Z13P10

The Secular Church: an exploration of the spirituality of place within 21st century design

Submitted for the Degree of BA Honours Architecture and Urban Planning School of Architecture, Planning and Landscape Newcastle University 2019/2020

160183223

1

2

I would like to thank my dissertation tutor John Pendlebury for his advice and assistance in this work.

I would also like to thank the assistance offered by Daniel Mallo in the beginnings of this project. Finally, I would like to thank the participants of the survey, who provided valuable insights and information

3

ABSTRACT

There is insurmountable evidence suggesting a renewed need for spirituality within design. Architecture, as a facilitator for transcendence, can have significant impacts on helping to promote the outcome of this. Through the study of literature highlighting spirituality within place design, and as a result of the survey investigating the manifestations of spirituality within place, my investigation into the ideas concerning spirituality in place have revealed a number of things. Namely, the significance of nature within design helps to promote spirituality, but also the purposeful design of a place which facilitates and promotes transcendental qualities would be incredibly effective in evoking spirituality in place for the 21st century.

4

CONTENTS 1.0 Introduction .................................................... p.7 2.0 Literature Review ......................................... p.11 2.1 ‘losing my religion’ ................................. p.11 2.2 Spirituality & transcendence .................. p.12 2.3 Architecture as a facilitator for ................ p.13 transcendent experience 2.4 How does spirituality manifest in ........... p.16 space?

2.4 Existing design considerations ........... p.20 3.0 Methodology ........... p.26 3.1 The study - design and justifica- ........... p.26 tions 3.2 Personal reflections .............................. p.32 4.0 Findings and results .................................... p.34 4.1 Analysis of results .................................... p.34 4.2 Spirituality in space pt2 ......................... p.50 4.3 The secular church - design consid....................... p.50 erations for the 21st century 5.0 Conclusion and recommendations ............. p.54 6.0 References ................................................. p.57 7.0 Appendicies ................................................

p.60

5

The Secular Church: an exploration of the spirituality of place within 21st century design

6

1.0 INTRODUCTION The landscape of the world has changed drastically in the past century alone. Arguably, the advances in technology and science are the biggest contributors to change – especially within the city, as Curtis (2016) explores in ‘Hypernormalisation’. This belief is echoed by many; the glowing buzz of a neon-clad 21st century pays homage to our scientifically ‘developed’ society – where the overwhelming presence of ‘technological media’ is a “hallmark of our contemporary period” (Grodin and Lindlof, 1996, p.

4).

Lorenz (1974, cited in Tesar, 2015, p. 84) observes the competitive nature in which society consumes and creates such technological resources. Dubbed ‘neophilia’

by Tesar, Lorenz’s account suggests that (an excessively demanding) society is experiencing a collective “increasing intolerance” to undesirable experience. The fast-paced lifestyle we now occupy renders little need to deal with things that become broken, unwanted or disappointing. Instead, it is easier to discard and replace, or to ignore and avoid. As a result of this, a “decreasing sensitivity” for engaging, emotional and moral experience can be observed.

In addition, Lorenz also states that such increasing desire for the ‘new’, leads to “atrophy” of the “capacity for reflection, nourishment of our conscious and the development of a responsible morality” (Tesar, 2015, p. 84). If it is correct to assume that ‘healthy growth’ occurs as a result of reflection, enjoyment and critical struggle, (Chang, 2015 p. 73) then neophilic attitudes and a desire to eradicate undesirable experience impedes our abilities for personal 7

growth.

To elaborate further upon these observations, Bermudez (2013) writes with similar conviction - despite the ‘progress’ we have made scientifically in the digital age, we still have not found a way to adequately experience ‘peace, security and contentment’ (p. 3). Todd (2016, p.

158) also considers this; we may be better connected as a result of our technological advancements, but our overall levels of comfort are not drastically improved.

It is important to examine this link. An increase in ‘progress’ and increasing desire for ‘bigger, better, faster, cheaper’ (Bermudez, 2013, p. 3) correlates to a ‘decreased sensitivity for engaging experience’ (Tesar, 2015, p. 84); which, in turn, highlights our struggle to find peace and comfort in the world. Seemingly, the increasing support for the scientific allows us to neglect beliefs and values that are no longer rooted in quantifiable terms – including our own intrinsically human qualities - such as feelings of empathy and emotional responses. (Pallasmaa, 2005, p. 24). These unmeasurable qualities are typically considered matters of spirituality, and it is this focus that I would like to consider for the study in this paper.

Reclaiming spirituality could provide an outlet for society to recover our capacities for reflection and help us seek authentic experience. I believe this will address many of the issues linked to the issues above. Indeed, spirituality can give space meaning and inspire connection to place (Birch & Sinclair, 2013), which allows me to introduce the role of architecture in this study.

8

As encounters always occur IN space - i.e., everything happens somewhere in place – it could be inferred that the aesthetics of a space have an impact on the quality of experience in space (Chang, 2015, p. 76). Therefore, when considering spiritual experience, it would be fair to assume the aesthetics (qualities) of space can impact said spiritual experience. Pallasmaa also discusses the impact architecture can have on an experience of space;“Architecture articulates the experiences of being in the world and strengthens our sense of reality and self.

The sense of self, strengthened by art and architecture, allows us to fully engage in the mental dimensions of dream, imagination” (‘The Eyes of the Skin’, p .11) With architecture acting as a facilitator for spiritual engagement, I believe it is possible - and even desirable - to begin to consider how aspects of the spiritual can be re-incorporated into 21st century life through the manipulation of space.

The underlying theme of this study is based upon the conclusions drawn from the above;- that spiritual space allows for personal growth, reflection, contemplation and well-being (Knecht, 2004, p. 82). That it provides moments of peace in a chaotic society, and that despite our insistence on the scientific, there is still a need for spiritual space. These conclusions have prompted the following ideas: -How does spirituality manifest in space?

-What considerations should designers take to design spiritual space?

-What would this look like re-imagined, to fit within the 21st century?

9

I will attempt to answer the above questions through an examination of the current literature surrounding the subject. My findings from the literature will inform the methodology, in which I aim to discover current attitudes towards space perceived as spiritual, looking predominately towards groups of people who have been fully immersed within 21st century lifestyle (residing in cities, growing up in the millennium). I hope to find that there is a need for spiritual place, and that aspects of spiritual place can be further defined.

The study is entitled “the secular church”, as the primary existence of ‘church’ (by definition) is to support the union of heaven and earth, worship and the divine (McNamara, 2016, p.22). Many churches (and indeed, other religious places of worship) attempt to re-create this affinity with the divine, yet with our perspectives on religion challenged, the relevance of religiously affiliated buildings is also called into question. Instead, it is best to consider space (as Bermudez suggests) ‘intellectually, not theologically’ in order to promote sacred space that is available and accessible to all in a diverse world (2013, p. 12). This means an understanding of space through terms such as ‘secular’ and ‘transcendent’ – a concept that also aims to illustrate a union between oneself and “the other” – the ‘other’ as concept and not necessarily a divine being.

10

2.0 Literature review 2.1 ‘losing my religion’ It would be difficult to discuss spirituality in a secular sense without first acknowledging its links to religion.

Religion – “whether we like it or not” – has been what most use as their ‘ethical, epistemological and aesthetic compass’ (Bermudez, 2013. p. 9). Indeed, “spirituality imbues life with meaning” (Barrie et al, 2015, p. 2), and religion has typically facilitated this.

Despite the foreshadowed ‘death of religion’ (Barrie et al, 2015, p. 1), observations appear to show that religion is not yet obsolete - instead the nature of beliefs appear to be changing. As Crosbie acknowledges, “people of all ages are turning away from organised religion” (Crosbie, 2015, p. 59). The use of the term ‘organised’ suggests the existence of the inverse – religion that is casual and free. This is indeed what Crosbie discovers. Instead of atheism, there appears to be a rise in people seeking more ‘genuine and personal experiences of the spiritual’ in their lives (p. 59).

Tesar also discusses this observation, detailing a ‘renewed and rising desire for counterbalance’ against the consumerism of today (2015, p. 85). If religion was previously a facilitator for spirituality, then a collective loss of religion as a society begs the question – where does spirituality exist in today’s world? There is evidently a need for spiritual outlets, for ‘contemplation, reflection and meditation’ (p. 85) as shown by such a renewed desire to connect mindfully with nature and other people.

Yet, an introspective spiritual experience that offers au11

thenticity and personality appears to surpass the typically monotheistic or polytheistic aspects of religion. In other words, perhaps this is the only type of religion our scientifically advanced world can accommodate – a secular religion. It appears the argument is that spirituality is not lost, it is just ready to be rediscovered in a new light.

2.2 Spirituality and transcendence “Spirituality addresses the human need for understanding our place in the world” (Barrie et al. p.5). This relationship between understanding human existence in the world incites deeper understandings of our connections to others and connections to the self. It is from this perspective that self-transcendence is experienced.

References to ‘transcendence’ appear to be common throughout most of the literature that covers matters of spirituality, and this focuses particularly on the psychological work undertaken by Maslow. Birch & Sinclair introduce Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs within their paper “Spirituality in Place: Building Connections Between Architecture, Design, and Spiritual Experience” (2013). In this study, Birch & Sinclair dissect Maslow’s theory on six universally experienced motivational needs, beginning with the physiological and working up to “peak experience”, or - ‘self-transcendence’ (p.81).

Birch & Sinclair argue the idea of ‘self-transcendence’ as a “compelling argument for the committed pursuit of the ‘spiritual’ in design” (p, 81). This is due to the belief that the experience of transcendence allows an individual to consider “what makes life fulfilling or meaningful” (Chang, 2015. p.73). To further support this view, a study on 12

environmental psychology also highlights that transcendent experiences (‘strong’ and ‘positive’ feelings relating to “a sense of union with the universe” (Harvey & Williams, 2001; cited in Knecht, 2004. p, 97)) can leave individuals feeling; ‘empowered’, ‘hopeful’, ‘grounded’ and ‘secure’ (p, 97).

This is particularly important to acknowledge in lieu of the chaotic conditions from the progressively digital world in which we inhabit. A renewed desire for spirituality that concerns these existential thoughts highlights not only the need for an authentic experience, but also a spiritually transcendent one. Chang (2015) aptly summarises the relationship between spirituality and transcendence – spirituality can be considered as a “unified faculty of experience gained through a full participation of the self within a place.” (p.73).

2.3 Architecture as a facilitator for transcendent experience Spirituality as ‘full participation of the self within place’ (Chang, 2015, p. 72) implies connection to place is paramount in supporting spiritual and transcendent experience. Indeed, Pallasmaa (2004. p.11) claims that “significant architecture makes us experience ourselves as complete embodied and spiritual beings” – and Todd (2016. p.9) describes his own personal experience of a place that elicits greater senses of meaning – meaning which is “anchored in material, place, history and our own psychology”. Birch & Sinclair (2013. p.81) describe how places are the ‘vessels’ through which human needs and desires are nurtured. It is clear the role of architecture allows for introspective perception, that it will ‘render vivid 13

to us who we might ideally be’ (de Botton, 2006, p. 13).

Inward-looking perspectives and realisations are linked to the notions of transcendence and spirituality. Therefore, it is also true that architecture acts as a facilitator for transcendent and spiritual experience; - by expressing our relationship to the world it simultaneously allows us to perceive reality in context with ourselves (Pallasmaa, 2004, p. 11).

The renewed desire for secular spirituality, the belief that it contributes to wellness and the idea that architecture can provide this through authentic experience is key to this review.

One study explores the idea of transcendence and spirituality experienced through architecture further. Defined as ‘EAEs’ (‘Extraordinary Architectural Experiences’), the study looked to identify others who had had an encounter with a building or place that evoked a “powerful and lasting shift in one’s physical, perceptual, emotional, intellectual and/or spiritual appreciation of architecture” (Bermudez, 2015. p.42). The experiment was conducted as a survey in both English and Spanish, and attracted vast numbers of participants (nearly 3000).

The results of the survey implied a number of things; firstly, that the differences in responses between English and Spanish communities were so minute that the results show spiritual experience transcends cultural bias. Secondly, the survey found that more than 90% of participants had in fact considered themselves subject to a life-altering experience through architecture – thus providing evidence that architecture acts as a facilitator for transcendent experience. The results of the study also allude to the character of such experiences. Such 14

experiences were overwhelmingly described as ‘emotional’, ‘sensual’ and ‘timeless’ (p. 43). This is an important result, as it may allude to design considerations for recreating spirituality within architecture.

This study offers much support for the notion that architecture acts as a facilitator for transcendent experience.

With such a large volume of participants, it would be fair to identify a link between spiritual feelings and encounters with place. Despite this, Bermudez acknowledges that the cross-section of people surveyed was slightly skewed to those who had higher education and to those who had an interest in (or studied) architecture. This discrepancy in results potentially highlights the idea that people who have already shown interest in the built environment may perceive the qualities of space differently to those who do not. This may not necessarily benefit those who do not study or show interest in architecture.

Rebecca Krinke offers more insight towards the ideas of quality of space, connection to place and subsequent spiritual experiences. Her public art projects include a study into ‘ritual-like writing’, ‘mappings of joy and pain’ and space to express inner thoughts and feelings (2015, pp.139-148). All three of her engagements encouraged members of the public to share personal experiences and as a result, the impact this had was “potent” (p, 142) – in a sense, transcendent experience was purposely manipulated.

The main theme to surface as a result of her installations whilst public engagement involves collaboration between many individuals, the overwhelming ‘emotional’ experiences were so deeply personal to each participant that 15

the experience could still be considered solitary. Perhaps others could only acknowledge the feelings expressed around them but would not necessarily empathise. This also adds credence to Bermudez’s findings – that EAE’s were predominately emotional. Despite this, it was clear the shared involvement was overwhelmingly positive and encouraged participants to consider their memories from nostalgic perspectives. Krinke also suggested that many participants found the engagements ‘cathartic’ (p.139), perhaps even bittersweet. The combined emotions of ‘joy and pain’, which Krinke describes, are as “a dialectic, but also a continuum” (p.144). All engagement contributed to a sense of ‘otherness’.

2.4 How does spirituality manifest in space?

Despite highlighting a preference for considering spirituality in secular settings, I would like to begin by exploring the literature concerning spirituality through religious space - purely to extract the concepts that allow it to ‘feel’ spiritual or sacred.

The primary existence of ‘church’ is to support the union of heaven and earth, worship and the divine (McNamara, 2016, p.22). Many churches attempt to re-create this affinity with the divine through the use of figuration; something especially prevalent in churches constructed pre-17th century - they are highly ornate in order to literally symbolise many aspects of the spiritual (Gonçalves, 2017). However, through writings on attempts to decipher meaning in ‘truth’ and ‘space’ by those such as Kant and Dorfles (cited in Gonçalves, 2017, p. 221), the revelation that space is experienced on a plane that surpasses 16

visual, ordered and structured elements was significant to the reformation of church design. Particularly focusing on Rudolf Otto’s concept of the ‘numinous’,(Otto, 1917, cited in Gonçalves, 2017, p. 222) he observes three experiential components of sacred space -obscurity, silence and emptiness (Gonçalves, p. 224).

Obscurity, silence and emptiness are intangible elements – highly abstract and subject to the individual.

They cannot be physically represented. However, it is not impossible for an architect to manipulate such elements within design in a bid to emulate the expressions of the numinous. Gonçalves notes the interest in the experience of space can be accounted for a “decline in semiotic [church] design in favour of phenomenology” (2017, p.223). Thus, interest is piqued towards space that enables the ‘sensational’ aspects of experience to become prevalent.

Otto also believed that the “parameters of numinous experience” extended “beyond the parameters of religious” experience (Schlamm, 1992. p. 533). In addition to this, Pallasmaa mentions “silence, time and solitude” (2005, p.

51) as factors that affect space, which could be inferred as a secular perspective of the numinous. The link between both viewpoints is the importance that is places on phenomenology in allowing an individual to experience space. Both authors also reference the themes of silence and solitude – perhaps to allow for reflections of the conscious.

Considering experiential components of religious space as something that can exist without religious connotation allows for another potential design consideration. From 17

a religious aspect it seems, spirituality can manifest itself in space through figures and symbols, however it is more effective and desirable to consider the manifestation of spirituality through phenomenology. ‘Feeling’ spiritual space allows for the senses to be engaged and challenges the users perspectives, whilst evoking the transcendent through purposeful design.

From a secular aspect, there are a vast array of papers that examine the link between spirituality in place. For the purpose of this literature review, I have attempted to collate and highlight some of the key pieces.

The first text I’d like to introduce is ‘The Biophilia Hypothesis’, written by Kellert & Wilson, 1993. Kellert, who has since worked on a documentary version of ‘The Biophilia Hypothesis’ with Finnegan (2011), outlines the framework for the study of biophilia – the study of nature (within design). He argues that humans have a “biological need for contact with nature” (Finnegan & Kellert, 2011) and that surrounding oneself with nature is essential to mental and physical wellbeing. Currently, in our artificial society, we are depraving ourselves of an intrinsic need for contact with nature; contact that has the potential to positively impact our senses, emotions and intellect.

Kellert & Finnegan (2011) highlight examples of how biophilic design can be achieved in the built environment.

Materiality plays a key part in their argument – as biophilia concerns nature, the use of natural materials (wood and stone from local sources) could help promote this.

In addition, considerations towards how natural light and ventilation feature in design would be equally important.

Biophilia is important to consider, as qualities that have 18

an ability to positively affect emotions, senses and intellect relate very strongly to matters of spirituality.

Studies pertaining to links between nature and spirituality are not new. Carl Jung lived ‘at one with nature’ for a period of his life (Todd, 2016, p. 18) and then described how the thoughts that emerged from this were deep and powerful. Krinke (2015) discovered that in her public art engagement, people mapped ‘joy’ in association with nature. A Dutch study discussed how spending time in wooded areas was associated with “inner peace, the experience of connectedness and reflections on the cycle of life and death” (Konijnendijk, 2018, p. 31). Ardoin (2014) considers ecoregional place connection and how natural features positively affect community stewardship. Knecht (2004) attempts to provide empirical evidence to support the positive correlation between exposure to nature and improved well-being. Knecht finds that even a small amount of vegetation can make a significant difference to well-being. (pp.90-91). Harvey & Williams (2001; cited in Knecht, 2004, pp. 97-99) also manage to identify the types of wilderness and how they impact levels of transcendence – for example, distinctive and powerful elements (such as “cold, dense settings”) can elicit feelings of insignificance or discomfort, whereas relatively ‘open’, ‘beautiful’ or ‘interesting’ elements contribute to a “sense of oneness” (p.99).

Mann (2015. p.171) suggests that “we must encourage the view that all nature is sacred” – and in viewing nature as sacred, appreciate nature for its spiritual qualities. In addition to this, it is important to look more specifically at the types of features in landscape that can incite spiritual 19

feelings. Mann views sacred features as monuments – such as mountains, caves, water and trees. These ideas are also discussed by Geva (2015. pp.109-121) who examines the sacred symbolism of such monuments and proposes that they ‘generate the axis mundi’.

2.5 Existing design considerations The paper “Spirituality in Place, Building Connections Between Architecture, Design and Spiritual Experience” (2013) sees Birch & Sinclair attempt to outline a framework for design considerations towards the manipulation of the “qualitative, less tangible” aspects of space (p. 80).

The framework is an incredibly useful tool for providing a basis of understanding towards spirituality within design.

It draws inspiration from a number of different Eastern perspectives and religions, which is particularly interesting as the major religious beliefs in the world at present are typically monotheistic or polytheistic. The perspectives outlined in Birch & Sinclair’s framework are neither – they identify a need for introspective spiritual experience in addressing ‘self-transcendence’, which Birch & Sinclair link to Maslow’s conditions of motivation.

The Eastern perspectives referenced in the paper detail the concepts of ‘impermanence’, ‘Tao (The Way)’ and ‘wabi-sabi’. The underlying theme between these concepts is a belief and emphasis on embracing the ‘natural’ – which, as already suggested, can be difficult to find in the current bustle of the 21st century city.

The basis of ‘impermanence’ focuses on the ideas that “change and flow are a natural part of the world around 20

us” (p. 82) and we should accept this as a reflection of the changeable nature of existence, which in turn, promotes engagement with space (p. 83). There are many features of the built environment that suggest impermanence; however, Birch & Sinclair suggest that it could be represented through clever manipulation of light and shadow – both with” fleeting natures” could evoke “ephemeral connections” (p. 83). The concepts of impermanence are also highlighted by Handa who describes how buildings are expected to be complete, but human nature is incomplete (2015, p. 199) – and consequently, buildings are reflective of human use.

Birch & Sinclair also look towards Taoist philosophies – that design should consider the “spontaneous, natural and balanced” (2013, p. 83) approaches to the world in order to achieve a sense of harmony. Wabi- Sabi is a concept on a similar vein – it is the ‘embodiment’ of the “imperfect, impermanent, and incomplete” (p. 83). Birch & Sinclair go further to outline how by allowing imperfection into design, the user can begin to relate to design in a personal and engaging way. Finding meaningful reflection and relation to the built environment allows the individual to potentially achieve a sense of authenticity, which is important to ensure the “artificial and contrived” (p. 83) aspects of the modern world don’t ‘overshadow’ genuine connection and experience of space. Handa also echoes these sentiments, as does Todd who outlines the need for “grit, uncertainty and incompleteness” (2016, p. 20) within space.

The framework Birch & Sinclair devise is informed by above philosophies. Three “conceptual areas which 21

serve to facilitate the built environment” by “addressing self-transcendence” (P.84) are detailed. They are as follows; 1) SUSTAINABILITY (connecting the individual to their environment) 2) HUMANITY (connecting the individual to their society) 3) SENSUALITY (connecting the individual to their ‘intimate self’) ‘Sustainability’ encompasses the importance of connecting individual to environment. Within the framework, Birch & Sinclair detail how the built environment provides the chance of allowing individuals to feel integrated to their surroundings – concepts that are typical of Maslow’s peak spiritual experience. The research undertaken by Birch & Sinclair suggest that the ‘natural’ is important, therefore the concepts of ‘biomimicry and biophilia’ aid connection with the individual and the built environment by allowing an individual to “sense fusion with the world” (p. 86) and achieve a closer relationship to a self-transcendent perspective.

The connection of ‘individual to society’ falls under the term ‘Humanity’. Birch & Sinclair outline the importance of engaging and interacting with place, as they “convey the social and cultural context though which we experience place” (p. 84). This is elaborated upon as Birch & Sinclair state “when the values of place align with our own values, we acknowledge our place within the larger social context.” (p. 85) – once again, mirroring Maslow’s studies on self-transcendence. Humanity in this sense is “evocative” of “completeness, authenticity and sacred22

ness” – therefore a sense of the authentic is desired in this section of the framework. Birch & Sinclair suggest the use of weathered material in order to convey the building’s narrative, which will also allow for a sense of place connection of the building and its place in society.

Secondly, Birch & Sinclair hint at the importance of monuments to further enhance such place connection.

The third aspect of the framework concerns ‘sensuality’ – and draws upon views that that the senses must be engaged for the individual to feel connected to themselves.

Pallasmaa’s work on phenomenology and experience of the senses is tied into this conclusion.

The next study I’d like to introduce is the paper “Simplicity, Science, Spirituality, Situation” (Bermudez, 2013). I felt this was a particularly relevant paper to reference within this study due to the author’s stance on spirituality – his belief that spirituality should be considered without religious connotations (p. 12) supports the questions I am investigating.

In this paper, Bermudez begins by introducing the idea that architecture establishes epoch of our culture with through existence and design – that architecture must ‘reflect and respond’ to a ‘fragmented and chaotic’ human reality (p. 3). Bermudez argues that the consideration of ‘simplicity’, ‘science’, ‘spirituality’ and ‘situation(al awareness)’ - the four S’s - will assist in the design of space that attempts to facilitates a response to cultural order and become an “antidote to our culture of excess, schizophrenia and unconsciousness” (P.6).

23

Bermudez begins with the idea of simplicity – that “the less you need, the freer you become” (Schumacher; cited in Bermudez p.5). The idea that simplicity can help regain and encourage a sense of clarity, whilst also allowing for moral actions such as sustainable living (Bermudez, 2013, p. 6) is one of great importance in understanding spirituality. It is notable however, that Bermudez makes the distinction between simplicity and ‘voluntary’ simplicity – he states that “choosing simplicity grows out of our direct experience of living under unnecessary complexity” (p. 6) which, if we consider the complexities of the culture many of us reside in today, appear to be the conditions for where voluntary simplicity would organically develop. To take this idea further would be to examine the idea that space must respond to need in order to be effective – it must be designed with purpose.

The second ‘S’ of this paper is labelled ‘integral science’ – that “evidence based design” can address the intellectual aspects of space, whilst the third ‘S’ focuses on spirituality.

Bermudez acknowledges while religion in a conventional sense may not have as much of a foothold in today’s culture, it is important to consider spirituality within the built environment from a “larger, more encompassing context of reference” (p.9) - to consider spirituality without religious affiliation and in phenomenological terms;- and that the “preservation, respect and celebration of space can only come when we honour its holy dimension” (p. 10).

Bermudez draws attention to the idea that architectural design can potentially assist with transcendence and the ‘spiritually ineffable’. (p.10). The importance of designing with spirituality in mind could also potentially lead to 24

improved community stewardship and environmentally sustainable attitudes as an outcome. Not only do these positive consequences offer plausible ‘antidotes’ to the issues outlined in the introduction, but also support the research undertaken by Ardoin in proving place-connections between people and location can improve stewardship and civic engagement (2014, p. 426).

The fourth S of the paper is entitled ‘situation(al awareness)’, in which Bermudez discusses the idea we should realise our own perspective or bias through design, and attempt to broaden understandings and attitudes towards issues affecting design.

The design considerations listen above reference a few key ideas that will be significant in informing the research for my methodology. Whilst Sinclair & Birch look towards offering exact solutions for allowing the individual to engage with the environment, Bermudez considers concepts more broadly and in abstract terms. Both authors highlight the need for simplicity within design to invoke a sense of spirituality for the user. Both also highlight the importance of spiritual space.

25

3.0 Methodology The literature review outlined many ideas surrounding spirituality in space. Nature – and natural features – are large indicators for the representation of spirituality (and indeed, transcendent feeling) is represented in space.

The ideas of ‘timelessness’, ‘solitude’, ‘silence’, places that allow for contemplation and places that are designed simplistically were also recurring themes. To inform my research methods, these themes were key in defining the most appropriate methods of survey.

To reiterate my original questions regarding this topic – (“How does spirituality manifest in space?”, and “what considerations should designers take to design spiritual space?”) – it was important to devise research that would allow me to investigate this.

3.1 The study - design and justifications The findings from the literature review assisted in the design of the survey. As Bermudez highlighted in his investigation towards EAEs (2015), the participants who were involved with his study showed significant prior knowledge or interest in architecture, therefore I firstly felt it was important to consider a non-architectural perspective for this survey to appropriately investigate how people viewed the qualities of space. This rendered it necessary for the survey to remain accessible to those without architectural knowledge – as a result, it was important to include questions that were not laden with architectural terminology. I felt the best way to present this survey was through the use of visual stimuli (pictures).

26

In addition to this, the study conducted by Harvey & Williams (2001; cited in Knecht, 2004, pp. 98-99) described a survey that assisted with creating a “typology of nature related transcendence and the environmental factors that trigger it” (p. 98) – by investigating how different ‘landscape elements’ evoke different feelings, and then ordering them against a scale of transcendence. This study resonated with my own investigations. Similarly to Bermudez (2015), the participants of the Harvey & Williams survey all showed previous knowledge towards the content – doubly highlighting the important of investigating perspectives from people with no prior knowledge.

From my own personal investigation into this research, I was particularly concerned with the current living settlements of each participant (whether the lived in rural or urban environments). The introduction to this topic suggested a renewed need (Tesar, 2015) for spirituality amongst the fast pace of the city, therefore by investigating participants who lived in urban environments and comparing their responses to those who lived in rural environments, it would hopefully allow me to support and delve deeper in the above claims.

A preliminary investigation (a rough picture study with two participants) revealed that it was feasible to consider the fact that nature (and biophilic design) was perhaps one of the biggest features in ‘spiritual’ space. It was also suggested that people do indeed have a desire for easier access to such space, for various reasons including wellbeing and physical health. Furthermore, the preliminary study revealed that because participants lack prior architectural knowledge, they struggled to attribute qualities of space for man-made locations. My initial approach was to question the participants on how each space 27

made them feel, however this finding led to the inclusion of pre-determined responses; i.e. “which of the following terms best describe how this place makes you feel”.

The terms I used for this (see below) were inspired by the research undertaken by Harvey & Williams (2001; cited in Knecht, 2004, pp. 97-99). They offered the most appropriate and accessible definitions of ‘transcendence’.

I also added some negative descriptors such as ‘uncomfortable’ or ‘insignificant’ to allow for the descriptions of space that people did not find spiritual in a positive light.

These terms were taken from Harvey & Williams’ table on transcendent typology (p. 99).

To investigate the question of what design considerations need to be taken for designing spiritual space, I attempted to select pictures to represent all different aspects of spirituality and transcendence. As the survey had to remain relatively short to be effective, the limit to the number of included picture responses was 5.

My decision to include a variety of pictures was firstly to reveal the transcendent qualities participants attributed to each image, but the ‘type’ of transcendent quality was also important when related to the specific content in the image. I anticipated this would hopefully allude to deeper meanings and considerations for the types of environments that inspire self-transcendence. For example, the first picture question depicted a snowy mountain range from an eye-level vantage point. Whilst participants could describe this as evoking feelings of ‘insignificance’, the underlying meaning behind this would perhaps show that extreme natural features, a vast expanse of sky and being ‘on-top of the world’ can challenge someone’s perspectives on connections to the universe. Whilst this would be classified a transcendent experience, the 28

design considerations stemming from this result would perhaps be to either literally consider building at high altitudes if the aim was to design a space that inspired significance, or more practically – the use of more sky lights in buildings, which would hopefully provide access to the visuals of the sky and promote the ideas of being connected to nature.

The actual survey can be found in Appendix 1. Below are the figures used in the survey.

Figure 1: A mountain range, from eye-level. Lots of dark colours of stone contrast with white snow and a light sky.

No sun is present in this image.

29

Figure 2: An alleyway in a street. There are no natural features in this image. Neon signs are on the walls.

Figure 3: A beach scene, showing nothing but sky, sand and a calm ocean. This image was specifically picked because it makes use of the golden hour. Perspective is overlooking sea, perhaps this is a contemplative position as opposed to being immersed in the action – surrounded by water.

30

Figure 4: A woodland scene, with mist and very tall trees lining a path. The sky is grey. Surrounded by trees.

Figure 5: An image from a field. This image shows long grass, and trees in the distance. Golden light is also featured in this image.

Participants had the options to select all relevant listed qualities that they felt best described how the image made them feel. The qualities included these words; ‘hopeful’, ‘empowered’, ‘secure’, ‘refreshed’, ‘insignificant’, uncomfortable’, ‘nostalgic’, ‘emotional’ and a final option to select ‘N/A’ (not applicable) if participants felt none of the aforementioned qualities described the picture, or if they were indifferent towards it.

31

The final three questions of my survey all relate to how people find ‘peace’. As the original format of the survey changed from asking participants how they felt about each image to then offering pre-determined answers, I felt it important to include an option to allow participants an opportunity to offer their own responses regarding the nature of ‘peaceful place’.

I expected the results to show consistency with the key themes presented in the literature review, whilst also offering some further explanation to the weighting of specific transcendent qualities, and what features are attributed to them.

3.2 Personal reflections After undertaking the survey, it’s important to acknowledge some personal reflections and limitations. One major limitation is the use of pictures; although I feel this worked well for the intentions of this survey, pictures don’t often allow for full representation of phenomenological aspects of place. Phenomenological experiences of spirituality in place were some prevalent themes from the literature review in promoting transcendent beliefs. I had attempted to include images in the survey which could be best imagined phenomenologically. This led to the decision to exclude images that featured people, in an attempt not to distract from the content of each image and hopefully inspire deeper engagement with the scene from the perspective of ‘solitude’. However, it is evident you cannot ever fully recreate phenomenological experience in picture format.

32

The cross-sample size of the survey was also not large.

This could have affected the results in some ways, however even with a small survey group, there were several clearly revealed trends which I feel would have only been enhanced with a larger population size. Furthermore, the survey design only allowed for limited responses.

Although I felt my approach of offering pre-determined responses was the best approach for this study, it would have perhaps been an interesting and informative venture to conduct an additional focus group in conjunction with my survey findings.

As the survey was voluntary and anonymous, the ethics of the survey were not really compromised. Participants had every opportunity to skip questions they did not like, answer with ‘N/A’ or quit the survey. As the survey had 100% completion rate, participants seemingly did not feel as if questions were too personal or distressing and therefore this was the least invasive method of research.

One final ramification of using images in this survey is that each image does not show one feature in isolation – rather a group of features to create a scene. The weather at the time of the photograph being taken to the actual content of the image could both inspire answers not consistent with the literature review, as different participants may feel different emotions when examining the scene. The concept of ‘spirituality’ is a highly subjective and incredibly personal topic, therefore it is to be expected that one participant’s potential ‘discomfort’ could be another participant’s ‘security’ (or perhaps ‘pain and joy’; Krinke, 2015, pp. 141-144). This will also lead to highly interpretive results for my results and findings.

33

4.0 Findings and results 4.1 Analysis of results The analysis of my results are predominately theoretical and many of my main considerations are based upon the literature review and results of this survey. Despite the fact these results are highly interpretive, there is enough empirical evidence to witness some overall trends appearing in these results.

As Birch & Sinclair suggest, when the atmosphere of the place surrounding us corresponds with our (potentially subconscious) ‘personal beliefs’, we recognise ourselves (2013, p. 85) – in other words, a landscape that reflects our inner values inspires transcendent beliefs through an understanding of our connection to place.

In the survey, the responses display how spirituality is manifested through place, with the use of descriptions of transcendent feelings. Each participant has in some way connected with the environments depicted, and in the majority of cases, this connection has been positive.

Overall, I had 23 respondents for my survey. The survey took approximately 3 minutes to complete and had 100% participation rate (no questions were skipped). Below is the analysis of my results:

34

QUESTION 1

The majority of participants were aged 22-24 and a significant number were 19-21. All participants are ‘young adults’. This shows that the results of the survey will portray a ‘young adult’ view on place quality and spirituality.

35

QUESTION 2

With only one respondent residing in a rural setting, it is important to note that these results will overwhelmingly indicate views from those who are currently living in a city (or similar setting).

36

QUESTION 3

38 votes were counted from the results in the first picture question.

The majority of respondents thought this image would make them feel ‘refreshed’. This is closely followed by the descriptions ‘empowered’ and ‘insignificant’. Feelings of security (‘secure’) and nostalgia (‘nostalgic’) only had one vote each.

There are many reasons for why this could be, however I believe the reasons behind these selections (and indeed, for the rest of the survey pictures) are entwined with the perceptions people hold of symbolism and the connotations associated with each image. This is linked to some 37

of the findings from the literature review, particularly the work of Mann (2015) who highlights the idea that sacred features and natural places act like monuments with spiritual qualities. They stand to represent something.

In this case, mountains as sacred features ‘generate the axis mundi’ (Geva, 2015, p.110) – the bridge between heaven and earth, which is particularly striking connotation.

This symbolism of heaven and earth (even if experienced subconsciously or in secular terms) is perhaps why the majority of respondents felt empowered and refreshed.

The image shows nothing but mountains and sky, therefore situating the viewer in a place between both. The connection to land (oneself) and sky (“the other” (or heaven)) is one that would certainly elicit feelings of self-transcendence and an understanding of one’s connection to the world (supports Birch & Sinclair). In conjunction with this, the overwhelming (possibly daunting) significance of being ‘on top of the world’ (pinnacle of the mountain) could offer a plausible explanation for feelings of insignificance (a suggestion as to why only one vote out of 23 was used to describe this image as inspiring feelings of security).

Another suggestion for the prevalence of the feelings of ‘insignificance’ come from Harvey & Williams’ table of transcendent typologies (2001; cited in Knecht, 2004, p.

99). Harvey & Williams note that when exposed to ‘distinctive’ and ‘powerful’ elements with “extremes of heat and cold”, the transcendent feelings that arise are ‘diminutive’ – they can cause feelings of insignificance. This is shown by the survey.

I also believe the image alluded to feelings of refreshment due to the conditions represented in the scene, 38

namely the crisp, clean contrast between the snow and the rocks. Fresh snow is often portrayed as pure, cold and cleansing.

QUESTION 4

27 people responded to this image. Not only did it have the least number of votes, participants also expressed the highest levels of discomfort and indifference.

The majority of respondents felt this image evoked feelings of discomfort (‘uncomfortable’ had 11 votes). The second highest response was the ‘N/A’ option, indicating indifference or a response that was not listed. None of the participants felt the image was ‘nostalgic’ or ‘emotion39

al’.

I find this result to be particularly interesting. As the only image in the survey that depicts a man-made environment, the responses are overwhelmingly negative (discomfort and indifference). There is absolutely no evidence of nature in this image, which is a key finding supporting the theory that designing with nature inspires spiritual feelings (Kellert & Wilson, 1993, ‘The Biophilia Hypothesis’) and that ignoring nature (and indeed, the use of natural materials (Birch & Sinclair, 2013)) leads to lack of emotional connection (Tesar, 2015, p. 84).

In addition, this image most resembles a generic city street – and coincidentally, this is the settlement where most participants reside. It is interesting that the findings show a positive correlation between the environment of most common participant settlement, and their feelings of discomfort when presented with an image that represents this. Perhaps it could be fair to assume that a proportion of respondents live in spaces they deem undesirable, and as neither of the major responses to this image are indicative of transcendent experience (it’s not considered spiritual space), perhaps it could also be fair to assume that lack of spirituality in design leads to overriding feelings of discomfort and indifference (again, offering support for Tesar, 2015).

Regardless, this image did not spark overly strong opinions except for expressions of discomfort. This could explain the low vote count for this image, and the high vote count for some of the other images depicting nature (and inspiring spiritual experience).

One final comment on this image would be to highlight 40

the perfectly ordered composition of the buildings. This does not reflect the ideas relating to impermanence that Birch & Sinclair (2013) reference and suggests that people want authenticity in design to feel more at peace (reflections of personal feelings in the outside world).

QUESTION 5

This image received the most votes overall with 60 votes, indicating that it elicited the strongest responses in emotion.

The responses for ‘refreshing’, ‘hopeful’, ‘empowered’, ‘nostalgia’ and ‘emotional’ had the biggest number of votes. No one felt uncomfortable with this picture. This is the first example of scenery that strongly features sunlight. The golden hour (the hour at which this scene was 41

captured) is particularly coveted in photography for the ‘warmth’ it coats scenery in. ‘Warmth’ is associated with the positive emotions that featured strongly in this question response, and perhaps could explain why respondents also felt this.

QUESTION 6

Question 6 received 37 votes. This image has stirred some contradictory results, which highlights the subjectivity of spirituality. The main response with 43% of the 42

vote is the feeling of being ‘refreshed’. ‘Emotional’ is another result that was high in this image. The next two responses with 6 votes each show ‘uncomfortable’ feelings are equal to ‘nostalgic’ feelings. No participant felt empowered by this image. Perhaps a reason for this is the uncertainty in the gloom of the image – too much selfdoubt is evoked.

One suggestion for the discrepancies in positive verses negative responses to this image could be explained by the findings from the Harvey & Williams study on transcendent typologies when compared to other views, and the personal views people have towards forests.

‘Tall trees’ (p. 99) are considered to evoke ‘diminutive transcendence’ which is also related to feelings of insignificance or being unable to relax. Yet, as Konijnendijk (2018) outlines the Dutch study on how spending time in wooded areas was associated with ‘inner peace, the experience of connectedness and reflections on the cycle of life and death’ (p. 31). Perhaps the mysterious nature of the mist in the above image can be seen in one of two ways; threatening or enchanting, depending on the participant’s personal relationship and personal feelings regarding this. Reflections of life and death could potentially incite feelings of discomfort.

43

QUESTION 7

The final picture in this survey received 55 votes and had the highest overall score for nostalgia. At 17 votes, more than 70% of participants agreed on the spiritual qualities this scene depicted.

There were no responses for ‘insignificance’ or ‘discomfort’ which suggests the respondents felt most at ease with the environment in this scene. This is something that is highly typical of a transcendent experience inspired by place (ref). An interesting quality of this scene is that it was also captured in the golden hour, similarly to the image in question 5. Both images received incredibly favourable responses, and lots of overall votes for the transcendent feelings listed.

44

QUESTION 8

45

QUESTION 8 (Continued)

46

The results from this question were incredibly interesting.

It was useful to see how participants attempted to find ‘peace’ (peace as ‘renewed energy’ - Harvey & Williams) in their daily lives, and some of these responses offered phenomenological insights, which complements the interpretations from the responses of the other questions. Responses from question 8 ranged from “in bed” to “forest or mountains/somewhere high up”. Evidently this highly subjective topic has unearthed a range of personal preferences in how participants achieve a sense of peace, however it is notable that there are some incredibly strong themes derived from the responses.

The first trend I’d like to highlight is the desire to be in nature. Out of 23 responses to this question, 18 participants referenced the desire to be close to or immersed in nature. This is an overwhelming trend - and even more striking when considering current urban environments completely neglect this need.

Another trend in this result is the need for quiet or to experience sounds of nature (“Quiet and without too many people”, “the sound of water trickling”, “libraries or similarly places that feel ‘old’”). These responses show how people experience -and enjoy- aspects of the numinous in secular life. (Otto; obscurity, silence and emptiness) Silence allows people to contemplate and reflect – again, linking to support for the powerful feelings of nostalgia.

Pallasmaa’s work on silence is also important here.

The comment about the library also raises the ideas of timelessness – “places that feel old”;- this is something which is referenced as a spiritual quality in the literature review.

47

QUESTION 9

Most respondents answered this question by stating they ‘somewhat’ have access to the environments that inspire peace. I believe this is partially due to the nature of some responses, for example -“going for a walk in nature”; it is not usually difficult for people to ‘go for a walk’, but the accessibility of nature may have influenced how this 48

respondent answered. I also believe transport makes it possible to visit some of the landscapes listed; “mountains” or “beaches”, yet the convenience of commuting to such places could be somewhat difficult, especially in some urban environments. A few participants also mentioned indoor locations as places where they ‘find peace’ which would indicate the reasons for answers of “yes”.

QUESTION 10

Perhaps one of the most significant results, another overwhelming majority of people in this survey all believe 49

their quality of life would be increased if they had better access to environments that allowed them to feel peace.

This suggests a strong need for contemplative and engaging space – in other words, space that is spiritual.

4.2 Spirituality in space pt.2 There a vast array of abstract qualities to describe how spirituality manifests in space. Some of these descriptions include the qualities of the; emotional, sensual, timeless, personal, contemplative, nostalgic, obscure, silent, solitary, impermanent and imperfection. Such qualities are all drawn from the literature review. The results of my survey also show that the physical qualities of these manifestations are typically found in nature – although specific landscapes can have a significant impact on the ‘type’ of spiritual experience one may have. For example, an overwhelming and powerful experience of spirituality could be evoked by exposure to mountains.

On the other hand, nostalgia and contemplation could manifest in warmly lit environments, where there is a sense of stillness (and perhaps timelessness). Spaces that are too orderly, too industrial and too artificial (not imperfect or impermanent) do not encourage spirituality and engagement within space – in turn, this allows the well-being and happiness of people in such spaces begins to suffer. Spaces become artificial and ordered due to the constant drive for perfection in the world, with Tesar highlighting that a desire for the shiny and ‘new’ disregards human need for spiritual and authentic space.

4.3 The secular church – design considerations for the 21st century 50

The abstract qualities of spirituality allow us to consider how the physical parameters of space can inform and create atmospheres that correspond to the spiritual. It is not always possible to bring aspects of the outside world into daily life – for example, mountain ranges cannot be ‘moved’ to exist within the city. Similarly, unsustainable construction of cities in protected mountainous areas may even eradicate any sense of solidarity or timelessness associated with these places in the long term.

In an ideal world, the results of this dissertation indicate the ‘perfect spiritual city’ would be completely biophilic in design, with more use of vernacular architecture, natural lighting and natural ventilation. Cities designed within forests (Konijnendijk, 2018) would be a start, or perhaps even smaller population groups existing in greater frequencies (to reduce the densities of urban areas) would allow for more consideration in design. Less demand for ‘bigger, better, faster, cheaper’ (Bermudez, 2013) and more time to allow populations to grow organically and therefore become more engaged to the places they inhabit – thus promoting a sense of spirituality.

Cities would be designed around (or closer) to natural landscape features. There would be more originality within design – perhaps construction would utilise the unique spaces in ‘sacred’ locations like caves, or would employ a greater reliance on woodland as an environment to inhabit. Though this, we could more effectively pace our developmental needs. Dark sky projects would encourage the appreciation for the night sky, which then allows daytime sky to be of even more value. The social implications of this may even be increased levels of stewardship and community spirit.

51

Unfortunately, these hypothetical suggestions would be impossible to achieve in the society we currently live within. It would be completely impractical and to abandon the culture that defines our beliefs. This raises the penultimate question; -what would spirituality design look like re-imagined, to fit within the 21st century?

The solution I propose to answer this draws upon a theme highlighted in the literature review – a theme that was also represented in the survey results. This concerns the idea that space built for purpose allows a more streamlined and guided connection with spirituality.

Krinke’s public art engagement indicated that purposeful encouragement of allowing individuals to feel transcendent often garnered the most personal and emotional spiritual reflections. Indeed, the suggestion from Bermudez (2013) to design with ‘voluntary simplicity’ as motivation also led to the inference of understanding spiritual space through purposeful design. Otto’s concept of the numinous highlights spiritual space as silent, obscure and empty – all three of these conditions are controlled in religious spiritual space (purposeful). To reintegrate spirituality in 21st century cities, the importance of purposely designed space could be key in promoting transcendence. Hence - ‘the secular church’.

The secular church would not be designed as a conventional church with ‘figuration’ and references to the divine.

The secular church would allow for introspective spirituality, a place to retreat from the hubbub of the city and a place to reconnect with oneself and reminisce.

The secular church would be constructed entirely of sustainable, and most importantly, natural materials – predominately wood, earth or stone from local surroundings.

Perhaps it would look and feel ad hoc – the imperfection 52

of the build would add to its ‘charm’. It would be unique to every location it is found within. This would enhance its connections with place. There would not be a ‘set of design rules’ to influence its construction, other than the suggestions of how the secular church would attempt to facilitate transcendent and spiritual experience.

For example, the survey results indicated nostalgia as one of the biggest descriptors of transcendent experience. Perhaps a design consideration for this would be a larger focus on south/west window orientation to flood the interiors of space with ‘golden hour’ light. Alternatively, to inspire feelings of contemplation and timelessness, stone structures with shadowy interiors would be erected around a beam of natural light (or the secular ‘axis mundi’).

The secular church would encourage and provide greater access to spirituality in specific locations for 21st century cities. The secular church would be adaptable, to highlight ideas of impermanence and to recognise that spirituality -whilst subjective – can be experienced through the combination of specific factors.

Perhaps it could consist as a pavilion in one location; the lack of visible walled boundaries would encourage fluidity of movement between the outside and inside world. Or potentially it would be more formal, a large and silent room to encourage transcendence the obscurity and silence this space would facilitate. Yet despite this, it would be instantly recognisable as the secular church.

53

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations There is insurmountable evidence suggesting a renewed need for spirituality within design. Architecture, as a facilitator for transcendence, can have significant impacts on helping to promote the outcome of this. Through the study of literature highlighting spirituality within place design, and as a result of the survey investigating the manifestations of spirituality within place, my investigation into the ideas concerning spirituality in place have revealed a number of things. Namely, the significance of nature within design helps to promote spirituality, but also the purposeful design of a place which facilitates and promotes transcendental qualities would be incredibly effective in evoking spirituality in place for the 21st century.

My initial questions on this topic were as follows; -How does spirituality manifest in space?

-What considerations should designers take to design spiritual space?

-What would this look like re-imagined, to fit within the 21st century?

In this context of this study, I examined ‘spirituality’ through the lens of Maslow’s theories on human motivation. ‘Transcendence’ (or ‘self-transcendence’) is the idea that individual connection to place can inspire feelings of union with the universe – a sense of connection to “the other”. Maslow placed this feeling at the top of his hierarchy of human motivators, which is understandable when considering the countless evidence from other literature to support the positive effects ‘transcendence’ can have on an individual.

Feelings of self-transcendence (and overall concepts of spirituality) can be inspired through the aesthetics of 54

place. My study therefore aimed to examine the ways in which spirituality manifests in place. I found that there are a number of ‘abstract’ qualities associated with spirituality and transcendence, such as ‘sensual’, ‘emotional’ and ‘obscure’ space. Spiritual qualities -from phenomenological to physical understandings - inspire transcendental feelings such as empowerment, hope, security and nostalgia. Environments that are predominately natural, serene, calm, quiet and timeless promote the feelings of spirituality, and therefore offer views on how spirituality manifests in space.

The considerations designers should take when contemplating how to promote spiritual design should firstly consider the type of spiritual environment they wish to create – nostalgic? Contemplative? The results of my study indicate that there are different aesthetic conditions associated with each transcendental feeling. After examining the framework of Birch & Sinclair and comparing the results with my own survey, it is also clear that design considerations must pay particular attention to the manipulation of light and natural materials. This could include materiality (wood or stone), or simply the inclusion of biophilic practices within design – plants, trees and natural ventilation.

The other considerations designers should take on the concern of spiritual space is that architecture should be more mindful of the phenomenological aspects of space to create lasting positive experience and comfort. Sound plays a huge part in this.

Although there are many personal features that influence 55

an individual’s experience of spiritual space, the results from the literature and from my survey indicate clear trends in preferences to natural and nostalgic space.

This suggests it is entirely possible for architects to create spiritual space through design – collective understandings of transcendent feelings as a result of design can be appreciated by everyone.

These above conclusions have led to my investigations on how spiritual space could be re-imagined and experienced in the chaotic, technical world of the 21st century.

The idea that purposeful design and striking features indicative of purpose (for example, the ‘axis mundi’) can cause individuals to acknowledge they are in spiritual space, is effective. My answer to the final question is that purposeful design of place would be incredibly effective in allowing individuals to experience spirituality, therefore my proposal of a secular church could be an example of how renewed spirituality is experienced in the 21st century. I believe the secular church to be an adaptable and potentially realistic method of allowing spirituality back into the urban landscape of our generation.

The recommendations I would suggest as a result of this study would be for architects, planners and designers to recognise the power they have in the types of spaces they would like to create. Hopefully, this would lead to greater and more deliberate consideration of how to create spaces that benefit wellbeing, spirituality and stewardship. In addition to this, greater research could be undertaken in exploring the importance of different transcendent beliefs.

Word Count: 9796 56

6.0 References Ardoin, N. (2014) ‘Exploring sense of place and environmental behaviour at an ecoregional scale in three sites’ Human Ecology, 42(3), pp. 425-441. Available at: https:// www.jstor.org/stable/24013735 (Accessed: 28 January 2020) Ballantyne, A., Smith, C. L. (eds) Architecture in the space of flows. Oxford: Routledge Barrie, T. (2010) The sacred in-between: the mediating roles of architecture. New York: Routledge Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality.

Surrey: Ashgate Benedikt, M. (2015) On architecture, divinity, and the interhuman. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Bermudez, J. (2013) ‘Simplicity, science, spirituality, situation: four ways for architecture to address the future’, PROARQ, translated from (Spanish) by (E. P. Santana) Bermudez, J. (2015) Phenomenology of the architectural extraordinary and Merleau-Ponty’s philosophy. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Birch, R., Sinclair, B. R. (2013) ‘Spirituality in place: building connections between architecture, design and spiritual experience’, ARCC Conference Repository. Available at: https://doi.org/10.17831/rep:arcc%25y116 (Accessed: 19 November 2019) Chang, H. (2015) An aesthetic and ethical account of Genius Loci. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Crosbie, M. J. (2015) The sacred becomes profane. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate De Botton, A. (2006) The architecture of happiness. London: Penguin Books Finnegan, B., Kellert, S. (2018) Biophilic design, the architecture of life. Available at: http://www.biophilicdesign.net/ (Accessed: March 07 2020) Geva, A. (2015) Spirituality and myth of mountains, stone, and light as expressed in sacred architecture. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Gonçalves, J. F., (2017) ‘Sacred spaces: meaning, design, construction’, ARCC Conference Repository. https://doi.org/10.17979/aarc.2017.5.0.5153 (Accessed: 19 November 2019) Grodin, D., Lindlof, T. R. (eds) (1996) Constructing the self in a mediated world. Cali-

57

fornia: Sage Hendrix, J. S., Holm, L. E. (2016) Architecture and the unconscious. Surrey: Ashgate Hypernormalisation, (2016) [film] Directed by Adam Curtis. UK: BBC Handa, R. (2015) Experiencing the architecture of the incomplete, imperfect, and impermanent. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Knecht, C. (2004) ‘Urban nature and well-being: some empirical support and design implications’, Berkeley Planning Journal, 17(1). DOI: 10.5070/BP317111508 Konijnendijk, C. C. (2018) The forest and the city: the cultural landscape of urban woodland. 2nd edn. Vancouver: Springer Koolhaas, R., Mau, B. (1995) Small, medium, large, extra-large: office for metropolitan architecture. 2nd edn. Edited by J. Sigler. New York: Monacelli Press Krinke, R. (2015) Space, object, and encounter. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Linden, D. (2015) Touch. [s.l]: Penguin Books Mann, A. T. (2015) Sacred landscapes: the threshold between worlds. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) (2015) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate McNamara, D. R. (2016) How to read churches: a crash course in Christian architecture. Brighton: Bloomsbury Mirriam Webster, Dictionary [online] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ transcendent, (Accessed: 17 November 2019) Norberg-Schulz, C. (1979) Genius Loci: Towards a phenomenology of architecture.

New York: Rizzoli Pallasmaa, J. (2005) The eyes of the skin. Sussex: Wiley-Academy Relph, E. (1987) The modern urban landscape. New York: Routledge Shlamm, L. (1992) ‘Numinous experience and religious language’, Religious Studies, 28(4), pp.533-551. Available at: www.jstor.org/stable/20019576. (Accessed: 19 November 2019) Tesar, P. (2015) Neophilia, spirituality, and architecture. In: Barrie, T., Bermudez, J., Tabb, P. J. (eds) Architecture, culture, and spirituality. Surrey: Ashgate Todd, A. (2016) Common Sense: Building a world to share: a treatise in four books.

Montreal: Rightangle International

58

Figure 1: Prats, S. (n.d) Mountain. [Photograph] Available at: <https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1520896831845-02dd290fd080?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQi OjEyMDd9&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1267&q=80> (Accessed: 07 March 2020) Figure 2: Reungere, A.(n.d) Alley. [Photograph] Available at: <https://images. unsplash.com/photo-1548098856-a0ae663bf581?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyMDd9&auto=format&fit=crop&w=634&q=80> (Accessed: 07 March 2020) Figure 3: Lambert, W. (n.d) Beach. [Photograph] Available at: <https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1527030599635-4d3b5155349a?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQi OjEyMDd9&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1050&q=80> (Accessed: 07 March 2020) Figure 4: Tebbe, J. (n.d) Trees. [Photograph] Available at: <https://images. unsplash.com/photo-1502143655672-dbd02dd6abb6?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&auto=format&fit=crop&w=675&q=80> (Accessed: 07 March 2020) Figure 5: Hamann, N. (n.d) Field. [Photograph] Available at: <https://images.unsplash. com/photo-1532028205213-4c4fa81306d4?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=eyJhcHBfaWQiOjEyM Dd9&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1050&q=80> (Accessed: 07 March 2020)

59

9.0 Appendices Appendix 1-Survey

60

61

62

63