Appendix A: Federal Regulatory Approaches
introduction
The federal government’s approach to regulation of hazardous materials in the United States started out initially with a phase- or media-specific direction. Hazardous contaminants entering the environment were regulated according to whether they were being emitted to the air or water, were utilized in food, or were involved with constituencies such as the agricultural industry.
This approach worked for several decades, particularly following World War II. Nevertheless, by the late 1970s it became apparent that regulations that were phase specific were not accomplishing the objective of protecting public health, safety, and the environment. This was because the phase with the least stringent regulation became the ultimate receptor of pollutants.
As federal regulations developed, a distinction arose between the larger concern for hazardous materials and regulations that dealt with just hazardous waste. In addition, the responsibility for regulating and enforcing hazardous materials laws became split among three or four major federal regulatory agencies.
Figure A.1 illustrates the variety of federal acts that currently regulate hazardous materials in some manner. It also details which federal offices or departments are responsible for regulations and enforcement and, finally, those sections of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) that specifically outline the requirements and where they are to be found.
As can be seen, each agency has its own specific title in the Code of Federal Regulations. EPA has the 40 CFR series, OSHA has the 29 CFR series, and the Department of Transportation (DOT) has the 49 CFR series.
Today there is a great deal of overlap in terms of the fields that are regulated (such as transportation or treatment), the lists that refer to hazardous materials and hazardous wastes, and finally, what constitutes a hazardous material or waste and how it is used. This appendix provides an in-depth review of two of the major regulations— the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), or Superfund, as it is called—and an overview of some of the ancillary federal hazardous materials management regulations.
m ajor federal Hazardous m aterials l aws
The main federal hazardous materials laws are the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA).
Occupational
Department
figure a1 Federal Agencies and Acts.
resource conservaTion and recovery acT (rcra)
RCRA deals with the ongoing management of solid wastes throughout the country, with the emphasis on hazardous waste. Thus, it is keyed to the waste side of hazardous materials, rather than broader issues, as dealt with by the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act and the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).
The primary concern of RCRA is to protect groundwater supplies by creating a cradle-to-grave management system focusing on treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous waste. This approach was taken when it was found that improper waste disposal and management practices were polluting the groundwater supplies of the United States. (Approximately 50% of the population relies on groundwater for drinking.) The burden of dealing successfully with hazardous wastes fell on generators and, to a more intensive degree, on those businesses treating and disposing of waste materials.
RCRA looks at five specific areas for the management of hazardous waste:
1. What constitutes a hazardous waste and providing classifications for each type
2. The requirements for generators to identify themselves, which includes notification of hazardous waste activities and standards of operation for generators
3. Standards for transporters of hazardous wastes, which lays out the requirements for all aspects of physically transporting hazardous waste (and all hazardous substances) over public highways, streams, and U.S. bodies of water
4. Standards for treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDFs)
5. Enforcement of standards through a permitting program and legal penalties for noncompliance
The goal of the RCRA program is to regulate all aspects of the management of hazardous waste from the time it is generated until it is finally immobilized, isolated, treated, or destroyed.
Waste generation is not prohibited under RCRA; however, it is taxed. Waste minimization is also an intrinsic part of current approaches. The goal of both EPA regulations and private management approaches is to eliminate or minimize waste generation.
identification
The first of the requirements is for generators to identify their wastes and determine whether the wastes from their operations may be hazardous.
Figure A.2 illustrates the first page of EPA form 8700-12, which is required by law to be filled out for every generator of hazardous waste. This is the notification to EPA and acts both as a registration form and an application for an EPA hazardous waste identification number. This latter number is specific to the waste generator’s location and activity and is only good for the specific owner, site, and operation. Completion of this form “gets you into the system” as a generator of hazardous waste.
Also, Section 3010 of Subtitle C of RCRA requires any person who transports or recycles regulated wastes, or who owns or operates a facility for the treatment, storage, or disposal of regulated wastes, to notify EPA of his activities, including the location and general description of the activities and the regulated wastes handled. What constitutes an EPA hazardous waste is outlined in Table A.1. There are two types of hazardous waste under the federal scheme: those that are specifically listed by type of generation or waste stream, and those that possess specific chemical or physical properties (characteristics).
The first type is keyed by a specific letter (F, K, P, U) and refers to the types of waste that are regulated under RCRA regardless of the concentrations of chemical contamination in those waste streams. The characteristic wastes may vary in contaminant concentrations or other properties, and thus the waste material may or may not be classified as hazardous.
The four characteristic properties that qualify a waste as a RCRA waste material are as follows:
1. Ignitability
2. Corrosivity
3. Reactivity
4. Toxicity
Of these four characteristics, ignitability and toxicity bring the largest quantities of waste materials into the RCRA hazardous waste category.
Ignitability refers to the characteristic of being able to sustain combustion and includes the category of flammability (ability to start fires when heated to temperatures less than 140ºF).
figure a 2 Application for hazardous waste generator status.
Corrosive materials provide a very specific hazard to human tissue and aquatic life where the pH levels are extreme. Corrosive wastes may destroy containers, contaminate soils and groundwater, or react with other materials to cause toxic gas emissions.
Reactive wastes may be unstable or have a tendency to react, explode, or generate pressure during handling. Pressure-sensitive or water-reactive materials are included in this category.
Toxicity is the effect of waste materials that come into contact with water and are leached into the groundwater or the environment. The toxic effects that may occur to humans, fish, or wildlife are the principle concerns here.
taBle a.1
rcra Hazardous waste categories
listed wastes
F list
K list
P list
U list
Nonspecific sources (e.g., nonhalogenated solvents; certain process wastes, such as electroplating involving cyanides)
Specific sources/processes (e.g., wastewater from chrome yellow and orange pigment production; heavy ends and distillation residues from production of CC14)
Specific substances (e.g., cyanogen chloride, dieldrin, carbon disulfide)
Off-spec products and intermediates (e.g., benzal chloride, aniline)
Mixture rule: An F-, K-, P-, or U-listed waste mixed with solid waste renders the entire mixture hazardous.
characteristic wastes (chemical or Physical Properties)
Ignitable (D001):Flashpoint < 140°F ASTM
Corrosive (D002): 2 ≥ pH ≥ 12.5
Reactive (D003):Reacts violently or generates pressure
Toxic (D004–D017): Specified concentrations
A mixture of characteristic waste and common trash will be hazardous if it still demonstrates characteristics for the listing. The burden is on the generator to show absence of a characteristic.
There is a possibility for delisting a hazardous waste stream by petition to the EPA. These procedures are appropriate for a listed waste that can be shown to be nonhazardous. However, there are a number of legal requirements regarding what must be in the petition, and the generator must submit evidence that such a waste stream is not hazardous. In addition, formal public notice and hearings are required, and comments on the petition must appear in the Federal Register for each specific case. Characteristic hazardous wastes may not be delisted.
It should be noted that the burden of proving that a waste stream is nonhazardous always falls on the generator of the waste.
In addition to these concerns, the generator must also determine if the waste stream is mixed with other materials that would qualify it as a hazardous waste. Thus, it is a good practice for a generator of hazardous waste to keep tight control of hazardous materials rather than mixing them with common trash prior to disposal.
standards for generators
A generator is any “person” whose act or process produces hazardous wastes, or whose act first causes a hazardous waste to become subject to RCRA regulations. The requirements for a generator are outlined below.
It is the responsibility of the generator to identify hazardous waste in its form and content, as well as to obtain a site-specific EPA identification number. This number identifies the generator and is used to track the waste from a specific site throughout its entire history, from cradle to grave. This also provides the EPA with a mechanism to solve the problem of the midnight dumper. It should be noted that generators may let their wastes be transported only by haulers who themselves have a unique EPA identification number.
One provision allowed to the generator is that he or she may temporarily store waste for a period of 90 days prior to shipment of that waste off site, even if the facility is not a TSDF. Such storage, however, can only be in tanks and containers and may not be on land, in fields, or in waste piles on soil or land surfaces.
manifests
Once the waste is ready for shipment off site to a TSDF, a manifest must be completely filled out that gives explicit information as to the type, quantity, amount, and chemical concentrations of the waste. It also identifies, through every step of the trip, exactly who is handling the waste and who is receiving it.
The manifest itself is a multisheet printed form of which at least one sheet goes to the disposal facility, another goes to the transporter, and another sheet is ultimately returned to the generator to complete his records. States may require a copy to be sent to the state of origin of the waste.
The manifest concept is central to the entire RCRA hazardous waste management scheme. It is the legal document that tracks the material and indicates what its ultimate disposition will be. In addition, EPA ID numbers are required for every authorized transporter and TSDF that will be handling that material. It should be noted that upon signing that manifest, the generator is also committing to implementation of a waste minimization program.
In addition, RCRA requires that the generator be totally responsible for all preparation of the waste, shipping containers, packaging, labeling, marking, and placarding of the hazardous waste to be handled by the transporter. Each container must also be specifically marked with the generator’s name and address, manifest number, and the date on which the accumulation of material in that waste container began. Finally, generators are required to keep and maintain three types of records for a minimum of 3 years from the date of acceptance of the waste by the transporter:
Copies of the signed waste manifest, which have been returned from the
TSDF
Copies of reports filed with the EPA (including such things as biennial
waste minimization reports and exception reports, which deal with errors or omissions in waste manifests)
Records of waste results, waste characterization analyses, or other tests
showing that the waste is hazardous
transporter standards
The key legal requirements for transporters under RCRA are as follows:
1. No permit is required for a hauler of hazardous waste, but the hauler must have an EPA ID number.
2. Identification of the source and notice of delivery of a shipment of waste to a TSDF is required.
3. Proper placarding of the vehicle transporting the waste is required.
4. The transporter must comply with all aspects of the manifest system, including his or her own EPA number and signature on the manifest.
5. The waste must be delivered only to the designated TSD facility named on the manifest (the facility must also hold a RCRA permit).
6. A 3-year retention period is required for each manifest handled by the hauler. In the event of an accidental or intentional release of the hazardous waste during transportation, the transporter is responsible for the cleanup.
standards for treatment, storage, and disposal facilities
The burden of RCRA falls most heavily upon TSDFs. The regulations are specific, detailed, and costly for every step of the process. The heart of the standards for a TSDF is in the permit requirements.
There are some TSD facilities or activities that are exempt from a RCRA Part B permit requirement. Of these we find:
Facilities regulated by other acts (such as the Safe Drinking Water Act (for • underground injection) or the Marine Protection Research and Sanctuaries Act (ocean dumping)), or publically owned treatment works (POTWs)
Facilities that have a previous permit or are purely recycling operations •
Haulers, farmers, temporary storage operations (90 days or less), or waste- • water treatment units discharging to a POTW
The addition of absorbent material to hazardous waste in a container •
All other TSD operations must operate under an RCRA permit.
Part A of the EPA permit application merely gives the information specific to location and ownership. Part B of the permit application contains specific details of operation, responsibility, and plans for the long-term operation of any TSDF. The permit itself is specific to the waste stream and has a limited life span of 10 years. This is subject to renewal under appropriate circumstances.
The information that must be provided in each of the sections of the Part B permit application is indicated below.
Waste Analysis
Details on the specific physical and chemical characteristics of each of the hazardous wastes coming to the facility must be provided in the Part B permit application. Representative sampling and analysis must be repeated on shipments as often as necessary to ensure that the waste analysis plans are accurate and up to date. Procedures to be followed by the operator of the facility must be set forth in this section of the application.
Security
Prevention of entry of unauthorized persons or livestock to the TSDF must be detailed in this section of the permit application. This involves a security system including barriers, lighting, surveillance, controlled entry, and posted danger signs.
Inspections
An inspection plan specifically tailored to the activities at a TSDF is required to be prepared and implemented. This includes inspections of facilities that are expected to show deterioration as time goes on, or areas such as loading docks where spills or other incidents may occur. Tanks and containers are to be inspected regularly; documentation
of the inspections must be kept and available for review by governmental authorities. These inspections are performed by the owner and operator of the facility.
Personnel Training
TSDF personnel are required to have experience and training in the areas to which they are assigned.
Instruction may be provided either in a classroom or on the job, but it must be directed by a person who is trained in hazardous waste management practices. The details of such a training program must also be included in the permit application. These requirements are supplemented by regulations requiring additional OSHA training for all personnel handling hazardous wastes (29 CFR 1910.1200).
Special Handling
Procedures for handling waste that may be reactive, ignitable, or incompatible must also be detailed.
Typically, this includes procedures for operator waste handling, posting of signs, and detailed instructions as to segregation or placement of waste materials according to their characteristics. This prevents incompatible wastes that may generate specific health or environmental hazards from being commingled at the facility. Documentation of these procedures is also required.
Location Standards
Location of a new TSDF within 200 feet of a seismic fault or in a 100-year floodplain is prohibited. For existing facilities, potential mitigation measures for the latter case are required.
Preparedness and Prevention
Detailed plans to eliminate the possibility and effect of fires, explosions, or spills at the TSDF are also required in the permit application. Preparatory measures include such things as alarms and communication systems, systems for emergency help, installed fire control equipment, and decontamination equipment on site. Plans for cooperation with local emergency agencies are also to be detailed.
Contingency Plan and Emergency Procedures
Contingency plans for the facility to minimize hazards to human health and environment due to explosion, fires, or releases of hazardous waste are required. The contingency plan is a preformulated set of responses to any given emergency and, as such, will name emergency coordinators and list emergency equipment that will be available. The requirements regarding maintenance of contingency plans were extended to apply to any facility that generates, handles, or temporarily stores hazardous materials on site. They are more closely evaluated in earlier chapters.
Manifest Systems, Recordkeeping, and Reporting
How records on waste shipments received at the facility will be handled must be detailed in the Part B permit application, particularly with respect to discrepancies that may be noted.
The original manifest that arrives with the waste must be retained by the TSDF for 3 years. Operating records as to how the waste was handled must also be maintained at the facility and available for inspection.
Other operating records, such as waste analyses, testing or analytical results, and other facility closure estimates, are also included in the operating records that must be maintained. In addition, a biennial report is to be filed in March of every evennumbered year covering all hazardous waste management activities during the preceding odd-numbered year.
Closure and Postclosure Care
This section of the Part B permit application details specifically how the TSDF will be officially closed, how the equipment will be decontaminated, and how any hazardous waste remaining will be removed, disposed of, or manifested off site.
Postclosure details must be included to determine in advance the specific activities that the operator will perform with respect to monitoring of environmental hazards and maintenance activities at the facility for 30 years after closure.
Certain facilities, such as incinerators that do not pose a long-term environmental risk after closure, would not be required to give extensive details on postclosure requirements.
Financial Responsibilities
This section details how the facility will provide funding for the closure and postclosure activities detailed in the earlier section, in order to avoid CERCLA-type activities (cleanups) at a future date for an existing TSDF. These details must spell out the cost of closing the facility and the annual cost of the postclosure monitoring and maintenance program required under RCRA.
l and m anagemenT uniTs
Each specific type of TSDF has its own type of facility operating standards, including standards for containers, for tanks, and for all types of land management units, such as surface impoundments, waste piles, and landfills. Landfills receive the greatest degree of scrutiny under these regulations, which specifically require selective segregation of waste in the different cells of the landfill and provisions for protection of surface water and groundwater from leachate and surface runoff.
In addition, the specific types of liners necessary to mitigate any potential subsurface liquid migration are also required. Current law requires a double-leachate, double-liner system on top of an impermeable natural liner, such as clay. An impermeable cap is also required at closure of a landfill.
Groundwater protection plans for each type of land management unit are specifically required. This means monitoring existing groundwater quality before, during, and after facility operations; laying out and installing monitoring wells and establishing procedures for specific sampling and analysis plans; detection monitoring and compliance monitoring programs; and finally, a corrective action program if waste materials are found to be migrating from the facility.
incineraTors and fuel comBusTion equiPmenT
RCRA deals with ongoing waste management facilities or those that deal with waste fuels. The emissions from facilities handling waste materials may be fugitive as well as evaporated or combustion air emissions.
Whenever any corrective action is required at a RCRA facility, the owner or operator of that facility must deal with all air emissions occurring as a result of that corrective action. Such corrective action may be decontamination of soil or groundwater during a cleanup activity at the ongoing waste facility. RCRA also provides for injunctive relief in court to force former owners and operators to remediate or take measures to reduce pollution.
RCRA regulations also deal with air emissions from hazardous waste burned in boilers and industrial furnaces (BIFs). For these rules, the facility must obtain a permit under RCRA to burn such waste fuels. With respect to organic emissions, the BIFs must meet the destruction and removal efficiency (DRE) standards of 99.99% for all listed waste materials (and their fuels) and a 99.9999% DRE for those wastes that contain dioxin. These boilers and industrial furnaces are also subject to emission limits for certain heavy metals, hydrochloric acid (HCl) and chlorine gas, particulate matter, and carbon monoxide. These performance standards are in addition to any state or local requirements for a permit to operate.
For hazardous waste incineration units there are two major air emission requirements: (1) the preparation of a trial burn plan and (2) specific performance standards for the exhaust gas emissions. The trial burn plan consists of specific information on the waste feed, the performance of the incinerator, the operating temperature, a list of waste materials to be burned, and the period during which the incinerator will be operating.
The principal organic hazardous constituents (POHCs) must also be identified in the waste streams. Specific information must be spelled out on testing of the incoming waste, the stack exhaust emissions, water emissions, and ash content after the hazardous wastes are burned.
The performance standards consist of three specific items. These include a minimum DRE rate of 99.99% for each POHC designated for a particular waste feed, a removal efficiency of 99% for hydrochloric acid from the exhaust gas, and finally, a particulate emission standard of 180 mg per dry standard cubic meter corrected to 7% oxygen.
universal wastes
In 1995, the agency promulgated regulations providing streamlined management standards for certain universal wastes under RCRA.
The universal waste standards provide an alternative regulatory framework under RCRA for relatively low-risk wastes such as used and discarded fluorescent lightbulbs (containing mercury). These management standards generally prohibit universal waste handlers from treating or disposing of universal waste and establish requirements, during transportation and at temporary transfer facilities, for various activities such as storage, tracking, labeling, and release response. An additional category of univer-
sal wastes includes batteries (including lead-acid and nickel- cadmium), fluorescent lightbulbs, and mercury containing switches.
comPreHensiVe enVironmental resPonse, comPensation, and liaBility act (cercla)
Superfund is the name given to the environmental program established to address abandoned hazardous waste sites. It is also the name of the fund established by the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980. This law was enacted in the wake of the discovery of toxic waste dumps such as Love Canal and Times Beach in the 1970s. It allows the EPA to clean up such sites and to compel responsible parties to perform cleanups or reimburse the government for EPA-led cleanups.
The blueprint for these activities is the National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Consistency Plan (NCP), a regulation applicable to all federal agencies involved in responding to hazardous substance releases.
The Superfund cleanup process is complex. It involves steps to assess sites, place them on the National Priorities List, and establish and implement appropriate cleanup plans. This is the long-term cleanup process. In addition, the agency has the authority to do the following:
Conduct removal actions where immediate action needs to be taken
Enforce against potentially responsible parties
Ensure community involvement
Involve states
Ensure long-term protection of the environment
The mission of CERCLA/Superfund is to clean up disposal mistakes of the past and cope with emergencies of the present. In some cases, Superfund has been dealing with problems whose origins go back to the previous the century. Superfund is primarily a liability law, not a regulatory law. As such, it is concerned primarily with funding of cleanups, whether from spills or past activities.
CERCLA’s foundation is that the generator of a waste is liable for the cost of cleaning up the consequences of that waste, regardless of how legal a waste disposal practice may have been in the past. It is the doctrine of continuing harm, which states that while the waste disposal may have been legal in the past, the current impact on the environment is what is at issue. Therefore, the generator of the waste that is causing the present problem is still financially liable.
There are four key concepts in CERCLA: reporting, remedial action, funding and emergency planning, and community right-to-know. These are outlined in the following sections.
rePorTing
CERCLA imposes a requirement that the experience of the program be reported to Congress at least every 4 years. This report evaluates such things as the liability standards, performance of the taxing and funding programs, and all other aspects of the law. Also included are the feasibility of private insurance plans, siting and location of TSDFs, and the adequacy of existing statutory and legal remedies for harm caused by releases to the environment.
remedial acTion
CERCLA has set up a scheme for analyzing past practices of contaminated sites under a hazard ranking system. From this hazard ranking system, a list of prioritized disposal and contaminated sites is compiled. This list becomes the National Priority List (NPL) and, therefore, receives priority in cleanup attention from the federal government under Superfund.
The remedial process itself requires a number of separate activities to be performed under the law. The NCP details specifically how the president and the EPA are to go about analyzing each of these sites and the procedures they must follow in such analysis, as well as how they reach their decisions.
First are the hazard rankings and studies whereby a particular site may become listed. This is followed by the Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study (RI/FS) process, in which analytical data and characteristics of the site are evaluated, and feasibility studies are performed to determine what measures could potentially be used to clean up that site. This is followed by an extensive public participation and comment period, and analysis of all the technical details that went into that feasibility study.
The final step is a written record of decision (ROD), a legally binding document in which the EPA states specifically what alternative shall be chosen to clean up that particular site. Following the signing of the ROD, the design and construction of remedial measures are implemented.
It is noteworthy that under the remedial process, permits are not required of any agency of federal, state, or local governments for a cleanup activity provided that the hazardous materials do not leave that site.
Also under Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), the congressional directive is that alternatives that will provide for permanent solutions are to be preferred over those that merely contain hazardous waste at the site or attempt to stop migration of hazardous materials.
funding
Once a site is listed on the NPL, those generators who contributed waste to a landfill or other site become the potentially responsible parties (PRPs). They are charged with funding the activities under the remedial process. However, at those sites where there are no PRPs available, the Superfund will step in and finance those activities. This money is collected from taxes on petroleum and listed chemicals, an environmental tax on corporations with annual revenues exceeding $2 million, a tax on hazardous waste receipts at TSDFs, and general revenue appropriations from the federal treasury.
For all finalized Superfund cleanup decisions made, states are required to contribute at least 10% of the total cost for orphan facilities (those without known responsible parties), provided they agree with the chosen remedial action.
suPerfund a mendmenTs and reauThorizaTion acT (sara)
The amendments of 1986, termed the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), further clarified the requirements for such cleanup activity.
For a CERCLA/SARA cleanup action, federal authority preempts all local and state regulations for hazardous materials management; however, remedial actions must take into account all local applicable, relevant, and appropriate regulations (ARARs) during cleanup activities. No permit is required for cleanup of a federal Superfund site because the remediation is carried out under the authority of the federal government. The rationale is that, due to the immediate health risk of hazardous waste, specific regulations requiring long periods of time (such as permitting) are preempted by federal authority.
Considerable CERCLA litigation has been generated among the many Superfund sites, where many current and former owners and operators are sued for reimbursement by the EPA and others for contribution. CERCLA litigation includes insurance coverage actions, due diligence actions, and prior owner, lessee, and successors-ininterest liability lawsuits, all of which are intended to bring about the cleanup of contaminated sites.
Planning and communiT y righT To knoW acT (ePcra)
Title III of Superfund/SARA is entitled the Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act (EPCRA), which is a stand-alone law. The community right-to-know act requires federal, state, and local governments and industry to work together in developing emergency plans and reporting on hazardous chemicals. These requirements are built on EPA’s chemical emergency preparedness program and numerous state and local programs aimed at helping communities deal with potential chemical emergencies. The community right-to-know provisions allow the public to obtain information about the presence of hazardous chemicals in their communities and releases of these chemicals into the environment.
Title III has four major sections. These deal with emergency planning, emergency notification, community right-to-know reporting requirements, and toxic chemical release reporting (inventories of on-site hazardous materials).
EPCRA’s primary purpose is to inform communities and citizens of chemical hazards in their areas. EPCRA requires businesses to report the locations and quantities of chemicals stored on site to state and local governments in order to help communities prepare to respond to chemical spills and similar emergencies.
the toxics release inventory
EPCRA requires EPA and the states to annually collect data on releases and transfers of certain toxic chemicals from industrial facilities and make the data available to the public in the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI). In 1990 Congress passed the Pollution
emergency
Prevention Act, which required that additional data on waste management and source reduction activities be reported under TRI. The goal of TRI is to empower citizens, through information, to hold companies and local governments accountable in terms of how toxic chemicals are managed. EPA compiles the TRI data each year.
The TRI program has expanded significantly since its inception. The agency has issued rules to roughly double the number of chemicals included in the TRI to approximately 650. Seven new industry sectors have been added to expand coverage significantly beyond the original covered industries, i.e., manufacturing industries. Most recently, the agency has reduced the reporting thresholds for certain persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic (PBT) chemicals in order to be able to provide additional information to the public on these chemicals.
The law requires facilities in certain industries, which manufacture, process, or use significant amounts of toxic chemicals, to report annually on their releases of these chemicals. The reports contain information about the types and amounts of toxic chemicals that are released each year to the air, water, and land as well as information on the quantities of toxic chemicals sent to other facilities for further waste management.
The EPA maintains this information in a database called the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), which is available to the public over the Internet ( http://www.epa. gov/tri) and in written reports.
suPerfund recycling equiT y acT (srea)
The Superfund Recycling Equity Act (SREA) of 1999 (CERCLA §127) exempts certain persons who “arranged for recycling of recyclable materials” from Superfund liability under Sections 107(a)(3) and (a)(4).
Owners and operators of CERCLA sites are ineligible for the exemption, as are arrangers and transporters of nonrecyclable materials, or arrangers and transporters of recyclable material that fail to meet the criteria necessary for the exemption. SREA outlines the criteria necessary for a party to be eligible for the recycling exemption, including the definition of a recyclable material, the factors needed to qualify as a recycling transaction, and the types of transactions and materials that are not exempt under the statute.
Section 127(b)(2), the PCBs exclusion from the exemption, states that “recyclable material” does not include any item of material that contained PCBs at a concentration exceeding 50 ppm, or any new standard promulgated pursuant to applicable federal laws.
Section 2.0 addresses the overall definition of recyclable material, as it pertains to scrap metal, batteries, and PCBs. Section 3.0 focuses primarily on scrap metal issues. Section 4.0 focuses on battery transactions. Section 5.0 focuses on transactions involving PCB-containing materials.
Section 127(b) provides that the liability exemption applies only to the recycling of certain materials: scrap paper, scrap plastic, scrap glass, scrap textiles, scrap rubber (other than whole tires), scrap metal, and spent lead-acid, nickel-cadmium, and other batteries, as well as minor amounts of material incident to or adhering to the scrap material as a result of its normal and customary use prior to becoming scrap.
Therefore, the arranger or transporter must show that its scrap material qualifies as an excluded recyclable material. This includes making sure the scrap material meets the definition above, including whether the scrap material had more than minor amounts of material incident to or adhering to it as a result of its normal and customary use prior to becoming scrap.
Furthermore, the arranger or transporter must then show that its transaction(s) involving the recyclable material was an “arrangement for recycling” by providing evidence that all criteria in Section 127(c) were met at the time of the transaction.
If the recyclable material is a scrap metal or spent battery, or both, Sections 127(d) and (e) outline the specific criteria for recycling these materials, which must be met in addition to the criteria of Section 127(c).
anciliary federal Hazardous m aterials l aws
WaTer
The Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), which are both enforced by the EPA Office of Water, deal with two major aspects of water as it pertains to toxic and hazardous chemicals.
clean water act
The Clean Water Act controls the discharge of toxic materials into surface streams. This act was the outcome of the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act, which prohibited waterway discharges that could interfere with interstate transportation. In addition, other water pollution control acts were passed in the intervening years.
The earlier acts protected water bodies by imposing effluent limitations at the source of pollution discharge. The later acts regulated water pollution control by defining the level of pollution that the receiving body of water theoretically could handle. Discharge limit provisions and water quality standards were set up. The concept of discharge permits was incorporated into the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
The EPA is required to promulgate hazardous materials discharge requirements for several dozen industrial categories covering over 100 toxic pollutants for discharge into surface waters. These toxics include metals, corrosives, and some pesticides. Dischargers of these pollutants are required to use the best available technology to achieve these limitations.
Toxic and hazardous waste discharges directly to a receiving body of water are regulated by NPDES permit, whereas discharges acceptable to the municipal sewer system, such as by a POTW, are allowed without a federal permit.
The Clean Water Act covers those activities that have the potential to discharge oil into the waters of the United States, including storage of petroleum-based liquids.
The Exxon Valdez spill incident in 1989 resulted in amendments to the CWA that require all storage of petroleum products and oils to be subject to the EPA’s Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) system. Every fixed facility that stores a total of more than 1,320 gallons of oil, of any type, must prepare and implement an SPCC Plan.
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XXI
Entró en la redacción con las orejas gachas, convencido de antemano de la regañina que le iban a echar, y desde luego resignado a sufrirla.
—¿No está el director? —preguntó asomando tímidamente la cabeza.
—¿Qué director?
—¿Qué director va a ser? Sánchez Cortina. Todos le miraron asombrados.
—¡Pero cómo!... ¿no sabes?
—Ni una palabra. ¿Qué ocurre?
—¡Anda Dios! ¡Pues ahí es nada! ¡Friolera!
—Queridos, como no os expliquéis...
—Pues que Sánchez Cortina ya no es director. Al día siguiente de ponerte tú malo, se planteó la crisis, por diferencias en las cifras de los presupuestos, y Sánchez Cortina se calzó la cartera de Agricultura. Se ha llevado a Pedrosa de secretario particular, y Castro se ha encargado de la Dirección. ¿Pero de veras no sabías nada?
—De veras. Estos cuatro días me he permitido el lujo de no leer un solo periódico.
—Pues sí, hijo, sí, todas esas cosas han sucedido, y las que sucederán. Porque te advierto que vamos a hacer grandísimas reformas en El Combate. Desde primero de mes se aumenta e tamaño, tendremos subvención y subirán los sueldos. ¿Eh, qué te parece?
Muy bien, le parecía muy bien; ya lo creo, admirable. «Está visto — pensó— que en este mundo todo es cuestión de rachas. Viene la mala
y a morir, viene la buena y todo sale a pedir de boca. Puesto que ahora estoy en la buena, justo es que la aproveche». Pidió cinco duros adelantados en la Administración, y en cuanto concluyó su tarea se marchó a casa de Isabelilla. Isabelilla le traía loco No era amor lo que sentía por ella, pero era algo más fuerte y más intenso que el mismo amor; un deseo imperioso y constante de esta siempre en sus brazos, de verse retratado en el fondo de sus pupilas claras, de acariciar su carne de rosa, de jugar con las hebras de su espléndida cabellera de oro, y, sobre todo, de besarla en la boca. He aquí el secreto de su gran pasión: besarla. De todos los encantos de Isabelilla, de todos los atractivos de su espíritu y de su cuerpo ninguno tan delicioso ni tan enloquecedor como sus labios. No es que fuesen suaves, ni que fuesen frescos, ni que fuesen rojos, ni que su aliento perfumara; es que besaban como no besaban ningunos otros labios en el mundo. Dominaban el beso como un sabio puede domina la ciencia, más aún, porque el sabio llega un instante en que se detiene indeciso ante las puertas del misterio, y para aquellos labios no existían misterios; besaban de todas maneras; besos sonoros de nodriza; besos suaves, casi imperceptibles; besos rápidos instantáneos, fuertes como mordiscos; besos largos, infinitos inacabables...; sabían cómo se besaba en las mejillas, y cómo se besaba en los ojos, y cómo se besaba en la garganta, y sobre todo sobre todo, cómo se besaba en la boca; uniéndose como imanes pegándose como compresas, crispando los nervios y haciendo hervir la sangre; labios hechos para reír y para besar; nacidos para la alegría y el amor; sabrosos como dulces; exquisitos como néctar; perfumados como flores; adormecedores como el opio, y mareantes como el vino Era imposible que el que los gustara una vez, no los deseara ya para toda la vida.
Luis los deseaba, los deseaba con todas las energías de su ser aquellos labios se habían convertido para él en una necesidad de su persona, eran su pasión, su vicio.
En la calle se acordó de que la había prometido un abanico japonés y entró a comprarle: un abanico muy lindo, con su varillaje de caña y su vitela de pájaros y flores.
—¡Qué contenta se va a poner cuando lo vea! —pensaba, subiendo las escaleras de dos en dos, tan de prisa, que cuando llegó frente a la puerta tuvo que detenerse para tomar aliento. Dentro vibraba la risa de Isabel fresca y sonora.
Súbitamente, al ruido del campanillazo la risa cesó; oyó rumor de faldas y cerrar de puertas; entreabriose el ventanillo, y le dijo la Pepa:
—¿Es usted, señorito Luis? Pues la Isabel no está, ha salido.
—¿Que ha salido?
Sí, ha salido. ¿Quiere usted que le diga algo cuando vuelva?
Asombrado por lo inaudito de la mentira, no supo qué contestar. Su primer ímpetu fue armar un escándalo, derribar la puerta a patadas y empezar a cachetes con todos los que estuviesen dentro Afortunadamente, comprendió que esto era una barbaridad, y girando sobre sus talones, se contentó con marcharse por donde había venido las manos crispadas, mordiéndose los labios de coraje, jurando y perjurando no volver en la vida a mirar a Isabel.
Al llegar a la mitad de la escalera su mano tropezó con el abanico, y cogiéndole con furia le rasgó en pedazos, le mordió, le estrujó, le pisoteó, le hizo trizas, tantas y tan menudas, que ni cien chinos juntos hubieran sido capaces de reconstituirle. Esto le calmó.
«La culpa es solo mía —pensaba—. ¿Quién me manda a m meterme a idealizar? Tiene razón Manolo. Con estas mujeres no puede idealizarse. En cuanto uno se ilusiona, viene el jarro de agua. Me está bien empleado por tonto; pero no volverá a sucederme, no».
De repente se acordó de María; el recuerdo de Isabel falsa evocó e recuerdo de María constante, de María honrada, cariñosa y buena Antojósele que la traición de Isabelilla era un castigo, un aviso providencial de que también él tenía la obligación de ser constante. «S yo por una perdida a quien no quiero —decía— he sufrido tanto un instante, ¿qué no sufrirá mi pobre María si sabe que la engaño?».
Y preocupado con esta idea, arrepentido, verdaderamente arrepentido, cambió de rumbo, y en vez de ir a su casa, se fue a la de María.
Pareciole ver su sombra detrás de las persianas, y alegremente subió las escaleras de dos en dos. Llamó a la puerta, y, como en casa
de Isabelilla, la puerta no se abrió. Corriose el ventanillo, y le dijo la criada:
—La señorita no está, ha salido.
—¿Cómo que no está? ¿Usted sabe quién soy yo?
—Sí, el señorito Luis; pero la señorita no está en casa.
—Bueno, pues la esperaré —contestó dispuesto a todo.
—Es inútil; esta noche la señorita no cena en casa.
Cerrose el ventanillo.
Aturdido y desconcertado quedó también ante esta puerta. Fue de nuevo a llamar para pedir explicaciones; pero comprendiendo que la criada no hacía más que obedecer una consigna, temeroso de ponerse todavía más en ridículo, se marchó con la cabeza baja. En la calle volvió a mirar a los balcones. Ya no estaba la sombra detrás de las persianas. La ausencia de la sombra le hizo afirmarse más en que la sombra había existido.
¿Qué significaba aquello? ¿Por qué su tía se negaba a recibirle? ¿Qué motivos podía tener para ello?
Loco de dolor llegó a su casa. Necesitaba distraerse, olvidar. Nada mejor para ello que el trabajo. Excitado y nervioso, extendió sobre la mesa las cuartillas de su obra. Pero las ideas no acudían; los pensamientos no acertaban a desenvolverse; su frente ardía; tuvo que abrir el balcón porque se ahogaba...
Y una ráfaga de aire penetró furiosa por el balcón y aventó las cuartillas.
XXII
Con las manos metidas en los bolsillos del pantalón, sin pensar en nada, iba por las calles malhumorado y triste. Tras la tensión nerviosa de los pasados días, su ser había caído en un estado de dulce laxitud en un blando desvanecimiento, como si una mano piadosa, pasando por su frente, se hubiera ido llevando uno tras otro todos los sufrimientos. Celos, odios, rencores, amarguras, todo desapareció dejándole en el alma un vacío muy grande, un abatimiento muy hondo una tristeza muy intensa, que le oprimía y le aplanaba, como si se encontrase sumergido en las profundidades de una mina.
Las dos cartas de Isabel y de María que al día siguiente recibiera llenas de vulgares excusas y corrientes explicaciones, solo sirvieron para entristecerle más y más al ver cómo los ideales se rompían y se desmenuzaban y caían deshechos. Después de todo, aquello era natural; todas las mujeres son iguales; necio es y será siempre el que en ellas confíe.
Al doblar una esquina se encontró con Antonio Bedmar. Venía e pobre muchacho como en sus malos tiempos de bohemia, desaliñado con las botas sucias, sin afeitar el rostro, torcida la corbata, encorvado el cuerpo y torpe en el andar.
—¿Dónde vas?
—Por ahí; no tengo rumbo fijo.
—Ni yo tampoco; pasearemos juntos.
—Pasear..., no; estoy cansado; me duelen mucho los pies; si tienes dinero, prefiero que me convides.
—¿Pero otra vez, Antonio? ¿pero otra vez vuelves a beber?
—¡Qué quieres! El vino es lo único que consigue distraerme, lo único que consigue hacerme olvidar.
—Oye; ¿tú crees de veras que el vino hace olvidar?
—¡Qué duda cabe!
—Entonces, sí; te convido, también yo esta tarde necesito beber.
—¿Tú..., para qué?
—Para lo que tú; para olvidar y para embrutecerme.
—¡Qué necesidad tienes tú de olvidar! ¿Qué sabes tú lo que son penas?
—¿Qué sabes tú si yo las tengo?
Verdad; tienes razón; los hombres no sabemos nunca nada los unos de los otros; somos desconocidos, que cuando nos vemos en la calle nos tendemos la mano, sin saber por qué la mayoría de las veces No conocemos de los demás más que lo que los demás quieren decirnos. ¡Y esto es siempre tan poco! El que tiene penas se las calla, y el que no las puede callar, hace lo que yo, las ahoga.
Después, delante de la botella, fue más explícito.
—Me gusta el vino, ¿por qué negarlo? me gusta, me agrada a paladar. ¿No les gusta a otros el café y el tabaco y el dulce? A mí me gusta el vino; pero aunque no me gustara, lo bebería. El vino es e gran calmante de todas las penas, el lenitivo de todos los dolores Cuando estoy sereno, soy el ser más desgraciado de este mundo, e más miserable; todo me falta: amor, ternura, dinero, salud... En cambio, cuando estoy borracho..., cuando estoy borracho, todo me sobra; soy más rico que Creso, más grande que Alejandro, más poeta que Shakespeare. Que vengan, que vengan entonces a ofrecerme mujeres y millones y gloria...; verás tú con qué energía los desprecio verás con qué valentía los rechazo, verás con qué ganas me río en m locura de los pobres cuerdos, de todos los que me compadecen y dicen: «¡Pobre Antoñito!», sin comprender que en ese momento soy yo mucho más grande, mucho más feliz, muchísimo más dichoso que todos ellos juntos... El vino, el vino... Sin el vino, ¿qué sería de mí? Ya ves tú, he reñido con Elena, esta vez para siempre; esa mujer es m alma; sin ella no puedo vivir; no tengo valor para matarme... Si no fuera por el vino, dime: ¿qué sería de mí?
Apuró de un sorbo el contenido del vaso, escanciose otro, y apoyando la frente en las manos, quedó sumido en hondos pensamientos.
—¿Y tú, por qué bebes?
Ya te lo dije; por lo mismo que tú: para olvidar.
—¿A una mujer?
A una mujer.
—¿La quieres mucho?
Tanto como tú a Elena.
El bohemio sonrió.
—¡Oh, no; eso no es posible! Como amo yo, no es posible que ame nadie en el mundo. Lo mío no es amor, es locura, es delirio, es idolatría; por esa mujer daría yo hasta la última gota de mi sangre; po ella sería yo canalla, ladrón, asesino... ¡Qué sabes tú lo que es amor Vamos a ver: si te dijeran que esa mujer, a quien tanto quieres, te engañaba con otro, ¿la perdonarías?
—¡No! —rugió Luis con fiereza.
—¡Pues yo sí! La quiero tanto, que aun engañándome, la quiero. Ya ves tú si la quiero. ¡Chico, otra botella! Los médicos me han prohibido que beba, y bebo; los amigos me desprecian, y bebo; yo comprendo que cada día me cuesta más trabajo producir, y bebo; un día me dijo ella: no bebas, y no volví a probar siquiera una copa. Si me dijera mátate, me mataría lo mismo. ¿No me estoy ya matando? ¿Crees tú que yo no sé que me voy a morir? Pues sí, lo sé, y sin embargo me dejo. Mejor, cuanto antes me muera, mejor.
—Vámonos, Antonio, vámonos; hace mucho calor aquí, estoy mareado.
—¡Cobarde! ¿Con dos botellas nada más? Siéntate ahí. ¿Cómo quieres olvidar si no bebes?
—No puedo, Antonio, no puedo... Me duele mucho la cabeza.
—¡Cobarde! Siéntate ahí. Chico, otra botella. Para olvidar es preciso beber. Bebe, Luis.
—No, no; yo me marcho.
—¿Te marchas? Ve con Dios, eres un cobarde. Yo me quedo. ¡Ah, tú no serás nunca feliz! ¿Cómo vas a ser feliz, si no bebes? ¡Chico, esa botella! ¿Pero no viene esa botella?
XXIII
El día amaneció nublado y bochornoso. El sol aparecía y se ocultaba entre las nubes con raras alternativas de luz y sombra; extraños cambios de claridad y penumbra; no se notaba la más pequeña ráfaga de aire; las hojas permanecían en los árboles quietas, inmóviles, como sujetas por tallos de acero; no se oía el canto de un pájaro, ni e zumbido de un insecto, nada; la naturaleza parecía aletargada por su propio calor.
Poco a poco las nubes se agruparon hasta formar un solo conjunto de color plomizo; el viento azotó con furia las hojas de los árboles barrió las calles levantando sucios remolinos de polvo; cerró con estrépito ventanas y puertas; zarandeó persianas, se retorció en los canalones con agudos silbidos. Luego cesó un momento; el calor fue insoportable; un relámpago rasgó la nube, sonó un trueno y empezó a llover.
Agradable olor a tierra húmeda esparciose rápidamente suavizando la atmósfera del andén, reseca con el humo de las locomotoras. E expreso iba a salir. Las vagonetas, empujadas por los mozos, iban y venían cargadas de maletas y baúles, haciendo retemblar el piso traqueteaban los vagones al unirse con bruscos estremecimientos; las válvulas dejaban escapar chorros de vapor que mojaban la acera y producían al salir un sonido continuo, estridente; el humo de la máquina al chocar contra el techo perdía sus formas espirales y se extendía sobre el tren como la neblina sobre un río.
Sentados en el vagón, uno enfrente de otro, María y Luis hablaban.
—Has hecho muy mal en decírmelo tan tarde.
—No era posible otra cosa. Ha sido una idea repentina, una decisión de última hora. Pensarlo y hacer el baúl. Llevo una temporada
malísima. Creo que el campo me sentará muy bien.
—¿Vas a estar muchos días?
—No sé; depende de las circunstancias; según me pruebe.
Él no contestó; apoyó la frente en el cristal y quedó distraído mirando al andén.
—¿En qué piensas?
—No sé; estoy triste; siento desde hace unos días una tristeza abrumadora, una melancolía inexplicable que me aplana y me aniquila sin saber por qué; una cosa así como un vago presentimiento de que me va a suceder una desgracia, algo muy doloroso contra lo que no puedo luchar ni defenderme, porque no sé lo que es. Ya ves: ahora mismo tu viaje no tiene importancia, es un viaje de recreo; regresarás dentro de unos días, muy pronto, y sin embargo, no puedes figurarte la pena tan grande con que te despido; me parece que es el último día que nos vamos a ver.
Ella bajó la cabeza confusa; una oleada de sangre encendió sus mejillas. Él, sin notarlo, continuó:
—Comprendo que es una tontería, una locura, pero no puedo remediarlo; te lo juro con toda mi alma; si en mi mano estuviera impedir este viaje, lo impediría, no te quepa duda. María añadió tristemente cogiéndole las manos—, ¿por qué te vas? No te vayas.
—¡Qué niño eres! —contestó ella conmovida, tratando de volver la cara para que Luis no viera las lágrimas que se agolpaban a sus ojos.
—No te vayas...
—¡Qué locura!
Un individuo abrió violentamente la portezuela obligándoles a corta el diálogo.
—Perdone usted, caballero —díjole Luis malhumorado—; este coche es reservado de señoras.
—Precisamente —contestó el otro con gran flema—; precisamente un reservado es lo que estas señoras desean.
Y apartándose galantemente, dejó pasar a dos que tras él venían con un arsenal completo de mantas, cestos, maletas y sacos de mano Después subió también y empezó a colocar tranquilamente los bártulos en la redecilla del vagón.
En el andén los viajeros se atropellaban en busca de los coches
Despedidas, abrazos, apretones de manos, besos y caricias recomendaciones y advertencias; vocear de los mozos, pregoneo de periódicos y guías, un ruido continuo, ensordecedor, reforzado por e traqueteo de los coches, el sonido metálico de los topes al golpearse el silbido del vapor al escaparse por las válvulas, los truenos a retumbar en el espacio y la lluvia al caer con fuerza azotando las paredes de hierro.
De pie sobre el estribo seguía Luis hablando.
—¡Te quiero más que nunca! Te vas y mi alma se va toda contigo Te acompaña en tu viaje; dondequiera que estés, estará a tu lado ¿Puedo yo decir lo mismo, mi María?
—¿Tú? ¿Para qué? ¡Qué falta te hace a ti mi cariño!
—¿Por qué me dices eso?
—Por nada.
La campana sonó; subieron los rezagados; un empleado fue cerrando de golpe las portezuelas.
—¿Por qué me dices eso? —volvió a repetir.
—Por nada —volvió ella a contestar.
—¡Eh, cuidado, caballero! El tren va a salir.
—¡Adiós!
—¡Adiós, mi María!
—¡Adiós, Luis!
—¿Nada más que Luis?
—¡Adiós!
Un silbido aflautado se escapó de la máquina; las válvulas dejaron escapar chorros de vapor; traquetearon los vagones y el tren comenzó a moverse, despacio primero, como monstruo que se despereza, hasta pisar las planchas giratorias que temblaron con secas vibraciones en estridente escala, y luego más de prisa, cada vez más, hasta salir de agujas, confundirse en la oscuridad y ser solo una sombra, perceptible apenas por sus farolitos encarnados...
