, Midseason and Summer Solstice.

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- DAYLIGHT AUTONOMY

In this section, another key parameter was conducted to ensure that there are optimum growing conditions for vegetables within the geometries investigated. This parameter is daylight autonomy, which includes direct sunbeams (sunlight) and indirect light, such as diffuse sky radiation (skylight). Daylight Autonomy (DA) is the percentage of annual daytime hours that a given point in space is above the specified illumination level of a certain lux threshold (Reinhart, 2002).

Following predetermined conditions, as seen in the literature review, the Cold group needs at least 12,000 lux to develop, while the Warm group needs 20,000 lux. Thus, the results showed that the square shape was the most effective of all,

although results show a slight advantage for the triangle. The analysis reveals that the difference is that the square above 12,000 lux gets 11m² more than the triangle, with 40% more effective light throughout most of the year. In addition, the square had a larger area of 40m² of adequate light for 30% of the year, when compared to the triangle. At the 20,000 lux threshold, the square continues to perform better, with 30% of the year with more days, and 26m² more than second place.

The circular shape had the worst performance in both scenarios, reaching 7m² from 0-10% above 20,000 lux. In conclusion, the results reveals that the square shape gets the best results for most of the year and is adequately illuminated due to the shape, depth and deconstruction of the farm.

Fig 04.1.4 Daylight Autonomy analysis facing South orientation in the 12,000 lux and 20,000 lux threshold.

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04.2 OUTCOME The first part of this chapter was based on the analytical studies of two of the main variables that define the productivity of indoor farming, which consequently led to the choice of shape to ensure highest effectiveness.

The results obtained in the simulations of sunlight hours in the South and West orientations revealed that the South orientation features the best results, where factors such as depth and obstructions were crucial in productivity. Therefore, this was the position chosen to continue the study.

Then, with the farms positioned on the South façade, daylight autonomy performed reveals that the most productive shape is the square, allowing for greater daylight exposure during the year, for both vegetable groups.

The first analytical studies carried out concerned improving form performance, as this is one of the most crucial aspects in relation to the actual performance of urban farming. This phase of the research consists of four steps, until the balance between production and densification in the final design is obtained.

The second analytical study conducted focused on the ventilation strategies with the optivent software, which is a steady-state ventilation analysis.

The third analytical study was through the dynamic thermal performance of both farm areas and the residential and office areas by applying the TAS software. At this stage, two different scenarios were tested, considering the total cooling loads annually, and also the thermal performance in the farms. Due technical aspects, one vegetable – the lettuce – has been chosen to quantify and compare the production potential, food miles, energy and water consumption between the four main farming systems (i.e. conventional, greenhouse, vertical farming and hybrid).

Thus, by combining these two variables, the model will be able to meet the growing needs of vegetables and to know how passive the farm can be, as well as its limitations during the year to reduce energy consumption and environmental

- USER PROFILE impact.

It is essential for the designer to clarify the user profile in the brief stage that is based on the back04.3 SQUARE SHAPE ground, as mentioned in the previous chapters. In addition, it is necessary to look for a solution that points to the main issue, from the architectural

- METHODOLOGY perspective, fully understanding the needs and The first part of the workflow was based on the behaviour of occupants during their lifetime, makevaluation of the shapes: circle, triangle and ing the decision of the space program to meet their square. This part of the research further on seek- demand in an environmentally sound manner.

ing to improve the square shape performance and The market is currently delivering projects in its final shape. which customers have access to project standards, Simultaneously, a concise study on the user and when they no longer meet owner demand, profile, brief and concept was developed. In they have to leave the property. Some companies addition, references of modular densification like SOM are already conducting research and were used as guidance for the final design. The showing how the current situation must be rezoning was determined according to the farms' thought to densify London in a smarter way. With orientation, considering the evaluation of the standards that limit and inhibit designers rather previously façades performed and the concept than challenge and inspire innovation, today's of bringing residents and the community closer built designs have increased the risk that people will not want to live in high-density buildings. to their food supply.

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Fig 04.3.1 Diagram of user profile according we change needs during our lives, our house should be able to adapt following these changes, the office explored the idea of a flexible modular building which reinforces the concept used in this research. (Source: SOM,2015)

In this research of a new model, this research implements a proposal of a building composed of modules which aims to offer future adaptability to enable inhabitants of all types to change the spatial volume to address their needs.

- BRIEF

Density can be one of the answers to addressing essential goals for improving people's environmental impacts and contribute to sustainability, facilitate social cohesion and equity the future living model, main cities such as London which have a low average density level of just 20 units/ ha, as seen in the literature review. Moreover, looking at the variety of typologies that London offers in its streets and squares, it is key to develop areas capable of sheltering different typologies of users. The concept of modules offers this flexibility and adaptability capable of incorporating different typologies of houses and amenities, such as a vertical neighbourhood.

In addition, based on the total project area of 21.000m², the proportion of each area must be efficiently distributed to meet the demands of building and neighbourhood scales. For this reason, the ground floor area will be devoted to commercial, service and cultural spaces to serve society and the occupants by providing food sustainably and improving the wellbeing of the occupants while strengthening the community within a built environment.

Fig 04.3.2 Diagram of typical typologies found in London streets and squares which could be included in one tower.

This project presents an example of zoning of various other options and variations that can be obtained through module structures. There are five cores in the overall plan that include indoor farms, residential, offices, cultural and commercial (see figure 04.3.3).

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Fig 04.3.3 Building program and area proportion.

- CONCEPT

Based on the long-established relationship between home and food production, this study approaches the different possibilities to reconnect this relationship with the urban environment using indoor farms as a tool in buildings program.

Both now and in the past, in several parts of the world, food production has been part of houses or their immediate surroundings, though on a lesser scale. Human populations continue to move into cities; there are concerns that we are becoming disconnected from nature and that this is affecting our wellbeing (Fuller et al., 2007; Miller, 2005).

canopy, the modules of "The Tree" are the vertical neighbourhood. Furthermore, as a symbol of life, the building also uses the sun as its source of life.

The "Tree" is a prototype of a new urban and social vision, using mixed typologies to densify cities for the next generations offering a sustainable alternative to consume, distribute and provide a healthy food source, while also offering a shared area for local community cohesion.

The tree is the symbol of life, a perfect source of nature that coexists in harmony with the entire ecosystem. From its roots to its fruits, we can draw an interesting comparison with the life of human beings. So then, the tree is exactly the inspiration for this project, named “The Tree”.

In other words, in nature, farms to “The Tree” also inhale CO2 and exile O2, generate fruit and bring wellbeing and environmental benefits. The project will enhance people connections in the community, such as interconnected roots that may lead to life and relationship opportunities.

The shape is like a trunk, through which life, water, structure pass, and just like the leaves in the

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Fig 04.3.4 The Tree is a prototype of a new urban and social vision of vertical neighbourhood to densify cities.

CHAPTER 4: ANALYTIC WORK

04.3.1 FORM FINDINGS The main objective of this research phase was to improve and seek the balance between production and shape density. The workflow was divided into four main parts, starting from its original shape, the base-case scenario where the zoning of typologies and their effectiveness in production were evaluated. As the building façade is slightly

tilted until the tenth floor to prioritize sunlight exposure for the indoor farms, the respective floor plans were also retreated. Consequently, the third step studied the possibility of increasing the area on the North facade to further expand the diversity of typologies. Lastly, the upper part of the South façade was studied in detail to meet the farm's needs.

Fig 04.3.1.1 Workflow diagram.

- STEP 1 BASE CASE

The zoning process was based on the assessment performed in the previous chapter, where it was understood that the farm orientation should be facing South. Consequently, using the analysis of sunlight hours and the criteria of increasing the occupant’s daily engagement with the farms, it was possible to zone the residential and offices units (see figure 04.3.1.2) The residential zone was allocated closer to the farm because of the dweller’s occupation time. The zones were divided by an atrium considering the privacy of users and the possibility for cross ventilation strategy. These spaces also receive a good amount of direct sunlight, as they are on the West and East orientation, providing good comfort in cold months. The office area was facing North with apertures to West and East orientations, as offices need good daylight and require diffused sunlight to avoid glare. The offices do not need radiation as they already have a lot of internal gains due to the equipment. The commercial area is a public zone on the ground floor. It requires a good amount of daylight supply through the atrium. The core and circulation were located in North façade between the offices' units.

The farm modules compared across different scenarios have double height to ensure the growth of all possible vegetables, in all farms, as to avoid any limitation to any particular floor or vegetable. The base case scenario was evaluated at sunlight exposure through the sun angles at 12:00 (Summer solstice 62°, Midseason 39° and Winter solstice 15°), in which summer limited its depth to six meters, in total this scenario for the presented building with twenty floors presented 1,800m² of indoor farm and 9,982m² of area to be densified (see figure 04.3.1.3).

Fig 04.3.1.2 Building zoning process diagram.

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Fig 04.3.1.3 Solar access diagram in the Summer solstice, Midseason and Winter solstice.

Fig 04.3.1.4 Solar access diagram in the Summer solstice, Midseason and Winter solstice and incidence angle diagram.

- STEP 2

This step aims to evaluate possibilities to maximize the farm area and sunlight exposure. For this reason, through the literature of material proprieties and CIBSE Guide – 8th Version confirmed that the optical properties of the glass are typically measured for normal incidence. However, it should be noted that these depend on the angle of incidence of the sun and for narrow angle of incidence the reflection increases significantly, and little radiation is transmitted, (see fig. 04.3.1.5).

Indeed, there is a higher transmission with an angular surface, as sunlight penetrates mostly when it has zero incidence angle.

shape by maximizing production. Hence, it focuses on furthering the previously discussed literature review on the importance of building vertical communities when densifying urban centres, offering building designs for the community to occupy according to their needs and preferences.

The third step focuses on how to use these areas in a smart way. The densification of these areas brought an additional area of 3.900m² for the project, introducing offices and areas for other future typologies. Thus, the design became more balanced, with more space being used not only for farm production, but also to increase densification. At this stage, the building maintains the productive area, but has been densified, and is therefore more effective.

As a result, the first ten floors of the South façade were slanted 71.5 ° (see figure 04.3.1.4) at 45° incidence, with about 0.8 clear glass transmittance and minimal reflection around 0,35. The farms are six meters deep after the summer solstice, so, in order to keep everything the same size, the entire building was staggered to avoid any density decrease.

As for production area, this step also increases the total area to 2,097m² because it was possible to add a mezzanine with the same sunlight conditions and without interfering in the first floor conditions as well.

- STEP 3

The evolution of design in its third stage happened by bringing together two fundamental notions in devising this research: densification and effectiveness (see figure 04.3.1.1). After step two, the design presented potentials areas in its

Fig 04.3.1.5 Angular properties of uncoated clear glass and glass with selective coating. (Source: CIBSE Guide 8th edition)

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- STEP 4

chapter 04.3.5 and under the same internal conditions, but without the apertures.

The purpose of the last step is to improve the façade of the farm from the 10th to the 20th floor with a different treatment applied to the lower levels, and a dynamic façade was studied. Four different façade scenarios were then modelled: the rectum as a base, inclined 15° for winter, inclined 39° for Midseason and inclined 62 ° for Midsummer (see fig. 04.3.1.6). The analysis was performed on Thermal Analysis Software (TAS) by Environmental Design Solutions Limited (EDSL) to establish a database to understand the solar gains of a dynamic façade compared to the fixed façade. In the simulations, the same parameters were used as the same materials presented in

The results showed a highly positive strategy for a façade that varies with the season. The analyses performed during the summer solstice (August 3-09) showed the best effect with 1,755,776 Watts which was 17% larger than the fixed façade presented in the same period around 1,504,565 Watts. However, in the solstice (February 10-10) decreases to 10% (1,223,513 Watts) compared to the straight façade (1,113,362 W) while the Midseason result has a representative figure with 15% (1,339, 180 Watts) more solar compared to the base case, in other words, the strategy was effective to increase production in this of the farms.

Fig 04.3.1.6 The four different facades scenarios compared.

04.3.2 VENTILATION STRATEGIES The first study in providing natural ventilation came from running the Optivent simulation, an online tool that allows assessing the ventilation performance of openings considering a steadystate analysis: just a single moment in time, as the first step in understanding the apertures type and size needed in each typology.

The simulation was conducted to optimize apertures design in providing fresh air and at least 50% cooling required from internal heat gain, especially in the summer. Temperature difference input in this simulation is 2ºC, with 24ºC outdoor and 22ºC indoor temperature. Both residential and office modules have cross ventilation, together with the stack effect of the atria area and farms stack ventilation (see figure 04.3.3.1).

farms in order to optimize fresh air and the cooling effect inside (see figure 04.3.3.2). Considering the farm's layout and needs, the lowest apertures were simulated with the heights of 1.2m as a ventilation inlet, and upper apertures at 3.45m height as an outlet to create a stack effect. The opening was simulated with the size of 2m/1.5m with five units on each floor open 80%. From the positive result, the requirement for fresh air and 50% cooling was achieved with this strategy and the design developed will be further studied, as ventilation influenced several aspects of vegetable conditions.

The residential and office module typologies considered window/wall ratio of 100%, with all windows open 50%, though the size of the windows was slightly different. The analysis shows that the amount of cooling and fresh air was achieved (see figure 04.3.3.2).

Stack ventilation was introduced in the indoor

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Fig 04.3.2.1 Diagram with ventilation strategies for residential and office areas and farm areas.

Fig 04.3.2.2 Optivent simulations and apertures design.

04.3.3 BIOCLIMATIC SECTIONS

hours of sunlight and 20,000 lux per day). Accordingly, the local climate conditions studied in the literature review complemental artificial light and Integrating vegetable crops into a mixed building heaters it will be required if the occupants want typology introduces a whole new set of architec- to have a warm group whole year production (see tural design considerations. In an effort to reduce Fig. 04.3.4.1 and 04.3.4.2). energy consumption and the building’s overall environmental impact, daylight, natural ventilation and a geothermal system similar to the project of The Centre for Sustainable Energy Technology in China, designed by Mario Cucinella Architects, were defined to form the primary infrastructure of this new kind of architecture. Daylight and solar access are maximised to respectively reduce the use of artificial lighting and heating demand.

Natural ventilation through stack effect will help reduce energy costs associated with heating and cooling, and will also help maintain the CO2 and humidity levels at desirable ranges.

The geothermal system will minimise energy consumption and heating usage in Winter for the warm group vegetable needs, a minimum of eight

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Fig 04.3.3.1 Bioclimatic section strategy in Summer.

Fig 04.3.3.2 Bioclimatic section strategy in Winter.

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04.3.4 THERMAL ANALYSIS

according to the season in Summer 19°C and 28°C and Winter 16°C and 24°C. These bounds were defined considering ASHRAE 55-2013 upper and lower limit of the 80% acceptability comfort zone formula (Upper = 0.31 x θrm + 17.8 + 3.5, lower = 0.31 x θrm + 17.8 − 3.5), where θrm is the weighted running mean temperature, which was used from the Meteonorm weather file (see figure 04.3.5.1 with all input).

The study of the design performance proceeds to a more detailed analysis performed by Thermal Analysis Software (TAS), created by EDSL (Environmental Design Solutions Limited). The same weather file by Meteonorm of the current central London weather station was used in all the scenarios conducted in this section. The methodology is based on a series of simulations; each one has a new strategy in order to find a better balance Below are the simulated strategies: between thermal performance and both heating and cooling loads.

Farms thermal performance The results of each strategy are first presented 1. Single glazing in free running performance to understand how 2. Double glazing the farm, residential and office are responding to the outside temperature. Further, it is presented Residential and Offices modules thermal perconsidering heating and cooling loads, with ther- formance mostat setpoint of 18°C and 24°C in the farms, 1. Vertical shade device which are the vegetable growing conditions. The residential and offices with thermostat setpoint 2. Buffer Zone

Fig 04.3.4.1 TAS detail inputs.

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- FACADE DESIGN AND MATERIAL operable based on occupants’ needs. The shading INPUTS was suggested in Summer to be vertical, with a different number of fins depending on the façade and typology (see floor plan floor in chapter 05) The tree is a building prototype to create sustain- providing natural ventilation inside the module, able communities prepared for the needs cities while in the winter, shading may be completely will face in the future, in response to this concern, closed to offer a buffer zone. The TAS simulation the use of timber in lieu of concrete was chosen to further studies the effectiveness of such strategies. build with minimum impact on the environment and with carbon neutrality.

The technical specification from company Storaenso (see figure 04.3.4.2) was consulted in order to understand the cross-laminated timber system which was applied in the external walls the modular CLT structural panels with crossed double layer for ventilation gap and plasterboards filled with soft insulation material. As a result, this wall has a u-value of 0.12W/m²K. Internal floor and ceiling are also using CLT panels with parquet finishing layer with u-value of 0.12W/m²K, while ceiling material is using gypsum board.

The glazing has chosen with different proprieties accordingly the orientation for residential and offices unities, as a result in West with u-value of 0.4W/m²K and East with 0.6W/m²K. Adaptive shading devices were also developed for the residential and office modules in West and East façades (see figure 04.3.4.3), seasonally

Fig 04.3.4.2 Modular CLT system section. (Source: Storaenso)

Fig 04.3.4.3 Season-based operable shading device floor plans;

- FARMS’ THERMAL PERFORMANCE

1. SINGLE GLAZING

The first thermal simulation was run with single glazing, with 0.8 operable windows setting to starts to open when the indoor temperature reaches 18°C and reaches the maximum aperture at 24°C. The single glazing applied has 0.8 transmittance with u-value of 5.6 W/m²K. The simulations were conducted in two representative weeks a coldest and hottest one.

As a result of the internal conditions was found that the farm simulated at top floor has 7% below comfort in Summer and 91% in Winter, respectively. At the same time, in Summer, 76% of the week analysed the farm was in comfort for the vegetables to grow in optimum conditions (see figure 04.3.4.4). Moreover, from the further study on this strategy, the mechanical simulation was done to understand heating and cooling loads.

The farm has massive heating loads at around 51 kWh/m2 and 47 kWh/m2 of cooling loads as the heating is also needed in the summer period. The further strategy proposed were focused on reduc

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ing heating loads. Regarding the inter relative humidity in Winter mechanical humidification needs to be in traduced full time in these conditions while in Summer presented 10% of the week within the comfort required for both groups.

2.DOUBLE GLAZING

The first strategy was to change the glazing proprieties as the farms are full glazing. There was an improvement when compared to the prior strategy, with the introduction of the double glazing. Nonetheless, the materiality caused a massive reduction of comfort frequency in Winter and a

rise in overheating in Summer. In other words, during the analysed week, the farm was 84% of the time within the temperature range (18°C-24°C) in Winter and 62% in Summer, respectively. Thus, the improvement with double glazing in Winter was almost ten times better in comfort than single glazing; however in Summer, the result spent 14% less time in the range (see figure 04.3.4.5).

Based on this strategy, the farm had heating loads of 5 kWh/m2 and cooling loads of 71 kWh/m2, which is a significant reduction when compared to the single glazing (almost ten times less heating loads). However, it was also found that the farm had higher cooling loads than the previous

Fig 04.3.4.4 Winter and Summer Thermal Performances (Free Running) with single glazing;

Fig 04.3.4.5 Winter and Summer Thermal Performances (Free Running) with double glazing;

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strategy, mainly because of the lighting gains, which may result in the need to include fans to keep the internal temperature in range. Therefore, when comparing the sum of both heating and cooling, double glazing proved to be a more efficient strategy for farm performance.

As for internal relative humidity, the double glazing had a decrease of 5% of the time within the humidity for the development of the plants in Summer, when compared to the previous case, whereby more mechanical humidification would be required.

- RESIDENTIAL AND OFFICE THERMAL PERFORMANCE

1.Vertical Shade Device

The assessment performed in these sections focus on these two typologies; results are presented in terms of overall comfort frequency in occupancy hours (9 a.m. to 5 p.m.) for offices and residences (5 a.m. to 5 p.m.) and considering the ASHRAE 55 adaptive comfort band as mentioned previously in the chapter, in two representative weeks, one in Winter and another in Summer, as the shading device was adaptive during the midseason.

Internal conditions according to each typology were considered in all simulations (see figure 04.3.4.1). Moreover, different aperture types we taken into account, according to cold months and warm months, as well as different shading

treatment and glazing properties for each façade.

As the building is a new development, all the input applied high standard materials and strategies in the free-run simulation; as a result, a low amount of hours without comfort. The simulation using the vertical shade device had comfort frequency of 91% and 98% in occupied hours, at both units (see figure 04.3.4.6). The cooling loads have low values, below 1 Whm², confirming that the crossed ventilation strategy is efficient in providing comfort.

2. Buffer Zone

The strategy for winter is to use the shading device as a buffer zone, whereby the fins semi-closes the balconies with single glazing, providing a transitional space inside of the modules, in comparison with the previous strategy, in which it could be opened completely; using the strategy proves to be effective most of the time. Moreover, the heating loads are 18 kWh/m2 and 19 kWh/m2 and east and west typologies are slightly above the Passive Haus Standard (see figure 04.3.4.7).

Fig 04.3.4.6 Winter and Summer Thermal Performances (Free Running) with fins.

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Fig 04.3.4.5 Winter and Summer Thermal Performances (Free Running) with double glazing;

04.3.5 PRODUCTION The “Tree” is a new way to live, work and coexist with nature by stimulating social and community life through its urban farms. There are 228 residential units, 72 offices and 3,010m² of a productive area within its 41 farms units, in a total area of 21,000m². In addition to 8 ground-floor commercial units, the project also has a market and farm at this level to stimulate food exchange with the local community and workshop space to further develop knowledge in the field.

These numbers are essential not only to understand the scale of the project suggested in this paper, but also to conduct a detailed study on food production capacity in The Tree. As a result, key metric were taken into account, such as the potential number of 456 inhabitants in the private residential modules, considering that two people could live in the 35m² of each of the 228 units. Therefore, the calculation is focused on supplying food to these people. Sixteen types of vegetables will be deemed planted across the project's 3,010m² of indoor farms, divided into two groups of warm and cold season, as presented in chapter 03.4.2.

vegetable for its healthy growth. According to the Free-Range Practice Guide, one person consumes 18g of lettuce per week, totalling a demand of 864g per year that the farm would have to supply for each of the 456 occupants of the private residential area, or 393.9kg per year. This result does not fully correspond to the actual consumption of the food, since the considered margin is that each person eats lettuce every day, without exception for a whole year. This range is taken into account herein to ensure all occupants are duly supplied.

The results on the assessment of the lettuce production area of 188.12m² were divided considering two variables: when exposed only to sunlight representing the summer solstice and midseason, and when exposed to limited sunlight with the aid of artificial lighting as in the case of winter.

In the first case, only exposed to sunlight, the area was able to produce 376.3kg considering the study graph set forth in research (Graamans, L., Baeza, E., Van Den Dobbelsteen, A., Tsafaras, I., & Stanghellini, C. (2018). The farm with complemental artificial lighting was even more productive, capable of yielding 517.3kg in this period. Assuming that natural light is available is during 75% of the year, while artificial lighting is responsible for 25%, the overall result of the two combined, in line with such percentage, totals 411kg of annual lettuce production in the hybrid indoor farm.

The lettuce was chosen as the purpose hereof, and its productivity was evaluated exactly in the 188.12m² area (total farm area divided by 16 listed vegetables), fed by natural light 75% of the year and artificial light in the remaining time, when Such lettuce production is not only able to meet the daylight and sunlight conditions in winter the hypothetical demand of 393.9kg for all the are not able to meet the lighting demand of the

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residents of the private residential area, but also to offer 17.1kg of vegetable per year to the local community and the people who work in the building’s corporate area. Therefore, the final conclusion of the Lettuce Productivity Study on “The Tree” is a success from the production and demand standpoint, with 2.2kg per square meter production, per year.

2.Energy

As expected, conventional agriculture has the lowest energy use among all types studied. This is obviously due to the use of natural light, which is a significant factor in potential energy expenditure.

Vertical farms require the exponential increase of 3500 KWh/m², because it is a system which relies on one hundred percent on artificial lighting. The

- COMPARISON BETWEEN SYS- Tree's success in energy efficiency, in achieving TEMS substantially lower costs than greenhouse and vertical farm systems, lies in the design that allows for the use of 75% of artificial light in the production.

The idea is to prove that the building can pro- It is worth mentioning that this number includes duce and feed occupants and the neighbouring the heating and cooling loads, and disregards the community not only supports the prototype, but rest of the necessary infrastructure. also defends the new typology suggested in this

3.Food Miles thesis. They are essential to compare different agriculture systems available today: conventional, greenhouse, vertical farm and the hybrid model As for food miles, it is clear how the concepts of suggested herein. grown food within urban areas are more efficient The variables evaluated to each type of agriculture than traditional models that depend on rural areas are: productivity, energy, food miles and water or areas far from urban centres, where most of consumption. Therefore, with all results, it is this food is consumed. Thus, “The Tree” offers possible to have a clear picture of the differences the best results, considering that it may have between each system (see figure 04.3.4.8). smaller numbers than vertical farms because it has a production that meets the building's inter 1.Production nal demand and still feeds the local community.

There are increased crop yields that have more control over the environment and lighting, as is the case with greenhouse and vertical farming. Specifically, vertical farms are almost five times more productive, per year, than traditional farming. The productivity found in “The Tree” is precisely between the greenhouse system and vertical farm, which demonstrates that it could be regarded as the balance between production and densification.

4.Water The extensive use of water in traditional agriculture is evident when compared to models such as vertical farms, which is almost one hundred percent water efficient. The mechanism that generates this efficiency is the same that demands more from the power system, as it uses pressure pumps to send water to all the planting floors.

The values found in “The Tree” are again between

Fig 04.3.4.8 Diagram with the comparison between different growing methods. (Source 1-William D. A. (2018), 2/3/4/14 Graamans, L., Baeza, E., Van Den Dobbelsteen, A., Tsafaras, I., & Stanghellini, C. (2018), 5/12/13 Barbosa, G.L., Gadelha, F.D.A., Kublik, N., Proctor, A., Reichelm, L., Weissinger, E., Wohlleb, G.M., Halden, R.U. (2015), 6/7 Defra. (2006), 8 Analysis results conducted by the author; 9 Kozai, T., Niu, G., & Takagaki, M. (Eds.). (2015), 10 Eurostat (2011) and 11 Pirog R. & Benjamin A. (2003)).

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greenhouse and vertical farm, due to the similarity of concepts used and the reliance on artificial irrigation systems to maintain the desired productivity.

The results provided in the general chart above reveal how the evolution of agriculture in new models is capable of being more productive, efficient and responsible in the use of natural resources. The critical point of the greenhouse and vertical farm models is excessive energy consumption to keep systems accountable for controlling the environment and maintaining productivity, regardless of the seasons and natural events. The Tree is a prototype that features all the positive qualities of the new models and is still able to maintain low energy consumption when compared to them. This results from the use of natural light during 75% of the year, depending on artificial light only when sunlight cannot maintain expected productivity levels. Therefore, by looking at productivity first and then comparing the model with existing ones, The Tree is possibly a solution for large-scale cities.

04.4 OUTCOME

system; moreover, the method consumes 250 times less water and 47 times fewer food miles, respectively. Though the suggested hybrid farm produces 2.2 Kgm² per year, which is 44 percent of the vertical farm production, the hybrid system requires only 76KWh/m² of energy, which is 46 times less because 75 percent of the year is natural lit. The strategies applied in the residential and office areas presented overall comfort frequency in occupancy hours, and considering the ASHRAE 55 80% adaptive comfort band, in Summer, the cross-ventilation had effective results, as low cooling loads were required, and the demand for heating load was slightly above The Passive Haüs Standard.

This chapter brings together all the information, analysis and technical input to validate the indoor hybrid farm concept proposed in The Tree.

In other words, it is believed that the typology could be replicated not only in the plot studied in Nine Elms, but also in other areas with similar conditions, providing a new food supply system, densifying the city in an intelligent and most efficient way, prioritizing people's wellbeing and their quality of life.

The results achieved by the hybrid farm suggested in this study, "The Tree", are set forth at the end of this chapter, after the performance of several assessment resulting in this conclusion.

The research shape of the project defined in the previous section, together with the study of the user profile, respecting and adapting the project to their needs, but proposing a new model aiming at the densification of the area, was essential for the project design.

The process of researching and improving square shape performance has maximized solar exposure in the farms and environmental strategies in both residential and office areas. To this end, four evolution steps were tested to find the best balance between production and densification.

In addition, the Optivent ventilation study at the pre-design stage was essential because of the complexity of the topic, to understand all conducted simulations into the dynamic thermal performance.

The thermal performance in the farms with desired growing conditions resulted in 28 percent more lettuce production vis-à-vis the conventional

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Fig 05.1 Study croqui.

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This is the final proposal plan for the prototype, including the preliminary layout for both residential and office units, and common areas based on solar access and farm orientation (see figure 04.3.1.2 for further details). The ground floor plan (see figure 05.2) was developed to offer amenities in a sheltered space for both occupants and the community. The market in the centre of the project welcomes people to share the farm’s production and the knowledge obtained in the public farm workshop at the entrance.

consumption. The building occupants have two entrance options: the main entrance located in the South and the private access located in the North side, with reception and amenities for occupants.

Section A

In this design, the residential units were allocated in 19-floor modules which were designed opposite each other to simplify structural decision in each block (see figure 05.3). As a result, there are 228 modules totalling approximately 34m², which the homeowner may attach according to their needs.

The offices' modules account in a total of 72 units The commercial units offer more job opportuni- with around 43m² allocated on 15 floors (1-7/12ties for people who want to work with fresh food 20). The 40 farms account in total 2.831m² for supply and companies which work in this field, occupants and community. minimizing the gap between distribution and

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Fig 05.6 Ground floor market perspective.

Fig 05.7 South West dynamic faรงade in Mid-seasons.

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Fig 05.8 Ground floor commertial units perspective.

Fig 05.9 South facade perspective

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Fig 06.1 Hypothetic proposal of a masterplan formed with The Tree concept.

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06.1. OUTCOME SUMMARY The research presents the theoretical background and analytical approach to the design of future living models, suggesting The “Tree� as a hybrid urban farm, delivering social transformation by reshaping the future of urban living. It offers a sustainable alternative to consume, distribute and provide a healthy food source, while also offering a shared area for local community cohesion.

LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature revealed the crucial importance of exploring more sustainable possibilities to ensure food supply by offering occupants the chance to break away from the unsustainable industrial distribution system and explore ways to grow and harvest their food production, by placing it within a building in an urban area. Food is set to become a key architectural instrument, not just to reshape city and country, but human lifestyle. The urban farming insertion proved to be a pivotal answer to improve the occupant's wellbeing, promoting social engagement and minimising effects on the built environment.

CONTEXT & PRECEDENTS

The context studied looked into different scales of the site context and brought many factors that have to be taken into consideration while investigating the potentials of urban indoor farming in future living models.

Case study analysis conducted in The Farmhouse project presented the unfeasibility of the concept in London climate. Indeed, the analysed project was at research phase only, it has not been built and was not design for a city with a similar climate conditions as London. It is essential to emphasize the key role these two factors play in the success of any projects based on this concept, as the building site and all the climate, social and behavioural conditions of the relevant occupants are variables that strongly affect the farm productions and their environmental impact on the city.

shape, and it was further studied in the second part of this chapter. For this reason, two of the main variables that define the productivity of indoor farming consequently led to the choice of one of the three shapes analysed. The results of sunlight hours showed that South orientation was more favourable to produce in all shapes.

Therefore, this position was chosen for the farm to take place in the next part of the study. Then, daylight autonomy performed reveals that the most productive shape is the square, allowing more daylight exposure and also sunlight during the year for both vegetable groups.

The second part focused on the research process and improvement of the square form performance to minimize the use of natural resources in the farms, as well as on further developing environmental strategies for both residential and office units.

The building was designed to maximise daylight and solar access in order to produce vegetables using the least amount of energy, greenhouse gas emissions, transportation distances, and the overall negative impact stemming from the agricultural industry. Furthermore, it provides a healthy, alternative food source for the increasing urban population, re-establishing local food sovereignty, and producing O2, while also capturing CO2.

The thermal performance in the farms and the figures obtained comparing the other systems proved the hybrid farm could be an answer for sustainable self-sufficiency. Indeed, the hybrid system produces 28 percent more lettuce in comparison with conventional system; moreover, the method consumes 250 times less water and 47 times fewer food miles, respectively. However, the vertical farm system presented a production 56 percent higher than the system proposed, which demand 46 times less energy as it was designed to be passive lit during 75 percent of the year.

The strategies applied in the residential and office areas had overall comfort frequency in occupancy hours according to ASHRAE 55. In Summer, cross-ventilation had effective results, as low cooling loads were required and the demand for heating load presented slightly above The Passive HaĂźs Standard.

ANALYTIC WORK

The first part of this chapter was the basis of analytical studies to choose the more effective

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06.2. FUTURE The results of the “The Tree” project proposed in this study were decisive not only for the validation of a new typology but also for a new way of living.

Pioneering these efforts could one day turn into a precedent for a possible solution in food supply in urban centres, using architecture as a powerful tool to stimulate community life. In addition, the typology has proved to be a solution for densifying new areas with similar potentials as an action to deliver buildings prepared for environmental issues in the future.

The proposed typology could be replicated not only in the studied context in Nine Elms, but also in other areas with similar conditions, providing a new urban and social vision that goes beyond the boundaries of traditional environmental design, embracing a key issue associated with the sustainable future of our cities that also relates to the environmental response and performance

of buildings.

To illustrate, the current London plan already defines around 38 areas with densification opportunities] (see figure 06.2.2). Based on this context, “The Three” could easily be spread across different scales and heights around the city of London, creating a network capable of rethinking the food system in our society. Going further, the concept of this project has a global vision that can spread around the world adapting to climate, cultures and eating habits.

Thus, the future craves for attitudes, status-quo breaks and pioneers that see future opportunities which it will be even more feasible in the next years, through the imaginative and creative ability of human beings to coexist with nature in balance.

Fig 06.2.1 Map of opportunities areas to be densified in the London current plan.

(Source: NLA, 2018)

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Accessed August 2019 Eurostat (2011) From farm to fork. Available [online] at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ statistics-explained/index.php/Archive:From_ farm_to_fork_-_food_chain_statistics. Accessed August 2019 Pirog R. & Benjamin A. (2003) Checking the Food Odometer: Comparing Food Miles for Local Versus Conventional Produce Sales to Iowa Institutions. Available [online] at: https://pdfs. semanticscholar.org/4396/7f343d47bdcb3e18b1 b3d661987e8787aea9.pdf. Accessed August 2019 NLA, (2018). London Tall Buildings Survey.

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APPENDICES

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07 APPENDICES 07.1 Further studies developed to analyse the case study project The Farmhouse

Fig 07.1.1 Typical apartment floor plan.

Fig 07.1.3 Isometric perspective and production’ layers.

Fig 07.1.2 Typical store plan with 8 lofts with double height and 4 studios.

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07.2 Supplemental artificial lighting needs offering by Sr. Chris Nelson.

Fig 07.2.1 Tomato lighting report.

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Fig 07.2.2 Lettuce lighting report.

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