Hana Baraka Dissertation

Hana Baraka 180373769 The Power of Myths: A Critique of Architectural Narrative Through a Feminist Lens Dissertation Tutor: Matthew Ozga-Lawn Dissertation Word Count: 8,196 (326 of which are footnotes) This wordcount does not include 1,078 words found on page 17-19, as they would have usually been placed in an Appendix, I have decided otherwise to highlight their importance in my dissertation.

Covid Research Adaptation Placement: Preface (page 3) Acknowledgements: Throughout writing my dissertation I have received a great deal of support and assistance. I would like to thank my dissertation tutor Matthew Ozga-Lawn, whose knowledge and enthusiasm challenged and guided my dissertation.

I would also like to thank my family and host family in Germany who were always happy to help and give tremendous advice.

T H E P OW E R OF MYTHS

THE POWER OF MYTHS A Critique of Architectural Narratives Through a Feminist Lens

The basis of this research originally stemmed from my fascination with myths and architectural narratives. Even though they are subjects of the past, I am passionate about viewing them as timeless sources of information holding a magnitude of hidden meanings. These meanings allow for connections to be drawn into present days, broadening my views of current social structures and male dominance.

I have relied on the creation of digital collages to challenge the views of particular buildings, as well as visualize what I consider to be modern-day myths.

Covid Research Adaptation: The main restriction faced during my dissertation was the inability to research at the library. Instead I had to rely on ordering books and waiting for a lengthy period of time to receive them.

Even though this might have hindered my process, I feel that in the time I waited for the books, I was able to find interesting material and research, which I would have not found otherwise.

This work is to the best of my knowledge original, except where acknowledgment and references are made.

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Introduction of Myths and Narrative 8

Introduction of Taj Mahal and Monastery of Arges River 14

Myth of Serenity 20

Myth of Love 30

Myth of Power

Table of Contents

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Myth of the Oppressed 44

Conclusion 48

List of Illustrations Bibliography 52

Appendix 1 56

Appendix 2 58

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I have seen this building before, maybe in a picture or on TV? I heard a lot about it and what it is supposed to mean.

Supposed to?

I want to find my own meanings, Not fully my own...it will to some extent have to depend on other’s research, but I can at least analyze that research myself to have it be my own.

I have now read narratives associated to this building, which fill it with meaning.

Have these narratives just influenced my thought process? This has become further complicated...

Because where did these narratives come from? Why do they follow this sequence of events in particular? These narratives are of the past, but can they tell me something about the future?

Is this just my preconceived notion fully dependent on others? Who probably had their own notions fully dependent on others?

After all history is known to repeat itself and we are the creators of history.

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A Moment in the Modern World: Before delving into the past, I would like to stay in modern times for a moment. It is the year 2014, Zaha Hadid has just begun her long-awaited Al-Wakrah Stadium in Qatar, hoping to open in time for the 2022 world cup. For the first time, the world cup is going to the Middle East, to Qatar of all places. A small country of fewer than 2 million people, the majority of which are non-Qataris, meaning Qatar had to rely on “the labour of approximately one million foreigners to build the stadium and infrastructure necessary to hold the word cup.”1 If that does not raise red flags then the 500 Indian and 382 Nepalese migrant workers dying in preparation for the 2022 cup definitely should2. Nasser Beydoun, an Arab-American businessman who spent two years in Doha as an “economic hostage”3 said, “that foreign workers in Qatar are modern day slaves to their local employers.”4 It is very scary to think that such horrific negligence can happen in this day and age. On the other hand, is there more to see that might have been covered up? Information to be later revealed by the active reader?

I n t ro d u c t i o n

Narratives and Myths: Narratives and myths “can stimulate people’s curiosity and desires”5, in this case to the extent to which they view the same piece of architecture differently depending on the narrative read and how they perceive it. In a study conducted by psychologists Appel and Richter, two different story genres about one destination were used “to test whether the changes they made to {the} reader's belief were different.”6 Their results showed that having read the different stories, the two groups had developed “significantly different beliefs”7, thus forming different destination images. Tourist guides are one of many occupations that use this to their advantage, they are known for their storytelling capabilities, working their magic on their tourists to convey a specific image of the destination, allowing a particular connection followed by attraction to form.

Through narration, events are shaped and simplified into a sequence, one which unfolds in relation to a temporal meter to stimulate the imagination over a period of time. On a surface level, buildings are physical matter that have been thought of by their designer to house people and fulfil particular functions. But, upon closer analysis, it becomes clearer that architecture, similar to narrative, is imbued with meaning. However, Architect and author of 'Narrative Architecture', Nigel Coates explains that the difference in architecture is that “the linearity of the narrative function dissolves as the spatial dimensions interfere with time.”8 This is particularly important in understanding the role of narrative in architecture and how it differs from a conventional narrated text. In a conventional fictional narrative, events, places, and characters are bound together with an overarching plot, architecture also binds these factors, but the fictional aspect is tested by the physical reality of the surrounding space.

1(Erfani, 2020) 2(2022 World Cup: 500 Indian workers die working in Qatar - Firstpost, 2014) 3(Brott 2019) 4("Indentured Servitude in the Persian Gulf (Published 2013)" 2013) 5(Wong, Lee and Lee, 2015) 6(Appel and Richter, 2010) 7(Appel and Richter, 2010) 8(Coates 2012)

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This space, which follows no prescribed sequence, becomes an unordered framework of linked meanings, waiting to communicate to unsuspecting visitors, which Coates suggests “works better when hidden rather than overt.”1 Suspension of Disbelief: I get a bit nervous every time I enter deep water, having watched Jaws, even though I know it is ‘just’ a movie. For this reason, I reject the idea of the reader/listener performing a mental process called 'the willing suspension of disbelief' when coming across a narrative or a myth. "To suspend one's belief is to allow oneself to believe things that cannot be true"2. Typically used to allow an audience to appreciate works of literature or drama which explore unusual ideas. Writer J.R.R.Tolkien argues that “suspension of disbelief is only necessary when the work has failed to create secondary belief, from that point on, the spell is broken, and the reader ceases to be immersed in the story, and so must make a conscious effort to suspend their disbelief or else give up on it entirely.”3 My main focus will be directed towards analysing how narrative associated with architecture holds so much power over the beholder, a power which eliminated the need for "the willing suspension of disbelief".

Architectural Narratives: Some narratives are unforgettable, others offer a fleeting impression. Some offer a powerful story with a sense of authority, while other narratives offer a romanticized tale, taking you on an emotional journey. Throughout history, narrative has been said to imaginatively “transport”, it has been a familiar and traditional way to spread knowledge whether it be fictional or non-fictional.

To explain the metaphorical idea of being transported through narrative, Gerrig Richard author of ‘Experiencing Narrative Worlds’ has proposed that “transport results from specific actions, when people enter a world that is a certain distance away from ordinary life, it produces a way of thinking that could not exist in the actual world.”4 He further suggests the notion of the “traveller” returning to the “real world” is “somewhat changed by the journey”5, but is that change always seen as particularly positive, or can it be used as justification for the existing social systems, customs, and rites?6

Mythologies: A myth is commonly known as a folklore genre composed of narratives, resulting in a long-lasting impact on society. Passed down through many forms, such as text, songs, or through word of mouth. Myths based on architecture often give the place power and heightened significance.

During this analysis, my use of the word myth is one that suggests a traditional story concerning the history of a place, rather than using the word as a suggestion of a false belief or idea. Furthermore, I do not intend to verify or debunk any myths or narratives to come but instead to explore their signified meaning.

Myth and history are generally considered to be opposing modes of explanation. Those who study the data of one, generally distrust the other. Modern-day historians tend to assume the task of disconnecting any trace of myth from historical records, while many mythologists consider history lacking the explanatory power which traditional narrative provides. This clear ideology for some stemmed from the Greeks when “logos (word as demonstrable truth) has been opposed to mythos (word as authoritative pronouncement).”1 On the other hand, American historian Peter Heehs, suggests that “there can be no real distinction between the discourses of myth and history, between fact and fiction.”2 Further claiming that “what we call history is at best mythistory.”3 'Mythologies', a book by Roland Barthes dissects “What a myth is today?”4 Stating that a myth is “a type of speech, a system of communication, that is a message.”5 Justifying his analysis, Barthes uses the concepts of semiology (“study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation”6). He describes the connections between an object (the signified) and its linguistic representation (such as a word, the signifier) and how the two are connected. Barthes goes on to show how the myth becomes a further sign, rooted in language but with the addition of multiple meanings. “With a word (or other linguistic units) the meaning (apprehended content) and the material element (something physical) come together to make a sign. To make a myth, the sign itself is used as a signifier, and a new meaning is added, which is the signified.”7 But according to Barthes, this new meaning is not added arbitrarily.

1(Heehs 1994) 2(Heehs 1994) 3(Heehs 1994) 4(Barthes 1972) 5(Barthes 1972) 6(Oxford Dictionary, 2020) 7(Adams 2019)

1(Coates 2012) 2(Definition of SUSPEND (ONE'S) DISBELIEF, n.d.)

3(Tolkien, 1985) 4(Wong, Lee and Lee, 2015) 5(Gerrig, 1993) 6(Sellers 2006)

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Barthes gives an example of this by analysing a 1955 magazine cover from ‘Paris Match’ (Figure 1). On one hand, there is a signifier: an image of a young, black soldier wearing a French uniform, saluting. On the other hand, its linguistic representation from a mythologist’s point of view, going beyond the surface level, the myth becomes a further sign, a symbol signifying "the combination of Frenchness and militariness"1, "that France is a great empire, that all her sons, without any colour discrimination, faithfully serve under her flag"2. The picture was not chosen at random, it also does not explicitly reveal all this information, “but the combination of the signifier and signified perpetuates the myth of imperial devotion, success and thus; a property of ‘significance’ for the picture.”3

The Eiffel Tower and its functions are further analysed through the use of polarities, which Barthes uses to give an objective view, and to highlight the capabilities of this “total monument”1.

This can particularly be seen in Barthes description of the Tower as “an utterly useless monument”2 an empty signifier, despite that he then explains that “use never does anything but shelter meaning.”3 Now rendered as an “empty sign”4 the Tower can be filled with numerous meanings, a playground for the imagination, and a game of multiple interpretations.

Barthes deems The Eiffel Tower as "a symbol of Paris, of modernity, of communication, of science or of the nineteenth century, rocket, stem, derrick, phallus, lightning rod or insect, confronting the great itineraries of our dreams, it is the inevitable sign."5 This essay which on a surface level looks at a famous and now romanticised monument aided my reflection and analysis of the subsequent buildings which ultimately shapes my dissertation. Allowing for the rising importance of looking past historical relevance to mythical qualities and contemporary relevance. Through a more inquisitive and dissecting lens, we can view these upcoming monuments and their myths and draw connections to modern-day examples of architecture to further understand ourselves and our society today.

Figure 1: 1955 Paris Match cover

Understanding how meaning is obtained is therefore really important. The ability to distinguish between those signs and meanings that have a direct link to the subject/signified and those that are purely socially constructed becomes blurred, particularly with signs without such an inherent link to what they are referring to. In an increasingly mediated age, the gap between a sign and the signified gradually grows. Consequently, this leads to multiple ways of deciphering the same sign, depending on the context it is viewed in, which will become apparent through my analysis below.

Questioning why meaning is formed the way it is, has therefore been made easier by an in-depth understanding of these signs and their origins.4 Roland Barthes believed that reading is as much of an activity as writing, always demanding attention from his readers, he explains that a passive reader accepts a one-dimensional, surface meaning. This belief also takes effect in Barthes' writings, as he goes beyond surface-level analysis and into symbolism. In his essay 'The Eiffel Tower and Other Mythologies', Barthes examines the “universal symbol of Paris”5. He starts and concludes our journey of understanding, through the examination of the Tower itself as a monument, a sign, a manifestation, and as a centre of commercialised activities. The core of his essay however, examines the essence of experience provided by the Tower. Barthes writes, “The tower looks at Paris. To visit the Tower is to get oneself up onto the balcony in order to perceive, comprehend and savour a certain essence of Paris.”6 1(Barthes 1972) 2(Barthes 1972) 3(Barthes 1972) 4(Nicholas 2017) 5(Barthes 1972) 6(Barthes 1972)

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Two Historical Buildings to Frame the Study: To frame my analysis more tangibly, I will predominantly refer to two pieces of historic architecture varying in popularity, size, and culture, which nonetheless remain connected through their narrative: The Taj Mahal and The Monastery of Arges River. I will challenge the authenticity of their construction, through the analysis of their myths, to recognize the impression left on visitors, and gain a wider insight on how they can reflect on today's society as they are of great contemporary relevance. Both precedents were chosen as they commonly stand as monuments of the past, and less commonly as representations of the present and future, which I intend to explain further.

“Monuments are built forms erected to confer dominant meanings on space. They present an aesthetic value as well as a political function.”6 Built to remind people of prominent individuals and important events, but to whom are these monuments important? Authors Federico Bellentani and Mario Panico write “political elites erect monuments to promote selective historical narratives that focus on convenient events and individuals while obliterating what is discomforting.”7 This in essence indirectly offers an opportunity for people in power to instill selected conceptions and encourage them for future purposes.

1(Barthes 1972) 2(Barthes 1972) 3(Barthes 1972) 4(Barthes 1972) 5(Barthes 1972) 6(Bellentani & Panico,2016) 7(Bellentani & Panico,2016)

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Figure 2: The Taj Mahal

The “Crown of Palaces”1, the world’s most famous tomb, The Taj Mahal is located next to the River Jamuna in the city of Agra, India. The Taj (Figure 2) was built on the orders of Shah Jahan, a powerful Mughal emperor who dedicated it to his second wife Mumtaz Mahal (meaning jewel/ crown of the palace) after she died during the birth of their fourteenth child in 16312 (Shah Jahan himself was later buried next to his wife). The completion of the Taj came 22 years later and with it an abundance of tourists of varying cultures and ages. A sacred place to some and secular to others, the Taj has become subject to alternative narratives throughout the years, creating diverse experiences depending on the individual entering.

T a j M a ha l and M o n a s t e r y o f A rg e s River

Traveling 3,490 miles North-West of India to Romania leads to the grounds of Curtea de Arges Monastery (Monastery of Arges River). The cathedral (Figure 3), which carries the same name, was built in the early 16th century. Dedicated to the Dormition of the mother of god (passing of Mary, Mother of Christ), the cathedral was commissioned by Prince Neagoe Basarab, otherwise known in ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’ as the Black Prince.3 It still stands today and serves as an exceptional example of Romanian medieval architecture, opulently decorated with elaborate Arabian and Caucasian ornamentation. Unlike the Taj, which is a subject of multiple myths, the cathedral holds one prominent myth (multiple variations of the same myth have been written over the years, but they follow a very similar plot).

Based on the myths read or heard before visiting, you arrive at the Taj Mahal and the Monastery of Arges River with a host of preconceptions and institutionalized knowledge, which incline your gaze in certain directions and make you perceive elements in a tailored manner. “Tourism directs us to sites where people are at work making meaning, situating themselves in relation to public spectacle and making a biography that provides some coherency between self and world.”4 This coherency is achieved through stringing together an accumulation of symbols, which suggests that each person has their tailored narrative. I will discuss some of the diverse symbolism established over time, encouraging you to formulate your narrative with which you can uniquely view the two buildings as well as understand their contemporary relevance.

There is a difference between the romantic narrative that places the female on a pedestal, and its polar opposite, which deems the male character as egotistical and superior. Through the use of the two aforementioned buildings and their myths, I will also explore the opposing symbols of religion, gender roles, and social structures.

1(Islam, 2013) 2(Edensor, 1998) 3(Muellner 2018) 4(Neumann, 1988)

Figure 3: The Monastery of Arges River

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Figure 4: Painting of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan

The following is an extract of one of the many Taj Mahal myth versions. Written by Lesley A. DuTemple in the book 'The Taj Mahal'.

A longer version of the text can be found in Appendix 1.

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ne tent in the midst of the military encampment stood out. Draped in elaborate folds of silk, it was the tent of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan’s wife of nineteen years and empress of the Mughal Empire. Inside her sumptuous tent, surrounded by rich tapestries and other comforts, the empress was about to give birth to her fourteenth child.

Shah Jahan spent the day directing troops and conducting state business, while anxiously awaiting news of his wife. Finally, one of her messengers arrived to announce the birth of a healthy baby girl. There was no word of Mumtaz Mahal herself, however. Irritated, Shah Jahan sent one of his own messengers to her tent. Hours passed, but the messenger didn’t return. It was past midnight, and Shah Jahan was preparing to go to Mumtaz Mahal when a messenger from the empress arrived, The messenger said she was very tired and wished to rest undisturbed for the remainder of the night. Relieved, Shah Jahan went to bed.

A few hours later, Shah Jahan was awakened by another messenger. The empress was calling for him. He dressed immediately and hurried to her tent. Inside her elegant quarters, Mumtaz Mahal was dying.

As one poet described the scene, Shah Jahan “cried out with grief, like an ocean raging with storm.”“His tearful eyes sought help from spectacles, for his eyesight had decreased from weeping.”“In his beard before this, no white hairs did the eyes see, except a few, but in this paining of the heart, most turned…white.”

On December 15, 1631, the body of Mumtaz Mahal left Burhanpur and began the long journey to Agra, 435 miles away.

Mumtaz Mahal's tomb was going to be built on the banks of the Yamuna River, within sight of the Red Fort in Agra. A nobleman, Raja Jai Singh, owned one of the most beautiful pieces of land in Agra, set on a bend of the river.

It would have been an honour just to donate land for the empress's tomb, but two court historians recorded that Shah Jahan gave Raja Jai Singh a "lofty mansion" in return.

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The procession reached Agra on January 8, 1632. Mumtaz Mahal's body was temporarily buried on the land received from Raja Jai Singh. Nearby, construction on her tomb had already begun.

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The following are extracts from one version of the few myths of 'The Monastery of Arges River'. Originally written in Romanian this myth translation is by Dan Duţescu.

I Down the Argesh lea, Beautiful to see, Prince Negru he wended By ten mates attended: Nine worthy craftsmen, Masons, journeymen, With Manole ten, The highest in fame.

Forth they strode apace There to find a place Where to build a shrine, A cloister divine.

II But whate'er they wrought, At night came to naught, Crumbled down like rot!

The next day again, The third day again, The fourth day again.

"Here's my wall!" quoth he.

"Here I choose that ye Build for me a shrine, A cloister divine.

Therefore, great craftsmen, Masons, journeymen, Start ye busily To build on this lea A tall monastery; Make it with your worth Peerless on this earth; Then ye shall have gold, Each shall be a lord.

Till we, one and all, Make an oath to wall Whose bonny wife erst, Whose dear sister first, Haps to come this way At the break of day, Bringing meat and drink To husband or kin.

Therefore if we will Our high task fulfill And build here a shrine, A cloister divine,

Oh, but should you fail, Then you'll moan and wail, For I'll have you all Built up in the wall; I will—so I thrive— Build you up alive!"

But Manole shirked, He no longer worked, To his bed he went And a dream he dreamt.

III When day from night parted Up Manole started, And what did he see?

Alas! Woe is me!

Who came up the lea?

His young bride so sweet, Flower of the mead!

How he looked aghast As his Ana came fast, Bringing his day's food And wine sweet and good.

IV While Manole smarted, With all hope he parted, And thus spoke in jest, "Now my own sweet bride, Have no fear, abide; We'll make thee a nest, Build thee up in jest!"

Ana laughed merrily, She laughed trustfully, And Manole sighed, His trowel he plied, Raised the wall as due, Made the dream come true.

Manole, Manole, Good Master Manole, The wall squeezes hard, My frail flesh is marred."

Not a word spoke he, But worked busily; Up he raised the wall To gird her withal; And the wall did rise To her ankles nice, To her bonny thighs, To her shapely waist, To her fair, young breasts.

While she, wellaway, She would cry and say, She would weep and pray, "Manole, Manole!

The wall weighs like lead, Tears my teats now shed My babe is crushed dead."

V Down the Argesh lea, Beautiful to see, Prince Negru in state Came to consecrate And the prince spoke then, "Ye good team of ten,

Then poor, poor Manole, Good master Manole, As he brought himself To jump from a shelf, Hark, a voice came low From the wall below, A voice dear and lief, Muffled, sunk in grief,

Can you build for me, With your mastery, Yet another shrine, A cloister divine, Ever far more bright, Of greater delight?"

"Manole, Manole, Good master Manole, The wall weighs like lead, Tears my teats still shed, My babe is crushed dead, Away my life's fled!"

As Manole heard His life-blood did curd, "Like us great craftsmen, And his eyesight blurred, Masons, journeymen, And the high clouds whirled, In skill and in worth There are none on earth! And the whole earth swirled; And from near the sky, Marry, if thou wilt, From the roof on high, We can always build Down he fell to die!

Yet another shrine, And, lo, where he fell A cloister divine, There sprang up a well, Ever far more bright, A fountain so tiny Of greater delight!"

Of scant water, briny, So gentle to hear, Wet with many a tear!

Then the prince anon Ordered with a frown All scaffolds pulled down, To leave those ten men, Those worthy craftsmen, On the roof on high, There to rot and die.

Long they stayed there thinking, Then they started linking Shingles thin and light Into wings for flight.

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Full text available in Appendix 2

Figure 5

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Figure 6

Figure 7:

M y t h o f S e re n i t y

Taj Mahal

Inspired by Christo and Jeanne Claude’s 'Wrapped Reichstag' in Berlin, 1971-95, which symbolically hid "the past and created a blank slate for modern German identity.”1 I have digitally collaged the Taj Mahal to look as if it has been wrapped with Fabric. Allowing a moment to let go of any more preconceived notions of the Taj Mahal, making space for the creation of an imaginative contemporary identity.

1("Understanding Christo and Jeanne-Claude through 6 Pivotal Artworks" 2018)

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Figure 8: Inside the mosque of The Taj Mahal

The Taj stands as a sacred site for many Indian Muslims, who most often stop by during their annual pilgrimage to Ajmer, India, where they visit the tomb of a prominent Sufi saint.1 Amongst Muslims, there are varying narratives that mostly depend on different religious beliefs. Some believe that the Taj is a rendition of the abode of Mumtaz Mahal in heaven2, while others disagree with the notion of a man-made structure coming close to what God will create in the afterlife. In Islam, paradise is viewed as a garden, and at the Taj, the garden gate is inscribed with a Qur’anic verse which translates to “these are the gardens of Eden, enter them to live for ever!”3 Having read the inscription, the gate becomes very symbolic: passing through it as if it is ‘the gate of Eden’, anything beyond may be viewed as heavenly.

Once past the gates of the garden, The Taj’s structure is in full sight, surrounded by four marble Islamic towers (minarets). The minarets provide a focal point and serve as a reminder of the surrounding region’s Islamic history. As a pilgrim or a tourist who relates to the Muslim narrative, a sense of pride is attached to the minarets, which are particularly elaborate in the way they are designed at the Taj, slightly tilting forward to give the impression of being perfectly upright.4 Walking closer to the Taj, the minarets appear larger than they truly are: they not only cause a shift in gaze but a complete head movement towards the heavens. This can be seen as very symbolic to some, heightening that sense of glory and pride in religion. On the other hand, from a strictly architectural point of view, the minarets’ tilt protects the Taj, ensuring they fall away from the tomb in case of any natural disaster.5

It is Friday, the Taj’s mosque is our own on this day, and in the distance lies the Taj. Walking beyond the ‘gates of Eden’, I see pure white marble, is this the closest I will get to heaven on earth?

Ornamented with countless Qur’anic verses, I feel the place is sacred, and I am at peace. The minarets stand tall before me so close to the heavens, a strong representative of Mughal architecture, I feel a sense of pride. My focus has however shifted from my initial intent of prayer to the luxury presented by the Taj… I need to re-centre myself.

To further understand the perspective of a Muslim narrated experience of the Taj, I read Fanny Parkes' writings, wife of a lower-level servant in India between 1822-46.6 Even though not Muslim herself, Parkes routinely visited the Taj through the prism of spatial practice, hoping to delve into religious Muslim customs. In her writing Parkes concludes with the assertion that the Taj is an Islamic space that still tends to rituals, memory, and religion- “I cannot enter the Taj without feelings of devotion…(one which) the natives prostrate themselves to when they make their offerings of money and flowers at the tomb, producing deep and sacred feelings; and I could no more jest or indulge in levity beneath the dome of the Taj, than I could in my prayers.”7 By putting forward Parkes' writings in particular, I intend to highlight that a visitor's: background, ethnicity, gender, or religion do not have to dictate their experience of space and that a narrative which resonates with them can equally impact their experience.

1(Edensor, 1998) 2(Koch and Barraud, n.d.)

3(Smith, 1909) 4(Short English & Hindi News|Latest News, India News, Current Affairs|Inshorts, 2020) 5(Short English & Hindi News|Latest News, India News, Current Affairs|Inshorts, 2020) 6(Kavuri-Bauer, 2011) 7(Parlby, Dalrymple and Parlby, 2005)

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Does this serenity offered by the Taj Mahal’s architecture mask the intent behind its construction? It is the year 2005, the Taj Mahal has just received its 350th-anniversary offering, a shawl measuring 100 meters in length. “Presenting a shawl to a person is a standard gesture of congratulation, but offering a shawl at a tomb is a religious rite in Islam.”1 Even though for some the Taj still stands strong in an Islamic context, others such as the author Wayne E. Begley, highlight the lack of religious association the Taj holds to Islam. Simple burials of nothing but earth and brick are preferred in Muslim beliefs, it is an expression of humility, equality and is said to “facilitate the rising of the dead on the Day of Judgment.”2 Another more general ideology of Islam is the disapproval of building, just for the sake of being ostentatious, a belief which the Mughals were aware of, yet they still favoured using buildings as a symbol of political power. Some historians argue that considering the tomb has no doorway, it is no longer a building but a canopy, therefore freeing it from negating the Muslim belief. However, to reduce the Taj Mahal to a canopy just to shy away from the thought of it no longer being a Muslim sacred site is comical. Furthermore, it does not justify the other flaws of the Taj in the eyes of Islam, such as the distant transportation and delay of the burial of Mumtaz Mahal (her body, which remained buried in south India for almost a year, was exhumed and brought to Agra). Having overlooked so many orthodox aspects of Muslim burials, the Taj might need to be recast into a different context: a more fitting one that has nothing to do with any religion or the belief in a higher power, but instead the power of one man…Shah Jahan.

Figure 9:

Monastery of Arges River Allowing a moment to let go of any preconceived notions of the Monastery of Arges River, making space for the creation of an imaginative contemporary identity.

1(Tillotson 2008) 2(Tillotson 2008)

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Figure 10:

The Cathedral of Arges River completed in 1521 is said to be the place of the Holy Trinity and the 12 Apostles.1 Walking into the narthex of the cathedral it is hard to not gaze upwards following the height of the surrounding 12 columns (Figure 10), they support the structure of the cathedral and symbolically support and guide the worshippers within. Having observed the columns, the gaze slightly wanders to the centre where the apostles are further symbolized in the paintings of the nave’s dome. Down the dome to the balustrade adorned by 318 Lilly-shaped stone elements (no longer existing), connections can be drawn to the saints and Holy Fathers.2 However, the Deacon (lowest rank of the threefold Christian ministry), explained them as symbolizing the “318 people whom were charged with raising money for construction and with supervision work.”3 While Manole smarted, With all hope he parted, His sweet bride he kissed, Saw her through a mist, In his arms he clasped her, Up the steps he helped her, Pressed her to his chest, And thus spoke in jest, "Now my own sweet bride, Have no fear, abide; We'll make thee a nest, Build thee up in jest!"

It is a Sunday morning; the worshippers are flowing into the cathedral. I enter through the delicately adorned door, it is dimly lit inside, only the outside sunlight seeping in to illuminate the interiors. I am transported, to a place of sanctuary. I have heard of some of the symbols this cathedral holds, the architecture surrounding me offers a sense of solace.

Barthes' theory of semiotics can be applied here, suggesting multiple signified alternatives to the same signifier. Orthodoxly, the signified here is a cathedral, which holds many religious connections. Further, scratching the surface, there are connotations of sacrifice but still in correspondence to religion. “The act of giving up something you value for the sake of other considerations, {is} historically predominant in religion, such as Christ offering himself up for crucifixion”4. In ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’, Manole is honoured by some, for the sacrifice he made, giving up his wife and unborn child in virtue of the “greater good”. In the 1930’s Romania’s Iron Guard, a fascist male-dominant political party, wrote: “sacrifice is a heroic act necessary to the reconstruction of the Romanian nation.”5 -The quote shows that this myth goes beyond sacrifice for religious purposes, and into a more dynamic political metaphor, one which, regardless of political stance, views sacrifice as the driving power for the ideal prosperous Romanian society. During communist Romania, where television was broadcasted for only two hours per day, heating was unreliable in the winter and people suffered from hunger, the term “sacrifice” was widely used (although the Communist Party generally held very different values to those of the Iron Guard).

Sacrifice became “an honourable mission in assisting the Communist Party in its heroic endeavour.” 6 Not only through religion but through politics as well. Having come across the myth, the cathedral becomes highly symbolic, it does not necessarily offer a very optimistic perspective, it does however offer a glimpse of falsified hope. Through pain, faithfulness, and sacrifice for a higher purpose: you will be offered some sort of protection in the afterlife. Granting a higher sense of self-esteem and a feeling of empowerment in the present life.

1(Negrău 2010) 2(Negrău 2010) 3(Paul of Aleppo, 1976) 4(Oxford Languages and Google - English | Oxford Languages, 2020) 5(Winer, Anderson and Danze, 2006) 6(Winer, Anderson and Danze, 2006)

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Figure 11:

Immurement/Immured/Immure A form of imprisonment, typically until death, where a person is enclosed in a space with no exit such as a wall1.

Example: Anna was immured in the walls of the Monastery of Arges River by her husband and the other builders. (Figure 11) Many myths and folklore contain the motif of immurement, which is prominent for being a form of capital punishment as well as a type of sacrifice commonly believed to make a building sturdier. Considering this is not part of any religious belief and is extremely immoral, why does the cathedral still hold strong religious connotations to Christianity? There is no way to find out the true symbolism behind the 12 columns and their relation to the 12 apostles, or any of the other symbols as a matter of fact. As far as reading ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’ goes, there is no evidence of an attempt to make this cathedral a worthy, sacred place of worship. Instead, all the focus was making it the “greatest”, “tallest” and “most beautiful”. Therefore, having read this, similar to the Taj Mahal, the cathedral can no longer be seen only through a religious lens, and instead the focus shifts to the creator (the Black Prince), and his deviance, wanting a manifestation of his power.

1("Definition of immure | Dictionary.com")

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Figure 12:

Myth of Love

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Figure 13:

Exploring the Taj Mahal as a symbol of love is almost imperative, the romantic story of Shah Jahan (the grieving husband) and Mumtaz Mahal (the fully committed wife) has made visiting the Taj like meeting a proxy. The Taj acts as a medium, allowing visitors a view into the personal lives of the couple. The origins of this notion may be traced back to the appointed historians Muhammed Qazini and Abd al-Hamid Lahwari, who wrote official accounts of the early years of Shah Jahan’s rule.1 This however became the basis of many similar narratives to come, translated from the original Persian, and in some cases altered for distribution across the globe.

From a romanticised point of view, the colour and materials of the Taj play a big role in the experience. White marble is commonly seen to have “grounding and calming”2 metaphorical qualities, fit for Mumtaz Mahal’s resting place. Marble was the most valuable stone of its time, selected by Shah Jahan as a representation of the ‘special love’ for his past wife (Shah Jahan had 6 wives).

Arora, author of “The City of the Taj” writes “with its purity of material and grace of form, the Taj may challenge comparison with any erection of the same sort in the world.”3 The marble is also inlaid with precious stone, an intricate process of European influence called pietra dura (Figure 14). This method along with dado a bas-relief sculpture (Figure 15), was predominantly used to create opulent floral reliefs as well as Quranic verses, both emphasizing a theme of paradise and femininity.4

Figure 14:

The sun is setting; the Taj’s white marble has morphed into gold. With each step closer to the Taj, I feel a sense of overwhelming love that must have been shared between Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. Stepping inside I see the glistening walls, my eyes cannot take all of its beauty in at once, I start to focus on the finer details, the feminine floral arrangements and the precious inlaid stone, each one different, and each beautifully handcrafted. Standing before me now is the tomb of the 'Crown of the palace', I am in awe.

Figure 15:

The functional and ornamental architectural attributes of the Taj are popularly believed to be representational of Shah Jahan’s intense feelings for his wife. Furthermore, a common symbol believed by those who have more of an architectural background and an affinity towards the love story, concerns the proximity of the Taj to the Yamuna river. Building such a monument by the banks comes with significant problems as the ground is not solid enough to support such a mass and in order to solve this issue, the master builders came up with a novel idea for its time. They dug deeper into the ground until they reached dry earth, built a well foundation filled with rocks and mortar, and on that solid base constructed stone columns that were linked by massive arches.

Even though not visible to the naked eye, viewers of Taj who have heard about this narrative have attached a myth to this method of construction, as one which would “stand as a testament for the eternal power of love”.5 1(Begley, 1979) 2(Gemstone - White Marble, its Meaning, History and Uses, n.d.)

3(Arora, 1961) 4(Horticulture of the Taj Mahal: Gardens of the Imagination, 2010) 5(BBC Documentary Taj Mahal Secrets & Mysteries, 2015)

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Figure 16:

Figure 17:

A bit of a cloudy day, yet the cathedral’s limestone masonry with the mosaic accents still illuminate. Walking past the cathedral’s walls they offer a comforting sense of solitude and magnitude. I have heard of the myth of Anna’s soul animating the cathedral, making it more worthy of a god, more worthy of my prayers. Deep down I question this sacrificial story, I stand mystified by this beautifully constructed building.

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"His life-blood did curd, And his eyesight blurred, And the high clouds whirled, And the whole earth swirled; And from near the sky, From the roof on high, Down he fell to die!"1

‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’, based on the belief that nothing unique and beautiful can stand without its creator’s self-sacrifice, led Manole (the master builder) to plunge to his death after he heard his love Anna scream his name for help. A student textbook from the communist era of Romania makes the reader of its time believe that “the sacrifice makes Manole stronger; he sacrifices what he holds dearest in the world: his beloved wife and his own life ultimately”2. This love is emphasised through the myth, as Manole’s “heart {is} aching”3 when Anna continues to walk towards the monastery grounds, the sensuous account of Anna’s beauty emphasizes to the listener how severe Manole’s loss is. This loss is made tangible with a smaller monument close by the cathedral, marking the spring formed from Manole’s tears when he fell to his death (Figure 17).

Having read the myth, the smaller monument guides the viewers’ eyes up to the highest point of the cathedral. This not only emphasizes the fatality of the height but also draws relations between the cathedral and the heavens. This perspective paints the cathedral in a sombre yet romanticised picture. It is interesting to see how such a gruesome act has become memorialised and to this day appreciated by some, however, it should be of no surprise as this is one of the sought out views of

M y t h o f Po w e r

the aforementioned: oppressive, intolerant male-dominant political parties.

1("Romania / Mesterul Manole") 2(ION JAMES WILLIAM ANDERSON 2021) 3("Romania / Mesterul Manole")

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Figure 19:

Figure 18:

Shah Jahan The marble is no longer casting a golden hue, it has become tinted with agony, the agony of all the builders that worked under the power of Shah Jahan to construct this edifice. I feel an overwhelming sense of belittlement, a feeling which I assume was not so foreign to Mumtaz Mahal as she married Shah Jahan. Her purpose in life solely based on fertility, pushing her to her death after the 14th child. I cannot take in all this building at once, I start to focus on the finer details, the floral arrangements and the precious inlaid stone are no longer a representation of the love that was shared, instead, I see it as a half cover-up, half pretentious way of flaunting one man's power.

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Figure 20:

Wayne E.Begley author of "The Garden of the Taj Mahal", suggests an opposing narrative to the aforementioned great fairy tale of the Taj. Claiming that the romanticised narrative “ignores a great deal of evidence…Shah Jahan was less noble and romantically devoted than we thought and that the Taj Mahal is not purely and simply a memorial to a beloved wife.”1 Shah Jahan (meaning king of the world) is believed to have a much darker side to him, one which obsesses overpower and the emblems of power. In 1621, in pursuit of the imperial throne, Shah Jahan went as far as to murder his own brother Khusrau, as well as five other close family relatives.2 His romance for his special wife is also ridiculed in the chronicle of the Italian writer Manucci: “Shah Jahan indulged his sexual appetites with the wives of his officials and others, to such an extent that it seemed as if the only thing he cared for was the search for women to serve for his pleasure.”3 Through the eyes of this narrative the Taj becomes rather purposeless and empty, Czechoslovakian philosopher Keyserling felt that the “Taj lacked expressive and spiritual power….it is not even necessarily a funeral monument; it might just as well, or just as badly, be a pleasure resort.”4 We only have to compare the numbers of tourists versus religious worshippers the Taj attracts today to fully see Keyserling’s point of view. If love is not behind the construction of the Taj, then what is? In this narrative, the Taj was intended to symbolise Shah Jahan’s glory, of eliminating all the male heirs rather than his devotion to Mumtaz Mahal. Using his wife’s death as a catalyst for the creation of a “tangible manifestation of his magnificent obsession with his own greatness.”5 It is through this power, that the humble mud hut hand-built by the hard-working man for his beloved wife, has long been forgotten whilst the Taj remains one of the (most visited) Seven Wonders of the world.

The Black Prince and Master Manole

1(Begley, 1979) 2(Begley, 1979) 3(Begley, 1979) + (Manucci, 1869) 4(Begley, 1979) 5(Begley, 1979)

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Figure 21:

Almost washed away by time, a blood-red sign on the walls of the Arges cathedral in Romania, shows the place of Anna’s immurement (Figure 21). Portrayed as a “sweet bride”1 Anna was undeniably crucial to the construction of the sacred Arges cathedral. The walls which were built starting at her “ankles nice, to her shapely waist, crushed her fair young breasts, reached her lips now white, and her eyes so bright”2.

In ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’, all the characters except for one depict quite realistic attributes. The Black Prince is the only one who becomes more of a representation of people’s feelings towards their rulers of the myth’s time. Portrayed as ruthless, selfish, evil, and egotistical, the Black Prince just like Shah Jahan builds the cathedral solely as a reflection of his greatness and power. It can be claimed that the construction had very little to do with the Prince’s devotion to god, as he ordered the men to jump to their death after the completion of the cathedral, rather than leaving them to live to create other places of worship contributing to the greater glory of God. Does that still make the cathedral worthy of God, if it was built for the sole reason of representing a man’s power? Or do worshippers ignore the negative connotations and further appreciate the beauty, primed by the myth, which is to understand that the cathedral was so magnificent the Black Prince murdered the builders to prevent another comparable structure from being erected.

Another interesting factor is the builders’ motive: they performed the sacrificial act with complete obedience without any question, despite the obvious insanity of the prince’s order. It cannot be that this great authority held by the prince, this licence to kill for a ‘greater common good’, was justified. Was it because of the builders' fear, or was it motivated by opportunism, for wanting to be named the greatest artisan? The myth might hint to the latter, for even as Anna pleaded to her husband, she was not given any explanation for her immurement. This conspirational silence, which was not asked of the builders by the prince is rather suspicious.

It was the rain falling which unconsciously got me into a mental state away from this world, a world where I could hear the screams of Anna, for herself and her unborn child. My gaze wanders across the cathedral walls, they seem a lot larger, denser…. are these the walls which captured her soul? The red stamp on the wall seems to signify her exact place of immurement, does this make the cathedral more sacred and worthy of God? Or was this all a result of dominating ruthless male power?

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A Moment in the Modern World: The builders jumping to their death from the monastery paints a very similar picture to the one created by the articles written on Zaha Hadid's Qatar stadium, where the workers are said to have been put under extreme heat conditions leading to their unsurprising demise.3 Having said that, the stadium's completion in 2019, shifted the conversation from forced labour to a rather sexual analysis of the architecture, which is further explored in the following chapter. It is, therefore, interesting to question what sort of connotations and symbols the opening of the stadium in 2022 will bring forth.

1("Romania / Mesterul Manole") 2("Romania / Mesterul Manole") 3 (Brott 2019)

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The Taj Mahal myth and ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’ both provide an allegory of the institution of marriage and the roles and relations of males and females. Master Manole, The Black Prince, and Shah Jahan offer a depiction of the active working life of men, the provider, the powerful and therefore commanding husband. At the opposite end of the spectrum, the structure of the Taj and the Cathedral can signify Mumtaz Mahal and Anna, the passive nurturing female enclosure; an enclosure that can be readily compared to the walls of the home of a married couple. This image can be extended beyond the walls of the home, and into the “walls” of the city or country which encloses and oppresses the woman within. Folklorist Alan Dundes, one of the writers responsible for the retelling of ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’, highlighted this symbolism in his renamed ‘Ballad of the Walled-up Wife’. In Dundes’ version the wife was enticed into the monastery grounds on the basis that her husband had dropped his wedding ring, which represents that on “entering a marriage, the woman is figuratively immured. She is kept behind walls to protect her virtue and to keep her confined.”1 Before Dundes had written his version of the myth he questioned why the re-written myths had always used an edifice, whether it be a bridge, a castle, or a cathedral. He recognised symbolism here as well as stating that “in material culture, they (the edifices) are also visible technological achievements, often associated with male occupations, that defy feminine nature or stand out on the landscape and invite narrative commentary.”2

M y t h o f t h e O p p re s s e d

The power of childbirth is very much celebrated in India, nonetheless, this power does not necessarily translate into women themselves being powerful, instead, we can still see how India’s social structure favours men over women. In the Taj Mahal myth, Mumtaz’s death after the fourteenth child can be passed as a symbol of immortality. However, if we follow the methodology of Barthes, the myth becomes a further sign with multiple meanings and makes you wonder why this story of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan ever lived to be told. This mythological charter starts to provide a gender ideology for its readers, one which considers death for the sake of fertility and loyalty in a marriage. Is it therefore a surprise that to this day there is still a rather strong culture surrounding fertility in India? This is not to say that the retelling of the Taj Mahal myth is the only factor to consider, however, it is a tell-tale sign of the vitality of narrative.

Similar to the Taj Mahal myth, the theme of fertility is prominent in ‘The Myth of the Masterbuilder’, most iterations of the myth reveal that Anna was pregnant at the time of her immurement. The history of immurement was at times for the sake of a sacrifice for a higher purpose, whilst other times it was for Vestal Virgins who had broken their vow of chastity and celibacy (popular in ancient Rome, Vestal Virgins maintained the sacred fire dedicated to Vesta, the goddess of the home and family). When Manole dreamt that the building would continue to fall unless they sacrificed a human being, there was never a mention of multiple sacrifices or a pregnant woman, so could there then be a darker meaning signified here? Is there a suggestion of Anna’s unfaithfulness to Manole, which similar to the Vestal Virgins, not only led to her immurement but that of the illegitimate unborn baby as well?

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1(Dundes 1996) 2 (Dundes 1995)

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If there is an even bigger concern to be brought up, it is that for some visiting mothers, the myth made the walls of the monastery a pharmaceutical wonder. In the Macedo Romanian variant of the myth, Anna had already conceived her baby, and she begged for an aperture to be left open so she can continue to nurse.1 The immured mother’s milk was curative as it restored lactation.

“This was the healing remedy [in Romanian, lecuirea] to keep the wall standing; And henceforth the monastery ceased to crumble. Wind, earthquake, don’t shake it for she holds it up from within the wall.”2 After analyzing the presence of women in both myths and their recurring portrayal as victims under powerful male dominance, I would like to draw connections back to the present with the aforementioned Zaha Hadid stadium in Qatar. It is safe to say that the stadium might have not followed the most moral construction process. However, does Zaha Hadid's gender play a role in this? Did she, like Anna and Mumtaz Mahal become a victim of a building, after the involvement of men in power?

“Let’s stop this conversation right now.”3 Zaha Hadid exclaimed in an interview on Radio 4 after the interviewer Sara Monatgue bombarded Hadid with the multiple accusations attached to the Qatar stadium. This interview came after an issue by Martin Filler, published in the New York Reviews of Books, where Filler condemned Zaha Hadid for her “denial of moral responsibility and apparent lack of remorse for the migrant deaths.”4 Did Hadid already know that this sacrifice was implicit in the nature of the building she had undertaken? As most articles readily delved into these accusations, Oliver Wainwright questioned why Hadid had been “given a harder time than her starchitect rivals”5, writing that this was “yet another example of mainstream media focusing solely on her work for dubious regimes- something which most other architects of her international profile are also engaged in, but rarely questioned on.”6 To illustrate this, we can look at Norman Foster’s ‘Palace of Peace and Reconciliation’ in Kazakhstan, a backward thinking country to say the least, which still denies its people freedom of speech, religion, and assembly.

Despite that Foster’s design is regarded in a positive light and credited for its “bold high-tech forms”, one which is “conceived as a meeting place for world religions.”7 Another example which has an even more scoffing ending is the ‘Crain Communications Building’ in Chicago. A building prominent for its façade’s vertical slit, which urban legend states “was designed by a woman sick to her back teeth of phallic architecture as a big feminist middle finger to the men who had made her live in the shadow of their huge metal penis replacements for decades.”8 … Ironically this building was actually built by Sheldon Shlegman (very much male), who achieved this vaginal resemblance accidentally.

1(Dundes 1995) 2(Neagoe Basarab and others 2012) 3(BBC Today 2020) 4(Filler 2014) 5("Why is Zaha Hadid given a harder time than her starchitect rivals?" 2015) 6("Why is Zaha Hadid given a harder time than her starchitect rivals?" 2015) 7(Wainwright 2017) 8("Qatar's accidental vagina stadium is most gratifying | Holly Baxter" 2013)

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Back to Zaha Hadid’s stadium allegation, could this strong focus on her character rather than her work signify more than first thought? Oliver Wainwright appears to think so as he concludes his article by questioning if this “could be dismissed as casual sexism.”1 This can therefore hint to the modern use of myth-making, one which continues to be a reflection of how our society is structured and is passed on from person to person to slowly manipulate our ways of thinking, hindering our ability to move forward.

Figure 22:

Hadid aged 65, died prematurely of a heart attack. Another sacrifice was added to the stadium (Figure 22). A sacrifice, by which effectively she exchanged her own life for the iconic project, her life's work.“Her death came one year after she sued the Guardian (and the New York review of Books) for making a moral judgement about her response to the deaths of labourers on Qatar World Cup construction sites.”2

1("Why is Zaha Hadid given a harder time than her starchitect rivals?" 2015) 2 (Brott 2019)

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When I enrolled into an Architectural degree in 2018, I was prepared to learn about context, form and programme. I had not expected that architecture would become my 'transporter' guiding my travels much further beyond the tangible.

While writing my dissertation I was conscious of the conceptual nature of it, I constantly thought of ways to physically apply my research to practice. In an educational setting we are collectively exposed to the fundamentals of architecture. It is then up to us as individuals to personalise it and find a uniqueness to the process. These countless insights and experiences over the last years have let me plunge deeper into the world of narratives and myths in architecture. I would like to incorporate this deeper understanding from the moment I delve into the history of a site. - To the finer details that grant a viewer patience and a more microscopic experience of the narrative of architecture.

Conclusion

I have taken two historical precedents, the Taj Mahal and the Monastery of Arges River. Both have an associated myth that has been transmitted through many forms of storytelling. During my research, I have discovered that their myths and therefore the buildings hold many similar themes. My focal allegory however is one that sheds light on the distinct gender hierarchy between men and women. On the surface the myths attached to these buildings might indicate a more superficial account. One might read them as a love story that puts the woman on a pedestal.

However, Barthes' theory of semiotics, has taught me to delve further into the meanings behind those myths, how they are derived and to question the intent behind the meanings. Through inhibiting the limitation of a myth to simply a fictional account, the opportunity rose to further question these analogies. How can they influence the experience of a reader, tourist, or worshipper? The power they have over the beholder is evident in the varying accounts of experience written about the same buildings. Today, gender hierarchy continues to be disguised through myth-making, in the more modern form of interviews or newspaper articles. Might it have been in favour of Zaha Hadid in the starchitect world had she come up with her own narrative?

This is not to say myths should be dismissed, instead, we should be more critical, examining them to better understand their purpose, and to question a possible hidden agenda.

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Yes, I have seen this building before

I know it holds a variety of narratives and meanings depending on who you ask and how long you question...

I have found my own.

These narratives even though mostly contradicting offer me a glimpse into what people's thoughts were in the past

Which guides my understanding of how some narratives come about today Ready for me to decipher, the hidden meanings and symbolism the somewhat discreet sexism masked by the normality of male dominance and power established over the years.

I no longer depend on others, I shape my own meanings

After all history is known to repeat itself and we are the creators of history.

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B i b l i o g ra p h y a n d L i s t o f F i g u re s

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List of Figures

Neagoe Basarab, ZamfirescuDan, MihăilăGheorghe, GligoreDaniel., and Daniel and others. 2012. Învăţăturile lui Neagoe Basarab către fiul său Theodosie (Curtea de Argeş: Editura Episcopiei Argeşului şi Muscelului) Front Cover: Digital collage made by the author Negrău, Elisabeta. 2010. “THE STRUCTURE OF THE MONASTERY CHURCH FROM CURTEA DE ARGEŞ A THEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION”, European Journal of Science and Theology [accessed 21 November 2020] Nicholas, Tom. 2017. “Semiotics: Introduction to Saussure, the Signifier and Signified”, Youtube.com <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JtJu9HdQVM> [accessed 19 November 2020] Oak, P., 2003. The Taj Mahal Is A Temple Palace. New Delhi: Hindi Sahitya Sadan.

Parlby, F., Dalrymple, W. and Parlby, F., 2005. Begums, Thugs And White Mughals. [Place of publication not identified]: Eland.

Figure 1: https://blackpropaganda.wordpress.com/2010/09/11/roland-barthes-paris-match-semiotics/ Figure 2: https://earth.google.com/web/data=CiQSIhIgODAyYTNjMTk1MjdiMTFlOWJjMGFkMWQyNGY3ODc3MTY Figure 3: https://www.alamy.com/curtea-de-arges-monastery-is-known-because-of-the-legend-of-architect-master-manole-it-is-a-landmark-inwallachia-romania-image230921621.html Figure 4: http://www.catchnews.com/culture-news/shah-jahan-1443626336.html Figure 5: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm>

Paul of Aleppo, Oraşul şi mânăstirea Argeş, in Călători străini despre Ţările Române, M.M. Alexandrescu Dersca-Bulgaru (ed.), vol. VI, part. I, Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucharest, 1976, 166.

Figure 6: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm>

“(PDF) The meanings of monuments and memorials: toward a semiotic approach”. 2020. ResearchGate <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309097572_The_meanings_of_monuments_and_memorials_toward_a_semiotic_approach> [accessed 19 November 2020]

Figure 8: https://depositphotos.com/129245792/stock-photo-inside-of-mosque-in-taj.html

“(PDF) The meanings of monuments and memorials: toward a semiotic approach”. 2016. ResearchGate <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309097572_The_meanings_of_monuments_and_memorials_toward_a_semiotic_approach> [accessed 19 November 2020]

Figure 10: https://www.pixelchrome.com/media/1a85b6b5-9b5e-419d-8a40-a04092cf4aeb-interior-of-curtea-de-arges-monastery

“Qatar’s accidental vagina stadium is most gratifying | Holly Baxter”. 2013. the Guardian <https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/ nov/18/qatar-accidental-vagina-stadium-al-wakrah-world-cup-stadium> [accessed 17 November 2020]

Figure 12 : https://www.exoticindiaart.com/paintings/Mughal/

"Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm> [accessed 2 January 2021]

Figure 14: http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/addorimss/d/019addor0001910u00000000.html

Sellers, Susan. 2006. Myth and fairy tale in contemporary women’s fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave) “Semiotics | Definition of Semiotics by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Semiotics”. 2020. Lexico Dictionaries | English <https://www.lexico.com/definition/semiotics> [accessed 20 November 2020] SMITH, E., 1909. AKBAR’S TOMB, SIKANDARAH, NEAR AGRA. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, VOL. XXXV.

Figure 7: Digital collage made by the author

Figure 9 : Digital collage made by the author

Figure 11: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm>

Figure 13: Koch, E. and Barraud, R., n.d. The Complete Taj Mahal.

Figure 15: https://www.taj-mahal.net/newtaj/textMM/Dados.html Figure 16: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm> Figure 17: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm> Figure 18: Koch, E. and Barraud, R., n.d. The Complete Taj Mahal.

Figure 19: Koch, E. and Barraud, R., n.d. The Complete Taj Mahal.

Figure 20: "Romania / Mesterul Manole". Tkinter.smig.net <http://www.tkinter.smig.net/Romania/MesterulManole/index.htm>

Tillotson, G. H. R. 2008. Taj Mahal (London: Profile)

Figure 21: Digital collage made by author Tolkien, J., 1985. Beowulf, The Monsters And The Critics. Folcroft, Pa.: Folcroft Press.

Figure 22: Digital collage made by author

Uhlhorn, S., 2019. Death, Poetry and Dynastic Identity: Reimagining the Gardens at the Taj Mahal.

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The following is an extract of one of the many Taj Mahal myth versions. Written by Lesley A. DuTemple in the book 'The Taj Mahal'.

"

Appendix 1:

O

ne tent in the midst of the military encampment stood out. Draped in elaborate folds of silk, it was the tent of Mumtaz Mahal, Shah Jahan’s wife of nineteen years and empress of the Mughal Empire. Court historians recorded her beauty, her lustrous hair, and dark eyes. “The moon hid its face in shame before her,” one historian wrote. Inside her sumptuous tent, surrounded by rich tapestries and other comforts, the empress was about to give birth to her fourteenth child.

Shah Jahan spent the day directing troops and conducting state business, while anxiously awaiting news of his wife. Finally, one of her messengers arrived to announce the birth of a healthy baby girl. There was no word of Mumtaz Mahal herself, however. Irritated, Shah Jahan sent one of his own messengers to her tent. Hours passed, but the messenger didn’t return. It was past midnight, and Shah Jahan was preparing to go to Mumtaz Mahal when a messenger from the empress arrived, The messenger said she was very tired and wished to rest undisturbed for the remainder of the night. Relieved, Shah Jahan went to bed.

A few hours later, Shah Jahan was awakened by another messenger. The empress was calling for him. He dressed immediately and hurried to her tent. Inside her elegant quarters, Mumtaz Mahal was dying. Her devoted doctor, Wazir Khan, took Shah Jahan aside and said that before Mumtaz Mahal had given birth, she has heard her unborn child cry out in her womb. In seventeenth-century India, this was a sign, a bad omen. It meant there was no hope for Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan immediately dismissed everyone except for Wazir Khan and his wife’s head lady-in-waiting, Satti al Nisa Khanem. Then he sat next to Mumtaz Mahal, holding her in his arms for the remaining hours of the night. On June 17, 1631, she died just before the sun rose.

As one poet described the scene, Shah Jahan “cried out with grief, like an ocean raging with storm.” He secluded himself in his tent. For eight days he refused all food and visitors. His attendants, posted outside his door, heard only a low, continues moan. On the ninth day, Shah Jahan emerged from his tent. Kalim, one of Shah Jahan’s court historians, wrote: “His tearful eyes sought help from spectacles, for his eyesight had decreased from weeping.” According to Kalim, Shah Jahan’s grief had noticeably aged him, “In his beard before this, no white hairs did the eyes see, except a few,” wrote Kalim. “But in this paining of the heart, most turned…white.”

On December 15, 1631, the body of Mumtaz Mahal left Burhanpur and began the long journey to Agra, 435 miles away. The sombre funeral process was led by fifteen-year-old Prince Shah Shuja, Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal's third child and second oldest son. Everyone in the precession was dressed in white, the Muslim colour of mourning. The royal family and nobility rode on enormous elephants, covered in cloths of gold and velvet. Thousand of soldiers carried white banners and marching in solemn formation. In honour of Mumtaz Mahal's compassion for the poor, Shah Jahan ordered "that all along the way, every day abundant food and innumerable silver and gold coins should be given to the needy and indigent."

Mumtaz Mahal's tomb was going to be built on the banks of the Yamuna River, within sight of the Red Fort in Agra. A nobleman, Raja Jai Singh, owned one of the most beautiful pieces of land in Agra, set on a bend of the river. It was a large tract inherited form his grandfather, who had been a great friend to the emperor Akbar. Raja Jai Singh donated it to Shah Jahan for the site of Mumtaz Mahal's tomb.

It would have been an honour just to donate land for the empress's tomb, but two court historians recorded that Shah Jahan gave Raja Jai Singh a "lofty mansion" in return. Another historical document records that Raja Jai Singh received four houses in return for the land along the Yamuna River.

The procession reached Agra on January 8, 1632. Mumtaz Mahal's body was temporarily buried on the land received from Raja Jai Singh. Nearby, construction on her tomb had already begun.

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Figure 5

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Whose dear sister first, Haps to come this way At the break of day, Bringing meat and drink To husband or kin.

Therefore if we will Our high task fulfill And build here a shrine, A cloister divine, Let's swear and be bound By dread oaths and sound Not a word to speak, Our counsel to keep: Whose bonny wife erst, Whose dear sister first, Haps to come this way At the break of day, Her we'll offer up, Her we shall build up!"

III When day from night parted Up Manole started, Climbed a trellis fence, Climbed the planks, and thence The field he looked over, The path through wild clover.

And what did he see?

Alas! Woe is me!

Who came up the lea?

His young bride so sweet, Flower of the mead!

How he looked aghast As his Ana came fast, Bringing his day's food And wine sweet and good.

When he saw her yonder His heart burst asunder; He knelt down like dead And weeping he prayed, "Send, O Lord, the rain, Let it fall amain, Make it drown beneath Stream and bank and heath, Make it swell in tide And arrest my bride, Flood all path and track And make her turn back!"

The Lord heard his sigh, Hearkened to his cry, Clouds he spread on high And darkened the sky; And he sent a rain, Made it fall amain,

Yet, fall as it may, Her it could not stay, Onward she did hie, Nigh she drew and nigh.

As he watched from high, Sorely did he cry, And again he wailed, And again he prayed, "Blow, O Lord, a gale Over hill and dale, The fir-trees to rend, The maples to bend, The hills to o'erturn, Make my bride return, Stop her path and track, Make her, Lord, turn back!"

The Lord heard his sigh, Hearkened to his cry, And he blew a gale Over hill and dale That the firs did rend, The maples did bend, The hills did o'erturn, Nor would she return.

Ana came up the dale Struggling ‘gainst the gale.

Reeling on her way; Nothing could her stay.

Poor soul! Through the blast, There she was at last!

IV Those worthy craftsmen, Masons, journeymen, Greatly did they cheer To see her appear.

While Manole smarted, With all hope he parted, His sweet bride he kissed, Saw her through a mist, In his arms he clasped her, Up the steps he helped her, Pressed her to his chest, And thus spoke in jest, "Now my own sweet bride, Have no fear, abide; We'll make thee a nest, Build thee up in jest!"

Ana laughed merrily, She laughed trustfully, And Manole sighed, His trowel he plied, Raised the wall as due, Made the dream come true.

Up he raised the wall To gird her withal; Up the wall did rise

To her ankles nice, To her bonny thighs.

While she, wellaway, Creased her laugh so gay, And would pray and say, "Manole, Manole, Good master Manole!

Have done with your jest, 'Tis not for the best.

Manole, Manole, Good Master Manole, The wall squeezes hard, My frail flesh is marred."

Not a word spoke he, But worked busily; Up he raised the wall To gird her withal; And the wall did rise To her ankles nice, To her bonny thighs, To her shapely waist, To her fair, young breasts.

While she, wellaway, She would cry and say, She would weep and pray, "Manole, Manole!

The wall weighs like lead, Tears my teats now shed My babe is crushed dead."

Manole did smart, Sick he was at heart; And the wall did rise, Pressed her in its vice, Pressed her shapely waist, Crushed her fair, young breasts, Reached her lips now white, Reached her eyes so bright, Till she sank in night And was lost to sight!

Her sweet voice alone Came through in a moan, "Manole, Manole, Good master Manole!

The wall squeezes hard, Crushed is now my heart, With my life I part!"

V Down the Argesh lea, Beautiful to see, Prince Negru in state Came to consecrate And to kneel in prayer To that shrine so fair, That cloister of worth, Peerless on this earth.

There it stood so bright

To his eyes' delight.

And the prince spoke then, "Ye good team of ten, Ye worthy craftsmen, Tell me now in sooth, Cross your hearts in truth, Can you build for me, With your mastery, Yet another shrine, A cloister divine, Ever far more bright, Of greater delight?"

Then those great craftsmen, Masons, journeymen, Boasting cheerfully, Cheering boastfully, From the roof on high, Up against the sky, Thus they made reply, "Like us great craftsmen, Masons, journeymen, In skill and in worth There are none on earth!

Marry, if thou wilt, We can always build Yet another shrine, A cloister divine, Ever far more bright, Of greater delight!"

This the prince did hark, And his face grew dark; Long, long there he stood To ponder and brood.

Then the prince anon Ordered with a frown All scaffolds pulled down, To leave those ten men, Those worthy craftsmen, On the roof on high, There to rot and die.

Long they stayed there thinking, Then they started linking Shingles thin and light Into wings for flight.

And those wings they spread, And jumped far ahead, And dropped down like lead.

Where the ground they hit, There their bodies split.

Then poor, poor Manole, Good master Manole, As he brought himself To jump from a shelf, Hark, a voice came low From the wall below, A voice dear and lief, Muffled, sunk in grief,

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I Down the Argesh lea, Oh, but should you fail, Beautiful to see, Then you'll moan and wail, Prince Negru he wended For I'll have you all By ten mates attended: Built up in the wall; Nine worthy craftsmen, I will—so I thrive— Masons, journeymen, Build you up alive!"

With Manole ten, The highest in fame.

II Forth they strode apace Those craftsmen amain There to find a place Stretched out rope and chain, Where to build a shrine, Measured out the place, A cloister divine.

Dug out the deep base, And, lo, down the lea Toiled day in, day out, A shepherd they see, Raising walls about.

In years so unripe, But whate'er they wrought, Playing on his pipe.

At night came to naught, To him the prince sped Crumbled down like rot!

And thus spoke and said, The next day again, "Handsome little swain The third day again, On thy sweet pipe playing!

The fourth day again, Up the Argesh stream All their toil in vain!

Thy flock thou hast ta'en; Sore amazed the lord Down the Argesh green His men he did scold, With the flock thou'st been; And he cowed them down Didst thou hap to see With many a frown Somewhere down the lea And many a threat; An old wall all rotten, And his mind he set Unfinished, forgotten, To have one and all On a green slope lush, Built up in the wall; Near a hazel brush?"

He would—so he thrive— "That, good sire, I did; Build them up alive!

In hazel brush hid, Those nine great craftsmen, There's a wall all rotten, Masons, journeymen, Unfinished, forgotten.

Shook with fear walls making, My dogs when they spy it Walls they raised while shaking, Make a rush to bite it, A long summer's day And howl hollowly, Till the skies turned grey.

And growl ghoulishly."

But Manole shirked, As the prince did hear He no longer worked, Greatly did he cheer, To his bed he went And walked to that wall, And a dream he dreamt.

With nine masons all, Ere the night was spent, Nine worthy craftsmen, For his men he sent, With Manole ten, Told them his intent: The highest in fame.

"Ye nine great craftsmen, "Here's my wall!" quoth he.

Masons, journeymen, "Here I choose that ye What a dream I dreamed: Build for me a shrine, In my sleep meseemed A cloister divine.

A whisper from high, Therefore, great craftsmen, A voice from the ski, Masons, journeymen, Told me verily Start ye busily That whatever we To build on this lea In daytime have wrought A tall monastery; Shall nights come to naught, Make it with your worth Crumble down like rot; Peerless on this earth; Till we, one and all, Then ye shall have gold, Make an oath to wall Each shall be a lord.

Whose bonny wife erst,

Appendix 2

Mournful, woebegone, Moaning on and on, "Manole, Manole, Good master Manole, The wall weighs like lead, Tears my teats still shed, My babe is crushed dead, Away my life's fled!"

As Manole heard His life-blood did curd, And his eyesight blurred, And the high clouds whirled, And the whole earth swirled; And from near the sky, From the roof on high, Down he fell to die!

And, lo, where he fell There sprang up a well, A fountain so tiny Of scant water, briny, So gentle to hear, Wet with many a tear!

"

Figure 6