ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN FOR HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN JAKARTA

ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN FOR HIGH-RISE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN JAKARTA SHADING, FORM AND NATURAL VENTILATION

University of Westminster Faculty of Architecture and Environmental Design Department of Architecture MSc Architecture and Environmental Design 2018/19

Nadya Gani Wijaya September 2019

UnIversIty of WestmInster

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For completing this thesis, I would like to express my gratitude to all of the professors, especially Joana Goncalves for being my guide and tutor for this research thesis. Her effort, guidance and knowledge has provided a strong base for this following research. I would also thank Rosa Schiano-Phan for her guidance all year. A very special gratitude to Juan Vallejo, Amedeo Scofone, Kartikeya Rajput, Mehrdad Borna and Benson Lau for their lectures, guidance, comments and support which built this thesis.

I would also like to specially thank you my previous work team to has provided detailed drawings for this research’s case study in landed housing design. Moreover, I am also grateful for all my friends whose have been very supportive, helped organizing and gave suggestions for this research and proposal.

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ABSTRACT

Indonesia is the country with the fourth biggest population in the world, in which this last two decades shows rapid increase in urbanization, Jakarta as the biggest and capital city is impacted by population growth from 8 million in 2000 to about 11 million populations in 2019. At the same time, development of high-rise residential building escalates alongside the increase of housing demand in the city centre area.

Current design trends in Jakarta's verticalization is based on market demand with brief consideration of climate condition which primarily has high temperature and radiation. As a result, there is high energy demand for cooling with 25% from total energy consumption in the city.

This paper was aimed for passively improving thermal condition in unit and building scale in equatorial climate. Beginning with current trend in designing vertical housing, this research will sensitively analyse thermal performance and daylight quality in different scenarios including: 1. Units scale a.

Layout and envelope design to maximize the coupling between indoor and outdoor space with single zone area.

b.

Glazing area to provide sufficient natural daylight and opaque ventilation area to remove internal heat gain.

c.

Shading envelope to block excessive solar access for each orientation.

d.

Units proportion to maximize natural ventilation and daylight performance.

2. Building scale a.

Effectivity of cross and stack ventilation with open building’s circulation in providing air movement for indoor thermal condition.

b.

Vertically decoupling each unit to avoid heat transfer and cool off structure in the night.

Findings in this research indicate that efficient design, maximized natural ventilation and adequate solar access presented a great possibility to have a good thermal condition with free-running all year and decrease significantly energy demand for cooling in vertical housing in Jakarta.

Key words: Vertical Housing, Thermal Comfort, Natural Ventilation, Building Form, Building Envelope

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TABLE OF CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................... 3 ABSTRACT ............................................................. 5 TABLE OF CONTENT .............................................. 7 TABLE OF FIGURES ................................................9 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................... 14 1.1 CONTEXT BACKGROUND ........................... 14 1.2 ISSUE & RESEARCH BACKGROUND ............ 16 1.3 RESEARCH PURPOSE ................................. 16 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................. 16 1.5 HYPOTHESIS .............................................. 17 1.6 METHODOLOGY ........................................ 17 1.7 RESEARCH STRUCTURE .............................18 2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND & LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 20 2.1 THERMAL COMFORT FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDING IN TROPICAL CLIMATE ............ 20 2.1.1 PHYSIOLOGY .......................................20 2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETER..........20 2.1.3 BEHAVIOUR .........................................22 2.1.4 WORLDWIDE NEUTRAL TEMPERATURE ................................. 23 2.1.5 ADAPTIVE BUILDINGS .........................24 2.2 VISUAL COMFORT ...................................... 25 2.2.1 VISUAL COMFORT FOR RESIDENTIAL SPACE ................................................ 25 2.2.2 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR DAYLIGHT ...... 25 2.3 GREEN BUILDINGS STANDARD & ENERGY USE IN INDONESIA .................................. 27

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2.4 PREVIOUS RESEARCH: THE

5. RESEARCH OUTCOME & APPLICABILITY........... 79

ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF THE

5.1 RESEARCH OUTCOME ................................79

TTDI ....................................................... 28

5.1.1 UNITS SCALE OUTCOME ..................... 79

2.4.1 DESIGN FEATURES ............................. 28

5.1.2 BUILDING SCALE OUTCOME ............... 79

2.4.2 ENVIROMENTAL PERFORMANCES

5.2 APPLICABILITY & GUIDANCE ..................... 81

ANALYSIS ......................................... 28

5.2.1 UNITS SCALE GUIDANCE .................... 82

2.4.3 KEY FINDINGS ..................................... 29

1. UNIT FORM & LAYOUT SUGGESTION ..... 82 2. EXTERNAL WALL ..................................... 82

3. CONTEXT & PRECEDENT .................................. 32

3. SHADING .................................................. 82

3.1 HISTORY ....................................................32

5.2.2 BUILDING SCALE GUIDANCE .............. 83

3.2 TOPOGRAPHY ............................................33

A. OPEN CIRCULATION ..................... 83

3.3 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN

B. UNITS DECOUPLING

TRADITIONAL HOUSING ......................... 34

(HORIZONTALLY AND/OR

3.4 URBAN DENSIFICATION & URBANIZATION

VERTICALLY) .................................. 83

IMPACT ON CURRENT HOUSING ............. 34

5.2.3 CONTEXT ADJUSTMENT ..................... 83

3.5 ENERGY SOURCE .......................................37 3.6 CLIMATE ANALYSIS................................... 38

6. CONCLUSION.................................................. 88

3.7 TYPICAL APARTMENT BUILDING (CASE

6.1 TYPICAL APARTMENT (CASE STUDY) ........ 88

STUDY) .................................................. 43

6.2 STRATEGIES ............................................. 88

3.7.1 BASE CASE STUDY SELECTION .......... 45

6.3 FINAL FINDINGS ....................................... 88

3.7.2 BASE CASE DETAILED

7. REFERENCE ..................................................... 89

CHARACTERISTICS ........................... 46 8. APPENDIX ....................................................... 91

A. CULTURAL ASPECT & OCCUPANTS BEHAVIOUR ................................ 46 B. SIZE, FACILITIES AND PROPORTION .............................. 46 C. BALCONY ..................................... 46 D. MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION ...47 3.8 FINDINGS & CONCLUSION......................... 47 3.9 DESIGN PRECEDENTS ............................... 47 4. ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES ................................50 4.1 SIMULATION INPUT IDENTIFICATION ........ 50 4.1.1 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS .................. 50 4.1.2 OCCUPANCY AND INTERNAL CONDITION ...................................... 50 4.1.3 VENTILATION SCHEDULE .................... 51 4.2 INDOOR ADAPTIVE THERMAL COMFORT ...51 4.3 BASE CASE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION .52 4.4 ENERGY BALANCE .....................................55 4.5 STRATEGIES PROCESS ...............................57 4.5.1 UNITS SCALE........................................ 57 4.5.2 BUILDINGS SCALE ...............................70 8

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TABLE OF FIGURES Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Indonesia and Jakarta Location in World Map .................................................................................................14 Figure 1.2 Jakarta’s Population Growth (data source: Central Bureau of Statistic) ...........................................................14 Figure 1.3 Asia’s Country Metropolises (source: WorldPop, United Nations, Department of Economics & Social Affair, Population Division) ..................................................................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Diagram of Self-Regulatory Adaptive System in Adjusting to Comfort Thermal Condition (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice) ..................................................................................................... 20 Figure 2.2 Suggested Applicability of the Categories and Their Associated Acceptable Temperature Range for FreeRunning Buildings (Categories and Explanations from BS EN 15251 (BSI, 2007)) (source: CIBSE Guide A) .....21 Figure 2.3 Air Velocity Correction to Operative Temperature (source: CIBSE Guide A) ....................................................21 Figure 2.4 Thermal Insulation Values for Specific Clothing and Corresponding Reduction in Acceptable Operative Temperature (source: CIBSE Guide A) ......................................................................................................... 22 Figure 2.5 Typical Metabolic Rate and Heat Generation Per Unit Area of Body Surface in Various Activities (source: CIBSE Guide A) ...................................................................................................................................................... 22 Figure 2.6 Zone within Which Lie Comfort Temperatures for Buildings in Free Running Mode (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice) ...................................................................................................................23 Figure 2.7 Humphreys’ graph of 1978 showing indoor comfort temperature varies with monthly mean outdoor temperature in free-running and heated or cooled mode. (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice) .......................................................................................................................................................23 Figure 2.8 Scales of (a) Subjective Warmth and (b) Thermal Preference (ASHRAE, 2010) (source: CIBSE Guide A) ......... 24 Figure 2.9 Diagram of three-way interaction between climate, people and buildings (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice) ............................................................................................................................... 24 Figure 2.10 Nicol Graph of Temperature in Lightweight and Heavyweight buildings at heatwave condition (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice) ...................................................................................... 25 Figure 2.11 Minimum values of average daylight factor required (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort) .............................. 26 Figure 2.12 Daylight Uniformity Criteria (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort) .................................................................. 26 Figure 2.13 Space type and illuminance requirements (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort) .............................................. 26 Figure 2.14 Approximate diffuse transmittances for various glazing types ..................................................................... 26 Figure 2.15 Reflectance for early design calculations ...................................................................................................... 26 Figure 2.16 GREENSHIP Assessment Tool (source: GBC Indonesia) ................................................................................. 27 Figure 2.17 TTDI Condominium, Kuala Lumpur (source: Google) ................................................................................... 28 Figure 2.18 North-South Orientation Façade and Shading Device (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II) ...................... 28 Figure 2.19 Typical Floor Plan with Naturally Ventilated Corridor and Voids in the Center of the Building (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II)................................................................................................................................... 28 Figure 2.20 Construction, Material, Internal Condition and Schedule Input for EDSL TAS Thermal Simulation (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II) ...................................................................................................................... 29 Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Old Batavia Map and Aerial Sketch (source: Google) .......................................................................................32

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Figure 3.2 Old Town Jakarta Architecture (source: Google) ............................................................................................. 33 Figure 3.3 Jakarta Topographic Map (source: Google Maps) ............................................................................................ 33 Figure 3.4 Jakarta's land subsidence (source: Dr. Heri Andreas, Bandung Institute of Technology) .................................. 33 Figure 3.5 Vernacular Dwellings ......................................................................................................................................34 Figure 3.6 Jakarta’s Urban Development (source: World: World Bank Publications) ........................................................ 35 Figure 3.7 Urban Kampungs condition in various locations (source: Google) .................................................................... 35 Figure 3.8 Kampung Pulo Relocation to affordable vertical housing (source: Liputan 6) .................................................. 35 Figure 3.9 Jakarta’s Urban Regulation (source: Google) ...................................................................................................36 Figure 3.10 High-Rise Buildings Jakarta (source: The Global Tall Building Database of the CTBUH) ................................. 37 Figure 3.11 Indonesia Energy Source (source: Indonesia’s Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources) ............................. 37 Figure 3.12 Petroleum & Other Liquid Supply and Consumption in Indonesia 2000-2014 (source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, September 2015)................................................................................................................. 37 Figure 3.13 Climate Specification (source: Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Map) ...................................................38 Figure 3.14 Air Pollution Jakarta (source: CNN Indonesia) ...............................................................................................39 Figure 3.15 Flood in Jakarta (source: Tribunnews, Tempo) ...............................................................................................39 Figure 3.16 Climate Condition in Jakarta (source: Meteonorm) ....................................................................................... 42 Figure 3.17 Some Typical Apartments in Every Districts in Jakarta ...................................................................................43 Figure 3.18 Typical Apartment Unit Types And Layout (source: Agung Podomoro – Royal Mediteranian Garden) .......... 44 Figure 3.19 Royal Mediterania Garden Aerial View (source: Google Map) ....................................................................... 45 Figure 3.20 Indoor Condition (source: Agung Podomoro) ............................................................................................... 45 Figure 3.21 Balcony & Facade Condition (source: Google Maps) ..................................................................................... 45 Figure 3.22 Design Precedents (source: ArchDaily) ......................................................................................................... 47 Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Materials and Constructions Input and U-Value.............................................................................................. 50 Figure 4.2 Occupancy, Equipment and Lighting Schedule .............................................................................................. 50 Figure 4.3 Occupancy, Apertures and Internal Condition Schedule (Base Case) ............................................................... 51 Figure 4.4 Occupancy, Apertures and Internal Condition Schedule (One Zone Unit)........................................................ 51 Figure 4.5 Temperature Comfort Band for Jakarta Future Climate .................................................................................. 51 Figure 4.6 Thermal Performances and Cooling Loads Result Graphs from TAS Simulation.............................................. 53 Figure 4.7 Weekly Resultant Temperature Result from TAS Simulation .......................................................................... 54 Figure 4.8 Shoebox Visualization and Input .....................................................................................................................55 Figure 4.9 Energy Balance Results from Grasshopper Simulation ................................................................................... 56 Figure 4.10 Unit Scale Strategies Process Diagram .......................................................................................................... 57 Figure 4.11 Single-zone Unit with 26% Glazing............................................................................................................... 58 Figure 4.12 Single-zone Unit with 15% Glazing ............................................................................................................... 58 Figure 4.13 UDI Results from Grasshopper Simulation .................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.14 Single-zone Unit with 80% Opaque Opening ............................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.15 Opening Operation Design to Maximize Opening and Coupling of Indoor and Outdoor Space (Source: Pinterest) .................................................................................................................................................... 59 Figure 4.16 Air Changes Results for Natural Ventilation from Optivent .......................................................................... 59 Figure 4.17 Single-zone Unit with Insulated External Wall .............................................................................................. 60 Figure 4.18 Thermal Simulation Result for External Wall Improvements .........................................................................61 Figure 4.19 Solar Access on West & East Orientations .................................................................................................... 62 Figure 4.20 Shading Device Precedents (West & East).................................................................................................... 62

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Figure 4.21 Shading Panel Design (West & East) ............................................................................................................ 62 Figure 4.22 Solar Access on North & South Orientations ............................................................................................... 62 Figure 4.23 Shading Device Precedents (North & South) .................................................................................................63 Figure 4.24 Shading Panel Design (North & South) .........................................................................................................63 Figure 4.25 Permeable Vernacular Materials ...................................................................................................................63 Figure 4.26 Possible Shading Panels Permeability ...........................................................................................................63 Figure 4.27 UDI Simulation Results of Shading Porosity from Grasshopper .................................................................... 64 Figure 4.28 Thermal Simulation Result for Shading Device and Faรงade Improvement .................................................... 65 Figure 4.29 Horizontal Unit Form Improvement (5:2 Ratio) ............................................................................................ 66 Figure 4.30 UDI Simulation Result (W:D Ratio Improvement) ......................................................................................... 66 Figure 4.31 Natural Ventilation Simulation Result (W:D Ratio Improvement) ................................................................. 66 Figure 4.32 Vertical Unit Form Improvement (Double-Height) ........................................................................................ 67 Figure 4.33 UDI Simulation Result (Double Height Improvement) ................................................................................... 67 Figure 4.34 Natural Ventilation Simulation Result (Double Height Improvement) .......................................................... 68 Figure 4.35 Thermal Simulation Result for Units Form Improvements ............................................................................ 69 Figure 4.36 Building Scale Strategies Process Diagram ................................................................................................... 70 Figure 4.37 Open Circulation in Buildings Scale ............................................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.38 Open Circulation Concept with Creating Void ............................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.39 Base Unit Form with Cross Ventilation .......................................................................................................... 71 Figure 4.40 Unit Form Horizontal Improvement with Cross Ventilation ........................................................................... 71 Figure 4.41 Unit Form Vertical Improvement with Cross Ventilation ................................................................................ 72 Figure 4.42 Air Velocity Simulation Results from Autodesk CFD ...................................................................................... 72 Figure 4.43 Thermal Simulation Result from Cross Ventilation Strategy .......................................................................... 73 Figure 4.44 Staged Floor in Buildings Scale ..................................................................................................................... 74 Figure 4.45 Staged Floor Design in Traditional Architecture and Current Landed House ................................................. 74 Figure 4.46 Staged Stories Concept with Creating Void .................................................................................................. 74 Figure 4.47 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy ............................................................................................... 75 Figure 4.48 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy ............................................................................................... 75 Figure 4.49 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy ............................................................................................... 75 Figure 4.50 Thermal Simulation Result from Cross Ventilation ........................................................................................ 76 Chapter 5 Figure 5.1 Thermal Performance Results from Building Scale Strategies ........................................................................ 80 Figure 5.2 Design Guidance Process in Unit and Building Scale .......................................................................................81 Figure 5.3 Design Guidance: Apartment Form Layout and Form for Different Unit Types ............................................... 84 Figure 5.4 Design Guidance: Unit Scale Improvements................................................................................................... 85 Figure 5.5 Design Guidance: Building Scale Improvements............................................................................................. 86 Figure 5.6 Design Guidance: Performances in Different Context; (1) Different Height without Surrounding; (2) Different Height with Surrounding .............................................................................................................................. 87

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1.

INTRODUCTION

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 CONTEXT BACKGROUND

Figure 1.1 Indonesia and Jakarta Location in World Map

Indonesia is one of the biggest archipelago state in the

Jakarta Metropolitan (Jabotabek) is the second largest

world and Jakarta is located on north-west side of Java

urban area in the world, it also has huge population with

island. Jakarta is the capital city of Indonesia which

around 30million as of 2010. In the year 2025, Jabotabek

located on 6.2S latitude and 106.8E Longitude. Jakarta’s

was predicted to reach 35.6 million people population.

topography on the north side are Java Sea, while on the

Jakarta city itself has more than 10 million populations,

south side are highlands and mountains.

additionally as Jakarta is the centre of economy and government, most people from its surrounding urban

Indonesia has the fourth largest population in the world,

area frequently travel and move to the city centre.

and with current issue with urbanization, Jakarta was impacted with drastic population growth in these last

As a result, Jakarta’s city centre has a density of 14.464

two decades. Moreover, Jakarta is one of the city in

people per square kilometer. Since This dense situation

Jakarta Metropolitan area with three other cities which

also linked with the need of housing, especially in the city

are Bekasi, Bogor and Tangerang.

centre, causing peaks on land prices and landed housing has become unaffordable, according to Finance Minister Sri Mulyani Indrawati. Housing prices in Jakarta increased drastically and excessively high that only 20% of household can own a housing property in the formal market (The Jakarta Post, 2018).

Answering the high demand of housing, Jakarta’s master urban planning for 2030 consist major development of vertical housing from middle to high rise buildings.

Figure 1.2 Jakarta’s Population Growth (data source: Central Bureau of Statistic)

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Figure 1.3 Asia’s Country Metropolises (source: WorldPop, United Nations, Department of Economics & Social Affair, Population Division)

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1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.2 ISSUE & RESEARCH BACKGROUND Considering current condition, population and future

Principal

What are the possible combination of

urban planning, there are several issues which inspired

Research

guidelines

this research to be conducted.

Question:

residential buildings in units and building

for

designing

high-rise

scale in improving indoor environmental 1.

performance?

Jakarta has an unreasonably high energy consumption

standard

for

cooling

with

300kWh/m annual cooling loads (Indonesian

Detailed

1. Case Study

National Standard (SNI)). This regulation was

Research

a.

probably based on average energy demand in

Questions:

performance (daylight & thermal) in

2

What

is

indoor

environmental

typical apartment in Jakarta?

current market.

b. What is the impact of current envelope 2.

High-rise residential buildings frequently built by

design to solar access from direct solar

private developers which designed the buildings

radiation?

with profit and commercial aims. Commonly

c. What is the potential of selective

used design and current trends that can be found

natural ventilation & exposed thermal

in majority of apartment in Jakarta are:

mass in improving thermal condition?

a. Typical vertical housing has very small balcony

2. Possible Strategies

which is not contribute to any space quality and

a. Layout & Envelope

oftentimes misused to put laundry or outdoor

what is the best layout and envelope for

units AC.

apartment

b. Indoor space and vertical façade are

coupling between indoor and outdoor

insufficiently protected from rain and direct solar

space?

radiation.

perform better thermal & daylight

c. Unnecessary big glazing area which badly

performances?

impact indoor thermal and daylight quality

b. External Materials & Construction

(overheat and glare).

How much insulation and glazing area on

is

units

to maximize the

open

plan

(single-zone)

air

external facade is advisable for the

conditioner. In most cases, every room in one unit

decoupling of indoor-outdoor when

has AC installed.

external is in extreme condition?

d.

Excessive

use and

possession of

c. Facade shading How are shading strategies for each

1.3 RESEARCH PURPOSE

orientation?

Inspired by Jakarta’s future urban development plan

d. Units Proportion

which consist major growth of high-rise buildings, this

What is the best width-depth ratio and

research purpose is to create a guideline and suggestion

depth-height ratio for internal spaces to

in designing sustainable vertical housing with future

achieve

scenario climate. Project aim and applicability from this

maximum

ventilation

and

daylight performance?

research outcome was aimed for new middle-class

d. Building Form

construction apartments.

How effective are cross ventilation with

Sustainability purpose in this project is to have good

open building’s circulation and units

indoor thermal and daylight quality with the possibility

decoupling

of free-running or minimum energy loads all year.

performance?

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for

indoor

thermal

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1.5 HYPOTHESIS

ventilation using Optivent and Autodesk CFD. Every

Climate in Jakarta has constant high thermal condition

climate base simulation was conducted with future

all year which generated high cooling demand all year,

climate scenario input (2050) that was attained from

despite this condition, one best strategies combination

Meteonorm climate database.

based on environmental principal could maximize Architecture Modelling

comfort with minimal mechanical energy demand.

Every improvement strategy in this research were Primary hypothesis in this research is with maximized

followed with design proposal to ensure applicability in

vertical surface shading on and maximize open area for

further vertical housing design development. The basis

natural ventilation, this climate has a great possibility of

in this design work is to have facilities and space area as

free-running

detailed

similar as the base case with indoor environmental

hypothesis is the most effective possible strategies for

condition improvement. Architecture design was done

this design guidance are shading (building’s envelope),

using several methodology including sketch and

unit’s & building’s form and maximized natural

architectural software. Software used in this process are

ventilation (stack and cross ventilation).

Graphisoft Archicad, Google Sketchup and Robert

vertical

housings.

Further

McNeel & Associates Rhinoceros.

1.6 METHODOLOGY Literature Review & Previous Research This research was firstly done by understanding design principal and previous research study of high-rise residential building in similar climate. Findings in this first study was used as a basis in proposing further scenarios.

Computing Simulation Methodology for analytical work was conducted mostly by sensitive analysis of computing simulation in order to attain both good indoor thermal condition and daylight quality. Analytical work in this research was done in two steps.

(1) First analysis was done to understand indoor environmental condition with case study input which represent typical and most commonly used in designing vertical housing.

(2) Further analytical work was done to find the most effective shading, form

and natural ventilation

strategies in achieving more sustainable or (in best scenario) free-running high-rise residential building.

Computing simulation in this research was done using several environmental software including: (1) daylight simulation using Ladybug & Honeybee, (2) energy and thermal simulation using EDSL TAS and energy plus, (3) sun hour simulation using Ladybug and (4) natural

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1.7 RESEARCH STRUCTURE

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2.

THEORITICAL BACKGROUND & LITERATURE REVIEW

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2. THEORITICAL BACKGROUND & LITERATURE REVIEW ordinary sitting and resting activity, while a runner might

2.1 THERMAL COMFORT FOR RESIDENTIAL

be generating over 400W/m2 heat.

BUILDING IN TROPICAL CLIMATE In previous survey of post occupancy satisfaction in

Normal and healthy human body has an ability to adjust

buildings with passive strategy, thermal comfort and

body temperature within close limits with different

adequate ‘air freshness’ are ones of the things which

outdoor temperature condition (higher or lower). When

people considered most important in indoor building’s

temperature drops, there is a reduction in supply of

condition. (Griffiths, 1990)

metabolic heat to the skin to maintain its core temperature and decrease heat transfer to its

As people has different ‘temperature condition’ they

surrounding environment. If body temperature rises,

considered comfortable, thermal comfort science and

there is increase in blood supply to periphery causing

identification is one of the most important thing in

increases on skin temperature and give rise to sweating.

defining better thermal condition in this research

This result in heat loss from evaporated sweat from the

especially in hot and humid climate such as Jakarta.

surface.

Humphreys survey of worldwide temperature data Additionally, people endurance to certain thermal

found a strong relationship between outdoor and indoor

condition in extreme condition depends on certain

temperature in free-running conditioned buildings.

climate condition they are adapted in, also other

Humphrey and Nicol’s adaptive approach in defining

environmental parameter and behaviour in achieving

thermal comfort is developed by studying everyday

comfort.

people’s life which has immediate relevance with their ordinary living condition. Additionally, thermal comfort identification is influenced by several dynamic factors

2.1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL PARAMETER

including behavioural and cultural factors which shows

Thermal comfort condition was defined by a person’s

an active relation to their comfort condition. Figure 2.1

sensation of warmth which influenced by these main

shows thermal comfort as a part of a self-regulatory

environmental parameters:

adaptive system (Nicol & Humphreys,1973) (1) Dry-Bulb Temperature (Air Temperature) (2) Mean Radiant Temperature (3) Relative Air Speed (4) Humidity Further personal adaptive factor that affect thermal comfort are: (5) Metabolic Heat Production (6) Clothing.

Figure 2.1 Diagram of Self-Regulatory Adaptive System in Adjusting to Comfort Thermal Condition (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles

(1) Temperature

and practice)

Temperature is the most environmental variable 2.1.1 PHYSIOLOGY

affecting thermal comfort. Operative temperature is

Firstly, basic thermal source is from human body which

defined by room air temperature, surface temperature

generate heat correlate with muscular activity,

and air velocity which resulted in indoor thermal

metabolism and all bodily function. The amount of heat

comfort. A change of operative temperature will also

produced from a person may produce 60W/m2 in an

change persons’ precipitation on thermal condition and

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can be found in ASHRAE or Bedford scale (Figure 2.5).

However, Fanger studies have shown that there might

CIBSE Guidance on temperature suitable for various

be dissatisfaction other than mean air velocity and air

indoor spaces function is shown on a Figure 2.2 below

temperature caused by

which is specifically aimed for free-running spaces in

fluctuations of air speed. Fanger and Pedersen (1977)

buildings in warm weather. This temperature boundary

suggested that people are particularly sensitive if air

will be taken in mind in further analysis study.

speeds fluctuate at a frequency in the range 0.3Hz –

draught,

but also the

0.6Hz. (3) Humidity While humidity affects thermal condition, relative humidity has little effect on feeling of warmth. Human body does not have sensors to respond or perceive humidity directly, this probably derives humidity from Figure 2.2 Suggested Applicability of the Categories and Their Associated

thermal and tactile sense.

Acceptable Temperature Range for Free-Running Buildings (Categories and Explanations from BS EN 15251 (BSI, 2007)) (source: CIBSE Guide A)

Acceptable relative humidity in the range of 40% - 70% (2) Air Movement

(Nevins at al., 1966) may be ignored in moderate thermal

In warm and humid climate such as Jakarta, air

environment (McIntyre, 1978). Moreover, high room

movement can provide beneficial cooling effect in

humidity condition (>70%) may be caused by several

improving thermal comfort condition. Figure 2.3 graph

combination of evaporation, inadequate ventilation and

can be used to estimate the cooling effect by air velocity.

outdoor condition.

Note from CIBSE Guide A is: graph applies to a sedentary person (1 met) in thermal comfort, 25% of metabolic

Rooms with air conditioned system usually have

heat loss by evaporation, a convection coefficient (hc) of

maximum relative humidity (RH) of 60% within the

133v and a radiation coefficient (hr) of 4.1 W·m–2 of the

recommended range of summer design operative

Dubois body surface area (see e.g. Parsons, 2003).

temperatures which would provide acceptable comfort conditions and minimize the risk of microbiological growth.

The figure is derived from the temperature difference across the boundary layer at the clothed surface: heat flow across the surface thermal resistance = k Ma (1 / (hc

(4) Clothing

+ hr)) where k is the proportion of the metabolic heat lost

Clothing is one of personal adaptive factors that

other than by evaporation.

influence thermal comfort inside a space. Clothing put on depends on season, weather and indoor thermal environment. In a hot or warm condition in tropical climate, typical clothing use generally consist lightweight materials which has less insulation level ranging from 0.35clo – 0.6clo. Clothing insulation value and its corresponding change in operative temperature can be seen from figure 2.4 below. (EN ISO 7737 (BSI, 2005)) Note from CIBSE Guide A: for sedentary persons, an allowance should be made for the insulating effect of the

Figure 2.3 Air Velocity Correction to Operative Temperature (source:

chair, i.e. 0.15 clo for an office chair (corresponding to a

CIBSE Guide A)

temperature change of 0.9 K), and 0.3 clo for an

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upholstered armchair (corresponding to a temperature

Corresponding Reduction in Acceptable Operative Temperature (source:

change of 1.8 K).

CIBSE Guide A)

Additionally, dynamic activity such as walking can lead

(4) Metabolic Heat Production

to loosen clothing that let air movement between

Human body heat production is strongly related on

clothing material and skin. Also, materials thickness

activity. Figure 2.5 show metabolic rates for specific

reduction of clothing layer can provide more heat

activity. For further study in a residential space, daily

exchange between body and outdoor environment.

activity mostly consists activities from resting and occupational categories.

Figure 2.5 Typical Metabolic Rate and Heat Generation Per Unit Area of Body Surface in Various Activities (source: CIBSE Guide A)

2.1.3 BEHAVIOUR Occupants behaviour plays an important role in achieving thermal comfort. Behaviour is an active act to adaptively change thermal environment, given the ability to do so in a certain limitation. All approach to all environmental condition in previous discussion affected differently on how a specific person acted and react with a passive way.

According to Fergus Nicol and Michael Humphreys, generally, there are several behavioural actions in answering to thermal condition: 

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Clothing change

UnIversIty of WestmInster



Changes of posture and metabolic rate



Movement



between

different

Previous connection between indoor thermal comfort and outdoor temperature can be used as a based in

thermal

environments

improving a building to a comfortable free-running

Masking use of thermal controls to change the

building. Figure 2.3 shows each point is the value of

current environment

comfort temperature determined from a survey of thermal

comfort

with

different

mean

outdoor

temperature at the time when the survey was taken.

Moreover, there is an importance role of time in adjusting to thermal comfort. These are four time periods for these effects: 

Immediate – Change of clothing right before difference condition as an anticipation of thermal change.



Within-day – Changes of clothing and posture to adjust to environment within a particular day.



Day-to-day – Learning from one day to the next on how to cope with changing conditions such as weather



Longer term – Seasonal changing behaviours

Figure 2.6 Zone within Which Lie Comfort Temperatures for Buildings in

on clothing, use of the buildings, activities and

Free Running Mode (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice)

lifestyle in a longer period.

This behaviours study is taking into account to fully understand people’s thermal experience to different environmental conditions. In this research, occupant of high-rise residential behaviour in a warm and humid climate will be the base in designing further strategies.

2.1.4 WORLDWIDE NEUTRAL TEMPERATURE

Figure 2.7 Humphreys’ graph of 1978 showing indoor comfort temperature varies with monthly mean outdoor temperature in free-running and

Worldwide temperature shows more variation on

heated or cooled mode. (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and

outdoor prevailing temperature depends on specific

practice)

climate condition. People who live in a certain climate condition adapt to their outdoor temperature as well

As the mean outdoor temperature (Tom) can be acquired

their indoor thermal comfort condition with a linear

from a specific place metrological data.

relationship.

Tom = (Toutdoor max + Toutdoor min)/2 Figure 2.2 shows linear graph of neutral temperature in buildings with free-running operating mode, while

Central line of comfort indoor temperature from

dotted point represent a separate survey of thermal

Humphrey’s survey generate this equation that can be

comfort. This data was taken from different condition

use in defining indoor neutral temperature worldwide.

(clothing, wind and humidity) when each survey was

This following equation can be calculated for each

taken place.

month of the year.

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Tcomf = 0.53(Tom) + 13.8

Key and basic principle in designing comfortable sustainable building is to take in mind the ‘whole system’

There is a scale that can be used in defining thermal

in a building. Adaptive comfort with many attributes

acceptability from neutral temperature condition which

including outside climate, context, form, occupants,

is ASHRAE scale of thermal preference.

time and season are helping to determine comfort in a specific system. These are several key of adaptive design characteristic

in

achieving

free-running

with

comfortable building.

(1) Dynamic and Interactive First base understanding is that we are designing buildings as a part of a dynamic system, also in order to achieve ‘comfort’ for certain occupants. Different passive dynamic strategy applied to different comfort needs required different palettes of strategies.

(2) Changing Adaptive approach is required change and movements, Figure 2.8 Scales of (a) Subjective Warmth and (b) Thermal Preference

especially in dynamic condition pattern, context and

(ASHRAE, 2010) (source: CIBSE Guide A)

behaviour. Changeable indoor condition has widely variable including

2.1.5 ADAPTIVE BUILDINGS

openable movement

between

buildings and rooms, air movement, open or close blinds

As Indonesia has warm to hot-climate all year, air

and so on.

conditioning is considered as necessity and essential item especially in residential buildings. Background in

(3) Customary

this phenomena in twentieth century is the cheap energy

People who live with a certain lifestyle in a particular

which leads to overusing and poor understanding of

space usually have their own thermal pathway everyday

climate responsive buildings design.

seasonally, this basically a way for a generally comfortable condition. Nicol findings show customary

Principle on further strategy and design for low-energy

indoor temperature changes within day changes is

adaptive buildings is based on Fergus Nicol & Humpreys

insignificant.

design principle (Adaptive Thermal Comfort Principle and Practice, 2013). In order to successfully design for

Changes of customary temperature can also occur in

comfort in a low-energy free running buildings, Nicol

mechanical condition buildings. McCartney and Nicol

shows a diagram in understanding a three-way

research show that even with non-passive building

interaction between climate, people and buildings.

system, the use of air conditioner change seasonally.

(4) Seasonally Adjusted As it was mentioned in the previous theory, neutral indoor temperature in free-running and naturally ventilated buildings changes with different outdoor temperature condition in a linear relationship.

Nicol graph in the use of heavyweight constructed

Figure 2.9 Diagram of three-way interaction between climate, people and

buildings as a passive strategy is resulted in almost

buildings (source: Adaptive thermal comfort principles and practice)

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constant

indoor

temperature,

similarly

as

air-

Good indoor lighting quality when it answers these

conditioned buildings, and remain in a comfortable

purposes:

condition from being decoupled from extreme outdoor



temperature fluctuation.

To enable the occupant to work and move in safety



To enable tasks to be performed correctly and at an appropriate pace



To create a pleasing visual appearance for the particular application and the architecture.

Quantitative way to measure adequate indoor daylight quality from natural lighting is by measuring indoor illuminance in free-running building. Additionally, analysis on illuminance data are needed for daylight design calculation. These design are included windows Figure 2.10 Nicol Graph of Temperature in Lightweight and Heavyweight

sizing, choice of materials and shading or buildings

buildings at heatwave condition (source: Adaptive thermal comfort

envelope. Relationship between visual performance and

principles and practice)

illuminance has been investigated previously, which shows different factors which vary with human activity,

(5) A Goal not a Product

individual and environment (Boyce, 2003).

Current architectural design trends show ‘comfort’ as a ‘product’ that can be achieved in several ways, including

Illuminance standard for dwellings varies between room

air-conditioned mode. Effortless installation of air-

function or type. These are BREEAM Visual Comfort

conditioned in buildings these day resulting decrease of

standards for Daylight Availability in certain latitude

attention in passive design with climatic approach.

(figure 2.11) and Illuminance standard for dwellings

ASHRAE defines comfort as ‘a state of mind’ and there is

category (figure 2.13). Additionally, there is uniformity

a process in achieving comfort. Comfort including

standard (figure 2.12) to ensure indoor daylight quality

thermal is a goal that should be able to achieve by

around the space.

occupants with controlling their own environment.

There are certain limitations to the range of passive and

2.2.2 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR DAYLIGHT

adjustable design to any community related to their

Daylight illuminance may vary in various condition such

thermal experience, social, economic and cultural

as climate and weather. World-wide weather data can

context. (Humphreys and Nicol, 1998; 2002)

provide external illuminance data for a certain location.

In designing opening size, glazing materials and indoor

2.2 VISUAL COMFORT

surface, there is several standards that can be applied in

2.2.1 VISUAL COMFORT FOR RESIDENTIAL SPACE

further strategies.

Natural daylight access is important for health and wellbeing. In Indonesia’s climate, daylight might easily

(1) Glazing Construction

sufficient for indoor quality caused by high solar

Glazing material and construction has a certain light

radiation. However, glare might occur indoor in certain

transmittance to indoor space. Figure 2.14 shows

orientations facing façade which is causing strong

approximate diffuse transmittances for various glazing

directional solar access. Appropriate design of shading

types and construction.

or buildings envelope and materials can avoid this problem.

(2) Reflectance for Early Design Calculations Reflectance data (figure 2.15) can be used in following design stage in order to define indoor surface materials.

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Figure 2.11 Minimum values of average daylight factor required (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort)

Figure 2.12 Daylight Uniformity Criteria (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort)

Figure 2.13 Space type and illuminance requirements (source: BREEAM: Visual Comfort)

Figure 2.14 Approximate diffuse transmittances for various glazing types (source: CIBSE Guide A)

Figure 2.15 Reflectance for early design calculations (CIBSE, 1999) (source: CIBSE Guide A)

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(a) GREENSHIP New Building

2.3 GREEN BUILDINGS STANDARD & ENERGY

(b) GREENSHIP Existing Building

USE IN INDONESIA

(c) GREENSHIP Interior Space

Indonesia government never yet issue legal regulations

(d) GREENSHIP Homes

for any detailed environmental standard or benchmark

(e) GREENSHIP Neighbourhood

for sustainable buildings. Building’s environmental

Environmental standard for each function consist 6

performance is not considered in the process of getting

categories:

building construction permit. In spite of that, some

(1) Appropriate Site Development (ASD)

environmental performance standard was published by

(2) Energy Efficiency & Conservation (EEC)

Indonesian National Standard (SNI) as a benchmark to

(3) Water Conservation (WAC)

evaluate post-occupancy condition.

(4) Materials & Resources Cycle (MRC) (5) Air Quality & Leisure Air (Water Indoor

Current sustainable green building

certification

Health & Comfort / IHC)

and

(6) Building & Environment Management

benchmark in Indonesia was

(BEM)

published by Green Building Council Indonesia (GBCI) which is an independent institution with the aim towards

Several standards category was used in the further

sustainable infrastructures in Indonesia. GBCI is an

analysis as a benchmark to evaluate indoor thermal and

established member of World Green Building Council.

daylight performances especially in current typical

Given rating and assessment tools for qualified

apartments in Jakarta. Categories used to assess these

sustainable building entitled GREENSHIP, which is

environmental

developed by climatic, regulation and cultural basis in

conditions

are

natural

lighting,

ventilation, outdoor air introduction, visual comfort and

Indonesia. GBCI has developed and published 5 types of

thermal comfort

GREENSHIP which are:

Figure 2.16 GREENSHIP Assessment Tool (source: GBC Indonesia)

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

on east-west facing facades to capture wind and

2.4 PREVIOUS RESEARCH: THE

increase air velocity across the centre of the building;

ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF THE

final strategy is a double plated roof to reduce direct

TTDI

solar radiation on top floor apartments.

Taman Tun Dr. Ismail (TTDI) tower is a residential building in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, which has similar tropical climate with Jakarta. Located in 3.1oN latitude, 101.5oE longitude, Kuala Lumpur has warm and humid environmental condition with temperature average of 27oC and 76% relative humidity all year.

Figure 2.18 North-South Orientation Façade and Shading Device (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II)

Apartment arrangement layout for each floor typically has double aspects order divided by six-meter wide open corridor, each apartment has 10m depth. Open corridor consists 2m width void which allow light and airflow and serve better environmental condition in the communal circulation area.

Figure 2.17 TTDI Condominium, Kuala Lumpur (source: Google)

Completed in 2006 with 2 towers of 21-stories and 28stories buildings, TTDI tower was design by T.R. Hamzah and Yeang, who are widely known for applying the concept of ecological architecture in tropical climate.

This research was done by Suraksa Bhatla and Joana Gonçalves with one of the main point of evaluating postoccupancy

thermal

performances

of

TTDI

condominiums.

2.4.1 DESIGN FEATURES TTDI residential tower includes two towers with

Figure 2.19 Typical Floor Plan with Naturally Ventilated Corridor and Voids in the Centre of the Building (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II)

different orientation, first tower oriented North-South while the other East-West. This previous study chose the

2.4.2 ENVIROMENTAL PERFORMANCES ANALYSIS

21-story north facing tower with 120 apartments, which

Thermal condition evaluation was done by two

are middle – upper class housing unit for two to four

methodologies, which are fieldwork and computing

people occupants.

simulation. Fieldwork was done by installing data logger for continuous monitoring in several units with different

Bioclimatic design features found in this particular tower

orientations and elevation. While computing simulation

are continuous horizontal shading device with 1.2m

was done by EDSL TAS software with these design and

depth, constructed by white concrete façade in order to

schedule input. (Figure 2.20)

reflect both direct and diffuse solar radiation (Figure 2.18); 0.6m wing walls acted as vertical shading located

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

2.4.3 KEY FINDINGS Research on TTDI tower provided several findings those can be considered in further design strategy in improving indoor thermal and daylight quality. In term of design strategies, the most effective passive approach for tropical climate is shaded vertical façade. Protected external wall from solar radiation can have sufficient daylight and ventilation with 25% window-to-floor ratio, moreover it provides sufficient sky view quality. Detailed size of shading device depends on apartment orientation, nonetheless this research showed sufficient shading

with

one-meter

to

two-meter

depth.

Additionally, on the contrary with UK’s climate, this research show benefit effect of less-insulation which shows a great potential in reducing internal heat gain in warm climate. This particular finding shows that in this climate, there is a big role of using natural ventilation in elimination internal heat gain.

Final findings from this previous research is the importance of occupants’ lifestyle and apartments layout. Firstly, occupants’ behaviour pattern has a great influence on energy consumption, especially in using mechanical cooling. Secondly, internal furniture layout, position and partition influence windows design and size which also effect thermal condition inside apartment.

Further layout and widow design effect is to address privacy, security and wind access to indoor space.

Figure 2.20 Construction, Material, Internal Condition and Schedule Input for EDSL TAS Thermal Simulation (source: CTBUH Journal, 2012 Issue II)

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

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3.

CONTEXT & PRECEDENT

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

3. CONTEXT & PRECEDENT 3.1 HISTORY Jakarta was renamed from Batavia after the World War II, officially four years after Indonesia became

Since infrastructure development from forced hard

Independence in August 1945. Before that period,

labour in colonization era, Jakarta has never been

Indonesia including Jakarta was colonized by several

reconstructed in an urban scale. Infrastructure including

countries respectively including Britain, Portuguese,

rain water drainage, sewage system, electricity

Netherland and Japan. The longest period and the most

distribution and some of transportation road were

influential

with

constructed before World War II. This condition leads to

Netherlands for more than three centuries from 1619

current familiar issue Jakarta is facing every rainy season

until it was taken by Japan in 1942.

which is flood.

Netherland colonization influence every infrastructure,

The lack of public transportation added to massive

architecture and urban development in Indonesia

population

especially Batavia (Jakarta) as it was one of the most

condition and one of the city’s biggest problem

important city for trading business. Batavia was firstly

nowadays. Answering that problem, biggest public

designed with the infrastructure for 800.000 people.

transport

However, the strategic location of Batavia also attracted

constructing until now (September 2019) to build

merchants from China, Arab, Africa and native

Jakarta MRT (Mass Rapid Transportation) which also

Indonesian as well which also influence population

contribute as a drainage system in Jakarta

colonization

in

Indonesia

was

growth

development

growth until today.

Figure 3.1 Old Batavia Map and Aerial Sketch (source: Google)

32

created

in

unacceptable

Indonesia

has

traffic

been

UnIversIty of WestmInster Figure 3.2 Old Town Jakarta Architecture (source: Google)

3.2 TOPOGRAPHY

Figure 3.3 Jakarta Topographic Map (source: Google Maps)

Jakarta is located on north-west coast of Java island.

Jakarta is surrounded with mountains and higher ground on southern orientation, however on east orientation there is sea which has one of the busiest harbour in export

and

import

activity

in

1997

Indonesia.

Administratively, Jakarta areas includes “ten thousand islands” located in Jakarta Bay. Jakarta elevation has an average of 8m starts from 3m below sea level with the highest of around 50m above sea level. In this case, Jakarta considered has “low and

2007

flat” ground criteria. Uncontrolled built development and illegal ground water pumping causing Jakarta sinks in the last 20 years.

In addition to that, there are 13 rivers flowing across from southern highland surrounds the city towards Java Sea. The biggest and most polluted river is Ciliwung which also divide the city into West and East Jakarta.

2017

As a result, Jakarta especially on the north district suffers with flooding every wet season. In the most severe situation, education and every day activity has to be stopped as some places are not accessible by any transportation. Further study in this occurrence was done by Dr. Heri Andreas from Bandung Institute of Technology. Jakarta is currently known as the fastest-

2025

sinking city in the world (BBC) and with this current sinking rate North Jakarta was predicted to be submerged in 2025. Latest government resolution to address issues in Jakarta is to move Indonesia’s capital

Figure 3.4 Jakarta's land subsidence (source: Dr. Heri Andreas, Bandung Institute of Technology)

city to Kalimantan Island.

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

3.3 VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE IN TRADITIONAL HOUSING Vernacular Architecture in Indonesia grew and evolved

Austronesian

Architecture.

The

origins

of

this

from culture and tradition, also in consideration of

architectural tradition can be traced back to cultures

climate, materials and structural technique as a response

inhabiting coastal regions and rivers of South China and

of local condition.in each location. Each building was

North Vietnam approximately 4000 years BC.

built from experience of the worker by trial and error process and always dynamically changed and open to

There are design features from vernacular architecture

transformation. As Indonesia has a very diverse culture,

with climate consideration that can be learned and adapt

vernacular architecture also developed in various

to current residential design. The highlight concepts that

designs and purposes (both sacred and non-sacred), this

can be applied from traditional architecture design are:

study will focus more to architecture in traditional

(1) Extended roof to prevent vertical facade from rain

housing.

and direct solar radiation, (2) High ceiling to keep warmer air above living area, (3) Sufficient air flow and

Various type of traditional architecture houses is

cooling effect by staged floor and (4) Connection

considered as Indonesian vernacular architecture, as

between indoor-outdoor space.

they are believed to have common origin known as

Figure 3.5 Vernacular Dwellings

3.4 URBAN DENSIFICATION & URBANIZATION IMPACT ON CURRENT HOUSING As many big cities in the world, Jakarta is also impacted

time residents over generations and provide shelter to

by urbanization and rapid population increase which

new migrants. (Indonesia’s Urban Story, 2016).

resulted high demand of housing with high price

Moreover, kampungs usually have lacks of access on

especially in city centre.

With current population

primarily infrastructure (electricity, clean water and

growth, Jakarta is approximately in need of 820,000 –

sewage system) and vulnerable to criminality and

920,000 new housing in the urban area. Since housing

hazards especially flooding.

become more unaffordable, Jakarta is suffering with slums and illegal housing area scattered throughout the

To address these issues, Jakarta’s government has

city that is called ‘kampung kota’. This phenomenon also

developed some policies to support affordable housing

shows social inequality issue in the city center.

with neighbourhood development programs, highly to fully subsidized public rental programs, an up-front

Jakarta’s kampungs are usually built very densely with

subsidy

limited open space. Green space such as parks and urban

Unfortunately, these initiatives have not yet been

green pockets are considered luxurious facilities in these

effective in improving housing outcomes at sufficient

areas. Typically characterized by incremental growth,

scale, and government spending on housing has not

self-financing and construction, and shared basic

always been equitable or effective. (Indonesia’s Urban

infrastructure and services, urban kampungs house long-

Story, 2016).

34

for

incremental

home

improvements.

UnIversIty of WestmInster

Figure 3.6 Jakarta’s Urban Development (source: World: World Bank Publications)

Figure 3.7 Urban Kampungs condition in various locations (source: Google)

Figure 3.8 Kampung Pulo Relocation to affordable vertical housing (source: Liputan 6)

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

Urban design regulation for high rise building in Jakarta

increase more drastically following high current

created a decent open space between width is 10m and

demands of housing in the city centre.

site regulation usually has 15m setback for building’s built structure, generated around 40m or more distance

Most of high-rise buildings and more than 90% with

between buildings. High rise buildings in Jakarta have

residential function was built with concrete

varied heights with the highest building of 250m which

structure. In Indonesia concrete structure was preferred

has dwellings function.

for fire resistance, low maintenance and thermal mass

According to CTBUH, 40% of high rise buildings in

compare to frame structure, despite the fact the

Jakarta has residential function, with similar amount of

construction takes more time

office function, which in the future proposition will

Figure 3.9 Jakarta’s Urban Regulation (source: Google)

Building Function

Structural Material

36

UnIversIty of WestmInster Figure 3.10 High-Rise Buildings Jakarta (source: The Global Tall Building Database of the CTBUH)

3.5 ENERGY SOURCE Indonesia energy sources are used for serving primarily

is Pertamina. In the last two decades, domestic

export markets and meeting its growing energy

consumption on oil has been increasing while production

demand. Moreover, Indonesia’s energy industry faced

was declined facing a challenge and pushing Indonesia to

many challenges as it had regulatory uncertainty and

increase the use of more sustainable resources.

inadequate investment. Current biggest state-owned electrical utility company in Indonesia is Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN).

Figure 3.12 Petroleum & Other Liquid Supply and Consumption in Indonesia 2000-2014 (source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, September 2015)

Secondly, Indonesia has adequate supply of coal in which is the second most used energy source. Jakarta is capital city which surrounds with most power plant (12 power plants in 100km radius) in the world. At current rate productions, coals resource will be sufficient to supply energy for more than 80 years. This power plants also contribute with around 30% of Jakarta’s pollution level. Following the current event of major power Figure 3.11 Indonesia Energy Source (source: Indonesia’s Ministry of

blackout in West Java, which was caused by power

Energy and Mineral Resources)

stations technical issue, Jakarta’s air quality improved to ‘moderate’ condition (US Air Quality Index) with a score

Indonesia total energy consumption grew by around

of 79 and 25.5 µg/m3 concentration of PM2.5.

43% from 2003 and 2013, this increase was linked with economy expansion and population growth especially in

Indonesia’s energy source background is pushing the

urban area. Indonesia has a great potential to use

further vertical housing design to reduce the use of

renewable energy resource, however, latest data show

unnecessary energy with the purpose of reducing

that more than 70% energy consumption came from

demand from unsustainable source. This purposely give

coal, petroleum and gas source. Renewable energy

benefit both ways to the city and to the housing complex

source in Indonesia are solar, hydro, wind and

as well.

geothermal which used lower than 30% of total energy consumption.

Petroleum/ Oil is highest energy source used in Indonesia. Firstly, Oil was first discovered in northern Sumatra island in 1885, following that oil production has become one of the most important energy source as well as Indonesia’s economy in the global market. Indonesia’s state-owned company for oil production and distribution

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3.6 CLIMATE ANALYSIS

Figure 3.13 Climate Specification (source: Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Map)

CLIMATE SPECIFICATION

in every season. From ASHRAE adaptive comfort band,

According to Köppen-Geiger climate specification,

outdoor temperature in Jakarta overheat 60% of the

Jakarta is located with (Am) climate section which is

time which leads to high cooling demand especially in

Monsoon climate. Monsoon Climate characteristics also

residential buildings.

known as tropical wet climate with primarily two seasons, which are wet season and dry season. Jakarta

(2) Relative humidity condition in Jakarta was constantly

annual wet (rain) season starts at November – April,

high all year in both current and future scenarios with an

while dry season presence on the rest of the year (May -

average of around 85% all year. Lowest relative humidity

October). The main variable between these two seasons

take place in dry season (July – Oct) with approximately

are not temperature nor humidity but rainfall.

60%. This condition indicates that in order to introduce passive cooling, thermal mass will be prioritized in

CLIMATE ANALYSIS

analytical strategies.

Further analysis on climate in Jakarta was obtained from Meteonorm climate database with current and future

(3) Jakarta’s sky type is mostly in overcast condition all

scenarios. Current climate data was taken for 2019 and

year (>50% cloudy), however in the middle year (June –

2050 for future data. Earliest analysis was focused on

August) there are more than 50% sunny days. This

thermal condition environment characteristics which are

analysis was considered in further shading design for

dry-bulb temperature, humidity, sky types, solar

each orientation which these sun position from these

radiation and wind. Radiation analysis study will also

three months will be emphasized.

include sun path and angle investigation.

(1) Jakarta typically has mild to hot climate with a

(4) Prevailing wind in Jakarta is East – West direction

constant average dry-bulb temperature all year. Current

with the highest wind speed of 7m/s, which is

o

temperature average is around 28 C, with the highest o

considerably low velocity. However, wind could have

o

temperature of 35 C in the hotter season and 24 C for

beneficial effect in increasing thermal comfort with

the

introducing air movement.

coldest

condition.

In

the

future

scenario,

temperature is expected to increase for around 3o – 5oC

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UnIversIty of WestmInster

(5) Radiation analysis was conducted from four different

shows very similar solar movement on East and West

data which are direct and diffuse radiation on horizontal

orientation, also on North and South orientation. This

and vertical surface. On horizontal surface, direct solar

finding indicates the possibility of identical shading

radiation has similar value with diffuse solar radiation.

design for two orientations.

However, on vertical façade, most solar radiation came from diffuse solar radiation. Direct solar radiation was

CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION

taken into account according to façade’s orientation.

In addition to current and future climate condition, there are some environmental issue in the city which was

Further study for solar radiation was done as a ground in

contemplate to further analysis study. One of the most

designing shading and building’s envelope in each

frequent calamity is flood that happens every wet

orientation. Average vertical global radiation data show

season. Answering to this condition, buildings regulation

the highest value on East and West orientation, followed

in Jakarta has to have minimum elevation of 2.4m from

with North and South orientation. East and West

street level.

orientations have constant radiation all season, however

Furthermore, in the latest news, Jakarta was assessed as

North orientation has highest global radiation in the

a city with the worst pollution in Asia. On the latest

middle of the year (May – July).

event, PM2.5 measured with a value of 184 μg/m3

(6) As Jakarta was located at almost equatorial latitude,

(AirVisual Map).

sun path and sun angle observation on each orientation

Figure 3.14 Air Pollution Jakarta (source: CNN Indonesia)

Figure 3.15 Flood in Jakarta (source: Tribunnews, Tempo)

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(1) Dry-Bulb Temperature Current (2019)

Future (2050) Monthly Average Dry Bulb Temperature

40.00

40.00

35.00

35.00

30.00

30.00

25.00

25.00 oC

oC

Monthly Average Dry Bulb Temperature

20.00

20.00

15.00

15.00

10.00

10.00

5.00

5.00

mean max/min

mean max/min

mean average

mean average

Adaptive Comfort EN 15251:2007 (Class II)

Adaptive Comfort EN (Class II)

Adaptive Comfort EN 15251:2007 (Class III)

Adaptive Comfort EN (Class III)

0.00

0.00 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Current (2019)

Future (2050)

Monthly Average Relative Humidity

Monthly Average Relative Humidity

100.00

100.00

90.00

90.00

80.00

80.00

70.00

70.00

60.00

60.00

50.00

50.00

%

%

(2) Relative Humidity

40.00

40.00

30.00

30.00

20.00

20.00

10.00

10.00

0.00 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

0.00 Dec

Jan

mean max/min

mean max/min

mean average

mean average

Feb

(3) Sky Type (2050)

(4) Wind (2050)

40

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

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(5) Radiation (2050) Direct Horizontal Radiation

Diffuse Horizontal Radiation

Direct Vertical Radiation (West)

Diffuse Vertical Radiation

Global Vertical Radiation

(6) Sun Path Diagram

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(7) Accumulative Rainfall Current (2019)

Future (2050)

Cumulative Rainfall

Cumulative Rainfall 400 30 27350

350

27 24

24300 21 250 18 200 15

300

200 150

12150

100

9 100 6

50

3

0

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

21 18

days

mm

250

mm

30

Rainfall

15

Days

12 9 6

50

Dec

3

0

0 Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

(8) Psychometric Chart Current (2019)

Future (2050)

Figure 3.16 Climate Condition in Jakarta (source: Meteonorm)

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Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

days

400

Rainfall Days

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3.7 TYPICAL APARTMENT BUILDING (CASE STUDY)

Figure 3.17 Some Typical Apartments in Every Districts in Jakarta

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Jakarta city centre has 5 districts which are North, East,

and possibility of maximized ventilation from each

South, West and Central. Several apartments building

opening will be done.

from each district was selected to study design

3. Units Form

strategies in each apartment also its response to climate

There are typically 4 different unit types (studio, 1-

condition

design

bedroom, 2-bedroom, 3-bedroom), with 3m – 3.5m

characteristic study in Jakarta is the first step in this

floor-to-floor story heights. Each unit type usually has

research. Further study from this typical condition will be

solid partition with gypsum or porous pre-fab brick

taken as a base case scenario which is a starting point to

material for each room.

do design study and additional proposed scenarios.

Moreover, unit designs have deep plan with (W: D)

in

Jakarta.

Typical

apartment

proportion of 3:4 or deeper. This design strategy could Following study of current typical vertical housing, there

cause inconstant indoor daylight condition and

are several design highlights this current high-rise

ineffective natural ventilation.

housing trends, which are:

4. Concrete materials structure

1. Buildings Envelope

As it was mentioned before, 80% of high-rise buildings in

There is no particular respond for each orientation on

Jakarta were constructed with concrete materials. It also

every studied apartment building. Most of apartment

can be seen in these housing, as every apartment studied

was provided with balcony. However, the inconsiderate

has concrete structure. This material actually shows

design and size resulted in indifferent space quality and

positive impact on thermal performance through its

misused as a storage or a place for air conditioner

heavy-weight character and role in providing cooling

outdoor units.

from thermal mass.

In addition to that, about 50% or more vertical façade of

5. Glazing Area

each unit is not shaded and exposed to external

Excessive glazing area was found in most cases study

conditions especially solar radiation and rain.

which created visual discomfort (glare) and overheating

2. Deep plan with single sided ventilation.

from immoderate solar access to indoor space quality.

Every apartment unit are provided with one-sided ventilation. In further study, sufficiency investigation

Figure 3.18 Typical Apartment Unit Types And Layout (source: Agung Podomoro – Royal Mediteranian Garden)

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3.7.1 BASE CASE STUDY SELECTION

Figure 3.19 Royal Mediterania Garden Aerial View (source: Google Map)

Figure 3.21 Balcony & Facade Condition (source: Google Maps)

Base case to start this research was selected from previous case studies as a representative of typical apartment unit and building in further strategies and sensitive

analysis.

After

carefully

looked

into

characteristic and design of each apartment, Royal Mediteranian Garden have the most prototypical design as the other apartments which was selected as a base case study.

Every apartment in Jakarta has similar unit types, detailed analytical study chose two-bedroom unit to be developed as a design representative as it occupied approximately 60% of apartments area and has the highest demand in the public market. Final findings and design guidance will be applicable to other units. Photos here are showing indoor perspective and space condition in two-bedroom apartment units.

Further environmental analytical study and computing simulation from this base case will be done on middlefloor hypothetical building with each orientation. This base case was a starting point in designing basic layout, construction, glazing area, occupants’ life pattern and facilities in each apartment.

Figure 3.20 Indoor Condition (source: Agung Podomoro)

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3.7.2 BASE CASE DETAILED CHARACTERISTICS These characteristics were highlighted from previous

One-Bedroom type

Facilities:

analysed case studies.

50 m2

One Bedroom King-size bed

A. CULTURAL ASPECT & OCCUPANTS BEHAVIOUR

One Open Area

Traditionally, Indonesians spends most time in their

Kitchen

houses. Their working time started very early at 5:00 and

Living Area (Sofa)

ended at around 14:00. Moreover, the lady of the house

Coffee Table

and children usually stay at house most of the time.

One Bathroom Balcony

Nowadays in modern time, most people live in the city

Two-Bedroom type

Facilities:

centre have a necessity to have a job. Their house usually

75 m2

One Master Bedroom

unoccupied in the afternoon time and residences usually

King-size bed

come home after sunset. This common living pattern

One Extra Bedroom

makes it simpler to generalize occupants schedule in this

Single Bed

research.

One Open Area Kitchen

Additionally, their current culture that influence energy

Living Area (Sofa)

use especially in Jakarta is the use of Air Conditioner or

Coffee Table

any mechanical cooling system. Indonesians live from

One Bathroom

air-conditioned home to air- conditioned school or

Balcony

working

place

with

usually

air-conditioned

transportation and come home and turn on their AC.

Three-Bedroom

Facilities:

type

One Master Bedroom

120 m

This life pattern created low tolerance condition to heat

2

King-size bed Two Extra Bedrooms

in tropical climate.

Single Bed One Open Area

As a result, average set value in every housing is around

Kitchen

o

23 C while adaptive thermal comfort in Jakarta is between 26.5 C – 31.5 C. This cultural habit drastically

Living Area (Sofa)

increased energy demand for cooling.

Coffee Table

o

o

Two Bathroom B. SIZE, FACILITIES AND PROPORTION

Service Area

Units size and design in every apartment case studies

Balcony

shows slightly different size and proportion. This results are average and most commonly used size and

C. BALCONY

proportion in designing apartment units.

Every apartment in case study has balcony facility for each unit type. Balcony usually located on 50% of

Studio type 25 m

2

Facilities:

external façade in every unit with Average balcony depth

One open space

of around 1.2m, which does not give any beneficial effect

King-size bed

as shading device or transitional space.

Pantry (Kitchen) Coffee Table

Observation on built apartments also shows external

One Bathroom

façade is protected from neither sun and rain exposure.

Balcony

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In most cases, balcony is used as a laundry place and AC

could also reduce annual energy consumption. Several

outdoor unit instalment.

passive strategies based on Environmental design principal in this climate are shading, form and envelope improvement, also with maximize natural ventilation.

D. MATERIALS & CONSTRUCTION As it was mentioned in previous case study, all apartments were built with concrete structure. Other

Additionally, there is a possibility to re-shape balcony in

than that, most apartments also have similar internal

order to open up more and create the coupling of indoor

materials and construction. Internal walls (partition

and outdoor space.

between units) have concrete panel material while internal unit partitions were made by gypsum board.

3.9 DESIGN PRECEDENTS

Slab construction was made by concrete with granite

These are some design precedents in shading, form and

finishing. Finally, ceiling finishing has gypsum board

envelope design to open up the possibility of indoor and

material with around 50cm offset from structure.

outdoor decoupling. First precedent is a housing project

Glazing material used usually single-glass construction

in Rio de Janeiro, showing the possibility of bigger

with tinted glass which was aimed to reduce solar access

‘balcony’ as an extension living area.

to indoor space.

3.8 FINDINGS & CONCLUSION

Second example was taken from a project which is

Context analysis will be the basic of further analysis

located in Singapore with similar climate as Jakarta. This

study including architectural design and sensitive

project is a middle-rise apartment building with adaptive

analysis

Most

shading device also the possibility of porosity material of

particular finding is there are huge rooms of

each panel. Connection between indoor-outdoor space

improvement in units and buildings scale design that

is also presented very well in this project

on

environmental

improvement.

could increase sustainability through passive design that

Figure 3.22 Design Precedents (source: ArchDai

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4.

ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES

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4. ANALYTICAL STRATEGIES Analytical study in this research was aimed to improve

for further natural ventilation analysis, especially in

indoor thermal and daylight quality by passive design.

evaluating the effect of cross-ventilation. Post-

Following strategies are purposed, taking into account

processing findings and data from the following analysis

the applicability of each finding in current vertical

was done by Microsoft Excel and Adobe Photoshop.

housing design.

Architectural design tools used in this process are Every design scenario was done by both environmental

Google SketchUp and Graphisoft Archicad. Both

computing

software was used in developing 2D and 3D design for

simulation

and

architectural

design

modelling to create complete guidance for further

final design suggestion guidance.

vertical housing design.

4.1 SIMULATION INPUT IDENTIFICATION Environmental computing tools used in this analysis are

In a further study of possible strategies in shading

(1) Rhinoceros (ladybug & honeybee plugin) for daylight

design, units and buildings form and natural ventilation,

and sun hour analysis, (2) EDSL TAS for all thermal and

several input factors were taken from current base case

annual cooling demand analysis, and (3) Autodesk CFD

conditions

4.1.1 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS Building Elements

Materials & Construction (From Inside Unit)

U-Value

Plaster (50mm) External Wall

0.91 W/m2Co

Pre-Fab Brick (120mm) Plaster (50mm)

Internal Wall

1.08 W/m2Co

Concrete Panel (120mm) Granite Tile (50mm)

Internal Floor

2.49 W/m2Co

Plaster (30mm) Concrete (120mm) Gypsum Board (50mm)

Internal Ceiling

2.03 W/m2Co

Air (200mm) Concrete (120mm)

Exposed Ceiling

Concrete (120mm)

2.50 W/m2Co

Window Frame

Wood (50mm)

0.79 W/m2Co

Glass

Tinted Glass (10mm)

5.56 W/m2Co

Figure 4.1 Materials and Constructions Input and U-Value

4.1.2 OCCUPANCY AND INTERNAL CONDITION Occupancy and internal condition input were taken from

08:00 & 17:00 – 00:00). Occupancy hours influence every

the previous context and cultural study, as houses in

internal condition especially internal heat gain from

Jakarta, especially in the city centre are unoccupied for

lighting, equipment and residences themselves. This

around 9 hours – 11 hours in a day. Occupation times are

graph shows a schedule of indoor internal heat gain.

in the morning & late afternoon to night time (00:00 –

Figure 4.2 Occupancy, Equipment and Lighting Schedule

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4.1.3 VENTILATION SCHEDULE Moreover, these occupancy hours influence natural

These following graphs show occupancy, internal heat

ventilation and air conditioner schedule at the same

gain,

time. In this research, computing simulations will be

schedule input for this research.

natural ventilation and mechanical cooling

done in both free-running and mechanical condition.

BASE CASE SIMULATION SCHEDULE & INPUT

Figure 4.3 Occupancy, Apertures and Internal Condition Schedule (Base Case)

FURTHER STRATEGIES SCHEDULE & INPUT

Figure 4.4 Occupancy, Apertures and Internal Condition Schedule (One Zone Unit)

4.2 INDOOR ADAPTIVE THERMAL COMFORT

taking yearly resultant temperature result of the base

Evaluation and environmental assessment in the further

case and each following strategies from TAS simulation,

process of this research were done with improving

which post-processed using Microsoft Excel.

annual thermal comfort frequency in each unit. This study was done with adaptive thermal comfort equation

These equations show monthly comfort band in these

from Humphreys and Fergus Nicol (2000), which was

certain temperatures those will be used in further

aimed for the different worldwide condition.

strategies evaluation.

Tom = (Toutdoor max + Toutdoor min)/2

Tc = 13.8 + 0.53 Tom Which

Tc

represent

thermal

comfort

(resultant

temperature) and To represent monthly average outdoor dry-bulb temperature. Adaptive comfort band was done in2.5oC for 85% people acceptance.

This equation was used in analyzing the percentage of time (in a year) a certain space is in comfort thermal condition and in overheat condition. This was done by

Figure 4.5 Temperature Comfort Band for Jakarta Future Climate

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questioning the necessity of having a gypsum-finishing

4.3 BASE CASE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION

ceiling as all apartments in the case study have identical

The first simulation and analysis study was done for base

ceiling construction.

case unit design and input to understand current thermal and daylight condition. Additionally, this first study was

Results in this first free-running thermal simulation were

done to investigate annual energy use for cooling. Base

the room with west orientation is in thermally comfort

case simulation was done in two orientation apartment,

condition 30.4% period of time in a year, with 69.6% of

which are north and west orientation.

the time overheat while the north orientation room has a slightly better condition with 38% in comfort over the

The first simulation was done by tried out several

year.

apertures schedule to maximize the use of natural

Maximize thermal mass strategy, which is the exposed

ventilation. Apertures were closed on peak hours to

ceiling generate moderately increase in thermal comfort

prevent heat exchange with an extreme outdoor

with around 1% more in comfort. The final result shows

condition,

32% in comfort for west orientation and north

however,

this

strategy

shows

space

orientation room with 38.7% in comfort.

overheating in those time period. Finding from this step is in this climate, the room needs to be ventilated all

Detailed analysis on weekly resultant temperature result

year.

shows indoor condition mostly has higher temperature In addition to that, internal condition analysis in this first

both afternoon and evening time. This result pushes the

step was done in free-running and mechanical condition.

probability to increase and maximize the role of natural

Mechanical setback for this simulation was conducted in

ventilation.

two scenarios; the first scenario is to answer sufficient temperature for thermal comfort which is 25oC and the

The cooling-loads simulation was firstly done for 23oC

second scenario is based on excessive cultural behaviour

setback as culturally use as people’s lifestyle. Simulation

in Jakarta to set their AC to 23oC.

results show annual cooling loads of 178 KWh/m2 and 168

These two scenarios were done to understand annual

KWh/m2 for west and north orientation respectively.

energy use difference in current lifestyle and to show

With higher setback of 25oC, cooling loads in both

how much energy they can save economically and

orientations decreased 35 KWh/m2 to 143 KWh/m2 for

environmentally in a year.

west orientation and north orientation of 133 KWh/m2.

Further analysis was done to criticize materials used,

In addition to the environmental benefit, higher setback

especially in indoor construction. Heavyweight materials

temperature for mechanical cooling can also give an

already constructed wall and Floor, however, ceiling

advantage economically. With the current electrical

material is using gypsum, in this study, eliminating the

price of approximately Rp1.467/KWh (2019), one

only lightweight indoor construction material which is

household in two-bedroom apartment units can save up

gypsum ceiling to see the maximum impact of thermal

to Rp2.450.000 (around 120GBP) in a year.

mass, especially in this climate condition. Also, to start

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BASE CASE ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

Figure 4.6 Thermal Performances and Cooling Loads Result Graphs from TAS Simulation

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BASE CASE WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.7 Weekly Resultant Temperature Result from TAS Simulation

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4.4 ENERGY BALANCE Following findings and conditions from base case design, simulation on a hypothetical shoebox unit was done to understand the source of internal heat gain and loss sources. This simulation was done with west orientation as a representative of the worst-case scenario. Findings and result from this evaluation are the base to further strategies proposal.

Figure 4.8 Shoebox Visualization and Input

Proportion, materials, constructions and glazing area input for this shoebox was taken from base case apartment input. In this shoebox analysis, the exposed ceiling was already used for further analysis as it shows better thermal performance and slightly reduces energy loads.

Moreover,

schedule

input

for

occupant,

equipment and lighting gains were also taken from previous base case simulation.

As well as the previous base case simulation, this shoebox strategy was also done on both free-running and mechanical condition. The first result from freerunning condition shows high internal gains from glazing conduction, which was balanced with thermal mass construction. This result shows one of the likelihoods of excessive glazing area besides daylight quality.

The second and final result from energy balance study is with a mechanical cooling system. While the highest heat gain is still from glazing conduction, mechanical cooling contributes as internal heat loss. Annual cooling loads in this scenario is 136 KWh/m2, which has similar energy demand as a current design condition.

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Figure 4.9 Energy Balance Results from Grasshopper Simulation

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4.5 STRATEGIES PROCESS 4.5.1 UNITS SCALE The first step of introducing each strategy is started with smaller scale and cost-effective proposal for indoor thermal and daylight improvement. These former improvements include the following design suggestions: 1.

External Wall (Glazing, Natural Ventilation & Construction)

2.

Shading

Device

as

Buildings

Envelope (Design and Material) 3.

Units Form (Proportion)

Apartment unit in this following study is based on two-bedroom unit type which has 75m2 area.

Figure 4.10 Unit Scale Strategies Process Diagram

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1. EXTERNAL WALL (SINGLE ZONE BOX) which shows a high possibility of glare and inconsistent indoor natural lighting.

Further Useful Daylight Illuminance (UDI) simulation using Grasshopper with Ladybug and Honeybee plugin was done to tested several glazing areas, which are 10%, 15% and 20% glazing to wall ratio. UDI simulations were done on North and West unit orientation in the range of 200 lux – 2000 lux illuminance. Results from computing Figure 4.11 Single-zone Unit with 26% Glazing

simulation show that 15% glazing area has the best daylight performance with adequate natural lighting,

a. This following strategy was firstly done with minimum

minimum glare and uniform daylight quality.

partition and created a single-zone box to see the probability of better thermal and daylight performance

Results (b): Second external wall improvement with

with lower obstruction. Further proposed scenario was

reduced glazing area doesn’t improve thermal condition in

based on the issues of excessive solar access from

free-running condition, as the size of the natural

glazing area and insufficient natural ventilation to cool

ventilation source was also reduced. However, this

down internal heat gain.

strategy successfully decreased annual cooling loads with around 20 KWh/m2 reduction (North orientation). This

Results (a): With eliminating internal partition, thermal

result shows the effectiveness of reducing internal heat

frequency improved from 38.7% to 50.8% in comfort for

gain from glazing conduction.

North Orientation. Additionally, there is a slightly more drastic change on the west orientation unit with 13.6%

26% -> 15% Glazing Area

time more in comfort.

Moreover, there is more than 32 KWh/m2 reduction on both apartments cooling loads.

Figure 4.12 Single-zone Unit with 15% Glazing

b. Reduced glazing area was done with balancing indoor daylight and thermal quality. From principle, it is clear that indoor space will receive minimum heat gain with minimum glazing size, however, the question is what is the minimum glazing area for adequate daylight quality?

Current base case unit has 26% glazing to wall area ratio,

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opening size only provides 9ACH, which is insufficient to cool down internal heat gain. Adequate opening for eliminating heat gain is 70% window to wall ratio with 21m2 size area. In addition to that, to achieve the concept of maximizing the indoor-outdoor space coupling, there is a possibility to open 100% of wall area, which resulted in extra air changes with around 26ACH. Results (c): Maximum natural ventilation provides better

Figure 4.14 Single-zone Unit with 80% Opaque Opening

thermal performance for free running space condition. This strategy increases thermal comfort frequency to more

c. Maximize natural ventilation is a further strategy to

than 60% in comfort all year. North orientation has 67.3%

reduce indoor temperature. Previous base case

and 64.4% for West orientation.

condition uses the same glass opening in providing both natural lighting and natural ventilation. Moreover, reduced glazing strategy also decreases air changes for ventilation. In this further strategy, opening for natural ventilation was proposed with opaque material to prevent internal heat gain by glazing conduction.

Preliminary evaluation of natural ventilation was done

by Optivent (Natural Cooling) to understand air changes needed to cool down the space based on current design and internal heat gain. In this first unit scale study, source of natural ventilation will be single-sided opening with the worst-case scenario of temperature difference (2oc) between indoor and outdoor condition. This Cardoso +

Gianni Botsford

Spagnuolo

Zúùiga,

Architects

Arquitetura

without wind velocity. The opening design has 2.2m

Uruguay

London, UK (51.5N)

Londrina, Brazil

height and can be opened effectively 70%.

(32.5N)

analysis will be investigated from buoyancy-driven result

(23.3S)

Figure 4.15 Opening Operation Design to Maximize Opening and Coupling of Indoor and Outdoor Space (Source: Pinterest)

Base case room design uses the same opening area as glazing, which has 26% window to wall ratio. This

Figure 4.16 Air Changes Results for Natural Ventilation from Optivent

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Figure 4.17 Single-zone Unit with Insulated External Wall

d. The last strategy in improving external wall is to add insulation materials on the outside facing faรงade to prevent heat transfer from the extreme outdoor condition and reduce heat conduction from solar radiation. Materials used for this insulation are Wood Panel

(50mm)

and

Insulation

Fibre

(100mm).

Construction improvement change external U-Value from 0.91 W/m2Co to 0.79 W/m2Co. Results (d): Insulated external wall delivered slightly better results in both thermal comfort frequency and cooling loads.

EXTERNAL WALL IMPROVEMENTS CONCLUSIONS: 1. An open layout and less partition perform better for thermal and daylight condition. The transparent area can be reduced to 15% glazing to wall ratio, which will be balanced with maximized opaque ventilation.

Ventilation panel opening >70% external wall area to eliminate internal heat gain.

2. Third scenario without insulated external wall will be used in the further analytical study as an external wall will be shaded in the next step.

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EXTERNAL WALL IMPROVEMENT ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.18 Thermal Simulation Result for External Wall Improvements

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2. SHADING DESIGN (FAร ADE & ENVELOPE) Previous climate study shows high vertical solar

Precedents:

radiation. The aim for these shading elements is to prevent excessive direct and diffuse solar radiation while still keep the balance for daylight quality and air movement. To achieve this balanced condition, several elements of porosity will be tested using grasshopper (daylight) and TAS (thermal & energy loads).

Figure 4.20 Shading Device Precedents (West & East)

Shading design study will firstly be done for two orientations. Based on sun position, north-facing faรงade

Shading Panel Design:

will be applicable to south, also west orientation to the east. Each study will be started with solar angle study to shading sizes, and then followed by further simulations for balancing daylight and thermal condition. a. Shading Design & Precedents First analysis study on sun position was done to define horizontal and vertical shading as the most effective strategy in reducing direct solar radiation to the external

Figure 4.21 Shading Panel Design (West & East)

wall.

North & South West & East

(06:00-08:00 & 16:00-18:00)

(08:00-16:00)

Figure 4.19 Solar Access on West & East Orientations

Sun position study for west and east orientations will be focused on half a day all year. From solar penetration with 1.2m balcony (as base case design), shading design for these orientations needs to cover 100% of faรงade envelope. Shading panels will be adaptive, which can be opened or closed to maximize their performances according to occupants needs.

Figure 4.22 Solar Access on North & South Orientations

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Sun position study for north and south orientations

Indonesia are rattan wicker and woven bamboo. This

façade was done with two strategies. First shading

traditional technic can be flexibly arranged to the most

strategy is at two hours after and before sunrise, which

suitable porosity for each orientation.

is covered with vertical shading device. The other sun angle

penetration

hours

(08:00-16:00),

adaptive

horizontal shading panel will be applied to the external envelope with 2m height.

Precedents:

Figure 4.25 Permeable Vernacular Materials

Several panel permeability to be tested are 30%, 50% and 70%.

70%

50%

30%

Figure 4.26 Possible Shading Panels Permeability Figure 4.23 Shading Device Precedents (North & South)

Daylight Analysis Several porosity was tested in daylight analysis using

Shading Panel Design:

UDI simulation using grasshopper with Ladybug and Honeybee plugin. These permeability materials were tested on daylight quality of every orientation.

Results for the best materials for daylight performance are either 50% or 70% porosity for west and east orientation, and 30% for north and south. The further thermal analysis will be done to define material permeability for east and west to see the effectiveness of denser technic.

Figure 4.24 Shading Panel Design (North & South)

Thermal Analysis

b. Thermal & Daylight Balance (Elements Porosity)

Annual thermal comfort on north orientation shows

In principle, opaque shading panels will provide full solar

better performance from 67.3% to 72.7% in comfort,

radiation obstruction which resulted with best thermal

which increased by approximately 5.5%. While west

performance. Yet, this strategy will provide poor

orientation unit with 70% permeability shows annual

daylight and ventilation quality.

thermal comfort frequency of 70.8%. However, using 50% permeability didn’t produce drastically change on

In order to produce quality balance in solar obstruction,

thermal comfort with less than 1% more time in comfort.

daylight quality and sufficient air changes, several panel permeability will be tested in further analysis. Vernacular and sustainable materials which commonly used in 63

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On every orientation, more comfort condition was

However, there is an acceptable daylight quality in

achieved from the lower surface temperature on the

using 50% porosity with slightly higher thermal

external wall, especially on day time.

comfort.

SHADING DESIGN CONCLUSIONS:

2. North and South orientations are advised to use

1. West and East orientations are advised to use 70%

30% porosity with a half-size panel of horizontal

porosity with the fully-sized panel of horizontal

shading in addition to vertical shading to achieve the

shading in balancing thermal and daylight quality.

balance between thermal and daylight quality.

Figure 4.27 UDI Simulation Results of Shading Porosity from Grasshopper

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EXTERNAL WALL IMPROVEMENT ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.28 Thermal Simulation Result for Shading Device and Faรงade Improvement

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3. UNITS FORM (PROPORTION)

and south-facing units. Each unit has >70% area with

The final strategy in unit scale improvement is a different

sufficient daylight quality.

proportion with the aim of maximizing natural ventilation and daylight quality. Following proportion suggestion will be based on base case area and facilities which is 75m2 with two bedrooms, living area and one bathroom. Previous open layout units were using base case proportion, which is 4:3 W:D ratio, with the size of 10m x 7.5m x 3m (W x D x H).

There are two unit-form suggestions; the first was done horizontally with less depth from 4:3 to 5:2 W:D ratio.

Further form development is with double-height unit design as a vertical improvement. Each strategy will be re-evaluated with several daylight and ventilation simulations as base case proportion. This process was crucial to define the best shading permeability and opening size applied to each design. % Figure 4.30 UDI Simulation Result (W:D Ratio Improvement)

a. Less Depth Unit

ii. Ventilation Analysis: Opening size analysis to provide maximum natural ventilation was done using Optivent. Single-sided ventilation with 70% opening to wall ratio shows adequate air changes to eliminate heat gain with 28ACH (required for cooling = 10ACH). Final opening size in achieving sufficient ventilation is more than 25m2.

Following graphic also shows possible opening design and materiality for this unit.

Figure 4.29 Horizontal Unit Form Improvement (5:2 Ratio)

First proportion suggestion was designed with the aim to more constant daylight quality and maximized natural ventilation as it has less depth from one-sided opening and glazing. This size and proportion were done simultaneously with layout applicability with the same area and facilities. Final size for this 5:2 W:D ratio proportion is 13.65m x 5.6m x 3.00m (W x D x H). i. Daylight Analysis: The daylight analysis process was done using the same methodology using ladybug and honeybee simulation.

UDI simulation results show that 50% porosity is sufficient for west and east orientation and 30% for north

Figure 4.31 Natural Ventilation Simulation Result (W:D Ratio Improvement)

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ii. Ventilation Analysis: iii. Thermal Performance Analysis: Shading

permeability

for

each

Stack ventilation effect shows maximum air changes orientation

and

with 50% apertures-to-wall opening. Stack effect

ventilation opening size was applied in further thermal

proposed 3m height between inlet and outlet opening

simulation using computing software (EDSL TAS).

considering the height of ingle-story apartment.

This first horizontal unit proportion shows better

Final natural ventilation result provides more than three

thermal comfort frequency and energy loads results.

times air changes per hour with around 46ACH (required

Thermal comfort frequency increases by an average of

for cooling = 10ACH).

2% more in comfort in a year. In addition to that, there is a reduction in annual cooling loads with approximately 7 KWh/m2 for each unit. b. Double Height

Figure 4.32 Vertical Unit Form Improvement (Double-Height)

Additional proportion suggestion was made vertically with introducing double height unit and creating mezzanine space. This proportion was aimed to achieve maximum one-sided ventilation with stack effect. A well as the previous proportion study, size and proportion were also define based on layout and applicability as the base case condition. Final size for this double-height design is 6.50m x 6.50m x 6.00m (W x D x H). i. Daylight Analysis: Daylight quality in this form can be achieved with 20% glazing to wall ratio. Materials for this proportion use combination permeability of the lower and higher part of the unit. Several combinations of porosity were tested, and the final and best outcome show the combination of 70% and 50% material permeability for west and east orientation. North and south-facing faรงade show the %

best performance with 70% and 30% panels porosity.

Figure 4.33 UDI Simulation Result (Double Height Improvement)

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.

Figure 4.34 Natural Ventilation Simulation Result (Double Height Improvement)

iii. Thermal Performance Analysis

UNITS FORM CONCLUSIONS:

Thermal simulation for this last unit form strategy show

1. Less depth proportion show slightly better thermal

drastically better thermal comfort, weekly resultant

performance with around 2% more in comfort caused

temperature result shows lower temperature all day

by better ventilation distribution and the use of

caused by maximized ventilation, especially on the night

denser shading permeability

time.

2. Double height proportion show significantly higher Final yearly thermal frequency results in free-running

thermal comfort frequency with around 4% increased

condition show 4% comfort increase in average.

caused by high air changes from stack effect

However, in mechanical condition, this strategy shows

ventilation.

higher annual cooling loads because the unit has more external wall area, causing more exposed indoor space to external condition and solar radiation.

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UNITS FORM (PROPORTION) IMPROVEMENT ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.35 Thermal Simulation Result for Units Form Improvements

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4.5.2 BUILDINGS SCALE The final design proposal was made to maximize the thermal condition as a whole building. These improvements consist of more significant design scale. These following strategies were done based on the importance of natural ventilation principle and opening up more the whole buildings.

1.

Open Circulation (Cross Ventilation)

2.

Staged

Floor

between Units

and

Open

Space

(Opening Up the

Buildings)

Figure 4.36 Building Scale Strategies Process Diagram

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1. OPEN CIRCULATION (CROSS VENTILATION) indoor air velocity. The first study analysis was done with 6m width-void, and further study was done with 4m and 2m void-width. Simulation results show no thermal performance (free-running condition) difference with introducing different void size on every unit orientation.

This study analysis will firstly be done to evaluate the benefit of introducing cross ventilation for indoor thermal performance using EDSL TAS computing simulation. Further study in physiological cooling through air movement will be done using Autodesk Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation with the input from previous TAS simulation.

Figure 4.37 Open Circulation in Buildings Scale

As most case study has double aspects unit

i. Thermal Frequency Analysis

arrangement, the first buildings-scale strategy was

Thermal performance evaluation will be done in three

purposely done to create a void in the circulation area to

different unit forms in every orientation, which are:

provide cross ventilation inside apartment units.

(1) 4:3 (W:D) Ratio Unit (base case proportion)

Cross ventilation concept in plan Figure 4.39 Base Unit Form with Cross Ventilation

In first proportion, cross ventilation provides 10% - 13% more in comfort for every orientation. Final yearly thermal comfort frequencies are varied around 84% in

Cross ventilation concept in section

comfort (83.7%-84.1%).

Figure 4.38 Open Circulation Concept with Creating Void

(2) 5:2 (W:D) Ratio Unit (improvement horizontally)

This cross ventilation strategy is purposely aimed to increase the annual frequency of thermal comfort in a free-running condition which will not influence energy loads requirement for cooling, as units design with no use of ventilation is not affected. Besides creating more air

changes,

cross-ventilation

also

provides

air

movement to create physiological cooling and cool down the structure.

Figure 4.40 Unit Form Horizontal Improvement with Cross Ventilation

Circulation facing apertures input for each unit form is 10% of the wall area to keep privacy and limit excessive 71

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Less-depth units with cross ventilation show lower

approximately 2.7oC operative temperature reduction in

increased in thermal comfort frequency as this unit form

the former unit form. Furthermore, in double-height

already had better natural ventilation with one-sided

unit, it shows operative temperature reduction of

apertures in comparison of previous unit form. Despite

between 1.8oC – 2.3oC.

that, cross ventilation still provides 7% - 9.5% more time in comfort.

(3) Double height Unit (improvement vertically)

Figure 4.41 Unit Form Vertical Improvement with Cross Ventilation

Double height space resulted in the best performance in free-running condition with more than 87% in comfort annually. These results show that high ceiling area performs better thermally as this strategy also shows in Indonesia’s vernacular architecture design. ii. Physiological Cooling through Air Movement In principle, cross ventilation creates higher air velocity inside the space that can give a physiological cooling effect. This analysis will be done through CFD simulation

Figure 4.42 Air Velocity Simulation Results from Autodesk CFD

on two-unit forms, which are single-height and doubleOPEN CIRCULATION CONCLUSIONS:

height units.

1. Less depth proportion show slightly better thermal movement

performance with around 2% more in comfort caused

effect from CIBSE

by better ventilation distribution and the use of

Guide

denser shading permeability.

Air

show

comfortable indoor air velocity in the

2. Double height proportion show significantly higher

balance of reducing

thermal comfort frequency with around 4% increased caused by high air changes from stack effect

operative temperature is between 0.1m/s – 1.0m/s.

ventilation.

Ventilation simulation result shows cross ventilation provide more cooling effect on single-height unit with maximum 1.0m/s and double-height unit with around 0.5m/s to 0.75m/s air velocity. This results show

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OPEN CIRCULATION (CROSS-VENTILATION) IMPROVEMENT ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.43 Thermal Simulation Result from Cross Ventilation Strategy

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2. STAGED FLOOR & OPEN SPACE BETWEEN UNITS Methodology in applying this concept to high-rise building is to create void space between stories to let airflow cool down the structure. Void size between each floor is 1m, including floor structure of units above and ceiling structure of units below.

Figure 4.46 Staged Stories Concept with Creating Void Figure 4.44 Staged Floor in Buildings Scale

As well as previous cross-ventilation strategy, this design

Final building scale strategy was inspired by a traditional

is also aimed for better thermal performances in free-

concept for vernacular architecture in Indonesia.

running condition, as the result of the last simulation

Previously said in the context review, a traditional

show a great possibility of having a free-running building

landed house has staged floor which one of the benefits

all year. In order to evaluate the benefit and

is to circulate air movement below the floor area. In this

effectiveness of staged floor scenario, computing

modern era, this strategy was used in landed house

simulation will be done using EDSL TAS software.

design. Moreover, the vertical housing strategy applies this concept, and further study will be done to test the

Thermal analysis:

effectiveness and benefit of this design in a high-rise

In the importance of further design guidance, this

residential building.

thermal analysis will be done for three different unit forms on every orientation as well as previous crossventilation strategy.

(1) 4:3 (W:D) Ratio Unit (base case proportion)

Figure 4.45 Staged Floor Design in Traditional Architecture and Current Landed House

(2) 5:2 (W:D) Ratio Unit (improvement horizontally) 74

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provide more value to the building. Firstly, staged floor ideas can be applied to horizontal open space which might be more suitable for vertical housing; this strategy is aimed to reduce construction cost and more functional spaces to increase the market value of the buildings.

One of the current trend and sustainable solution is to create a slightly bigger space for a vertical garden.

Moreover, it can also be used as common public spaces to support social community.

(3) Double height Unit (improvement vertically) Figure 4.47 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy

The thermal simulation result shows less significant thermal condition improvement in the comparison of cross-ventilation strategy. Highest thermal comfort increase is with first unit form, followed by doubleheight unit form.

This strategy may not be the most cost-effective solution in increasing thermal comfort, however, despite its insignificant benefit, with introducing this strategy, the final result of double-height unit annually has more than 92% in comfort on each orientation.

Figure 4.49 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy

STAGED UNITS STRATEGY CONCLUSIONS: This strategy shows a positive benefit in increasing thermal performance with annually 5% in comfort and shows great support in introducing free-running high-rise residential building with this climate.

However, this scenario has to be carefully considered as it might escalate construction cost.

Figure 4.48 Three Unit Forms with Staged Floor Strategy

In order to propose more beneficial void, ideas of several functions can be applied to make useful spaces and 75

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STAGED FLOOR (CROSS-VENTILATION) IMPROVEMENT ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

WEEKLY THERMAL PERFORMANCE (RESULTANT TEMPERATURE)

Figure 4.50 Thermal Simulation Result from Cross Ventilation

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5.

RESEARCH OUTCOME & APPLICABILITY

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5. RESEARCH OUTCOME & APPLICABILITY 5.1 RESEARCH OUTCOME 5.1.1 UNITS SCALE OUTCOME

(2)

Proper shading device and maximize natural

Minor improvement scale for this first design guidance

ventilation create invariable indoor space condition on

was aimed to maximize units shading, form and natural

every orientation with approximately 1% - 2% thermal

ventilation. Overall, the first results of this scenario show

comfort frequency difference. This scenario provides

the great possibility of having a free-running building

thermal condition at around 64.5%-69% in comfort all

without a mechanical system in achieving both thermal

year.

and daylight quality.

(3) Permeable shading panels can be used all year to comfort

maximize indoor-outdoor space coupling, as it has been

improvements and reduction on cooling-loads were

designed to provide sufficient air movement and

achieved when the apartment unit has a minimum

daylight quality, especially on raining day.

In

unit

improvements,

best

thermal

partition, less glazing and maximized ventilation. In this scenario, thermal comfort increase approximately 30%

(4) Units form improvements are advisable to be applied

more in comfort yearly and annual cooling loads by

in future design to support the idea of a great possibility

45KWh/m2 with final loads of around 90KWh/m2 on

for

average. It has to be noted that Indonesia National

conditions.

free-running

buildings

in

this

mild-climate

2

Standard (SNI) for annual cooling loads is 300KWh/m , which was based on the average of current market

5.1.2 BUILDING SCALE OUTCOME

energy usage.

Major improvement in designing high-rise residential building is in building scale.

These strategies are

Final thermal performance inside units shows the best

purposely aimed to open the building and maximize its

performance with double-height design. Final thermal

thermal performance in the free-running condition.

comfort frequency in this scenario achieve a very

These improvements were done in two basic principles,

positive thermal condition with around 75% time in

which are introducing cross ventilation and created open

comfort in a year, which also open up a great potential

space to cool down the building’s structure.

for a free-running residential building in this climate, especially with following major building system

Overall, both scenarios show a positive thermal

improvements.

performance outcome. Cross-ventilation shows more drastic thermal comfort increase by 9.5% - 14% more in

These detailed results and findings from each scenario

comfort, while open space increases by 3.5-6% more in

were discovered:

comfort in a year.

(1) To have sustainable vertical housing with free-

Final thermal condition by introducing passive design in

running and low energy consumption in mild tropical

maximizing buildings environmental performance show

condition as Jakarta’s climate, a room needs to be

a great potential to have a free-running building with no

adequately ventilated all year. With the condition of high

mechanical cooling. Latest thermal performance shows

solar radiation and high rainfall, shadings are required to

(on average) more than 90% in comfort all year.

prevent those undesirable conditions on vertical façade area.

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ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCES CONCLUSION IN EVERY SCENARIOS ANNUAL THERMAL FREQUENCY & COOLING LOADS

Figure 5.1 Thermal Performance Results from Building Scale Strategies

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5.2 APPLICABILITY & GUIDANCE

Figure 5.2 Design Guidance Process in Unit and Building Scale

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Sensitive analytical research for each strategy produce

maximize natural ventilation by single-sided opening,

several outcomes and results that can be used as a

apertures size need to have 70% or more wall area.

guideline in designing more sustainable high rise

Effective area of apertures operation size is 80% or

residential building.

more.

5.2.1 UNITS SCALE GUIDANCE

(2) Double-Height Unit

First guidance was intended for smaller and more

In this unit form, daylight quality can be achieved with

detailed improvement of each residential unit.

glazing size by 20% of the wall area. It is advisable to apply this size in order to limit immoderate solar

1. UNIT FORM & LAYOUT SUGGESTION

penetration that is causing more internal heat gain.

The first step in this guideline is to define the form of the

Additionally, natural ventilation in this unit form has

residential unit, which has three proportion possibilities.

single-sided apertures with stack effect that maximize

First proportion is based on the case study, which has 4:3

air changes. With the height of 3m between inlet and

(W:D) ratio, the less-depth second proportion with 5:2

outlet, opening in this scenario can have 50% or more of

(W:D) ratio and third proportion with double height.

wall area. As well as single-height unit, the effective area

Each proportion can be applicable to several unit types,

of this apertures is 80% or more.

nevertheless, all analytical strategies were conducted for a two-bedroom unit with an area of 75m2. These are

3. SHADING

layout suggestion for most common unit types and area

Shading panel for each unit was designed to be adaptive

which are:

and operable to use in variable weather condition to

(1) one-bedroom unit with 50m2 area

maximize occupants comfort. However, shading panel

(2) two-bedroom unit with 75m2 area

design and material permeability were designed to

(3) three-bedroom unit with 120m2 area

accomplished balance in providing air changes, daylight quality and solar radiation penetration.

2. EXTERNAL WALL External Wall guidance can be used in every orientation.

a. Shading Design

This guidance was done to define the size of glazing and

Firstly, shading design was defined for every orientation

apertures size in balancing indoor thermal and daylight

based on the solar angle. Results showed the possibility

condition. This guidance decided by the height of the

of generalization of two shading panel design, each for

unit form, which are single-storey height or double-

north-south and east-west facing units.

storey height.

As east-west faรงades receive more average solar radiation all year and based on solar penetration angle,

It is essential to highlight that glazing material and

shading panel covers 100% of the unit envelope. North-

construction in this guidance use generally used 100mm

south facing units are advisable to use 65% of unit height

clear-glass which has 70% transmittance with single-

for horizontal panel starting from ceiling. In this

glazed

simulation of 3m height unit, horizontal shading has a

construction.

Furthermore,

apertures

for

size of 2m height.

ventilation is advised to use opaque material. In the previous simulation, aperture panels use plywood

b. Panel Permeability

material with 7mm thickness

Material permeability was aimed to balance daylight (1) Single-Height Unit

quality, air changes for natural ventilation and solar

For adequate daylight quality and prevent excessive

penetration. Materials used are also inspired by

solar access without shading device, it is advisable to

vernacular materials such as woven bamboo and rattan

have 15% of wall area as glazing. Moreover, in order to

wicker, which commonly used in Indonesia. As well as

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panel design, materials used are defined by orientation

does not influence any thermal performance inside the

and unit forms.

apartment unit. However, it is advised to use void width ≥2m to ensure sufficient air movement in between.

(1) East-West Facing Panel

Moreover, apertures size on circulation facing wall in

Firstly, for the base proportion on these orientations,

order to achieve adequate indoor air velocity is 10% of

most suitable porosity of the material is 70%, however,

the wall area.

it is possible to use 50% for slightly better thermal performance and less daylight quality. Secondly, in the

B. UNITS DECOUPLING (HORIZONTALLY AND/OR

second unit form of horizontal improvement with less

VERTICALLY)

depth. It is advisable to use 50% material permeability as

As it was mentioned in the previous section, this strategy

it balanced indoor thermal and daylight quality. Thirdly,

was inspired by vernacular architecture concept to have

in double-height form, material use combination of

maximum ventilation with a staged floor. However, in

permeability with upper and lower façade parts which

order to design more functional space, this guidance

divided in half of the unit height. Higher shading panel is

offers a suggestion to have open space horizontally

permanent with 70% porosity and lower panels are

between units.

operable with 50% porosity.

Additionally, as well as previous cross-ventilation (2) North-South Facing Panel

strategy, open space size can be adjustable to any design

Material permeability guidance for North-South facing

and further function requirement as it does not influence

faced also defined by unit forms. However, in these

thermal condition inside the space.

orientations, both single-height form has identical porosity of 30% for the best environmental conditions.

5.2.3 CONTEXT ADJUSTMENT

Additionally, in double-height form, panels materials

This further guidance was done to ensure the

also use a combination of permeability with 70%

applicability in different contexts. First evaluation was

porosity of higher part and 30% porosity for lower

done in different building height without surrounding

panels.

buildings; further analysis was done with surrounding high-rise buildings.

5.2.2 BUILDING SCALE GUIDANCE Second guidance was intended for maximizing indoor

Firstly, this guidance can be applied to any elevation with

environmental condition in buildings scale. This

a maximum difference of 0.4% annually thermal

guidance is aimed to support the potential of free-

frequency in 80m height interval.

running buildings in Jakarta.

Secondly, high-rise building surrounding with 100m A. OPEN CIRCULATION

height and 40m distance (according to Jakarta’s Urban

Cross ventilation for indoor units can be achieved in

Planning Regulation), shows 0.8% more in comfort for

several ways. The aim is to be able to apply apertures on

lower elevation unit on east and west orientation. Those

inside facing wall. Based on double-aspects unit

units receive less direct solar radiation, which can be

arrangements which were found in the most case study

adjusted by using more infrequent porosity to ensure

in Jakarta, open circulation is proposed as one of the

indoor daylight quality.

solutions in the current high-rise residential building. *Following diagram and tables show graphical visual In the previous analysis result, it was found that it is

applicability for further design in both unit and building

unnecessary to have a transparent roof as it gives no

scale.

benefit to indoor daylight. Moreover, the void width

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APARTMENT FORM LAYOUT AND FORM FOR DIFFERENT UNIT TYPES

Figure 5.3 Design Guidance: Apartment Form Layout and Form for Different Unit Types

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Figure 5.4 Design Guidance: Unit Scale Improvements

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Figure 5.5 Design Guidance: Building Scale Improvements

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THERMAL PERFORMANCES IN DIFFERENT CONTEXT 1. DIFFERENT HEIGHT WITH NO SURROUNDINGS

2. DIFFERENT HEIGHT WITH SURROUNDINGS

Figure 5.6 Design Guidance: Performances in Different Context; (1) Different Height without Surrounding; (2) Different Height with Surrounding

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6. CONCLUSION

6.1 TYPICAL APARTMENT (CASE STUDY) Firstly, thermal performance with current typical apartment design provides 30.4% and 38% in comfort in

60% of apartments envelope for north and west

a year for each North and West facing apartments

orientations. Proper shading panels generates thermal

respectively. This caused by current envelope design

and daylight improvements for all apartments on every

which has insufficient shading to vertical façade and

orientation with similar thermal condition with around

excessive glazing area with 24% window-to-wall ratio.

70% in comfort all year.

Secondly, with minimum improvement for the case study, exposed ceiling (30% more thermal mass)

4. Units Proportion

influence slightly positive thermal condition with 1%

Balancing environmental performance and functional

more in comfort. Finally, occupants’ behaviour with

apartment design is crucial in order to define unit form

using natural ventilation all year in this climate shows

improvements. Final proportion for two unit forms are

best performance in reducing internal heat gain.

5:2 width-depth ratio and with double height. Best thermal performances show in double-height apartment with 75% in comfort yearly.

6.2 STRATEGIES 1. Layout & Envelope

5. Building Form

Open layout with minimum partition performs best

Building improvement in this research was conducted in

indoor environmental performances in thermal and

two different strategies. First strategy is open circulation

daylight quality. Thermal condition improves by

to introduce cross-ventilation which shows a really good

approximately 30% more in comfort to around 50% in

thermal performance with increase in thermal comfort

comfort annually. Additionally, daylight condition shows

by 12% in a year. This strategy also provides

better distribution and uniformity. With this strategy,

psychological cooling from air movement which can

90% of room area has >200lux on day-time.

lower around 2oC operative temperature. Additional strategy in building scale is units decoupling, which

2. External Materials & Construction

provides increased of thermal comfort by 5%.

Firstly, glazing area for each orientation can be reduced to 15% balanced with opaque apertures panel to maximize natural ventilation. This strategy provides 15%

6.3 FINAL FINDINGS

more in comfort yearly. Moreover, to maximize the

Generally, all previous strategies in designing high-rise

decoupling of indoor and outdoor space, >70%

residential buildings was done with the aim to shades

apertures-to-wall ratio is advisable to use.

external wall, maximize buildings and units form and maximize

natural

ventilation.

Combining

these

3. Façade Design

strategies opens up a great possibility to have low

There are two different shading panel designs, first

energy to free-running vertical housing in hot and humid

design covers 100% of apartment’s envelope for east and

climate. The best thermal condition with integrated

west orientations, second design covers

sustainable design is 94% in comfort all year with freerunning mode.

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Practice. Abingdon: Routledge Ltd.

Handinoto. (2008). Pasuruan dan Arsitektur Etnis China

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Akhir Abad 19 dan Awal Abad ke 20. Surabaya:

Peran, Fungsi, dan Pelestarian di dalam Masyarakat.

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Indonesia: Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia (IAAI)..

Haryanto, Wendy. (2018). Jakarta Must Build Upwards

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for

Jakarta.

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https://weatherspark.com/y/116847/Average-Weather-

jakarta-must-build-upwards-for-more-space.html.

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2019, 15:00]

Hidayat, Rafki and Mei Lin, Mayuri. (2018). Jakarta, the

Widoyoko, Danang. (2007). Good Governance and

fastest-sinking city in the world. Available at:

Provision of Affordable Housing in DKI Jakarta,

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-44636934.

Indonesia, A Case Study. Loughborough: Loughborough

[accessed at: 15 August 2019, 17:00]

University ISBN 978-1-84380-116-0.

Humphreys, Michael. (2016). Adaptive Thermal Comfort : Foundations and Analysis. Abingdon, U.K. New York, NY: Routledge.

Indonesia's Urban Story exhibit. (2016). Available at: http://cityform.gsd.harvard.edu/projects/indonesia-surban-story-exhibit. October (2016) Bussiness Wire Inc. 2018. Jakarta to Overtake Tokyo as Most Populated Megacity by 2030. Available at:

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8. APPENDIX 8-1. LOCAL MATERIALS USED IN SIMULATION

130mm

1. EXTERNAL WALL Precast concrete wall + plaster 200mm

8-2. TAS INPUT 8-2A CONSTRUCTION 1. External Wall

2. Glazing 2. INTERNAL WALL Aerated Concrete panel wall 150mm

3. Internal Wall

3. INTERNAL FLOOR Concrete slab + granite tiles 91

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4. Framing

3. Base –Living Room

5. Exposed Ceiling 4. Open Plan

8-2B INTERNAL CONDITION 1. Base –Bedroom 1

8-2C SCHEDULE 1. Occupants

2. Base – Bedroom 2

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2. Lighting 8-3. SUN HOURS

3. Equipment

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8-4. SUN PATH STUDY NORTH-SOUTH ORIENTATION

EAST-WEST ORIENTATION

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