(Re)designing Argumentation Writing Units for Grades 5–12

“Glass’s book successfully fulfills her goal of providing teachers with the steps for designing and delivering instruction on argument writing with depth, rigor, and clarity. Teachers will find a wealth of models and strategies for helping students develop their capacity to write more effective arguments and express their voice with power.”

—Robert Baroz, Program Director of English, East Boston High School, Boston, Massachusetts

(re)

Writing plays a crucial part

DESIGNING

in all academic disciplines, helping students to communicate their ideas to different audiences and extend their content knowledge. Developed for teachers, curriculum designers, and literacy coaches, (Re)designing Argumentation Writing Units for Grades 5–12 by Kathy Tuchman Glass offers practical recommendations,

strategies, and tips for designing new argumentation writing units of instruction and revising existing ones to empower students to artfully and logically present their ideas.

Readers will: • Examine the key elements of an argument and the benefits of teaching students to work through structuring an argument • Review an argumentation unit map and its learning goals and guiding questions, and then develop one of their own • Complete exercises throughout the book that help to create a comprehensive argumentation writing unit of instruction • Design a full lesson on argumentation, including establishing the author’s purpose, supporting a thesis with evidence, and presenting a counterargument

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download the free reproducibles in this book.

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GLASS

• Download templates, checklists, rubrics, and student activities useful for designing an argumentation writing unit and guiding lessons

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—Tracy A. Huebner, Director, Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning, San Francisco, California

(RE)DESIGNING ARGUMENTATION WRITING UNITS FOR GRADES 5–12

“Kathy’s latest book is as thoughtfully organized as it is researched. This is so much more than a book.

It is a tool for teachers and administrators to inform and engage in substantive learning practices to help students develop argumentative writing skills. . . . We are fortunate to have such a dynamic resource available to teachers!”

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Copyright © 2017 by Solution Tree Press

Materials appearing here are copyrighted. With one exception, all rights are reserved. Readers may reproduce only those pages marked “Reproducible.” Otherwise, no part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise) without prior written permission of the publisher.

555 North Morton Street Bloomington, IN 47404 800.733.6786 (toll free) / 812.336.7700 FAX: 812.336.7790 email: info@SolutionTree.com SolutionTree.com Visit go.SolutionTree.com/literacy to download the free reproducibles in this book.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Glass, Kathy Tuchman, author.

Title: (Re)designing argumentation writing units for grades 5-12 / Kathy Tuchman Glass.

Description: Bloomington, IN : Solution Tree Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2016047180 | ISBN 9781942496700 (perfect bound) Subjects: LCSH: English language--Composition and exercises--Study and teaching (Middle school) | English language--Composition and exercises--Study and teaching (Secondary) | Persuasion (Rhetoric)--Study and teaching (Middle school) | Persuasion (Rhetoric)--Study and teaching (Secondary) Classification: LCC LB1576 .G47494 2017 | DDC 808/.0420712--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc .gov/2016047180

Solution Tree Jeffrey C. Jones, CEO Edmund M. Ackerman, President Solution Tree Press President: Douglas M. Rife Editorial Director: Tonya Maddox Cupp Managing Production Editor: Caroline Weiss Senior Production Editor: Todd Brakke Senior Editor: Amy Rubenstein Copy Chief: Sarah Payne-Mills Proofreader: Miranda Addonizio Text and Cover Designer: Abigail Bowen Compositor: Rian Anderson Editorial Assistants: Jessi Finn and Kendra Slayton

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Table of Contents About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 About ( Re)designing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Who This Book Is For . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 About Timed Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Book Organization and Contents Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Chapter 1 Examining the Fundamentals of Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Persuasion and Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Characteristic Elements of Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Argument Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chapter 2 Building an Argumentation Unit Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 A Review of Backward Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Argumentation Unit Map Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 E X E R C I S E : Unit Map—KUDs and Guiding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Chapter 3 Formulating a Pre- and Culminating Assessment and Establishing Criteria for Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Argument Writing Prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 E X E R C I S E : (Re)design an Argument Writing Prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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( R E ) D E S I G N I N G A R G U M E N TAT I O N W R I T I N G U N I T S F O R G R A D E S 5 –1 2 Argument Writing Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 E X E R C I S E : (Re)design an Argument Writing Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Argument Writing Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 E X E R C I S E : (Re)design an Argument Writing Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Preassessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 E X E R C I S E : (Re)design a Preassessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chapter 4 Writing Engaging Introductions Using Gradual Release of Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Engaging Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Focused Instruction— I Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Guided Instruction— We Do It . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Collaborative Learning— You Do It Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Independent Practice— You Do It Alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Chapter 5 Designing Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Author’s Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Thesis Statements for Argumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Elaboration of Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Counterarguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Writing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Lessons for Conducting Internet Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 E X E R C I S E : (Re)design Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Final Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Appendix A: List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

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Appendix B: Professional and Student Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 General Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Argumentation Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Thesis Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Performance Assessment Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Student Writing Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Rubrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Calibrating to Score Student Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Peer Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Published Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Picture Books That Present Opinions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Unit and Lesson Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Organizations and Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Videos to Teach Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Socratic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

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About the Author Kathy Tuchman Glass, a consultant, is an accomplished author and former classroom teacher with more than twenty-five years of experience in education. She provides professional development services to K–12 educators with a focus on areas concerning curriculum and instruction.

She is recognized for her expertise in differentiated instruction, standards work around English language arts, literacy, instructional strategies, teaching methods, and backward planning for unit and lesson design. She is a member of the International Literacy Association, the National Council of Teachers of English, the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, and Learning Forward.

She earned a bachelor’s degree from Indiana University–Bloomington and a master’s degree in education from San Francisco State University.

To learn more about Kathy’s work, visit Glass Educational Consulting (www.kathyglassconsulting.com).

To book Kathy Tuchman Glass for professional development, contact pd@SolutionTree.com.

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Introduction If you’re reading this, you may have already read The Fundamentals of (Re)designing Writing Units, the foundational book to this (Re)designing Writing series, and well understand the critical importance of writing to student learning, regardless of subject. This second book continues that discussion, emphasizing devising and conducting units of study centered on students writing an argumentation piece.

Writing in all its forms for different purposes is a necessary expectation across subject areas, and there are myriad opportunities for crafting an argument within disciplines. For example, in social studies, students write an argumentation speech from a politician’s point of view arguing for a bill to be passed. In science, students can compose an argumentation essay to dispute animal testing, highlighting its liabilities. In mathematics, students justify their solutions to a problem in an abbreviated argument essay or journal write. In physical education, students write a letter to the editor in response to an article in the sports section on a controversial issue. In language arts, students can craft a literary critique that supports their position about a character’s motive and how it impacts the plot. With any argument, students use evidence from credible, researched sources or literary texts—whatever is used as the basis for the writing—to defend their claims.

Mike Schmoker and Gerald Graff (2011) succinctly state the rationale for teaching this particular genre: For decades, the most enlightened educators and academics have put [argument] at the center of education. They implore us to see that argument enlivens learning and is at the heart of inquiry, innovation, and problem solving. Education researchers like Robert Marzano, George Hillocks, and Deanna Kuhn have demonstrated that in-school opportunities to argue and debate about

current issues, literary characters, and the pros and cons of a math solution have an astonishing impact on learning—and test scores. Argument not only makes subject matter more interesting; it also dramatically increases our ability to retain, retrieve, apply, and synthesize knowledge. (p. 370)

Indeed, research around argumentative writing compels us to incorporate opportunities for written discourse so students can successfully articulate what they comprehend from content, expand and embed their learning, and then communicate it to others (Graham & Hebert, 2010).

About ( Re)designing I title these books (Re)designing because my goal is to help you rebuild or newly design and develop writing curriculum and deliver instruction with depth, rigor, and clarity. These books give you the guidance, tools, and wherewithal to be judicious and intentional about the following.

• Designing new units: Some of you may read these books and develop a writing unit from scratch. In the case of writing for argument, it can be focused on writing in a language arts class (literary critique), tied to a content area (argument essay about a leader who is more effective than another), or an interdisciplinary unit that culminates in an argumentation writing project.

• Revising existing units: Others may redesign an existing unit. This means you have taught a unit in the past or have one at your disposal and feel the need to revise all or part of it.

Maybe you need to tweak lessons, make 1

( R E ) D E S I G N I N G A R G U M E N TAT I O N W R I T I N G U N I T S F O R G R A D E S 5 –1 2

the culminating assessment more rigorous, add more engaging activities, write or revise guiding questions, and so forth.

• Critiquing a new or previously adopted textbook or curriculum: You may use what you learn to ensure the published material meets rigorous standards. Some resources might include an overwhelming amount of effective (and ineffective) strategies, activities, assessments, pedagogy, writing ideas, and so on. With new knowledge, you can critique what is available and make conscientious decisions, such as revise, augment, or bypass mediocre material you encounter to create an effective, engaging writing unit that improves student learning and output.

The aforementioned foundation book, The Fundamentals of (Re)designing Writing Units, is a recommended prerequisite for each book that follows it, including this one. The following briefly summarizes that book; if you are familiar with its topics, you might choose to forego reading it and dive into this book’s focus on argumentation.

• Chapter 1 summarizes the research related to writing and provides recommendations for instruction. It presents an overview of the different writing types—narrative, descriptive, expository, persuasive—and their characteristics, purposes, and associated genres. It also features a writing continuum to vertically and horizontally plot standards.

• Chapter 2 focuses on the six stages of the writing process and various instructional strategies: (1) prewriting, (2) drafting, (3) revising (through self-assessing and receiving feedback), (4) editing, (5) publishing, and (6) reflecting. Additionally, the chapter includes resources for digital communities and technology to be used throughout the writing process.

• Chapter 3 tackles the backward planning approach to unit design. This chapter highlights the beginning stage of this approach—identifying standards and using them to articulate what you want students to know (K), understand (U), and be able to do (D)—and discuss the role and provide

examples of unit- and lesson-guiding questions.

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• Chapter 4 focuses on evidence of student learning, particularly culminating writing assessments. It features types of performance assessments, writing prompts and examples, student writing checklists, and rubrics— analytic and holistic—to use as instructional tools and assess writing with an emphasis on the former. This chapter also includes suggestions for using student writing models, as well as grading, calibration, and determining anchor papers.

• Chapter 5 moves to lesson design, specifically recommending the gradual release of responsibility model for teaching new learning (such as skill, strategy, or process).

It explains each phase of this lesson approach along with a concrete lesson example, plus ideas for differentiating instruction.

• Chapter 6 is all about launching the unit. The text describes piloting the unit and reflecting on lessons to perfect the design and provides revision suggestions for the next time you teach this unit.

I intend for each book to guide you in designing and conducting a seamless unit of instruction for writing, one that raises the bar for students and builds teachers’ capacity. All books in the series include templates, checklists, rubrics, writing prompts, assessments, instructional strategies and more—all couched in a backward design process—for you to plan a quality-driven unit that guides and empowers students to compose a sound written piece. For this book, the emphasis is on argumentation. (Visit go.SolutionTree.com/literacy to access materials related to these books.)

Who This Book Is For This book is primarily for subject-matter teachers, curriculum designers, or literacy coaches who expect students to author argument-oriented content in grades 5–12. The you I address refers to any reader invested in delivering or designing curriculum aligned to argument writing in these grades. Those who serve elementary students may also find this book beneficial, as they can adapt the material as needed.

Although you can read this book independently, I recommend you work with colleagues to plan the argumentation writing unit together. Consider working as a department, a collaborative group within the context of a professional learning community, or on an interdisciplinary team since students are expected to write an argument in many different subjects.

Although language arts teachers are responsible for addressing a variety of writing and other literacy standards, subject-area teachers can expect students to produce a coherent and organized written piece. Therefore, collaborating with colleagues to identify which skills each will target and teach is crucial. This practice allows professionals to delineate expectations so skills do not become inadvertently missed assumptions. For instance, perhaps a science teacher focuses on the research skills necessary for the argument students will produce in this subject.

The language arts teacher can focus instruction on sentence structure, appropriate conventions for citing text, formatting guidelines using MLA (Modern Language Association) style, consistent point of view, and other key writing skills. Teaming with others to identify the writing and research skills that you will each be accountable for will help ensure an optimal written piece. In The Fundamentals of (Re)designing Writing Units (Glass, 2017), I discuss and suggest creating a writing continuum as part of a curriculum mapping project that a school or district can undertake. The continuum articulates genres and related skills across grades and subjects to provide transparency so teachers can plan instruction accordingly and ensure students are aptly exposed to and taught necessary writing practices. You might consider spearheading or suggesting such a project.

If you teach in a self-contained classroom, collaborate with job-alike colleagues to brainstorm and create a unit together. Logistically, you and others could generate a Google Doc (or utilize another electronic collaborative tool) so each can contribute to the pieces that will eventually make the final product a robust argument writing unit. Some of you may be in a small district, where you are the only teacher for one or more grades or content areas. Maybe you can work virtually with colleagues in other counties or schools. Or consider collaborating with content-area teachers in or across appropriate grade clusters in your school and create a unit together to share. If these situations are not feasible, this book can still provide the necessary tools to re-envision what and how you teach writing to your students.

About Timed Assessment

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Introduction

Although this book will prepare students for standardized writing situations in which an argument is assessed, it is not about students responding to an on-demand argument writing prompt in a timed situation. You might issue such a prompt for different assessment purposes before or during instruction to gauge what students know and to inform your instruction. This book’s focus is primarily designing or redesigning a complete and rigorous argumentation writing unit of instruction in which students advance through the steps of the writing process. As such, you can use an analytic rubric as an instructional tool and to score and gather information to improve the writing quality. When students participate in a demanding and engaging writing unit, it prepares them well for a district or state-mandated test: In schools with a major emphasis on standardized tests, teachers are prone to conclude that their own assessments must always approximate the nature of the yearend standardized test so students will be “ready” for that test when it comes. . . .

However, we ought not to lose sight of the fact that if all teaching is proscribed by the very limited and limiting format of a particular test, students’ learning experiences are woefully restricted. . . . If they learn better because of how we teach and assess them, it’s likely they will fare better on standardized tests than if we insist on teaching them in narrow ways that are ineffective for them.

When learning “works” for a student, that student is likely to enter a testing situation both more competently and confidently than would otherwise have been the case, and outcomes should be predictably better.

(Tomlinson & Moon, 2013, p. 46)

Avoid aligning every task you administer to a standardizedtest-like prompt or situation. Teaching writing effectively across a range of genres supplies the necessary skills to embolden them to approach any writing situation with courage and assurance.

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Book Organization and Contents Overview This book takes a sequential approach to building an argumentation writing unit. Therefore, many chapters include exercises suggesting how you can apply what you’ve read so by the time you read the last page you will have a draft of your unit on teaching argumentation writing ready to develop and pilot. For this reason, I suggest targeting a particular area of your curriculum in which producing a written argument is the culminating assessment.

Chapter 1 explains the characteristic elements and structure for argumentation. It provides an orientation to designing the unit so that you are well versed in teaching writing for argumentation.

Chapter 2 details unit maps. A comprehensive unit map for argumentation shows the components of backward design in action. You can download and use this document as a resource for developing your own unit or use the blank template provided and start fresh.

Chapter 3 includes suggestions and specific examples for crafting a preassessment and a performance assessment task aligned to argumentation. In addition, I offer an argument checklist and rubric to use during instruction; the latter is also an assessment tool for the final writing piece. Grading suggestions are featured, as well.

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Since presenting the checklist or rubric is critical to creating clear expectations, I share strategies for introducing and using these tools with students.

In chapter 4, you will find a detailed example for teaching students how to write argumentation introductions using the components of the gradual release of responsibility design model. It includes the step-bystep sequence and student materials so you can conduct the lesson.

Chapter 5 focuses on strategies, resources, activities, and assessments specific to argumentation. You can use what this chapter features to redesign or build your own lessons. For example, this chapter includes lesson ideas related to writing a thesis to stake a claim, acknowledging and addressing counterarguments, and more.

Once you complete the unit, it’s time to pilot it and note what worked and what didn’t. In this book’s epilogue I suggest closing exercises.

The appendices offer a compilation of resources for you and for students. As mentioned earlier, the foundational book lists general offerings. This book includes additional resources specific to argumentation writing. I mention many resources throughout the book, but this list is a reference for easy access.

Finally, this book offers free templates, checklists, rubrics, student activities, and more at go.SolutionTree .com/literacy that you can use to design your argumentation unit and conduct lessons.

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CHAPTER

1

This is an actively instructive book, which means that you’re reading this text in tandem with writing your argument unit. Specifically, complete the exercise sections purposefully positioned throughout the book so you will have a unit for writing an argument ready to develop and then pilot by the time you finish reading or soon thereafter. It could be that you create a unit from scratch or revise a unit you already taught. I suggest targeting an actual unit you plan to teach later in the year—one that culminates in an argument—so you have time to fully develop it.

Argument is a genre that falls under the category of persuasive, as featured in table 1.1 (page 6). You can see a complete version of all writing types—narrative, descriptive, expository, and persuasive—and their associated genres in table 1.1 in The Fundamentals of (Re)designing Writing Units (page 9). Although the table is comprehensive, research you conduct might yield additional genres and subgenres.

This chapter begins with distinguishing the differences between argument and persuasion. I then address the characteristics and structure of an argumentation piece.

Once you empower students by introducing the necessary elements for this genre and suggesting structural options, they can make prudent decisions about crafting their own arguments based on the task, purpose, and audience. This is especially true for more proficient writers.

Persuasion and Argumentation Because their overriding purpose is to convince readers (or listeners) to change a viewpoint or behavior—and perhaps even encourage readers to take action of some kind—both persuasive and argumentation pieces are under the same umbrella of persuasion. However, persuasive writing differs from an argument.

A writer does not necessarily have to substantiate a claim in a persuasive piece; the claim can be predicated on opinion and feelings. In an argument, logical reasoning must back the claim and sufficient, accurate, and credible evidence needs to support it. Writers of persuasive pieces tend to adopt a passionate and emotional tone that can be transparent to readers or listeners, and they often use informal language and style. An argument is more balanced, with a fair-minded, nonjudgmental tone, and is typically more formal:

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Examining the Fundamentals of Argumentation

When writers construct arguments, they try to avoid emotional outbursts that often turn arguments into displays of temper.

Strong feelings may energize an argument— few of us make the effort to argue without emotional investment in the subject—but written argument stresses a fair presentation of opposing or alternative arguments.

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Table 1.1: Persuasive Characteristics and Associated Genres Type

Persuasive

Primary Purpose

Characteristics

(Mode or Category)

To persuade

Genres • Advertisement or infomercial • Argumentation essay (or speech) • Book or movie review • Commentary; letter to the editor; op-ed; editorial

• Writers make a claim that is articulated in a clear thesis statement. Reasons and evidence support the position.

• Letter of recommendation • Letter of complaint

• One or more of Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals (ethos, logos, pathos) are included in writing genres under the persuasive text type. Argumentation writing projects can include all three appeals; however, it relies heavily on logos, or logic, since writers research to find logical reasoning and relevant evidence (facts, data, examples, and so forth) culled from credible sources.

• Literary critique (or literary argument) • Persuasive letter • Social action letter • Political speech or other speech • Resume cover letter

• Advanced writers of arguments acknowledge and address counterarguments.

• Persuasive, unlike argumentation writing pieces, can be based more on opinion and include unsubstantiated evidence to support the claim (for example, propaganda and advertisements).

Source: Glass, 2017.

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/literacy for a free reproducible version of this table.

Because written arguments are public, they

credibility, character, or authority of

take on a civilized manner. They implicitly

the writer (or speaker). When writers

say, “Let’s be reasonable about this. Let’s

establish that they are knowledgeable and

look at the evidence on all sides. Before

trustworthy, audiences are more likely to

we argue for our position, let’s put all

believe what they say. Another is an appeal

the reasons and evidence on the table so

to the audience’s self-interest, sense of

everyone involved can see what’s at stake.”

identity, or emotions, any of which can sway

(Reid, n.d.)

an audience. A logical argument, on the

Various techniques represent what differentiates one form from another. To this point, the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA) and Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), designers of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), make this distinction: When writing to persuade, writers employ a variety of persuasive strategies. One common strategy is an appeal to the

other hand, convinces the audience because of the perceived merit and reasonableness of the claims and proofs offered rather than either the emotions the writing evokes in the audience or the character or credentials of the writer. The standards place special emphasis on writing logical arguments as a particularly important form of college- and career-ready writing. (NGA & CCSSO, n.d.a, p. 24, emphasis added)

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• Persuasive genres present a position on a particular issue or topic and use persuasive techniques to sway readers (or listeners) to the writer’s point of view, to convince them to take an action, to change their behavior or beliefs, to ask them to support a policy, or to accept an explanation or evaluation.

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The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle is noted for his rhetorical appeals—ethos, pathos, and logos. Here is a brief synopsis of each appeal; arguments are predicated heavily on logos.

• Pathos is the emotional appeal that taps into readers’ emotions, feelings, and desires.

Advertisers and nonprofit groups persuading the public to purchase a product or adopt a cause heavily rely on this appeal. In extreme cases, authors abuse pathos and deliberately manipulate and mislead people. When used inappropriately, it incorporates fear tactics to prey on vulnerabilities and insecurities— like the Third Reich did preceding and during World War II—which can lead to bias and destroy credibility. Inflammatory and overdone language is a telltale sign of pathos, and writers should avoid it so they appear credible and fair. Pathos, however, can effectively enhance an argument when used sparingly.

• Logos, an appeal predicated on logical reasoning and relevant evidence, is the most prominent and overriding appeal for argumentation. Although you can successfully use ethos and pathos to further an argument, logos takes center stage for this genre. Persuasive pieces might rely more on opinions and feelings, but arguments are substantiated with relevant and sufficient evidence. Furthermore, writers of arguments assume an impartial tone and are careful to avoid biased language.

In the Great Courses lecture and book series Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning, Professor David Zarefsky (2005) provides this definition: “Argumentation is the study of reasons given by people to justify their acts or beliefs and to influence the thought or action of others. It is concerned with communication that seeks to persuade others through reasoned

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judgment” (p. 1). In other words, logos is of paramount import; however, writers can surely include aspects of ethos or pathos as long as it furthers the argument, addresses the task, and does not overshadow the point of building a logical and reasoned argument.

Based on the distinguishing features, in table 1.1 persuasion and argumentation could be two different genres under the persuasive writing type with subgenres for either or both depending on the intent of the writing, the task, and the audience. Therefore, I provide a combined list and leave it up to you to determine if it’s an assignment that lends itself more to a persuasive or argument piece. Some, however, are clearly one or the other: advertisements are persuasive, and argumentation essays are arguments. Most items, though, can straddle both. For instance, you can write a letter of complaint in a more objective and formal style with clear reasoning and substantiated evidence to qualify as an argument, but it can also be written more casually and include clear opinions or inflammatory and emotional language. So, be unambiguous in your teaching, task, and criteria to give your students clear direction about your expectations.

Characteristic Elements of Argumentation When preparing to teach a unit on argumentation, design learning experiences that target selected characteristics or parts of an argument and their associated skills. A detailed description of the most prominent characteristics follows.

Online searches lead to many terms associated with teaching argumentation. I use claims, reasons, evidence, elaboration, and counterargument as they are prevalent in many standards’ documents and sources. However, there are other terms in association with these, as Robert J. Marzano (in press) points out that besides claims, “well-structured arguments also involve grounds, backing, and qualifiers. . . . Grounds are the reasons given to support a claim and backing is the evidence, facts, or data that support the grounds, while qualifiers address exceptions or objections to the claim.”

Defer to your standards to determine which items to address since some elements like distinguishing between the specific claims—factual, definitional, and so on— could be too advanced for students. Or, introducing fallacies that can derail an argument, like non sequitur,

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• Ethos refers to the author’s credibility. This appeal concerns itself with the writer’s or speaker’s character, credentials, and authority.

Writers must establish a favorable reputation and expertise to command readers’ respect and garner attention. They do so through tone and style, addressing opposing views, and using and citing credible sources.

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circular argument, or red herring may or may not be appropriate.

• Premise 1: All men are mortal.

• Premise 2: Socrates is a man.

• Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (p. 24)

According to Hillocks, since about the 1980s colleges and universities have replaced syllogism with the Toulmin method, which is derived from and named after the modern British philosopher. Note that there are various diagrams showing the integration of Toulmin’s elements (grounds, warrants, backing, rebuttal) and how to use them to craft an argument. For our purposes, I focus on the characteristics that follow. When reading them, avoid dismissing certain ones too quickly because they seem too sophisticated for students in your grade level. Some high achievers might benefit from going beyond the standards for enrichment opportunities.

Types of Claims The claim is the proposition the writer argues and represents the basis for an argument. It is the position, belief, or conclusion that readers (or listeners) are asked to accept or act on and that writers set out to prove.

Here are the five types of claims a writer is likely to make when establishing an argument. Sometimes you’ll find factual and definitional claims grouped together as one category. Additionally, some claims involve more than one type, for example policy claims can include factual claims. Adept writers can pinpoint the type of claim they are using as the basis for their arguments, which can aid them in crafting their thesis statements and researching particular evidence.

Writers compose thesis statements—featured as examples within the following list—to stake a claim. A thesis

focuses the paper, but is not a factual statement or a declaration of the paper’s purpose. Rather, a thesis articulates a claim that writers prove throughout their argument.

1. Factual claims assert some empirical truth.

It is incumbent on the writer to provide information or an explanation about the claim’s accuracy that the readers can verify. Examples include the following.

• Since approximately 17 percent of Americans ages two to nineteen years old suffer from obesity, the government should intervene and sanction the sale of certain unhealthy foods.

• Since data show atmospheric levels of greenhouse gasses have increased since the early 1900s, and a correlation exists between those increases relative to global temperatures, people should demand international intervention to reduce the causes of climate change.

2. Definitional claims explicitly argue how something should be defined, characterized, or categorized to avoid unwanted connotations or implications. Examples include the following.

• Even though people claim it is a compassionate way to die, euthanasia is clearly murder.

• Although it is an extracurricular activity that requires stamina and practice, cheerleading does not qualify as a sport.

This type of claim can apply to a character featured in a literary critique. For example: “ is a flawed character.”

Or “ is the epitome of mediocrity.”

3. Claims of value involve judgment where a topic, issue, character, or leader is, for instance, better than, more just than, more important or influential than, or more accomplished than something or someone else. These claims are based on worthiness. Examples include the following.

• Although filmmakers Franco Zeffirelli and Baz Luhrmann accurately portray Romeo and Juliet aligned to Shakespeare’s original play, Luhrmann’s modern rendition incorporates elements

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You might choose to teach syllogism to your high school students or more advanced learners. Syllogism refers to a three-part model of deductive reasoning that comprises two premises and a conclusion derived from them. In this formal reasoning, writers adopt a top-down logic. They begin with a major premise—a general statement that the writer believes is true. The minor premise provides a concrete example of it. The writer then presents a specific conclusion that logically follows from the premises. The following, from George Hillocks (2010), is an often-cited, proverbial example attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle:

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that more unquestionably appeal to younger audiences.

• Since evidence shows that involvement in the arts is associated with student gains across subject areas, instructional programs would be stronger if they incorporated arts education into the curriculum.

• Since many teenagers are self-absorbed, schools should require them to volunteer a minimum number of hours performing community service.

• Because hospitals are a hotbed of germs that leave patients vulnerable to serious illnesses, healthcare workers should not interface with patients unless they receive flu shots.

5. Claims of cause and effect (or vice versa) concern those propositions that state a person, event, situation, or thing caused something to happen on a short- or long-term basis.

Examples include the following.

• Since non-nutritious, highly caloric food items are readily available in schools, obesity of staggering dimensions plagues children in today’s society.

• If people conscientiously change their lifestyles by limiting their power usage and travel, we could reduce the effects of climate change.

• When a corrupt government repeatedly victimizes people, they can revolt and depose the existing ruling party.

Claims must be debatable. If there is not an opposing side and the claim is indefensible, there is no real need to convince a reader. For example, defending a position that smoking is detrimental to a person’s lungs is better suited for an informational paper. However, contestable topics or issues that need support are ripe for staking a claim. Animal testing, the connection between video games and violence, or the merits of a book versus a movie version of the same author’s work, along with those featured here, are all examples of such issues.

In order to write a cogent argument, writers need to be cognizant of not only the task and its purpose but also the audience they will address. Having a clear sense of audience helps writers attend to these kinds of questions and stay focused on the goal of the paper: Should I write in a formal or informal style? What tone and language should I use? What evidence will best convince my particular audience? What do they already know about the topic when they read my paper? What do they need to know? Do they have misconceptions? What objections do they have about my position? Are they inclined to agree or disagree, or perhaps be neutral, about my position? Would anything upset or confuse my audience? What is most important to them?

A writer can address various authentic audiences based on the task. For example, if students are writing to urge readers to accept a city proposal for an issue facing the community, the audience can be the community or town council members. If the argument is a literary critique about a novel, students can write to the author or classmates who have also read the text. For a movie review, they can write to movie patrons in an online venue or to fellow students.

Once an audience is established, and the purpose and task are forefront in mind, students can determine the appropriate style and point of view for their writing.

Style Individuals cultivate a particular style in their clothing, music preferences, home décor, artwork, and more.

Certain factors influence each aspect of style. For example, we develop a style for what we wear based on where we are going and whom we are to encounter. Writing is similar. People develop a certain distinctive writing style; however, outside influences such as task, purpose, and audience determine the style for a given situation.

Writing style is how something is said or the way it is written. It affects how readers interpret and internalize the message a writer intends to convey. Sources vary about what style includes. In some resource materials, style includes tone, diction, and syntax. In others, it also includes point of view and structure of a text. All contribute to a writer’s style. The following explains elements of style.

• Tone: Consider when a mother might say, “Young man, watch your tone of voice.”

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4. Claims associated with solutions or policies take a stand on what should be done or avoided. Examples include the following.

Audience

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The subtext is that she isn’t too keen on his attitude. Writing also has a tone, which is a writer’s attitude toward the topic and the reader. Tone can be formal or informal, personal or impersonal, objective or subjective, humorous or sarcastic, and the like. Read these examples.

• Formal—“The man was opposed to using public transportation.”

• Slang or very informal—“He ain’t gonna catch a ride on a bus.”

There are instances where each of these examples would apply; however, adopting a more formal tone (also called formal style) is appropriate in an argumentation essay. Plus, in this genre, writers should avoid tones rife with emotion that rely on pathos. Pathos deviates from the intent of an argument, which is to use logical reasoning instead of emotional appeal to convince the reader of a stance.

Rather, adopt a neutral and objective tone.

• Diction: Writers need to carefully select words and phrases that align to the task and audience. Positive or negative connotations of words convey different impressions.

Compare hacked versus cut, for example.

Use fair, objective language void of bias, but add precise words for emphasis that make a valid point. For example, concrete verbs like urge, compel, affirm, or deny, or adverbs used in a counterargument, such as conversely, consequently, or alternatively.

• Syntax: Syntax governs how a writer arranges words to construct a sentence. This area concerns sentence types (imperative, declarative), structure (compound, complex), and how sentences begin (with a dependent clause or an adverb). Consider that transitional words, phrases, and clauses link sections of the paper, create rhythm and cohesion, and clarify the relationships between elements of the writing (between reasons and evidence). Plus, writers can purposefully use syntax for emphasis by employing a lyrical, rhythmic, staccato (short, simple sentences), or rhetorical (repeating a series of questions) effect.

• Point of view: Some teachers unwaveringly expect students to write their arguments from the third-person point of view. Still others sanction either a first- or third-person point of view, as long as the writing adheres to the elements necessary for this genre.

The CCSS do not dictate which point of view to assume. These standard excerpts are the closest the designers come to providing direction for the writer’s pronoun usage: “establish and maintain a formal style” (grades 6–12) “and objective tone” (grades 9–12). Then there’s appendix C of the Common Core (NGA & CCSSO, n.d.c), which includes student samples with both first- and third-person examples. Arguments can be written in the objective third-person point of view, but they can also be crafted in first person if done correctly. In fact, sometimes avoiding the pronoun I can make the writing appear awkward and, if used, first person can improve the clarity of the work. Refer to the task and purpose to determine whether first- or third-person point of view is most suitable, and instruct students to be consistent regardless of which one they choose. Teach students to write a well-balanced, logical argument, complete with appropriate argumentation elements and proper diction and tone. Refrain from the second-person pronoun you, which sounds too conversational and informal for academic writing.

• Structure: A piece’s structure contributes to a writer’s style and impacts the text. See the section Argument Structure, in this chapter, for more detail.

Reasons Once writers stake a claim, they need to produce valid reasons—or grounds—to answer why someone should believe them or why they think something is so. Each reason is typically the topic sentence of a body paragraph, and all reasons must support the thesis statement or overarching claim.

Within the paragraph, writers support the reason with evidence to give depth and credence to it. Essentially, reasons must answer Why do you think your position is the right one or true? Why should I believe you?

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• Casual—“The man wasn’t into taking subways and busses.”

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Evidence Evidence justifies reasons and answers the question How do you know that your position is right or true? It verifies an argument—it substantiates each reason in support of the claim to prove its truth. Many types of evidence fall into four general categories.

1. Specific instances or examples: Events or case studies illustrative of a specific situation (for instance, brief or developed examples of the ways Mother Teresa showed compassion); might be a hypothetical situation.

2. Statistics: Facts with numbers (or data), such as raw numbers (1,264,000 soldiers died during the Civil War), percentages (39.8 percent of the electoral vote went to Abraham Lincoln), ratios (the Union forces outnumbered the Confederates roughly 2:1), index numbers, averages, mean, median, or mode. Writers may display statistical evidence through graphs, charts, maps, diagrams, or surveys. (Civil War Trust, 2014) 3. Testimony: Eyewitness (firsthand account from people who directly observe or experience something; anecdotal) or expert testimony (someone deemed credible with formal knowledge, expertise, or training who can attest to something); might be a combination where an expert relays an experience he or she encountered firsthand.

4. Tangible objects: Actual things or pictures of them, such as documents, maps, or artifacts.

Proficient writers selectively choose the most relevant and salient evidence to convince readers of their

positions. In addition, they carefully supply ample evidence. To determine sufficiency, writers consider the task, audience, and any length limitations. For example, if they are writing a letter to the editor, there could be a word limit. Therefore, they carefully choose which evidence and how much is needed to support the argument and get their points across. Sometimes writers do not provide enough evidence, or conversely, write a litany of facts, data, examples, and so forth without elaborating on what each means. (See the next section, Elaboration.)

A writer can use quotes directly from an author as evidence or can summarize or paraphrase another’s work, being mindful to provide proper attribution (see Citations). Additionally, writers might include surveys, diagrams, tables, charts, graphs, photographs, or interview excerpts. An excellent source for distinguishing between quoting, summarizing, or paraphrasing—as well as other information and writers’ tips about evidence—is in the section “How Can I Incorporate Evidence Into My Paper?” from the University of North Carolina Writing Center (http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/evidence).

When writers insert evidence, they use strong and varied verb choice to avoid the redundancy of he says or he states. Additionally, selecting impactful verbs can forward the argument. Examples include: “In his article , the chairman affirms (urges, argues, agrees, claims, insists, denies) .”

Elaboration Elaboration (or warrants) is a writer’s commentary, interpretation, or discussion about the evidence so each data, quote, or example is not an isolated tidbit of information. It answers the question How does this evidence support your claim? Since evidence is intentionally selected to support a particular position, articulating what each piece means helps further a particular point.

With it, readers can follow an author’s train of thought and his or her interpretation of the evidence.

Try as writers may, there could be a risk of miscommunication with a piece of evidence. Therefore, providing an explanation, clarification, or analysis minimizes any likelihood that readers misinterpret or misread the data, testimony, or other evidence. It is to a writer’s advantage to elaborate since it helps readers better understand the evidence and why it matters.

In essence, a writer is saying, “Here’s what the credible source asserts, and here’s why this is important and supports my premise.” Elaboration assists readers in processing the evidence and making connections to help

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The order of each reason and its body paragraph is strategically placed to present a sound argument; however, research surrounding placement is not conclusive.

Some findings recognize the value of the primacy effect.

This means the strongest reason and supporting evidence comes first because it makes for a captivating and compelling beginning that lingers in the readers’ minds as they keep reading. Other research, though, maintains that the recency effect is more effective—saving the strongest for last—because it leaves an enduring impression on readers thus more powerfully swaying them to the writer’s position. Although research is split on this issue, the consistent finding is that the strongest argument should not be placed in the middle (Zarefsky, 2005).

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cajole them in a respectful way to the writer’s way of thinking. See Elaboration of Evidence in chapter 5 for ideas on teaching this element.

Counterarguments

Writers can position counterarguments in different places in an essay: in the introduction to provide context (and writers can treat it more extensively later in the paper), the paragraph after the introduction, interwoven within body paragraphs, or in its own paragraph directly before the conclusion. See Counterarguments in chapter 5 for more specific information and ideas for teaching this aspect of argument.

Citations Cite all sources in the text for proper attribution.

Writers must format these in-text citations in a particular way. Additionally, writers list all the sources used according to either MLA or American Psychological Association (APA) format in a Works Cited page. This documentation tells the reader that the argument is based on reliable and accurate sources. It also enables them to refer to the original sources if they want further information. Providing these sources exhibits transparency, which implies honesty.

Argument Structure Any paper—in fact, any podcast, collection of movie clips, blog post, speech, and so forth—needs to be structured to facilitate understanding; otherwise, the ideas the writer intends to convey can be convoluted

or even lost entirely. The instruction around the structure becomes a controversial issue when a piece appears too formulaic and prescriptive. Papers that typify the extreme version are replete with repetitive patterns and sound somewhat mechanical. For example, the introduction begins with the same strategy to hook a reader, such as posing two questions or a completion of Imagine that . . .; the thesis includes three points, like items in a series; each topic sentence starts with the same set of transitions (First, Second, Finally) that mirror the points in the thesis; and so forth. You get the picture and might have experienced a feeling of monotony reading them.

This simplistic structure is comfortable and well intentioned, given the demands to help ensure students perform well on standardized tests. However, subjecting advanced writers to a lockstep structure whereby they are mandated to use a formulaic approach may do them a disservice in which they focus too much on form rather than content. An overly restrictive structure that largely relies on prescriptive phrases and paragraphs can make all papers appear too similar and discourage any student from deviating from the set frame. This mandate can limit their creativity and sophistication as writers, squashing a potential gem of a piece. Instead, introduce them to several different ways that content is presented and organized. Then give them the independence and self-agency to compose and structure their arguments in the best way they feel will convince readers of their position based on their knowledge of the material, purpose for writing, and the audience they aim to address.

Burgeoning writers new to this genre and those who struggle, on the other hand, benefit from some sense of structure so they can hone their skills. Therefore, keep in mind the age and readiness levels of students when you make decisions about teaching structure. The notion is similar to literature circle roles or sentence starters during a Socratic seminar class discussion. Students need structured and scaffolded support to learn the roles and dialogue, but after a while, the training wheels need to come off so they can engage in authentic collaborative conversations. Likewise, be mindful to gauge when they are ready to experiment with options for how to organize and structure their papers. Use your professional expertise to determine what approach to take.

Structural Guidance What kind of guidance might you provide about structure for students writing an argument? How do

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Writers must anticipate, acknowledge, and address an opposing claim or claims. They provide qualifiers that articulate the exceptions to the argument and refute them to show their credibility, knowledge, and consideration of other viewpoints. A counterargument presents a counterclaim, which is the viewpoint contrary to the writer’s claim (thesis), as well as rebuttals that acknowledge the opposition and supply evidence negating or disagreeing with the counterclaim to weaken the other side’s objections and illustrate the worthiness of their own argument. All this is written or spoken in a diplomatic, objective, and fair-minded way. Sometimes writers decide to respectfully concede to some of the opposition’s concerns. This part of an argument answers What are the opposing views and their weaknesses?

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the argumentation elements fit into the structure?

Introducing the standard framework of introduction, body, and conclusion can be useful for all writers to learn so they can organize their argumentation elements.

Plus, students need to know that arguments, like other forms of expository writing, include these three sections, as opposed to narrative, which could be structured like the plot of a story.

The body of the argument should comprise reasons, evidence, elaboration, and ending statements. Writers must ensure that reasons connect to the thesis and that the evidence supports each reason. Elaboration is necessary to interpret each piece of evidence so readers know its significance and how it relates to the argument and to compel readers to the targeted position. Writers can include counterarguments that address and disprove competing claims in the introduction; couched in its own paragraph, typically after the intro or before the conclusion; or woven throughout one or more of the body paragraphs.

Finally, the conclusion provides a restatement of the thesis, a brief summary of the main points, reflective thought, and perhaps a call to action or potential solutions. This ending presents an opportunity for writers to punctuate their main points and leave a lasting impression. It emphasizes why readers should care about the claim’s topic and significance. See figure 1.1 (page 14) for a grade 8 argument sample reflecting these three sections. Although the writer dedicates a body paragraph to the counterargument, writers can weave this element of argumentation throughout body paragraphs or incorporate it into the introduction.

Empower more proficient writers to use an openended structure so they can get their ideas across effectively and convince their readers. To this end, there are different suggestions you can offer students to experiment with varied structures. Sometimes an introduction diverges from the typical single paragraph to two succinct and well-written ones that set up the argument cogently, as in the writing example in figure 1.1. Maybe students feel that the thesis needs to be sooner in the introduction rather than later, where it

is customarily placed. In body paragraphs, the writer can make the decision to present the most compelling reason with support first or reserve it for the last spot to leave a strong impression. Within these paragraphs, sometimes concluding sentences provide a setup for the paragraph that follows or merely wraps up each one. Plus, students can make their own decisions with regard to counterarguments. As stated, opposing claims can be acknowledged and addressed at different points in the paper.

Argument Length It is not always necessary to provide a definitive number of paragraphs or pages or a word count when creating an argumentative piece. It is important for students to be aware of the elements and structure that make a paper an argument versus another type of writing genre. The caveat, however, is taking into account any length restrictions as the task dictates. For instance, if students are writing a commentary for a newspaper, the publication limits the word count. The co-writers of the Common Core English language arts (ELA) standards say: As the standards are silent on length and structure, student writing should not be evaluated by whether it follows a particular format or formula (e.g., the five-paragraph essay). Instead, the Common Core State Standards have been carefully designed to focus on the elements or characteristics of good writing, including drawing sufficient evidence from texts, writing coherently with well-developed ideas, and writing clearly with sufficient command of standard English.

(NGA & CCSSO, 2010)

Leading with elements as the focal point for teaching is a good rule for all writing genres. For instance, if students know that a short story includes elements of literature— plot, character, theme, setting, point of view—along with literary devices, these characteristics, plus the task requirements, will influence the development which is a direct correlation to the length. If a student’s work is undeveloped, chances are good that elements are absent or insufficiently addressed. That means it is time to reteach writing skills and concepts so students understand how to incorporate the missing components into their papers.

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The introduction ought to attract readers and provide a context for reading or include any necessary background information. In this beginning section, writers should also state the topic and position in a thesis statement to articulate the overarching claim that forms the argument’s basis.

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We Need the League Introduction

Great people of North Dakota,

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Body Paragraph

First, the treaty and the league will control the use of new weapons. As stated in Article VII, “One of its (the league’s) jobs will be to come up with a plan for reducing the number of weapons around the world (arms reduction).” Therefore, the league will be in charge of weapons issues. This will cause heavily armed countries to demilitarize and make it less possible for war to break out. Because heavily armed countries generally end up using those arms in some way, this is a positive change.

Additionally, I believe we need to sign the Treaty with no reservations since we need a treaty that is fair to all its members. Reservations [proposed by the league’s opponents] would give America too much power within the league, thus allowing America to bend the rules of the league to suit its own will. This would cause unrest in the league, possibly resulting in America making enemies that could lead to another war. The treaty should be as fair as possible.

America should also sign the treaty since it would prevent future wars from occurring. The way the league is designed, it would give plenty of time for the league to settle the countries’ differences with a fair and equal compromise. If war were to take place, the council members in the league would all help in defending each other, thus ending the war as quickly as possible with as few deaths as possible. The treaty would prevent war from happening or end the fighting as quickly as possible.

Body Paragraph: Counterargument

Some people say that we shouldn’t join the league because we would be intervening in foreign affairs and that it would cause another war. How can you not intervene when eight million people died in the last war? How can you stand there with a clear conscience when you know you could have prevented all that carnage from ever happening? The league will help countries settle their differences with plenty of time to talk it over. Six months for the countries to listen to the council’s advice, and after that another three months before they can mobilize. If we join the League, we will keep anything like the Great War from happening again.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles needs to be signed so the league will be put into affect. The League of Nations will prevent war from breaking out, restrict weapons development and militarism, and keep us from the horrors of another Great War. Thank you.

Source: Adapted from Achieve the Core, 2016a.

Figure 1.1: Grade 8 student argument writing sample.

Visit go.SolutionTree.com/literacy for a free reproducible version of this figure.

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I, Senator McCumber, [an actual Senator from 1919 in the League of Nations debate], have just participated in a debate regarding whether or not America should sign the Treaty of Versailles, and in doing so, join the League of Nations.

The League of Nations is a unified group of nations dedicated to the preservation of peace. It is designed to deal with international issues, adjudicating differences between countries instead of them going directly to combat.

In the interests of the great state of North Dakota, I voted in favor of the treaty with no reservations. We need a fair treaty to prevent future wars as horrible as the Great War. After the war, the central powers composed the Treaty of Versailles to create the League of Nations in an attempt to ward off future conflicts. We cannot have another war as devastating as this one. Therefore, I believe we need a fair treaty, equal to all its members, to restrict the use of new weapons and prevent future wars from breaking out.

Summary Although under the persuasive text type, argumentation pieces have their own unique characteristics and are primarily predicated on sound reasoning and logic to convince an audience to accept a position or change a viewpoint. Of Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals, arguments rely heavily on logos.

Share various samples when teaching the argument structure so students are not necessarily locked into a

rigid number of sentences and paragraphs. Although inexperienced writers or those unfamiliar with this genre could need more support with structural suggestions, allow more proficient writers to present their arguments in various ways. For example, the introduction can be two tight paragraphs with the thesis at the beginning or at the end of this section of the paper.

Counterarguments could be incorporated into body paragraphs rather than having one paragraph dedicated to the opposition.

The next chapter personalizes the backward planning approach to unit design as it specifically relates to writing an argument. It ends with an exercise so you can begin to design or redesign a unit for your own classroom or one that you support. Subsequent chapters also include exercises so that, together, they culminate in a comprehensive argumentation unit of instruction. And away we go.

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With the task, purpose, and audience in mind, students decide how to compose their arguments. For example, they can determine point of view, diction, and tone. They stake a claim and articulate it in a thesis statement, making sure that the topic is a debatable one.

Each reason must be valid and supported by different types of evidence and a sufficient amount of evidence clearly cited to give proper attribution.

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Examining the Fundamentals of Argumentation

—Tracy A. Huebner, Director, Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning, San Francisco, California

“Glass’s book successfully fulfills her goal of providing teachers with the steps for designing and delivering instruction on argument writing with depth, rigor, and clarity. Teachers will find a wealth of models and strategies for helping students develop their capacity to write more effective arguments and express their voice with power.”

—Robert Baroz, Program Director of English, East Boston High School, Boston, Massachusetts

(re)

Writing plays a crucial part

DESIGNING

in all academic disciplines, helping students to communicate their ideas to different audiences and extend their content knowledge. Developed for teachers, curriculum designers, and literacy coaches, (Re)designing Argumentation Writing Units for Grades 5–12 by Kathy Tuchman Glass offers practical recommendations,

strategies, and tips for designing new argumentation writing units of instruction and revising existing ones to empower students to artfully and logically present their ideas.

Readers will: • Examine the key elements of an argument and the benefits of teaching students to work through structuring an argument • Review an argumentation unit map and its learning goals and guiding questions, and then develop one of their own

(RE)DESIGNING ARGUMENTATION WRITING UNITS FOR GRADES 5–12

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“Kathy’s latest book is as thoughtfully organized as it is researched. This is so much more than a book.

It is a tool for teachers and administrators to inform and engage in substantive learning practices to help students develop argumentative writing skills. . . . We are fortunate to have such a dynamic resource available to teachers!”

• Complete exercises throughout the book that help to create a comprehensive argumentation writing unit of instruction • Design a full lesson on argumentation, including establishing the author’s purpose, supporting a thesis with evidence, and presenting a counterargument

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ISBN 978-1-942496-70-0 90000

download the free reproducibles in this book.

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GLASS

• Download templates, checklists, rubrics, and student activities useful for designing an argumentation writing unit and guiding lessons