researcher as the “housing privatization manifesto”,
in the private market, a gradual sell-out of public
implementation of the solutions they promoted. That is
contains specific indications regarding reforms in Cen-
resources was proposed. It was also suggested that spa-
why the authors of the Romanian manifesto are calling
tral European countries. Reading these indications gives
tial and construction regulations should be “improved”
today, among other things, that we “condemn and aban-
an insight into the broader ideological assumptions
and made dependent on economic conditions. The state
don the stabilization programs [...] imposed by large
underlying the entire report. We learn that in the former
was expected to withdraw from supporting the con-
international organizations.”
socialist and communist countries “the basis of housing
struction industry, and replace it with “making efforts to
policies [...] was the perception of housing as part of the
increase competition”.
public service sector rather than a productive sector of
Violence has accompanied the expansion of neoliberal doctrine since its inception, the most dramatic
This set of solutions was part of a broader political
example of which is the coup d’état by General Augusto
the economy,”9 which the authors see as the source of
agenda to no longer view housing as merely “providing
Pinochet in Chile in September 1973. The economic
most of the problems plaguing this domain. A number
shelter” or merely as “part of social policy”. Housing as
reforms implemented during his ruthless dictatorship
of measures aimed at activating the economic potential
a “productive sector” was meant to increase the “effi-
became prototypes of solutions used later by Western
of housing include, among others: reform of property
ciency of the entire economy”. Thus, the document
governments, albeit the latter were elected in accord-
rights, unlimited possibility of selling and exchanging
does not mention housing as a human right, as a space
ance with democratic procedures. There, too, economic
apartments, raising rents in communal flats to the mar-
necessary for physical and mental regeneration, ensur-
changes were accompanied by violent social conflicts,
ket level, limiting housing subsidies to the most needy
ing a sense of security, enabling the fulfilment of human
and the Western authorities reacted by abusing the
households. In order to increase the supply of housing
needs, creating and maintaining family ties and social
apparatus of violence, for example by suppressing
bonds. From the specific goals set for the “productive”
strikes and breaking up the trade union movement. Yet
housing sector, it is clear that the wellbeing of individu-
another mechanism is the economic violence described
als and social groups is subordinated to a wide range of
above, which takes advantage of the unequal distri-
economic indicators; only some of them contribute to its
bution of power between the state and international
improvement, and not always in a direct way. Although
organizations within the global geopolitical system.
the needs of tenants, here consistently referred to as
Institutions such as the World Bank often resort to this
consumers in accordance with the free market nomen-
kind of violence.
→ Ruczaj Estate in Kraków, from the series Self-affirmation
9 10
11 12
13
14
15
16
17
18
4
19
S.K. Mayo, S. Angel, Housing. Enable markets to work, Washington: World Bank, 1993, p. 49. Compare: L. Farha, When governments sell out to developers, housing is no longer a human right, The Guardian, 29.02.2020, https:// www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/ feb/29/governments-developers-housing-human-right (accessed: 15.03.2021). R. Rolnik, op. cit. J. Kusiak, Chaos Warszawa. Porządki przestrzenne polskiego kapitalizmu, Warszawa: Fundacja Nowej Kultury Bęc Zmiana – Muzeum Warszawy, 2017, p. 107. Jolanta Brzeska was a tenants’ rights activist who fought against re-privatization. In March 2011 she was found dead in the woods in the vicinity of Warsaw. The circumstances of her death remain unclear. She soon became the symbol of Warsaw’s tenants movement. S. Shields, “How the East Was Won: Transnational Social Forces and the Neoliberalisation of Poland’s Post-Communist Transition”, Global Society 2008, vol. 22, p. 452. More about this process in: K. Cupers, “Human Territoriality and the Downfall of Public Housing”, Public Culture 2017, no. 29. Compare: D. Jarosz, Mieszkanie się należy… Studium z peerelowskich praktyk społecznych, Warszawa: Oficyna Wydawnicza Aspra-JR, 2010, p. 101. Compare: C. Jelinek, Uneven development, urban policy making and brokerage. Urban rehabilitation policies in Hungary since the 1970s, doctoral dissertation, Central European University, Budapest 2017, pp. 61–62. Compare: A.N. Dan, M. Dan, Housing Policy in Romania in Transition: between State Withdrawal and Market Collapse, [in:] Globalization, European Integration, and Social Development in European Postcommunist Societies, eds. H. Rusu, B. Voicu, Sibiu: Psihomedia Publishing House, 2003. Compare: S.K. Mayo, S. Angel, op. cit., p. 128.
clature, are described in detail, the report does not pro-
With the implementation of neoliberal reforms,
pose instruments that would help protect human rights
individuals also experience various types of violence.
in a situation where these needs are in conflict with
Deprived of sufficient legal protection, tenants are con-
the interests of financial institutions from the housing
demned to living in precarious conditions, to abusive
sector. The latter, on the other hand, are secured by a
contractual provisions, sometimes even to physical
number of mechanisms.
violence. Intimidation or unlawful evictions – which we
We might say that in terms of “enabling the markets
know, for example, from Polish re-privatization – seen
to work”, the report brought about tangible results.
from a broader perspective, also turn out to be a
Undoubtedly, the “productive” potential of the hous-
product of the functioning of this economic model.
ing sector has been mobilized, and not only in Central
The murder of Jolanta Brzeska (ten years ago this
Europe. Real estate is now ranked among the most
March)13 can also be seen as a consequence of subordi-
attractive investments. Its global value is three times
nating human life to the needs of ruthless profits and
higher than the sum of GDP of all countries in the
putting the right of private property above the right to
world.10 Satisfying the needs of tenants, though, is not
decent housing.
going so well. “Commodification of housing, together with the increased use of housing as an investment asset
Neoliberalism disguises itself well
within a globalized financial market, has profoundly
Of course, neoliberalism is not only about violence,
affected the enjoyment of the right to adequate housing
and exposing the mechanisms involved in its various
around the world,” writes Raquel Rolnik.
forms is often a lengthy process. Both in Central Europe
11
Neoliberalism commands violence
and in other parts of the world, free-market reforms were implemented with the support – often enthusias-
According to Joanna Kusiak, the limitations of this
tic – from at least part of the population. This is partly
program were quickly revealed and subjected to critical
because this doctrine, which we can define after Stuart
evaluation even by experts working for the World Bank.12
Shields as the process of intensifying the commodi-
So why did the Central European countries decide to
fication of social relations,14 is extremely effective in
implement housing policies that raised doubts from
naturalizing its underlying ideological assumptions and
the very beginning? There were at least several reasons
transforming the accompanying norms and values into
for this. Let us start with one of the most obvious and
a widely shared, “common-sense” vision of reality. It is
at the same time rather telling: the World Bank, the
difficult to find an alternative to it, and it is shared by a
International Monetary Fund and many other interna-
wide spectrum of social groups, often against their most
tional financial institutions made debt cancellation or
evident self-interest.
granting new loans for development contingent on the
WERONIKA PARFIANOWICZ
In the West, the ground for the introduction of
