Meriden Muse 2023

Muse 2023 MERIDEN

Muse 2023 MERIDEN

Introduction from the Principal MRS LISA BROWN

I am delighted to introduce the inaugural edition of Meriden Muse, a publication dedicated to showcasing the remarkable talents and insights of Meriden girls. This journal is more than a collection of research papers; it is testament to the boundless curiosity, intellectual rigour, and creative spirit that define our students.

In an era where information is readily accessible, the ability to engage in deep research and critical thinking is more vital than ever. Research is not just about finding answers; it is about asking the right questions, challenging assumptions, and exploring new territories of knowledge. It is through this process that we advance our understanding of the world and contribute to the broader body of knowledge that shapes our society.

Critical thinking, a cornerstone of scholarly research, empowers students to analyse complex problems, evaluate diverse perspectives, and make informed decisions. It encourages a sceptical yet open-minded approach, enabling students to discern the validity of arguments and the reliability of sources. In an age of information overload, the ability to think critically is essential for navigating the vast sea of data and making meaningful contributions to academic and public discourse.

Creativity, often seen as the spark that ignites innovation, plays a crucial role in research. It is the force that drives us to think outside the box, to envision possibilities beyond the conventional, and to develop original solutions to pressing challenges. Creativity leads to breakthroughs that can transform disciplines, industries, and lives. It fosters a spirit of experimentation and resilience, encouraging students to persevere in the face of setbacks and to view failures as opportunities for growth and discovery.

Within these pages, you will find a diverse array of research projects, as well as literary and musical compositions and artworks, that reflect the interdisciplinary nature of our community. Each contribution is a reflection of the hard work, dedication, and intellectual curiosity of our students. Their work spans a wide range of topics, from the sciences to the humanities, and demonstrates the profound impact that students can have on their fields of study.

As you explore this journal, I hope you are inspired by the passion and ingenuity of our students. I encourage you to engage with their work, to ask questions, and to consider how their findings and their creative expression might inform your own thinking.

I would like to thank the students who have contributed to this first edition of Muse, for bravely sharing their research and their creative spirit with our community, and to the teachers who lit the spark, inspiring and guiding these projects. Special thanks must also be extended to Ms Priscilla Curran, Dean of Lateral Learning and Dr Jocelyn Laurence, COLL – Research and Critical Thinking, who first floated the idea of this publication as a platform to showcase the exceptional student work they have witnessed in their roles. Together with the work of the Student Editorial Committee, this has culminated in a wonderfully curated publication.

I hope you enjoy the 2023 edition of Muse.

This journal celebrates the symbiotic relationship between research, critical thinking, and creativity.

MRS LISA BROWN

Principal

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Contents

THE ARTS

Introduction from the Principal Mrs Lisa Brown

3

Letter from the Research Captain Lucinda Harricks

6

Preface Ms Priscilla Curran and Dr Jocelyn Laurence

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HISTORY, THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY

56

Tita Juliette Owen, Year 9

58

Lights Up Eva Moss, Year 10

59

The Honey Garden Grace Li, Year 7

60

A roundabout to Meriden Mandi Yu, Year 8

61

Are you happy?

Abigail Lee, Year 9

62

Leave It With Me Sienna Kim, Year 12

63

Critically assess historians’ differing interpretations of the most prominent cause of the expulsion of Nikita Khrushchev from power Lael Sakalauskas, Year 12

10

Should there be restrictions on free speech?

Leah Har, Year 10

A Taste of Home Chloe NGuyen, Year 8

71

19

Spilled Chai Suhani Patel, Year 11

72

Threads of My Tapestry Amanda Chen, Year 12

74

A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov Claudia Fernandes, Year 12

75

Navigating the unkown Nina Krecklenburg, Year 12

94

Head in the Clouds Lisa Chen, Olivia Kim, Jasmine Yang, Year 8

95

Skyside Isabel Hong, Year 10

97

String Quartet No.1 Zoe Chan, Year 11

98

Aurelia Aurita 1, 2 and 3 Annabelle Frederick, Year 11

109

The Cracked Television Anjali Kailasanathan, Year 11

111

Inside Out Anna Liu, Year 12

113

Beyond the Binary: A Search for Nuance Phoebe Van Niekerk, Year 12

114

Sublunary Talia Yin, Year 12

121

Explain the change and continuity between the first and second waves of feminism in the women’s rights movements in America during the 19th and 20th centuries Miriam Shin, Year 8 Which characteristics distinguish successful movements for social change from unsuccessful ones?

Qianqi (Christina) Zhou, Year 9 Critically evaluate historians’ interpretations of Enver Hoxha’s leadership of Albania from 1944-1985 Cassandra Seeto, Year 11 With reference to the quotation, how does Christianity guide adherents to seek transformation of self and the world?

Nynia Nguyen, Year 11

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26

29

33

How has Chinese cuisine been enculturated in Australian society over time?

Veronica Xie, Year 8

38

The Hagia Sophia through history Varnikaa Kannan, Year 9

43

Michel Foucault and Islamic ideology in the Iranian Revolution Alicia Wang, Year 11

4

Grandma’s Table Jasmine Yang, Year 8

48

STEM AND INNOVATION

GLOBAL OUTLOOK

Engineering eggbeater: An investigation of the trochanter angles effect on the height achieved by eggbeater kick over 14s in females [pilot study (Abridged)] Anneke Dykgraaff, Year 12

132

How has Lego shaped ideals and expectations of gender? A comparative study between Generation X and Generation Z Zara Chan, Year 11

180

Alchemy’s enchantment Qianqi Zhou, Year 9

140

Do the effects of foreign aid contribute to economic development?

Sabrina Cao, Year 10

184

The Toxicity of Sydney Waterways Sophie Yi and Meredith Xu, Year 10

141

FutureFit Footwear Business Plan Esther Yum, Year 11

149

The evolution of the Meriden Duck Canice Lei, Year 10

156

The ARK India Whip, Year 9 The Fishing Rod Merryn Quang, Year 11 How can drones coordinate by delegating tasks in search and rescue missions to assist firefighters in a limited time frame?

Danielle Gallico and Keira Taganesia, Year 8

157 166

174

Should the natural habitat of species be protected from deforestation?

188 Amrita Wadhera, Year 10 A study of the integration of two generations of Chinese immigrants into Western culture.

Anna Liu, Year 12 191 Five Sectors: The Commerce Song Alexandra Katanasho and Freya Cleary, Year 10

194

How does the socio-economic composition of a suburb impact the availability and affordability of fresh produce offered in its grocery stores?

Mia St George, Year 11

195

The Little Bird Elisya Arfianto, Year 7

209

Are electric vehicles a sustainable solution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions?

220 Isabella Wong, Year 10 Student Contributors 222 Muse Committee Members 222 Acknowledgements 223

Muse 2023 MERIDEN

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Letter from the Research Captain LUCINDA HARRICKS

Welcome to the inaugural edition of Muse, a journal that showcases some of the incredible work of Meriden students. Students on the Muse Editorial Committee have thoughtfully compiled these pieces to create this beautiful collection.

Our efforts in the curation of these research projects have allowed us to engage with, and grow our appreciation for, the research process. Research is a crucial skill — something that we, as students, are particularly aware of the night before a research task is due! However, its uses extend beyond school assignments.

Undertaking research develops our critical thinking skills as we learn to evaluate sources, analyse findings and reach an informed conclusion. Breaking apart information into manageable pieces is a crucial step in the problem-solving process that leads us to a fact-based solution. Research allows us to critically examine and enhance our understanding of the world, guiding us toward informed conclusions. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Laurence for the guidance she has provided us as Committee members.

I hope you appreciate the many and varied research projects and other fascinating works in this journal, and the valuable insights they provide.

On behalf of the Muse Editorial Committee, happy reading.

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LUCINDA HARRICKS

Student Research Captain

Preface MS PRISCILL A CURR AN AND D R J O C E LY N L A U R E N C E

It is indeed a very special moment for us to see this publication of Muse come to fruition. Firstly, it represents the culmination of a year’s worth of dedication, curiosity, creativity and intellectual exploration by our talented students. Beyond that, it also represents for us the coming to life of an idea that we have long harboured in our roles within the Lateral Learning department.

In our roles as COLL – Research and Critical Thinking and as Dean of Lateral Learning we are fortunate to see the wide range of works produced in a variety of academic disciplines. Over the years, we have discussed the idea of publishing a journal that would showcase the breadth and depth of these pieces; works that exemplify the extraordinary achievements of our student researchers, writers, innovators, artists and musicians.

The title Muse was inspired by the significance of Parnassus to Meriden’s heritage. The lilies of Parnassus feature in the school crest, and Mount Parnassus was the mountain sacred to the muses in Ancient Greece. It is these muses, who preside over the different realms of learning, be it poetry, science, history or music, that have provided the inspiration for this journal and the sections within it. The verb ‘to muse’ also means to consider something thoughtfully, and there is no doubt that all of the students who have had their work published in this journal have spent many hours in quiet contemplation of their work, researching, questioning, drafting and refining in order to produce the final product.

The works presented here cover a wide array of topics, demonstrating the varied interests and passions of our students.

Many of these pieces were created as a result of the demands of the curriculum.

Some are HSC Major Works and others were awarded a Gold Parnassus Award, an award at Meriden that recognises research, and critical and creative thinking at the highest level. Other works reflect the varied competitions that our students have chosen to engage in. Some works take the form of detailed research essays and reports, others use the mediums of painting, sculpture, musical scores, song lyrics and poetry. No matter the form, each piece contributes to a broader understanding of our world and showcases the intellectual rigour and creativity that is fostered at Meriden.

MS PRISCILLA CURRAN

Dean of Lateral Learning

D R J O C E LY N L AU R E N C E

COLL – Research and Critical Thinking

We are immensely proud of our students’ achievements and hope this journal inspires current and future students to embark on their own journeys of discovery and wonder.

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History, Theology and Philosophy

8

Muse 2023 MERIDEN

9

Critically assess historians’ differing interpretations of the most prominent cause of the expulsion of Nikita Khrushchev from power L AEL SAK AL AUSK AS Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

The expulsion of Nikita Khrushchev, who stands as the only Soviet leader to have been expelled from power, generated contentious debate. Khrushchev’s expulsion stimulated a particular interest in the nature of leadership in authoritarian regimes, as it challenged the formerly prevailing Western perception that the Soviet Union’s political system required an omnipotent leader.1 The debate regarding Khrushchev’s expulsion is one analysed by historians who hold competing political, personal and temporal contexts, influencing their access to historiography and shaping their perceptions of the Soviet political system,2 thus, generating contesting perspectives.3 Carl Linden,4 one of the earliest commentators on Khrushchev’s expulsion, interpreted the event as a product of Khrushchev’s failure to attain absolute authority, based upon the “conflict school”5 of Soviet politics.6 Yet, Linden’s temporal context hindered his access to key Soviet historiography and, consequently, relied on inference to support his analysis.7 Comparatively, Soviet historian and former member of the

Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU),8 Roy Medvedev,9 gained significant access to source material that remains inaccessible to Western historians.10 Drawing on his MarxistLeninist11 ideology,12 Medvedev identified party structural changes, which threatened the stability of the Soviet political system, as the primary cause of Khrushchev’s expulsion.13 A notable shift in the analysis of the event transpired following the Soviet policy of Glasnost14 and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union.15 William Tompson,16 an historian who wrote during this period, examined the significance of Khrushchev’s broken political promises, as the most prominent cause for his expulsion.17 Hence, competing perspectives encapsulate the question of whether it is possible to discern the most prominent cause behind the events of Khrushchev’s expulsion.

8 Britannica. (n.d.). Roy Medvedev. In Britannica.com. Retrieved March 2, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Roy-Medvedev 9 Born in 1925, Roy Medvedev is a Soviet scholar, historian and the son of a Marxist philosopher, purged under Stalin’s Great Terror. Between 1956 and 1969, Medvedev was a member within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, before his dismissal. Medvedev is the author of the text Khrushchev: The Years in Power, published in 1976. In reference to Medvedev’s political ideology, he identified himself as both a critic of Western capitalist societies, and a Soviet oppositionist who has publicly condemned Stalinist rule.

Medvedev, Z. A. and Medvedev, R. A. (1971). A question of madness. [e-book].

Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/questionsofmadne0000unse/page/14/ mode/1up p. 3 10 Cohen, F. S. (1975, July 13). On Socialist Democracy. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1975/07/13/archives/on-socialist-democracy.html

https://www.jstor.org/stable/40200249 p.716

11 Marxist-Leninism refers to Lenin’s political understanding of Marxism; that a revolutionary proletariat class would not emerge automatically from capitalism but rather, that there was a need for a professional party to lead the working class in the overthrow of capitalism.

2 Torigian, J. (2022). “You Don’t Know Khrushchev Well”: The Ouster of the Soviet Leader as a Challenge to Recent Scholarship on Authoritarian Politics. Journal of Cold War Studies, 41(1), 78-115. https://direct.mit.edu/jcws/ article/24/1/78/109004/You-Don-t-Know-Khrushchev-Well-The-Ouster-of-the p.80

New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Marxism-Leninism. https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Marxism-Leninism 12 Medvedev, R. (1978). Khrushchev: The Years in Power. W. W. Norton and Company. p. 152

3

13

1 Elwood, R. C. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 19571965, by C. A. Linden]. International Journal, 22(4), 715–716.

Ibid.

4 Carl A. Linden is a highly educated American professor of Russian and Soviet political science, who served in the US air force intelligence during the Korean War. Prompted by the fall of Khrushchev, Linden wrote the text Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964, published in 1966.

Taylor and Francis. (n.d.). Variety and Adventure in the life of Carl Linden. https://albert-schmidt.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/33-Carl-Linden-Tribute_ PPS_2014.pdf p. 114 5 Introduced by Boris I Nicolaevsky, the conflict school questions the adequacy of the concept of totalitarianism as the most appropriate tool for understanding the inner political realities of Soviet regimes. The school perceives that the internal conflict inherent in Western, multi-party systems was similarly present within the Soviet Union.

Ibid.

14 The policy of Glasnost is most closely translated as “openness” and refers to the removal of information constraints in the Soviet Union, allowing freedom of media, embracing of criticism and decreasing censorship. The period of Glasnost, between 1986-1991 is often linked to a period of increased thought, with a widening of Soviet public discussion of both foreign and internal policy issues.

The RAND Corporation. (1990). Glasnost and Soviet Foreign Policy. https://www. rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/notes/2009/N3008.pdf p. 36 15

Torigian, J. (2022). Op. cit. p. 80

Ibid. p. 113

16 William J. Tompson is a highly educated professor of political science in both the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1995, he published Khrushchev: A political life, the first English biography of Khrushchev to make use of Soviet sources, and since, has written prolifically, on Soviet political leaders and the current Russian Federation.

6 Linden, C. A. (1966). Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 1957-1964. The Johns Hopkin University Press p. 206

Tompson, W. (n.d.). Curriculum Vitae. https://oecd.academia.edu/ WilliamTompson/CurriculumVitae

7 Taubman, W. (2004). Khrushchev: The Man and His Era. W. W. Norton and Company. p. 2

17 Tompson, W. J. (1994). Khrushchev: A Political Life. Palgrave Macmillan London. p. 266

10

History, Theology and Philosophy

Linden18 proposed that the absence of an institutionalised system of succession, in the post-Stalin era,19 had implications for Khrushchev’s capacity to successfully consolidate his power, resulting in his expulsion.20 Due to the lack of a welldefined mechanism for resolving disputes of authority21 within the presidium,22 Linden concluded that conflict within Soviet leadership increased in prevalence,23 irrespective of Khrushchev’s rise to high office, or the defeat of the “anti-party”24 group.25 McAuley similarly identified that, following Stalin’s death, conflict emerged within the leadership.26 Thus, Linden maintained that Khrushchev was unable to secure his position as an absolute leader,27 and was rather engaged in a constant

18

See footnote 4.

19 Hanak, H. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 19571964., by C. A. Linden]. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 43(4), 759–760. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2612849 p. 760 20 Holm, K. C. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 19571964, by C. A. Linden]. Naval War College Review, 19(9), 128–129. http://www. jstor.org/stable/44640988 p. 129 21 Conolly, V. (1968). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 19571964, by C. A. Linden]. The Slavonic and East European Review, 46(106), 261-262. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205967 p. 262

struggle to maintain and extend his authority.28 While Linden dismissed Khrushchev’s erratic style of leadership as more of a “pretext than a real issue”,29 he diverted attention to the Cuban Missile Crisis30 and the disintegration of Soviet authority over Eastern Europe.31 Such circumstances placed Khrushchev in a position of vulnerability,32 undermining his ability to overcome ever-present opposition.33 This granted Khrushchev’s opponents the opportunity to consolidate and broaden their own power, ultimately culminating in his expulsion.34 Ergo, Linden argued that Khrushchev’s expulsion was not preordained, but rather, “an outgrowth of an on-going conflict” by which Soviet politics was characterised.35 Linden’s interpretation of Khrushchev’s expulsion was constructed in terms of his objective,36 and his adherence to the conflict school of Soviet politics.37 Linden reflected on the intention of his text, saying it was not a history of the Khrushchev era, but rather that he aimed to use Khrushchev “as a vehicle” to reveal the nature of Soviet politics.38 According to Bell, understanding the nature of the Soviet regime is crucial to effectively evaluate Khrushchev’s expulsion, as Soviet events, “cannot be defined outside of the context of Soviet politics”.39 However, while Linden’s aim is evidently valid, it imposed a distinct partiality to his argument, intending to investigate no further than the political system in which Khrushchev operated.40 Alternatively, Linden’s political ideology on the conflict school,

22 The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, now known as the Politburo, was a 7-member group with the purpose of deciding on urgent matters of the state. It was established as the most decisive and influential structure in the Soviet Union.

The Cold War. (2020, September 26). Structure of USSR – Cold War Documentary.

[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qNnyfziopko 23

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. vii

24 The anti-party group was responsible for an attempted ouster of Khrushchev in 1957, led by Viacheslav Molotov and Lazar Kaganovich, who accused Khrushchev of promoting a cult of personality and acting irresponsibly.

The attempt was unsuccessful due to the support of the Central Committee.

Consequently, Khrushchev’s opposers were named the “anti-party group” and forced to resign, removing Khrushchev’s opponents from positions in office and supposedly strengthening his stability within Soviet leadership.

28 Butler, W. E. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964; Soviet Policy-Making: Studies of Communism in Transition; Soviet Economic Controversies: The Emerging Marketing Concept and Changes in Planning, 1960-1965; Central Asians Under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change, by C. A. Linden, P. H. Juviler, H. W. Morton, J. L. Felker, and E. E. Bacon].

World Affairs, 129(4), 275–278. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20670857 p. 278

Siegelbaum, L. (n.d.). The Anti-Party Group. https://soviethistory.msu.edu/1956-2/ the-anti-party-group/

29

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 207

30

Ibid. p. 206

31

Butler, W. E. (1967). Op. cit. p. 278

32

Ibid.

33

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 206

34

Ibid.

35

Ibid. p. 2

36

Elwood, R. C. (1967). Op. cit. p. 716

37

See footnote 5.

38

Elwood, R. C. (1967). Op. cit. p. 716

25 Rush, M. (1968). [Review of Khrushchev: A History of Postwar Russia; Beginnings of the Cold War; Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964,

by M. Frankland, H. Schwartz, R. W. Pethybridge, M. F. Herz, and C. A. Linden].

Slavic Review, 27(3), 492–494. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2493357 p. 493 26 McAuley identified that while the party became the dominant institution over the secret police, army and ministries, the decade following Stalin’s death saw contending perspectives over policy towards the economy, agriculture and foreign affairs. For example, initially, Malenkov, who assumed chairmanship of the Council of Ministers, advocated for an economic policy, laying emphasis on consumer durables, while Khrushchev questioned the neglect of agriculture. As policy positions became identified with individuals, there remained a lack of unity towards a common policy programme.

McAuley, M. (1992). Soviet Politics 1917-1991. Oxford University Press. p. 63 27

Rush, M. (1968). Op. cit. p. 493

39 Bell, D. (1958). Ten Theories in Search of Reality: The Prediction of Soviet Behavior in the Social Sciences. World Politics, 10(3), 327–365. https://www.jstor. org/stable/2009491 p. 350 cited in Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 8 40

Butler, W. E. (1967). Op. cit. p. 278

11

Critically assess historians’ differing interpretations of the most prominent cause of the expulsion of Nikita Khrushchev from power | L A E L S A K A L A U S K A S Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

a product of his temporal context,41 offered unique insights into Khrushchev’s expulsion.42 Contrary to what Linden referred to as the “conventional school”,43 he aligned himself with the conflict school,44 proposing that Soviet leadership is a scene of “perpetual conflict behind a monolithic façade”.45 This theory directly supported Linden’s perspective that Khrushchev’s fall was a repercussion of the conflict in which he operated.46 Yet, while Linden’s ideology exerted a unique, “neo-enlightenment” understanding of international politics and history,47 Ali stated that, “whenever history is written under the influence of an ideology, its objectivity is sacrificed”.48 Thus, Linden’s political alignment significantly influenced both the scope and impartiality of his argument regarding Khrushchev’s expulsion from power.49 Published in 1966, two years post-Khrushchev’s expulsion, the efficacy of Linden’s text is limited by his temporal context50 and lack of foresight.51 In coherence with his aim, much of Linden’s research was dedicated to comprehending the workings of totalitarian and Marxist-Leninist regimes, granting him fundamental contextual understanding.52 However, considering his temporal context, Linden’s access to Sovietbased historiography was finite, reliant upon Soviet published texts,53 whose breadth was limited to political dictionaries

41 Linden’s Cold War context was characterised by attempts to formulate alternative visions of global history and politics, with intellectuals seeking to break away from the traditional framework of global affairs, that appeared to offer only two competing visions of world order (communism and capitalism).

Sachsenmaier, D. (2006). Global History and Critiques of Western Perspectives.

Comparative Education, 42(3), 451–470. http://www.jstor.org/stable/29727795 p.456 42

Ibid.

43 Linden observed the “conventional school” as those that emphasise the stability of a recognised leader within the Soviet Union. While accepting that conflict occurs between contenders for succession, it treats conflict, not as continuous, but rather believing there to be a phase of political stability once a political figure becomes the recognised leader of the regime.

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 2 44

See footnote 5.

45

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 2

46

Taylor and Francis. (n.d.). Op. cit. p. 113

47 Joel likened the Cold War period to that of the Enlightenment period, with the emergence of significant social and political reform following the intensive indoctrination of the Western world in relation to Cold War events, such as the Vietnam War. Hence, he identified the period as “the Cold War enlightenment”.

Joel, I. (2014). The Cold War Enlightenment. https://www.crassh.cam.ac.uk/events/25494/

and encyclopaedias,54 and party-based newspapers, such as Pravda.55 Primarily, the culture of Soviet censorship required that the reliability of such sources be questioned.56 According to Shwartz, Soviet publishing involved an estimated 70,000 censors responsible for choosing what was suitable in terms of “state security” and the expectations of the leader.57 Moreover, Bergson, although referring to Soviet economics, identified that the volume of statistical data available pre-collapse of the Soviet Union, was “systematically limited”, a consequence of its international standing as a “closed society”.58 Thus, Linden suffered a, “poverty of historiography”,59 limiting the extent and depth of his research.60 Consequently, Light maintained that a “social scientific analyst of the USSR”, such as Linden, “is forced to resort to speculation”, rather than engaging in the testing of coherent facts.61 Thus, contradicting Jenkins’ assertion that an ethically responsible historian does not “fill in the silence of history by empirical noise”.62 Hence, by inferring in the absence of evidence, it is inevitable that Linden’s conclusions were flawed,63 impeding the accuracy of his interpretation.64 Thus, Linden’s text, while comprehensive for its time, nevertheless presented a limited interpretation of the most prominent cause of Khrushchev’s expulsion.65 Medvedev66 perceived Khrushchev’s reformist ideology, and subsequent alterations to the political structure of the Soviet Union, as the most prominent cause of his expulsion.67 While Medvedev, like Tompson, acknowledged Khrushchev’s

54 Linden made significant use of political dictionaries and encyclopaedias such as Bol’shaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya (the large Soviet Encyclopaedia), Politicheskii Slovar (Political Dictionary), from which he obtained brief statements of political agendas on several policy decisions, and Spravochnik Partiynhogo Rabotnika (Handbook of the Party Worker).

Ibid.

55

Ibid.

56

Elwood, R. C. (1967). Op. cit. p. 716

57 Schwartz, B. A. (1959). Publishing in the USSR. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 73 cited in Booher, E. E. (1975). Publishing in the USSR and Yugoslavia. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 421(1), 118–129. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1040874 p. 124 58 Bergson, A. (1953). Reliability and Usability of Soviet Statistics: A Summary Appraisal. The American Statistician, 7(3), 13–16. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2685494 p. 14 59 St Mary’s University, Twickenham. (2013, December 5). Interview with Professor of Historical Theory Keith Jenkins (University of Chichester). [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cu2znmjTgvM 60

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 263

48 Ali, M. (2002). History, Ideology and Curriculum. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(44/45), 4530–4531. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4412809

61 Light, M. (1981). Approaches to the Study of Soviet Foreign Policy. Review of International Studies, 7(3), 127–143. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20096914 p. 128

49

62 Jenkins, K. (2005). On History, Historians and Silence. History Compass, 2(1), 1. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.14780542.2004.00112.x

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. vii

50 Linden wrote in 1966, during the Cold War period and amidst Brezhnev’s years in power. Thus, Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost had yet to be implemented, and Soviet material remained inaccessible.

Shvangiradze, T. (2022, February 20). The Gorbachev Era: Glasnost and Perestroika Pre-Fall of the Soviet Union. The Collector. https://www.thecollector. com/gorbachev-era-glasnost-perestroika-fall-of-soviet-union/ 51

Conolly, V. (1968). Op. cit. p. 262

52

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 263

53 Linden utilised published Soviet texts available to the Western audience such as The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and Fundamentals of Marxist-Leninism by Kuusien Ibid.

12

63 According to Linden, Khrushchev’s failure to assert Soviet domination amidst the Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in a loss of support from the Central Committee, placing him in a vulnerable political position. Alternatively, Tompson’s later access to the Central Party Archives, and the revelation that decisions were made collectively in relation to the Cuban Missile Crisis, contradict Linden’s perception.

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 272 64

Elwood, R. C. (1967). Op. cit. p. 715

65

Rush, M. (1968). Op. cit. p. 493

66

See footnote 9.

67

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 147

History, Theology and Philosophy

decreasing popularity within the public sphere, he regarded it as a temporary issue.68 Rather, Medvedev placed notable weight upon the introduction of democracy into Soviet politics, following Khrushchev’s policies regarding the political party.69 Primarily, the decision that one-third of CPSU members were to be replaced by 1965,70 laid the foundation for party members to fear replacement by “younger blood”, subsequently depriving them of the sense of security typically affiliated with a lifetime tenure.71 Such fears were exemplified by the 1962 division of oblast-level party committees into industrial and agricultural sectors,72 that fundamentally divided the party structure into two independent components.73 Thus, resulting in the rise of a system that exhibited similarities to “a two-party structure”.74 Consequently, Khrushchev’s expulsion was regarded as fundamental to restore the CPSU to its “accustomed state of unified territorial power”.75 Similarly to Linden,76 Medvedev acknowledged the prevalence of conflict over positions of authority, post-Stalin, however, he viewed such conflict as a consequence of the prevalence of democracy in “embryo form”, rather than being inherent to the natural state of the Soviet political system.77 Collectively, Medvedev viewed that one of Khrushchev’s significant shortcomings was his limited comprehension of party motives78 and, as McAuley stated, he “failed to realise that they [party members] would not follow him” and his reformist policies “blindly”.79 Thus, policies regarding the structure of the CPSU established the “determination of Khrushchev’s allies to switch loyalties and replace him”, resulting in his expulsion.80

Medvedev’s previous membership in the CPSU provided him with a comprehensive understanding of its political inner workings, by which his viewpoint on Khrushchev’s expulsion was framed.81 As a samizdat82 historian, Medvedev held a post-structuralist viewpoint,83 attempting to look beyond the framework of traditional Marxist-based ideology84 in order to transmit the “truth suppressed by state-censored publications”.85 Accordingly, he was a member of the reformist Party Democratic Movement86 and held the personal ideology of a committed Marxist-Leninist.87 Thus, Medvedev aligned himself with many of Khrushchev’s reformist policies,88 maintaining a less critical analysis.89 Consequently, he viewed that the issue of such policies lay in their rapid implementation, rather than their foundational ideology.90 Further, having been removed from the CPSU, much like Khrushchev, as a consequence of the publication of his text Let History Judge,91 Medvedev held a unique personal comprehension of the incompatibility of Khrushchev’s reformist

81

Cohen, F. S. (1975, July 13). Op. cit.

82 Samizdat can be defined as self-published material, which was secretly written, copied and circulated, often by hand, in the former Soviet Union, rather than being approved and published by the Soviet government. Samizdat texts were most commonly critical of the Soviet Government and began appearing following Stalin’s death, in 1953, as a revolt against restrictions on freedom of expression for Soviet authors. Contributors were subjected to high surveillance and harassment by the KGB, reflected in the show trial of 1973. The most active period of samizdat publication took place between 1962 and 1966.

Britannica. (n.d.). Samizdat. https://www.britannica.com/technology/samizdat 83 Komaromi, A. (2004). The Material Existence of Soviet Samizdat. Slavic Review, 63(3), 597–618. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520346 p. 598

68 Medvedev identified that Khrushchev stabilised his popularity amongst the Soviet public by denouncing Stalin at the 22nd Congress meeting, in which he revealed details of gulag death warrant lists and the millions of victims.

Consequently, portraits and monuments of Stalin were destroyed, Stalingrad renamed, and Khrushchev successfully diverted attention away from his own broken political promises.

Ibid.

69

Ibid.

70 1965 was both the end of a leadership term, according to the Soviet Union’s constitution, and the year in which the next party congress meeting was to take place. Hence, the reversal of Khrushchev’s reforms could not be made until then.

Ibid.

71

Ibid. p. 169

72 The 1962 division of oblast-level party committees into industrial and agricultural sectors was essentially a reorganisation of the party structure. While aiming to improve upon the agricultural sectors of Soviet society, the decision resulted in a lack of authority in both agricultural and industrial production. This was significant as party committees were viewed as the “nuclei” of local authority.

For instance, agricultural councils no longer had the power to recruit urban factory workers, and industrial committees were free from such responsibility, causing disunity. Consequently, Oblast secretaries who had previously supported Khrushchev during the 1957 anti-party group coup, now opposed him.

Tucker, R. C. (1957). The Politics of Soviet De-Stalinization. World Politics, 9(4), 550–578. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009424 p. 553 73

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 155

74

Ibid.

75

Ibid. p. 158

76

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 1

77

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 157

78

Ibid. p. ix

79

McAuley, M. (1992). Op. cit. p. 73

80

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 151

84 This post-structuralist viewpoint is similarly evident in Medvedev’s aim. In writing his text, Medvedev aimed to educate his Western and Soviet audiences on the “atmosphere of the Khrushchev period as it was felt by those living within the Soviet Union”, thus providing a perspective of Khrushchev “from within the system”. As many of Medvedev’s historical works remain taboo in Russia, circulating only under samizdat, Medvedev aimed to expose this inner political experience to those who remained unaware.

Barghoorn, F. C. (1973). Medvedev’s Democratic Leninism [Review of Kniga O Sotsialisticheskoi Demokratii., by R. Medvedev]. Slavic Review, 32(3), 590–594. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495414 p. 590 85

Komaromi, A. (2004). Op. cit. p. 614

86 In Medvedev’s text, On Socialist Democracy, he defines the Party Democratic Movement as those viewing that the USSR was not a society of developed socialism, although its official ideology suggested this. Members believed the Soviet system should involve rationalised communist economics and the political freedoms associated with Western liberalism such as freedoms of expression and civil rights.

Fireside, H. (1989). Dissident Visions of the USSR: Medvedev, Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn. Polity, 22(2), 213–229. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3234832 p. 216 87

See footnote 11.

88 Whilst a member of the CPSU, Medvedev advocated for the introduction of democracy into Soviet politics, such as the emergence of a two-party system and restrictions upon time in office, all of which had been introduced, or attempted to be introduced, during the Khrushchev-era. Further Medvedev similarly subscribed to Lenin’s belief that, “Socialism is impossible without the realisation of democracy”.

Barghoorn, F. C. (1973). Op. cit. p. 592 89

Cohen, F. S. (1975, July 13). Op. cit.

90

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 143

91 Let History Judge, by Roy Medvedev, published in 1959, was an investigation into Stalinism in the Soviet Union from 1922-1953, including unpublished memoirs and archives from survivors of the gulags. Consequently, the text exposed the distortions of socialism in the Soviet Union under Stalin.

Conquest, R. (1972, June). Let History Judge, by Roy A. Medvedev. Commentary. https://www.commentary.org/articles/robert-conquest/let-history-judge-by-roya-medvedev/

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philosophy with the basic principles of the traditionally one-party Communist state.92 Thus, it is inevitable that Medvedev projected his own political context onto his interpretation.93 Whilst Medvedev’s political context granted him “insider” observations,94 the tendency to apply his personal ideology and experiences to his interpretation of Khrushchev’s expulsion limits its impartiality.95 Living and writing in the Soviet Union, Medvedev was granted access to “internal information”,96 however, he remained subject to Soviet constraints on the transmission of knowledge.97 Khrushchev remains a topic seldom discussed in the Soviet Union, and current Russia, as hardly a word about Khrushchev “has been published in his own country”.98 Consequently, Medvedev relied not on published works, but texts that emerged from the most active period of samizdat99 publication.100 Further, Medvedev referenced both personal observations, acquired during party membership, and oral testimony of individuals within the state apparatus, offering invaluable insight into the inner workings of Soviet politics.101 However, utilising sources obtained through unconventional means, Medvedev’s text lacked scholarly footnotes, limiting its reliability.102 Accordingly, Warth identified that it is unknown which material is “derived from high-level rumour and which has been obtained by reliable witness accounts”.103 Further, residing in a state with tight control on the consumption of information,104 Medvedev lacked a familiarity in foreign policy, prevalent in several Western texts.105/106 Consequently, Medvedev directed his focus primarily

92 Parks, M. (1989, April 29). Medvedev Dumped in ’69 : Soviet Party Reinstates Anti-Stalinist Historian. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/ archives/la-xpm-1989-04-29-mn-1673-story.html 93

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 143

94 Warth, R. D. (1985). [Review of Khrushchev; All Stalin’s Men, by R. Medvedev, B. Pearce, R. Medvedev, H. Shukman, and B. Pearce]. The American Historical Review, 90(1), 187–188. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1860864 p. 188 95

Cohen, F. S. (1975, July 13). Op. cit.

96 Pethybridge, R. (1977). [Review of Khrushchev. The Years in Power, by R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev]. Soviet Studies, 29(4), 616–617. http://www.jstor. org/stable/150544 p. 617 97 Gustafson, B. (1978). [Review of Khrushchev: The Years in Power, by R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev]. New Zealand International Review, 3(3), 33. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/45232888 p. 33

towards domestic and agricultural affairs,107 neglecting to adequately consider the “whole spectrum of policy” and providing a highly selective perspective.108 Additionally, as a samizdat publication, that has not obtained state verification, Medvedev’s argument carried no guarantee of authenticity prior to Western publication, limiting its credibility.109 Regardless, while the reliability of Medvedev’s text must be questioned, his access to Soviet historiography, unprecedented by Western historians, strengthened his comprehensive interpretation of Khrushchev’s expulsion.110 Tompson111 regarded Khrushchev’s broken political promises, and subsequent loss of popularity, as the most prominent cause of his expulsion.112 Much like Linden, Tompson maintained that there was a period of political uncertainty post-Stalin, from which Khrushchev presented himself as an individual who would ensure the “survival of the socialist regime”.113 Yet, Tompson examined that it was this promise of utopia that generated unrealistic expectations which, when unmet,114 both alienated Khrushchev from popular support and provoked fears of mass disorder amongst the Soviet population.115 Tompson perceived that the Soviet public held sufficient power to act on their grievances and intimidate the elite, as evident in the events of Novocherkassk.116/117 This perception is reinforced by Weeks who wrote in reference to the threat of war, asserting that “many autocratic leaders face a realistic possibility of punishment by

107 Medvedev placed significant emphasis on agricultural affairs such as the Riazan affair. While the city of Riazan had been the centre of a national campaign to drive up meat production, having announced a tripled annual yield of meat in 1959, investigations in 1960 revealed falsities in the state’s statistical reporting.

The true meat production was barely a third of the figure presented, significantly impacting the reputation of the Soviet government holistically.

Gorlizki, Y. (2013). Scandal in Riazan: networks of trust and the social dynamics of deception.

Kritika, 14(2), 245. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A332655149/AONE?u=googles cholar&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=b4b231d5 p. 245 108

Gustafson, B. (1978). Op. cit. p. 33

109

Conquest, R. (1972, June). Op. cit.

Warth, R. D. (1985). Op. cit. p. 187

98

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. vii

110

99

See footnote 82.

111

See footnote 16.

100

Pethybridge, R. (1977). Op. cit. p. 617

112

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 274

101

Ibid.

102

Warth, R. D. (1985). Op. cit. p. 187

103

Ibid.

113 Tompson, W. J. (1993). Khrushchev and Gorbachev as Reformers: A Comparison. British Journal of Political Science, 23(1), 77–105. http://www.jstor. org/stable/194068 p. 90

Marwick, R. D. (2004). Medvedev, Roy Alexandrovich. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 3(1), 909-910.

114 Khrushchev’s political promises went unmet under several circumstances, the most prevalent being the 1963 harvest failure of the “virgin lands”. The virgin lands were lands for agricultural production that Khrushchev placed particular emphasis on, sowing 10 million hectares more than in 1955. However, the harvest of 1963 produced the smallest crop output in eight years, thus not reaching goals set forth in Khrushchev’s seven-year plan and causing mass food shortages.

https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3404100810/ WHIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmark-WHIC&xid=c68d42b7 p. 910

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 264 115

105 Historians such as Swain and Tompson provided more in-depth recognition of international affairs, such as the Cuban Missile Crisis and relations with China, either in setting the atmosphere of the Khrushchev period or demonstrating the consequences they had for his leadership.

116 Novocherkassk took place in June 1962, a riot against low living standards and poor working conditions within the Soviet public. 26 individuals were killed and 86 wounded as a result.

104 During the writing of both Let History Judge and Khrushchev: The Years in Power, Medvedev claimed an incident in which the KGB searched his residence, confiscating all material on Stalin and Khrushchev, thus demonstrating restrictions on the circulation of information within Soviet borders.

Ibid. p. 274

Swain, G. (2015). Khrushchev. Red Globe Press.

The Cold War. (2021, July 31). Novocherkassk Massacre 1962 - Soviet Army vs People.

[Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b06Gfm2QVxY

106

117

14

Warth, R. D. (1985). Op. cit. p. 188

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 274

History, Theology and Philosophy

a civilian domestic audience”.118 Hence, Tompson perceived Khrushchev’s broken political promises as the most prominent catalyst for provoking fear within Soviet leadership, ultimately leading to his expulsion.119 Tompson’s political ideology had a significant impact on his comprehension of Khrushchev’s expulsion. Sachsenmaier, reflecting Rankean ideology, states that “any kind of research with a global perspective is required to find a way to balance the universal with the particular”.120 In this sense, Tompson successfully endeavoured to be aware of both the Soviet Union’s internal structure and its international standing, maintaining a balanced viewpoint.121 Regardless, Tompson, as a political scientist, is inclined to adopt a nomothetic stance, applying “regularities and broad patterns” in order to make “lawlike generalisations”,122 according to Schroeder.123 Accordingly, Tompson’s comprehension, of Marxist-Leninist systems is one consistent with the views of De Mesquita and Smith, who asserted that “no leader is monolithic”, but requires the support of others.124 As such, it is the “reliable implementation of political promises to those who count” that ensures a leader’s position,125 a direct reflection of Tompson’s argument that the failure to implement political promises was foundational to Khrushchev’s expulsion.126 However, according to Schroeder, this understanding neglects to consider existing diversity amongst Marxist-Leninist regimes.127 Thereby, Tompson’s political agenda regarding the operation of Marxist-Leninist systems, is foundational to his understanding of Khrushchev’s expulsion.128 As a consequence of his temporal context, Tompson’s interpretation is one shaped by the prevalence of Soviet sources in Western scholarship, enhancing understanding of Khrushchev’s expulsion.129 Unlike Linden,130 Tompson gained significant access to historiographical material as a consequence of Gorbachev’s policies of glasnost, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and following

the 1992 Pioneer Agreement.131 Further, successive to the fall of the Soviet Union, Tompson was provided with the opportunity to reside in Russia (1992 to 1993).132 Thus, he obtained access to pivotal material in the previously inaccessible Central Party Archives and Archive of the Soviet Army, expanding the scope of his research.133 Further, in conducting interviews with Khrushchev’s surviving associates, not dissimilar to Medvedev, Tompson gained primary accounts of Khrushchev’s expulsion, collecting evidence that a failure of policy decisions led to his deterioration of character and subsequent unstable leadership.134 Richter observed that the majority of Tompson’s archival research was committed to Khrushchev’s early career, rather than his expulsion from power,135 as a consequence of his generalised aim “to account for new information and evidence”.136 According to Yekelchyk, this may be a consequence of the reality that the majority of Soviet documentation regarding Khrushchev’s years in power remained in the inaccessible Presidential Archives, highlighting the persistent constraints of Tompson’s Western context.137 Additionally, while the Gorbachev period saw greater access to Soviet documentation, it is crucial to recognise that such records continued to reflect the expectation of the leader,138 and therefore their reliability remains questionable, as

131 The Pioneer Agreement on exchanging archival information, was signed between the Federal Archival Service of Russia, the Hoover Institute on War, Revolution and Peace at Stanford University, and Cambridge University. The Agreement saw the exchange of archival information on Russia and its people in the 20th century. An equal number of documents were compiled: Russian and American historical works with an emphasis on power, religion, public expectations and state response, and the international activity of the USSR. Shvangiradze, T. (2022, February 20). Op. cit.

132

118 Weeks, J. L. P. (2014). Dictators at War and Peace. [e-book]. Google Books. https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Dictators_at_War_and_Peace/ ijVtBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=jessica+L.P.+Weeks&printsec=frontcover p. 4 119

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 274

120

Sachsenmaier, D. (2006). Op. cit. p. 455

121

Ibid.

122 According to Schroeder, the aims of a political scientist differ significantly from those of a traditional historian. The political scientce approach often involves the development of a hypothesis, which is then examined with regard to a theory. Accordingly, they often assign causes for events and developments, and establish general patterns that are applied to variety of circumstances.

Schroeder, P. W. (1997). History and International Relations Theory: Not Use or Abuse, but Fit or Misfit. International Security, 22(1), 64–74. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/2539329?seq=2 p. 68 123

Ibid.

124 Smith, A. and Mesquita, B. (2012). The Dictator’s Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics. PublicAffairs p. 14

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 273

133 Fitzpatrick stated that the introduction of Soviet sources shifted the situation from “one comparable to that of… early modern history to that of [a] developed 20th century state”. Consequently, although Tompson addressed several contentions in his text, particularly between Beijing and the United States, access to documentation led him to conclude that foreign affairs did not act as a point of dispute between the party and Khrushchev, in his removal during the Presidium meeting of 1964.

Fitzpatrick, S. (2015). Impact of the Opening of Soviet Archives on Western Scholarship on Soviet Social History. The Russian Review, 74(3), 377–400. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/43662294 p. 386 134 Some specific examples of interviews Tompson conducted include P. E. Shelest, a surviving associate of Khrushchev, as well Sergei Khrushchev, Nikita Khrushchev’s son.

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 270 135 Richter, J. (1995). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. Slavic Review, 54(4), 1103–1104. https://www.cambridge.org/core/ journals/slavic-review/article/abs/khrushchev-a-political-life-by-william-j-tompsonnew-york-st-martins-press-1994-ix-341-pp-index-2495-hard-bound/203636DE7B7 B81563992B10E2A89A094 p. 1104

125

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 263

126

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 274

127

Schroeder, P. W. (1997). Op. cit. p. 65

128

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 274

129

Torigian, J. (2022). Op. cit. p. 80

137 Yekelchyk, S. (1998). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. The Slavic and East European Journal, 42(3), 565–566. https://www.jstor. org/stable/309710 p. 566

130

Elwood, R. C. (1967). Op. cit. p. 716

138

136 Tompson, W. J. (1995). Khrushchev: A Political Life. History: Reviews of New Books, 24(2), 90. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03612759.1996 .9951238 p. 90

Taubman, W. (2004). Op. cit. p. xiv

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Critically assess historians’ differing interpretations of the most prominent cause of the expulsion of Nikita Khrushchev from power | L A E L S A K A L A U S K A S Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

previously discussed.139 Thus, although Tompson’s access to Soviet historiography expanded his comprehension of Khrushchev’s expulsion, the reliability of his evidence remains ambiguous.140 Despite Khrushchev’s expulsion from power occurring less than a century ago, understanding surrounding the most prominent cause of the event has evolved significantly. This evolution can be attributed to the increased access to Soviet historiography, allowing for the assembling of a more complete picture of the atmosphere and circumstances influencing Khrushchev’s expulsion. Linden’s interpretation, whilst supported by compelling contextual information and neo-enlightenment understanding, suffered from a deficiency of substantial evidence.141 Alternatively, Medvedev’s theory, although lacking variation in regard to international policy, is strengthened by critical analysis of internal Soviet politics and invaluable access to Soviet historiography.142 Tompson, although the most credible in terms of sufficiently balanced historiography, is not without influence from his political context, maintaining a nomothetic stance.143 Thus, much like Linden, Tompson presented a highly Western-centric perspective by drawing parallels between Soviet and Western politics.144 Thus, due to a range of historiographical factors, the opportunity to uncover the most prominent cause of Khrushchev’s expulsion becomes increasingly complex. As such, “there are no definitive histories since no historian’s ruling perceptual network can ever account for the entire historical field”,145 and it remains inevitable that amidst the ever-changing nature of political relations between Russia and the Western world, perspectives of Khruschev’s expulsion from power will continue to evolve.

BIBLIOGR APHY Books Lane, D. (1981). Leninism: A sociological interpretation. Cambridge University Press.

Linden, C. A. (1966). Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 19571964. The Johns Hopkin University Press.

Linden, C. A. (1983). The Soviet party-state: the politics of ideocratic despotism. Praeger.

Linden, C. A. (1990). Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership: With an Epilogue on Gorbachev. The John Hopkin University Press McAuley, M. (1992). Soviet Politics 1917-1991. Oxford University Press.

Medvedev, R. (1978). Khrushchev: The Years in Power. W. W. Norton and Company.

Medvedev, R. (1981). Leninism and Western Socialism. Verso Books.

Rigby, T.H. (1968). Stalin Dictatorship: Khrushchev’s ‘Secret Speech’ and Other Documents. Sydney University Press.

Seton-Watson, H. (1960). From Lenin to Khrushchev: The History of World Communism. Routledge.

Smith, A. and Mesquita, B. (2012). The Dictator’s Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics. PublicAffairs.

Swain, G. (2015). Khrushchev. Red Globe Press.

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Khrushchev: A Political Life. Palgrave Macmillan London.

Taubman, W. (2004). Khrushchev: The Man and His Era. W. W. Norton and Company.

Book as E-book Possing, B. (2017). Understanding Biographies: On Biographies in History and Stories in Biography. [e-book]. University Press of Southern Denmark. https://www.universitypress.dk/images/pdf/2992. pdf Svolik, M. W. (2012). The Politics of Authoritarian Rule. [e-book].

Google Books. https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/ The_Politics_of_ AuthoritmcZ6pmTnIwQC?hl=en&gbpv= 1&dq=milan+svolik&printsec=frontcover Tompson, W. (2003). The Soviet Union Under Brezhnev. [e-book]. Google Books. https://www.google.com.au/ books/edition/ The_Soviet_Union_under_Brezhnev/ F8UeBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=william +J.+Tompson&printsec=frontcover

139 In his text, Tompson explicitly admitted occasions of heavy censorship, primarily amongst the communist press of Pravda and Izvestiia. For example, a 1964 live broadcast to the Soviet Union saw Khrushchev referring to Stalin as among the “tyrants in the history of mankind”, yet the version that appeared in Pravda the following day omitted such a statement.

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 225 140 McCauley, M. (1995). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. Europe-Asia Studies, 47(7), 1247. http://www.jstor.org/stable/152598 p. 1247 141

Linden, C. A. (1966). Op. cit. p. 206

142

Medvedev, R. (1978). Op. cit. p. 152

143

Schroeder, P. W. (1997). Op. cit. p. 65

144

Tompson, W. J. (1994). Op. cit. p. 266

145 Octalog, G. (1988). The Politics of Historiography. Rhetoric Review, 7(1), 5–49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/465534 p. 6

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Weeks, J. L. P. (2014). Dictators at War and Peace. [e-book]. Google Books. https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Dictators_ at_War_and_Peace/ijVtBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=jessica+ L.P.+Weeks&printsec=frontcover Medvedev, R. (1976). Khrushchev: The Years in Power. [e-book]. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/ khrushchevyearsi00medv_0/mode/1up Medvedev, Z. A. and Medvedev, R. A. (1971). A question of madness. [e-book]. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/ questionsofmadne0000unse/page/14/mode/1up Corporate publication Taylor and Francis. (n.d.). Variety and Adventure in the life of Carl Linden. https://albert-schmidt.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/33Carl-Linden-Tribute_PPS_2014.pdf

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The RAND Corporation. (1990). Glasnost and Soviet Foreign Policy. https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/notes/2009/N3008.pdf

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Journal Articles Ali, M. (2002). History, Ideology and Curriculum. Economic and Political Weekly, 37(44/45), 4530–4531. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/4412809 Armstrong, J. A. (1996). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. The American Historical Review, 101(4), 1250–1251. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2169756 Barghoorn, F. C. (1973). Medvedev’s Democratic Leninism [Review of Kniga O Sotsialisticheskoi Demokratii., by R. Medvedev]. Slavic Review, 32(3), 590–594. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495414 Bergson, A. (1953). Reliability and Usability of Soviet Statistics: A Summary Appraisal. The American Statistician, 7(3), 13–16. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/2685494 Boiter, A. (1972). Samizdat: Primary Source Material in the Study of Current Soviet Affairs. The Russian Review, 31(3), 282–285. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/128049 Booher, E. E. (1975). Publishing in the USSR and Yugoslavia. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 421(1), 118–129. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1040874 Butler, W. E. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964; Soviet Policy-Making: Studies of Communism in Transition; Soviet Economic Controversies: The Emerging Marketing Concept and Changes in Planning, 1960-1965; Central Asians Under Russian Rule: A Study in Culture Change, by C. A. Linden, P. H. Juviler, H. W. Morton, J. L. Felker, and E. E. Bacon]. World Affairs, 129(4), 275–278. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20670857 Conolly, V. (1968). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964, by C. A. Linden]. The Slavonic and East European Review, 46(106), 261-262. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4205967 De Mesquita, B. and Smith, A. (2017). Political Succession: A Model of Coups, Revolution, Purges, and Everyday Politics. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 61(4), 707–743. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/26363872 Elwood, R. C. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1965, by C. A. Linden]. International Journal, 22(4), 715–716. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40200249

Fireside, H. (1989). Dissident Visions of the USSR: Medvedev, Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn. Polity, 22(2), 213–229. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/3234832 Fitzpatrick, S. (2015). Impact of the Opening of Soviet Archives on Western Scholarship on Soviet Social History. The Russian Review, 74(3), 377–400. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43662294 Gorlizki, Y. (2013). Scandal in Riazan: networks of trust and the social dynamics of deception. Kritika, 14(2), 245. https://link.gale.com/ apps/doc/A332655149/AONE?u=googlescholar&sid=bookmarkAONE&xid=b4b231d5 Gustafson, B. (1978). [Review of Khrushchev: The Years in Power, by R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev]. New Zealand International Review, 3(3), 33. http://www.jstor.org/stable/45232888 Hanak, H. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership, 1957-1964., by C. A. Linden]. International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-), 43(4), 759–760. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/2612849 Hanson, G. (1997). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. The Historian, 59(3), 711–712. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/24452072 Holm, K. C. (1967). [Review of Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964, by C. A. Linden]. Naval War College Review, 19(9), 128–129. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44640988 Jenkins, K. (2005). On History, Historians and Silence. History Compass, 2(1), 1. https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ abs/10.1111/j.1478-0542.2004.00112.x Komaromi, A. (2004). The Material Existence of Soviet Samizdat. Slavic Review, 63(3), 597–618. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1520346 Kneen, P. (1984). [Review of Khrushchev, by R. Medvedev and B. Pearce]. Soviet Studies, 36(1), 152–153. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/151871 Linden, C. A. (1979). [Review of Khrushchev: The Years in Power, by R. A. Medvedev and Z. A. Medvedev]. The American Political Science Review, 73(2), 644–645. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1954985 Light, M. (1981). Approaches to the Study of Soviet Foreign Policy.

Review of International Studies, 7(3), 127–143. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/20096914 Marwick, R. D. (2004). Medvedev, Roy Alexandrovich.

Encyclopedia of Russian History, 3(1), 909-910. https://link.gale. com/apps/doc/CX3404100810/WHIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmarkWHIC&xid=c68d42b7 McCauley, M. (1995). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. Europe-Asia Studies, 47(7), 1247–1247. http://www.jstor. org/stable/152598 Nasaw, D. (2009). Historians and Biography. The American Historical Review, 114(3), 573–578. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30223918 Nemzer, L. (1966). [Review of Russia after Khrushchev, by R. Conquest]. The Russian Review, 25(2), 184–187. https://doi. org/10.2307/127331 Octalog, G. (1988). The Politics of Historiography. Rhetoric Review, 7(1), 5–49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/465534 Pethybridge, R. (1977). [Review of Khrushchev. The Years in Power,

by R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev]. Soviet Studies, 29(4), 616–617. http://www.jstor.org/stable/150544 Richter, J. (1995). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J.

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Tompson]. Slavic Review, 54(4), 1103–1104. https://www.cambridge. org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/khrushchev-a-politicallife-by-william-j-tompson-new-york-st-martins-press-1994-ix-341-ppindex-2495-hard-bound/203636DE7B7B81563992B10E2A89A094

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Richards, J. R. (2007). The role of Biography in Intellectual History.

KNOWN: A Journal on the Formation of Knowledge, 1(2), 1. https:// www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/693727

Conquest, R. (1972, June). Let History Judge, by Roy A. Medvedev.

Commentary. https://www.commentary.org/articles/robert-conquest/ let-history-judge-by-roy-a-medvedev/

Rush, M. (1968). [Review of Khrushchev; A History of Postwar Russia; Beginnings of the Cold War; Khrushchev and the Soviet Leadership 1957-1964, by M. Frankland, H. Schwartz, R. W. Pethybridge, M. F. Herz, and C. A. Linden]. Slavic Review, 27(3), 492–494. https://www. jstor.org/stable/2493357

Conquest, R. (2003). The first Comprehensive biography of Stalin’s successor. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/ magazine/2003/03/31/loudmouth

Sachsenmaier, D. (2006). Global History and Critiques of Western Perspectives. Comparative Education, 42(3), 451–470. http://www. jstor.org/stable/29727795 Schroeder, P. W. (1997). History and International Relations Theory: Not Use or Abuse, but Fit or Misfit. International Security, 22(1), 64–74. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539329?seq=2 Tompson, W. J. (1991). The Fall of Nikita Khrushchev. Soviet Studies, 43(6), 1101–1121. http://www.jstor.org/stable/152407 Tompson, W. J. (1993). Khrushchev and Gorbachev as Reformers: A Comparison. British Journal of Political Science, 23(1), 77–105. http:// www.jstor.org/stable/194068 Tompson, W. J. (1995). Khrushchev: A Political Life. History: Reviews of New Books, 24(2), 90. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/ 03612759.1996.9951238 Tompson, W. J. (2002). [Review of The Russian Presidency: Society and Politics in the Second Russian Republic, by T. M. Nichols]. Slavic Review, 61(1), 177–178. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2697027 Tompson, W. (2004). [Review of Khrushchev: The Man and His Era, by W. Taubman]. Journal of Cold War Studies, 6(4), 172–174. https://www. jstor.org/stable/26925440 Tompson, W. J. (2006). Memoirs of Nikita Khrushchev: Commissar (1918-1945). Political Science Quarterly, 121(1), 178. https://link-galecom.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/apps/doc/A144868726/AONE?u=slnsw_ public&sid=bookmark-AONE&xid=06a49c29 Torigian, J. (2022). “You Don’t Know Khrushchev Well”: The Ouster of the Soviet Leader as a Challenge to Recent Scholarship on Authoritarian Politics. Journal of Cold War Studies, 41(1), 78-115. https://direct.mit.edu/jcws/article/24/1/78/109004/You-Don-t-KnowKhrushchev-Well-The-Ouster-of-the Tucker, R. C. (1957). The Politics of Soviet De-Stalinization. World Politics, 9(4), 550–578. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2009424 Warth, R. D. (1985). [Review of Khrushchev; All Stalin’s Men, by R. Medvedev, B. Pearce, R. Medvedev, H. Shukman, and B. Pearce]. The American Historical Review, 90(1), 187–188. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/1860864 Weir, F. (1993). An interview with Roy Medvedev. Monthly Review, 44(9), 1. https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/ apps/doc/A13469431/AONE?u=slnsw_public&sid=bookmarkAONE&xid=4d8aa6b2 Yekelchyk, S. (1998). [Review of Khrushchev: A Political Life, by W. J. Tompson]. The Slavic and East European Journal, 42(3), 565–566. https://www.jstor.org/stable/309710

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[Video]. C-Span. https://www.c-span.org/video/?10468-1/meetingsoviet-congress St Mary’s University, Twickenham. (2013, December 5). Interview with Professor of Historical Theory Keith Jenkins (University of Chichester).

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Should there be restrictions on free speech?

History, Theology and Philosophy

LEAH HAR Y E A R 10, 2 023

This essay won first prize in the Philosophy in Schools Association of NSW 2023 Essay Competition. The stimulus asked students to critically evaluate two contrasting views and defend their own views of the topic: Should there be restrictions on free speech?

1. Introduction Free speech is the expression of information, ideas and opinions without government restrictions1 and is fundamentally protected under the right to freedom of expression in the UNDR’s Article 19.2 Free speech in its absolute form, completely unrestricted, would mean that the state cannot impose any laws restricting freedom of expression or its associated laws. To argue for unrestricted free speech, one must prove why speech is valuable. The main values noted are democracy, autonomy, and utility; however, each of these allow for some limitations. For example, if speech is valued because it promotes democracy, then there are no grounds for protecting speech that damages democratic processes, as some forms of speech tend to suppress other forms of speech. If speech is not seen as useful, then under the utility argument, we have no reason to defend it.

Not only does the defence of speech have limiting factors but, in many cases, restrictions are necessary as the harms of some forms of speech outweigh the benefits of absolute free speech.

2. Values of speech 2a) Democracy Alexander Meiklejohn, member of the American Civil Liberties Union, viewed free speech as inextricably linked to democracy.

He believed that the First Amendment to the US Constitution, which includes the statement that Congress cannot make any law curtailing freedom of speech,3 served to keep the electorate informed, thereby creating self governance.4 Essentially, free

speech must be protected not just as the right of the person who speaks to be heard, but the right of those to hear what they are saying. Thus all speech, including speech criticising the government, is important to the functioning of democracy.

However, a level of restriction on speech is beneficial to a healthy democracy. Some forms of speech, such as hate speech, suppress others, which hinders discussion based on mutual respect and is detrimental to democracy. Additionally, an increasing problem in the modern age is the spread of misinformation and fake news on social media. False information can influence opinions and alter the organic processes of public opinion formation, eroding the epistemic quality of deliberation in the people and, ultimately, shaping their behaviours in voting5 or taking stances on public issues.6 This affects democratic decision-making, making the government representative of a people who are influenced by fear and the often inflammatory and polarising content present in fake news. Misinformation is harmful even when it is not being consumed, as the knowledge itself that it exists and pervades our culture can lead to confusion over what the truth is and discourage civic engagement. If speech had no restrictions, misinformation would be even more pervasive, exacerbating this harm. Therefore, if we value democracy, then we should also value a level of restriction on speech.

2b) Autonomy Where Meiklejohn viewed the First Amendment as a keystone to democratic self government, C. Edwin Baker interprets it in Human Liberty and Freedom of Speech (1989) as concerned primarily with individual human liberty and autonomy;7 basically, the main reason for having free speech is because it allows us to be free.

This echoes the sentiment of John Locke in 17th century England, who believed speech was a right guaranteed to citizens by virtue of their status as autonomous, individual beings living in a free society. Locke writes in Two Treatises on Civil Government (1689) that all individuals are equal in being born invested with certain “inalienable” natural rights, amongst which are life, liberty, and property.8

5 Buckmaster, L. and Wils, T. (2019). Responding to fake news.

1 T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023). freedom of speech. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/freedom-of-speech 2 United Nations. (2021). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2021/03/udhr.pdf 3 Constitution Annotated. (n.d.). Constitution of the United States. https://constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/ 4 Purvis, D. (2009). Alexander Meiklejohn. https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1302/alexander meiklejohn

https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/ Parliamentary_Library/pubs/Briefing Book46p/FakeNews 6 Benson, J. (2021). Is fake news a threat to deliberative democracy, and how bad is it? https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/PaperDetails/59890 7 Baker, C. E. (1989). Human Liberty and Freedom of Speech. Oxford University Press.

8 Locke, J. and Filmer, R. (1884). Two Treatises on Civil Government. George Routledge and Sons. (Originally published 1689) https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Two_Treatises_on_Civil_Government/ zEIqAAAAYAAJ

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Should there be restrictions on free speech? | L E A H H A R Y E A R 1 0 , 2 0 2 3

However, in everyday life, some individual rights are sacrificed for the sake of wider society, tying into the utilitarian view supporting the greatest good for the greatest number. Thomas Hobbes saw the unrestricted public expression of controversial beliefs and opinions as a source of civil strife.9 From Protagoras and Epicurus,10 Hobbes revived the idea of social contract theory, which states that people agree to rules and laws governing how to live in order to have security in society. An example of the social contract in practice would be that I forfeit my freedom to murder, so that others have the arguably more important freedom to live peacefully. Applying this to speech, the freedom to profess speech that incites violence is less valuable than the freedom of others to live safely.

A criticism of social contract theory is that it gives the government too much power.11 The power imbalance held by law enforcement is deemed part of the social contract agreed upon in exchange for security, but problems arise when this is abused to enforce intrusive laws under the guise of protecting the public. Under Hobbes’ social contract, the will of Leviathan, the political state, is law and is uncontested. However, Locke interprets the contract as dependent upon the condition that each person’s natural rights are protected. Rulers who violated these terms could be justifiably overthrown.12 Therefore, the people and the government are responsible for keeping each other in check.

2c) Utility John Stuart Mill writes in On Liberty (1859) that any doctrine should be allowed to be professed and discussed, regardless of how immoral it may seem to everyone else.13 His free speech advocacy was founded in a belief that a liberal, potentially laissez-faire society would lead to the most social utility.

Mill is often associated with the concept of the “marketplace of ideas”, although the exact phrase is attributed to Justice William O. Douglas in United States v. Rumely.14 The great benefit of the marketplace accrues from competition; the truth, or the best idea, will emerge from free public discourse, as long as their proponents are given a fair chance to argue for it and it garners popularity. Thus, the marketplace delivers the best ideas most efficiently and promotes utility. “Bad” ideas are ejected from the

9 Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan, Or, The Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil. Andrew Crooke. https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Leviathan_Or_The_Matter_Form_ and_Power_o/L3FgBpvIWRkC 10 D’Agostino, F., Gaus, G. and Thrasher, J. (2021). Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2021/entries/contractarianismcontemporary/

market due to a lack of demand, meaning dangerous or erroneous ideas are refuted, rather than suppressed. This places the power with the people to evaluate and critique ideas, instead of the government to decide what is right or wrong, moral or immoral.

This is especially important in the skeptical view that there is no certainty in knowledge, and therefore nobody can claim the singular right or any superior authority in determining what is the truth.

However, it is arguable that this concept is unattainable in the modern day, especially with the rise of social media.15 Social media is a near-manifestation of a “marketplace of ideas”, but it is evident that the most popular ideas, indicated by likes or shares, are not necessarily the highest quality or most truth-based. Mill’s defence of free speech is contingent on the assumption that people have adequate judgement in which ideas to uplift and promote, but such faith in humanity may not have a solid basis.

Additionally, James Fitzjames Stephen, critic of John Stuart Mill, writes in Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (1874) that only the constraints of morality and law make liberty possible.16 Mill assumes that removal of restraint invigorates character, as full liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits.

Stephen argues for the opposite: vigour comes from vicissitude and the overcoming of obstacles created by restraint. With restrictions in place, people may actually ideate more creatively and resourcefully, which promotes greater utility.

Furthermore, Immanuel Kant argues in What Is Enlightenment?

(1784) that people employed by an institution, especially the church or state, hold a duty to speak according to that institution’s demands.17 The main idea is that the continued existence of the state is more important than free speech. While rational debate is important to the development of a society, that society may collapse if all the people of all of the necessary institutions rebelled. Speech requires restrictions to an extent for society to function.

3. On which principles should speech be restricted?

3a) Harm Principle The one limitation Mill places on free expression is known as the harm principle, which states that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.”18 This means people are free to act however they wish, unless their actions cause harm to somebody else. However, the term ‘harm’

15 Chellappah, N. (2022). Mill, Free Speech and Social Media.

11 McCartney, M. and Parent, R. (2015). Ethics in Law Enforcement. [e-book].

BCcampus. http://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/

https://philosophynow.org/issues/151/Mill_Free_Speech_and_Social_Media

12 T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023). social contract. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/stephen-liberty-equality-fraternity-lf-ed

https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-contract 13 Mill, J. S. (1895). On Liberty. Henry Holt and Company. (Originally published 1859) https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/On_Liberty/EPMQAAAAYAAJ 14 Gordon, J. (1997). John Stuart Mill and the “Marketplace of Ideas.” Social Theory and Practice, 23(2), 235– 249. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23559183

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16 Stephen, J. (2nd Ed.). (1874). Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Holt and Williams.

17 Kant, I. (2013). Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? (D. Ferrer, Trans.). 2–10. (Original work published 1784) 18 Mill, J. S. (1895). On Liberty, p. 23. Henry Holt and Company. (Originally published 1859) https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/On_Liberty/ EPMQAAAAYAAJ

History, Theology and Philosophy

has been criticised as too vague. Is restriction only legitimate when speech incites serious physical assault, or invades the rights of a person? Or, when speech poses a “clear and present danger” to safety or other public interests, as stated by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. in Schenck v. United States (1919)?19 The criticism in these cases is that the harm principle is too narrow and does not restrict much at all. George Kateb, contrarily, has argued that this principle is actually too broad as a lot of political and religious speech causes harm, but we see it as important.20 This does not invalidate the principle, it only suggests it extends further than people might expect.

3b) Offence Principle Taking the view that the harm principle is too narrow, Joel Feinberg proposes an offence principle which puts speech intended to inflict psychological offence on par morally with physical harm.21 The idea is that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited due to being very offensive. Feinberg suggests that several factors should be accounted for when applying penalties, including the intensity, extent, duration and social value of the speech, the speaker’s motive and the number of people offended, to ensure that the punishment is proportional to the offence.

4. Conclusion Free speech is integral to democracy, autonomy and utility, however in its most absolute form actually harms these values in a way that outweighs the benefits. In an ideal world, the benefits of completely unrestricted speech could be reaped. However, in our imperfect world, where people will inevitably share harmful ideas and information, some level of restriction, namely, a combination of both the harm principle and the offence principle, is necessary for a healthy functioning society. As Philip Pettit argues, free speech is better conceptualised not as unhindered speech, but as protected speech, giving people accountability for their words.22

BIBLIOGR APHY Books Baker, C. E. (1989). Human Liberty and Freedom of Speech. Oxford University Press.

Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan, Or, The Matter, Form and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiastical and Civil. Andrew Crooke. https://www. google.com.au/books/edition/Leviathan_Or_The_Matter_Form_and_ Power_o/L3FgBpvIWRkC

19 Asp, D. (n.d.). Schenck v. United States (1919). https://www.mtsu.edu/first amendment/article/193/schenck-v-united-states 20 Kateb, G. (1989). The Freedom of Worthless and Harmful Speech, Liberalism without Illusions: Essays on Liberal Theory and the Political Vision of Judith N. Shklar. ed.

Bernard Yack. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

21 van Mill, D. , 2021, “Freedom of Speech”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford. edu/archives/spr2021/entries/freedom-speech/ 22 Pettit, P. (2018). ‘Two Concepts of Free Speech’, in Jennifer Lackey (ed.), Academic Freedom, Engaging Philosophy. https://doi.org/10.1093/ oso/9780198791508.003.0004

Kant, I. (2013). Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment? (D. Ferrer, Trans.). 2–10. (Original work published 1784).

Kateb, G. (1989). The Freedom of Worthless and Harmful Speech, Liberalism without Illusions: Essays on Liberal Theory and the Political Vision of Judith N. Shklar. ed. Bernard Yack. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Locke, J. and Filmer, R. (1884). Two Treatises on Civil Government.

George Routledge and Sons. (Originally published 1689). https:// www.google.com.au/books/edition/Two_Treatises_on_Civil_ Government/zEIqAAAAYAAJ McCartney, M. and Parent, R. (2015). Ethics in Law Enforcement. [e-book]. BCcampus. http://opentextbc.ca/ethicsinlawenforcement/ Mill, J. S. (1895). On Liberty. Henry Holt and Company. (Originally published 1859). https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/On_ Liberty/EPMQAAAAYAAJ Stephen, J. (2nd Ed.). (1874). Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Holt and Williams. https://oll.libertyfund.org/title/stephen-liberty-equalityfraternity-lf-ed

Encyclopaedias D’Agostino, F., Gaus, G. and Thrasher, J. (2021). Contemporary Approaches to the Social Contract, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/ win2021/entries/contractarianism-contemporary/ T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023). freedom of speech. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/freedom-of-speech T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023). social contract. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-contract van Mill, D. (2021). Freedom of Speech, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). https://plato. stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/freedom-speech/

Journal Articles Gordon, J. (1997). John Stuart Mill and the “Marketplace of Ideas.”

Social Theory and Practice, 23(2), 235–249. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/23559183 Pettit, P. (2018). Two Concepts of Free Speech, in Jennifer Lackey (ed.). Academic Freedom, Engaging Philosophy. https://doi.org/10.1093/ oso/9780198791508.003.0004

Websites Asp, D. (n.d.). Schenck v. United States (1919). https://www.mtsu.edu/ first-amendment/article/193/schenck-v-united-states Benson, J. (2021). Is fake news a threat to deliberative democracy, and how bad is it? https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/PaperDetails/59890 Buckmaster, L. and Wils, T. (2019). Responding to fake news. https:// www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/ Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BriefingBook46p/FakeNews Chellappah, N. (2022). Mill, Free Speech and Social Media. https:// philosophynow.org/issues/151/Mill_Free_Speech_and_Social_Media Constitution Annotated. (n.d.). Constitution of the United States. https:// constitution.congress.gov/constitution/amendment-1/ Purvis, D. (2009). Alexander Meiklejohn. https://www.mtsu.edu/firstamendment/article/1302/alexander-meiklejohn United Nations. (2021). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. https:// www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/2021/03/udhr.pdf

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Explain the change and continuity between the first and second waves of feminism in the women’s rights movements in America during the 19th and 20th centuries MIRIAM SHIN YE AR 8, 2023

This essay was awarded Young Historian Silver in the National History Challenge essay competition.

Britannica. (n.d.). Rally for Women’s Lives [Photograph]. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/womens-movement#/media/1/647122/250468

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History, Theology and Philosophy

The first and second feminist waves in America took place between the 19th and 20th century1, shifting from a movement centred around the fight for female suffrage2 to one focused on challenging legislation that denied women’s equality. The change in the focus of movements was one which occurred over a long period of time, caused by catalysts including other political and legal movements happening at the time, the changing of societal dynamics and the rise of new and influential leaders, shaped by the hard-won rights of their predecessors, all of which helped to push the movement forward as more rights were written into law and old values challenged3.

Feminism is the advocacy for equal rights and opportunities — political, social and economic — amongst genders.4 To distinguish and isolate the different types and goals of feminism throughout history,5 commentators started to segregate the movements into a series of waves. This metaphor of waves began with an article, “The Second Feminist Wave,” written by Martha Weinman Lear in 1968, and quickly spread to be used to refer to different “eras” of feminism.6 First wave feminism took place between the 1840s and 1920s,7 with the main goal of achieving suffrage for women.8 While other concerns, such as rights to property and education,9 were part of the overarching goal, the movement centred on women being treated as equal citizens of the country. First wave feminism took place at a time when women in America were treated as secondary to their male peers, purely on the basis of their sex.

The female suffrage movement in America was inspired by other social and political movements occuring in the United States,

1 Rampton, M. (2015). Four Waves of Feminism. https://www.pacificu.edu/ magazine/four-waves-feminism#:~:text=Whereas%20the%20first%20wave%20 of,Women’s%20struggle%20is%20class%20struggle.%22 2 Hayes, A. (2022). Second Wave Feminism: Spark of Women’s Rights Movement. https://www.thecollector.com/second-wave-of-feminism-women-rightsmovement/ 3 Alexander, K.L.. (2021). Feminism: The First Wave. https://www.womenshistory.org/exhibits/feminism-first-wave-0 4 Britannica. (2023). Feminism. In Bricannica.com encyclopaedia.

Retrieved June 14, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism 5 Soken-Huberty, E. (2021). Types of Feminism: The Four Waves. https://www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/types-of-feminism-the-four-waves/ 6 Lear, M.W. (1968). The Second Feminist Wave. [Image]. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1968/03/10/archives/the-second-feminist-wave.html 7 Pruitt, S. (2022). What Are the Four Waves of Feminism?. https://www.history.com/news/feminism-four-waves 8 Loveday, V. (2009). Feminism and the women’s rights movement. Great Neck Publishing.

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https://content.acca.melbourne/uploads/2018/02/Feminisms-3.pdf

such as the abolitionist movement against slavery in which women had prominent roles,10 challenging societal norms which had previously governed women’s behaviour in American politics.

These first feminists wanted change,11 believing the first step to achieving gender equality was to achieve political rights and representation.

This first wave brought about extreme significant change for women and their lives. After many years of protesting, marching, and lobbying,12 a pivotal milestone which would pave the way for future feminists took place in 1919. This milestone was led by influential women such as Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, who, alongside other activists, lobbied the government13 to rewrite the 15th amendment which denied women the right to vote.14 After a long period of struggle, the 19th amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted women the right to vote, was passed by Congress.15 After achieving suffrage, first wave feminism ended in around 192016 as women started to exercise their newly-granted political rights. During this time in 1941, Jeannette Rankin, the first woman elected to Congress in 1917, served a second term in the House of Representatives.17 The start of the second wave of feminism began in the early 1960s as a reaction to anti-war and civil rights movements which took place within that period. This wave lasted approximately two decades,18 and was centred less on women’s suffrage, and more on challenging legislation that denied

10

Alexander, K.L. (2021). Op. Cit.

11

Soken-Huberty, E. (2021). Op.cit

12 The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (2022). 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution: Women’s Right to Vote (1920). https://www. archives.gov/milestone-documents/19th-amendment#:~:text=Passed%20by%20 Congress%20June%204,decades%20of%20agitation%20and%20protest 13 History.com editors. (2022). 19th Amendment. https://www.history.com/ topics/womens-history/19th-amendment-1 14 The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (2016). Woman Suffrage and the 19th Amendment https://www.archives.gov/milestonedocuments/19th-amendment#:~:text=Passed%20by%20Congress%20June%20 4,decades%20of%20agitation%20and%20protest 15

Ibid

16

Rampton, M. (2015). Op.cit

17 National Archives Museum. (2021). Featured Document Display: First Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin. https://museum.archives.gov/featureddocument-display-first-congresswoman-jeannette-rankin#:~:text=Four%20 years%20before%20ratification%20of,House%20of%20Representatives%20in%201941.

18 Masterclass. (2022). Second-Wave Feminism: A History of Second-Wave Feminism. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/second-wave-feminism-explained

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Explain the change and continuity between the first and second waves of feminism in the women’s rights movements in America during the 19th and 20th centuries | M I R I A M S H I N Y E A R 8 , 2 0 2 3

women their fundamental political, social and economic rights in America. It challenged the continued patriarchal outlook on women in the male-dominated society of the time.

race, religion or colour,28 and the enactment of Title IX in 1972, which prohibited discrimination based on sex in any educational environments which receive federal financial aid.29

During this time of significant change, the role of women, particularly in the workforce, was also changing. In the 1960s, the employment of women in the United states was rapidly growing, as a result of increased participation by women.19 Due to this increase in female workers, gender inequalities became apparent, particularly in the difference in salaries between male and female workers. The President’s Commision on the Status of Women, established in 1961 by John F. Kennedy, initiated a study to investigate and rectify20 gender inequality in places such as the workplace and in education.21 This study revealed that women earned around 59 cents for every dollar earned by a man and were prevented from receiving high paying jobs.22 This increased recognition of gender inequality was a leading factor in the shift between suffrage and the changing of legislation.

First and second wave feminism have differences and elements of continuity, and while they differed in their specific objectives, they were united under the main goal of bringing about gender equality and ending gender discrimination.30The two waves also occurred within the context of other movements taking place during the same time period,31 overlapping with social and political movements relating to the feminist cause. First wave feminism took place at the same time as the abolitionist movement and the civil war,32 both of which aimed for independence, while second wave feminism transpired amongst significant social and political reforms such as the civil rights movement which fought for social justice,33 and the anti-war movement.34

In 1961, Esther Peterson was appointed Head of the Women’s Bureau in the Department of Labor.23 As Assistant Secretary of Labor, she established and led a pioneering group which championed women and their treatment in the workplace.24 Peterson, alongside a group of other women in the White House, led the signing of the Equal Pay Act of 1963, signed into law by John F. Kennedy,25 which stated that it was illegal to discriminate wage distribution on the basis of gender.26 Following this Act, other legal victories in favour of women were achieved, including the amendment to Title VII in the Civil Rights Act of 1964,27 which protected against employment discrimination based on sex,

Second wave feminism displayed a large shift from the first wave, occurring over a long period of change. This shift between waves was caused by multiple factors including social norms being challenged throughout the country in feminism and other reforms, the changing roles of women in society, changing priorities in feminism and different global contexts. Throughout this change, core elements of feminism remained constant, including the aim to bring about gender equality.

19 Wirtz, W. W. 1962. WOMEN WORKERS in 1960 • Geographical Differences: 284nd issue. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. U.S. Department of Labour. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/women/b0284_ dolwb_1962.pdf 20 Fauxsmith, J. (n.d.). President’s Commission on the Status of Women. https://guides.library.harvard.edu/schlesinger_presidents_commission_on_the_ status_of_women 21 Britannica. (2016). President’s Commission on the Status of Women. In Bricannica.com encyclopaedia. Retrieved August, 20, 2023 from https://www. britannica.com/topic/Presidents-Commission-on-the-Status-of-Women

28 National Archives. (2019). Protections Against Discrimination and Other Prohibited Practices. https://www.ftc.gov/policy-notices/no-fear-act/protectionsagainst-discrimination

22 McLaughlin, K. (2014, August 25). 5 things women couldn’t do in the 1960s. Cable News Network. https://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/07/living/sixtieswomen-5-things/index.html

29 Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. (2020). The 14th Amendment and the Evolution of Title IX. https://www.uscourts.gov/educationalresources/educational-activities/14th-amendment-and-evolution-titleix#:~:text=Congress%20enacted%20Title%20IX%20of,It%20authorizes%20 any%20federal%20agency

23

Alexander, K.L. (2020). Op.cit

24

Ibid

25 National Park Service. (2016). Equal Pay Act of 1963. https://www.nps.gov/ articles/equal-pay-act.htm#:~:text=In%201961%2C%20labor%20activist%20 Esther,develop%20recommendations%20for%20achieving%20equality.

26 U.S. Department of Labor. (2023). Equal Pay for Equal Work. https://www. dol.gov/agencies/oasam/centers-offices/civil-rights-center/internal/policies/ equal-pay-for-equal-work#:~:text=The%20Equal%20Pay%20Act%20of,wage%20 discrimination%20based%20on%20sex.&text=The%20Equal%20Pay%20Act%20 (EPA)%20protects%20individuals%20of%20all%20sexes.

27 The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (2019). Women’s Rights and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. https://www.archives.gov/women/1964-civilrights-act

24

30

Soken-Huberty, E. (2021). Op.cit

31 Cengage Group. (2023). Second Wave Feminism: Collections. https:// www.gale.com/primary-sources/womens-studies/collections/second-wavefeminism#:~:text=Unfolding%20in%20the%20context%20of,to%20marry%20 and%20bear%20children.

32 Thepeoplehistory.com. (2022). List of 1920’s Major News Events in History. https://www.thepeoplehistory.com/1920s.html 33 Brown, M. (2023). What is the Civil Rights Movement?. https://westportlibrary. libguides.com/CivilRightsMovement#:~:text=What%20is%20the%20Civil%20 Rights,law%20in%20the%20United%20States.

34

Cengage Group. (2023). Op.cit

History, Theology and Philosophy

BIBLIOGR APHY Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. (2020). The 14th Amendment and the Evolution of Title IX. https://www. uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/14thamendmentandevolutiontitleix#:~:text=Congress%20enacted%20 Title%20IX%20of,It%20authorizes%20any%20federal%20agency

National Archives. (2019). Protections Against Discrimination and Other Prohibited Practices. https://www.ftc.gov/policy-notices/nofear-act/protections-against-discrimination National Park Service. (2016). Equal Pay Act of 1963. https://www.nps. gov/articles/equal-payact.htm#:~:text=In%201961%2C%20labor%20 activist%20Esther,develop%20recommendations%20for%20 achieving%20equality.

Alexander, K.L.. (2021). Feminism: The First Wave. https://www. womenshistory.org/exhibits/feminism-first-wave-0

Pruitt, S. (2022). What Are the Four Waves of Feminism?. https://www. history.com/news/feminism-four-waves

Britannica. (2016). President’s Commission on the Status of Women.

In Bricannica.com encyclopaedia. Retrieved August, 20, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Presidents-Commission-on-theStatus-of-Women

Soken-Huberty, E. (2021). Types of Feminism: The Four Waves. https:// www.humanrightscareers.com/issues/types-of-feminism-the-fourwaves/

Britannica. (2023). Feminism. In Bricannica.com encyclopaedia.

Retrieved June 14, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ feminism Brown, M. (2023). What is the Civil Rights Movement?. https://westportlibrary.libguides.com/ CivilRightsMovement#:~:text=What%20is%20the%20Civil%20 Rights,law%20in%20the%20United%20States.

Cengage Group. (2023). Second Wave Feminism: Collections. https://www.gale.com/primarysources/womensstudies/collections/ secondwavefeminism#:~:text=Unfolding%20in%20the%20 context%20of,to%20marry%20and%20bear%20children.

Fauxsmith, J. (n.d.). President’s Commission on the Status of Women. https://guides.library.harvard.edu/schlesinger_presidents_ commission_on_the_status_of_women Hayes, A. (2022). Second Wave Feminism: Spark of Women’s Rights Movement. https://www.thecollector.com/second-wave-of-feminismwomen-rights-movement/ History.com editors. (2022). 19th Amendment. https://www.history. com/topics/womens-history/19th-amendment-1

The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (2016).

Woman Suffrage and the 19th Amendment https://www.archives.gov/ milestone-documents/19th-amendment#:~:text=Passed%20by%20 Congress%20June%204,decades%20of%20agitation%20and%20 protest The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. (2019).

Women’s Rights and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. https://www. archives.gov/women/1964-civil-rights-act Thepeoplehistory.com. (2022). List of 1920’s Major News Events in History. https://www.thepeoplehistory.com/1920s.html U.S. Department of Labor. (2023). Equal Pay for Equal Work. https:// www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/centers-offices/civil-rightscenter/ internal/policies/equal-payforequalwork#:~:text=The%20Equal%20 Pay%20Act%20of,wage%20discrimination%20based%20on%20 sex.&text=The%20Equal%20Pay%20Act%20(EPA)%20protects%20 individuals%20of%20all%20sexes.

Wirtz, W. W. 1962. WOMEN WORKERS in 1960 • Geographical Differences: 284nd issue. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington. U.S. Department of Labour. https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ files/docs/publications/women/b0284_dolwb_1962.pdf

Loveday, V. (2009). Feminism and the women’s rights movement.

Great Neck Publishing. https://content.acca.melbourne/ uploads/2018/02/Feminisms-3.pdf Masterclass. (2022). Second-Wave Feminism: A History of SecondWave Feminism. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/second-wavefeminism-explained McLaughlin, K. (2014, August 25). 5 things women couldn’t do in the 1960s. Cable News Network. https://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/07/ living/sixties-women-5-things/index.html National Archives Museum. (2021). Featured Document Display: First Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin. https:// museum.archives.gov/featured-document-display-firstcongresswomanjeannetterankin#:~:text=Four%20years%20 before%20ratification%20of,House%20of%20Representatives%20 in%201941.

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Which characteristics distinguish successful movements for social change from unsuccessful ones?

Q I A N Q I (CH R IS T I N A) ZH O U Y E A R 9, 2 0 2 3

This essay was awarded Highly Commended in the John Locke Essay Competition.

Former President of the United States of America, Barack Obama, once famously said “Change will not come if we wait for some other person or if we wait for some other time. We are the ones we’ve been waiting for. We are the change that we seek” (2008). With these words in mind, we see shadows of our ancestral, pioneering figures in history, whose legacies illustrate our contemporary society. From fundamental human rights to decent living standards, history has borne witness to the vital roles social movements and ancestral activists play in shaping and urging development in human society.

Since the dawn of civilisations, certain characteristics have distinguished successful social movements from less impactful ones. Key traits that mark transformational social movements include effective navigation of the socio-political context (McCammon et al., 2001); strong leadership (Crutchfield, 2018); collective action through mass participation (Chenoweth and Stephan, 2011); a shared, compelling ideology (Traugott, 1978); and organised methodology (Imber, 1982). This essay evaluates these very characteristics through a comparison of successful and unsuccessful social movements in history.

The Cambridge Dictionary defines success as, “the achieving of the results wanted or hoped for”. When the word is placed in the context of social movements, scholars assess success based on the achievement of certain outcomes. For example, William Gamson, in his 1975 book, The Strategy of Social Protest, posits that gaining “new advantages” which then lead to the formation of a new source of power, is considered a successful outcome.

Such advantages are prevalent throughout various successful revolutions in history, from the labor movement in the late 18th century, which saw society evolve significantly in its provision of fair, safe working environments and reasonable wages, to the iconic American civil rights movement in the 20th century, bringing to bear a substantial effort to end racial segregation. This idea is affirmed by other academics, including Giugni, who names “institutional and political change” or positive consequences for the larger public as essential features of successful movements. As legal acts based on gender, race and nationality are outlawed and replaced with the efforts of notable social movements, such as the women’s suffrage movement and the anti-apartheid movement, there is a clear impact on society’s institutional and political

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dynamic. Furthermore, the rise of the environmental movement has led to the gradual protection of clean air and water by law, with increasing recognition by institutions and governments worldwide. The common theme here is the attainment of value and direct gain, which will serve, along with the historical analysis in this essay, as a primary lens through which to evaluate the distinguishing factors that affect the success or failure of a movement aiming at social change.

As human civilisation evolves, scholars have raised conflicting, yet perceptive, views on the sociology of success. While many agree on the significance that social context, leadership, “positive solidarity” (Traugott, 1978), collective action and “structural” methodology (Tyack, Kirst, Hansot, 1979) play in social reform, ongoing debates exist regarding the effectiveness of these approaches, particularly concerning the use of physical over verbal protest. Chinese Communist Party leader, Mao Zedong (Mao, 1927) famously said that “political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.” Although it led to success, the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party, seen through the lens of the Qing Dynasty, saw the limp bodies of youth lost in those so-called “powerful” movements, urging us to reflect on the question of whether violence is the most reasonable way to initiate social change.

Delving into the controversial tension between fast-paced physical force to overpower, as opposed to the adoption of peaceful protest that strives for a shared destiny; whilst some academics, such as Erica Chenoweth and Maria J. Stephan, in their 2011 study, found the use of nonviolent methods of resistance more effective in delivering positive change in civil resistance than violent campaigns, others argue for the necessity of violence in bringing social change more swiftly. The mass March of the Women Suffragettes’ peaceful demonstration and the Chinese youth’s violent protests may both be classified as successful, according to the Cambridge Dictionary definition, each fulfilling their initial goals. Franchise was granted to women nationwide in the 19th Amendment as a collective result of the peaceful demonstrations for women’s rights, while in the aftermath of violent protests, the small number of activists surviving celebrated the social reform of the contemporary Chinese Communist Party. As such, it can be seen that the attainment of direct socio-political gain is an imperative metric by which to measure success. In this case, many Chinese youths sacrificed themselves in the protests and were unable to attain their goals, which, when evaluated, arguably lowered the movement’s credibility as successful. There is, as well,

History, Theology and Philosophy

the presence of evidence that shows peaceful protests achieve more by building a wider coalition to gain support and inspire lasting change (Rabrenovic, 2020). Moreover, they tend to result in less fatal injuries and collateral damage. This may be seen in the nonviolent mass protests in Iran in 1977-1978 against Shah Mohammad Reza, and the Delano Grape Boycott in the late 1960s which, through peaceful demonstrations, ended hunger and mistreatment towards American farm workers.

The influence of these characteristics on successful movements is further exemplified as time progresses. In the late 19th century, the world witnessed fundamental progress in gender equality as women were granted the legal right to vote by the 19th Amendment passed in the United States. This was attributable to Emmeline Pankhust (founder of Women’s Franchise League), and Susan B. Anthony, who ambitiously campaigned for women’s rights in the United Kingdom and the United States, respectively.

The steering factors that led to this significant shift in women’s rights, as highlighted by McCammon et al., were the critical use of political and gendered opportunities emerging after WWI. The suffragette leaders were able to align and frame their goals with the accepted conventions of society at that time. For example, women linked the right to vote to their expected domestic role, and the protection of their children and homes, which proved effective and especially persuasive to political leaders. This emphasises the importance of achieving harmony through the alignment of ideologies with the social and political constructs of the time to urge positive change in key decision-makers and the public at large. This argument is affirmed by contemporary scholars Useem and Goldstone (2022) who argue that the effective use of “cultural framing” and “resource mobilisation” in creating “cultural resonance” builds collective forces through a shared understanding and common humanitarian goal for success.

Various academics, including Nardini et al. (2020) agree that “Social movements advance when people act collectively by rising in solidarity with a shared purpose to address injustice and inequality”. They focus on building “grassroots momentum” — activating ordinary citizens to initiate collective movements and bring change through public strength (Diani, 1992; Oliver et al, 1985; Olson, 1965; Crutchfield, 2018; Nardini et al., 2020; Useem, Goldstone, 2021). From the American civil rights movement to the #MeToo and Black Lives Matter movements, we see the importance of mass participation for success in significant social events throughout history. Also noteworthy are the vital roles that strong leadership and effective methodology play in support of a peaceful demonstration’s success. These traits are recognised as

crucial by Mart Traugott as they lead to “positive solidarity”; the ability of a well organised movement, with a shared vision and an effective leadership structure, to lead nonviolent movements that succeed at higher rates.

In the 18th century, Spain experienced a period of unsuccessful social reform and modernisation during the Spanish Enlightenment. As argued by contemporary academics, the movement ultimately failed due to their mischoice of tactics and conflicting ideologies with existing societal and religious values.

It is explained that the fatal factors leading to the movement’s downfall stemmed from the inherent false orientation of the movement. With an alignment of values with the French Revolution, the Enlightenment was strongly opposed by the Spanish citizens, who did not share a belief in these same values.

This led to a huge loss in collective strength as leaders failed to mobilise an ideal mass of public forces. Moreover, the movement’s conflicting acts and ideals with Spain’s leading Catholic religion further reduced the movement’s ability to gain potential allies and local supporters. Furthermore, the absence of effective organisation and stability in long-lasting leadership or, in other words, “permanent political power”, proved to bring about the movement’s defeat following the death of King Charles III and the subsequent reign of Carlos IV. In modern times, a similar social reformation movement, the Karamet Watan movement (a political reformation in Lebanon demanding governmental accountability and transparency) acts in parallel as a cautionary tale warning against the disregard of the social and political context of the time, as well as the wrong choice of tactics. In their 2018 journal article, scholars Hamad H. Albloshi and Michael Herb discuss the major factors which led to the movement’s eventual failure. In comparison to previous successful reformation events in Kuwait, the authors highlight the overly idealistic goals of the movement to “embrace the ideal of full parliamentary democracy,” reducing the movement’s credibility as support from the general public slowly decreased.

In addition, in this case, the decision by leaders of the movement to use nonviolent methods to effect change proved a poor choice as it was inadequate and disadvantageous in the face of the powerful force of the prevailing regime. The ruling regime’s use of stifling censorship, the arrest of social activists and the use of public intimidation, clearly impeded the movement’s ability to mobilise support for effective social change. Furthermore, the Karamet Watan movement played out in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, a time in which people had become increasingly

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Which characteristics distinguish successful movements for social change from unsuccessful ones? | Q I A N Q I ( C H R I S T I N A ) Z H O U Y E A R 9 , 2 0 2 3

cautious and disapproving of major political reform events. Thus, the unfavorable regional political environment of 2012-2014 also impeded the movement’s success. We are therefore able to deduce that socio-political context and effective methodology incorporating strong leadership, suitable tactics and ideology have a significant influence in distinguishing a movement’s success. It is evident that there are dire consequences for social movements that disregard these characteristics, leading to eventual failure.

Ultimately, there is no set of certain criteria which, when fulfilled, promises the definite success of a movement in initiating change. Yet, through the discussion of significant historical social movements above, some criteria can increase a movement’s chances of success. That is through considering distinguishing characteristics drawn from the experiences of our pioneering ancestors, whose strong drive for societal progression has produced our modern world. Key traits discussed include an ability to navigate socio-political contexts, and a drive to pursue effective methodology in leadership, organisation and collective action, while delivering a clearly articulated manifesto.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y: Albloshi, H. H., and Herb, M. (2018). Karamet Watan: An Unsuccessful Nonviolent Movement. Middle East Journal, 72(3), 408–430. https:// www.jstor.org/stable/26932977 Arntsen, E. (2020). Are peaceful protests more effective than violent ones?. Are Peaceful Protests More Effective Than Violent Ones? (northeastern.edu) Crutchfield, L. R. (2018). How Change Happens: Why Some Social Movements Succeed While Others Don’t. https:// philanthropynewsdigest.org/features/book-reviews/how-changehappens-why-some-social-movements-succeed-while-others-don-t Diani, M. (1992). The Concept of Social Movement, 40(1). https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1992.tb02943.x Gamson, W. (1975). The Strategy of Social Protest. Dorsey Press.

Giugni, M. G. (1998). Was It Worth the Effort? The Outcomes and Consequences of Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology, 24, 371–393. http://www.jstor.org/stable/223486 Imber, M. (1982). Toward a Theory of Curriculum Reform: An Analysis of the First Campaign for Sex Education. Curriculum Inquiry, 12(4), 339–362. https://doi.org/10.2307/1179488 Iris H. W. Engstrand. (1985). The Enlightenment in Spain: Influences upon New World Policy. The Americas, 41(4), 436–444. https://doi. org/10.2307/1007350 Marwell, G., Oliver, P. E., and Prahl, R. (1988). Social Networks and Collective Action: A Theory of the Critical Mass. III. American Journal of Sociology, 94(3), 502–534. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2780252

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McCammon, H. J., Campbell, K. E., Granberg, E. M., and Mowery, C. (2001). How Movements Win: Gendered Opportunity Structures and U.S. Women’s Suffrage Movements, 1866 to 1919. American Sociological Review, 66(1), 49–70. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657393 Nardini, G., Rank-Christiman, T., Bublitz, M. G., Cross, N. N. S., and Peracchio, L. A. (2020). Together We Rise: How Social Movements Succeed, 31(1), 112-145. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcpy.1201 National Archives. (2021). Woman Suffrage and the 19th Amendment. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/ woman-suffrage#:~:text=Beginning%20in%20the%20 mid%2D19th,women%20the%20right%20to%20vote Satell, G. and Popovic, S. (2017). How Protests Become Successful Social Movements. https://hbr.org/2017/01/how-protests-becomesuccessful-social-movements Schwartz, M. and Sánchez, E. (2016). Social Movements – and Their Leaders – That Changed Our World. https://www.globalcitizen. org/en/content/movements-social-change-apartheid-civil-rightssuf/#:~:text=Throughout%20history%2C%20movements%20that%20 promote,the%20efforts%20of%20these%20leaders Stephan, M. J., and Chenoweth, E. (2008). Why Civil Resistance Works: The Strategic Logic of Nonviolent Conflict. International Security, 33(1), 7–44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40207100 Traugott, M. (1978). Reconceiving Social Movements. Social Problems, 26(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/800431 Useem, B., Goldstone, J.A. The paradox of victory: social movement fields, adverse outcomes, and social movement success. Theor Soc 51, 31–60 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-021-09460-2 Werft, M. and Ngalle, J. (2016). 5 Peaceful Protests That Led to Social and Political Changes. https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/ peace-protests-dallas-response/ Whitaker, A. P. (1958). The Enlightenment in Spanish America.

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 102(6), 555–559. http://www.jstor.org/stable/985566

Critically evaluate historians’ interpretations of Enver Hoxha’s leadership of Albania from 1944-1985

History, Theology and Philosophy

C ASSANDR A SEETO Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

The nature of Enver Hoxha’s leadership and its impact on Albania have been continually debated since the end of his regime, dividing the Albanian population which sees Hoxha as either an “uncle” figure of complex character or a brutal, powerobsessed dictator.1 This divide was shown in a 2015 survey, with a nearly equal split in belief that his role was positive or negative.2 In his book Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania, Albanian journalist and historian, Blendi Fevziu, heavily criticises Hoxha’s leadership, describing his oppressive regime as a “reign of terror”.3 In opposition, James S. O’Donnell, who published his study, A Coming of Age: Albania under Enver Hoxha, 14 years after Hoxha’s death, believed that under his leadership, Albania had significant positive growth from its weak position following World War II, despite the use of inhumane policies.4 Contrary to the conclusions of Fevziu and O’Donnell, however, in his book Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe, Fred C. Abrahams provides a middle-of-the-road view of the positive and negative impacts of Hoxha’s leadership, delving into Albania’s progress before and after his tenure.5

1 Ypi, Lea. (2021). Free: Coming of Age at the End of History. Allen Lane. p.36.

is that Hoxha was a leader “whose cruelty cannot be justified by a lack of knowledge or by any legitimate requirements of the state”.7 His book was met with a strong public reaction. The editor, Robert Elsie, recounts that when first published in 2011, it was burnt at public protests in five different Albanian cities for its harsh critique of the leader.8 Elsie explains that the protests were organized by “few” and “confused” supporters of the old regime, and nationalists in Kosovo and Albania, for whom an attack on Hoxha also targeted Albania.9 However, the book’s English translator, Dr Simeon Mitropolitski, writes that it was nonetheless extremely popular amongst Albanians, describing Fevziu’s book as the first publication fully focused on his regime10, drawing on never-before-seen documents, Hoxha’s own memoirs and writings11, and exclusive interviews with leaders of the communist period to create an evidence-based biography.12 On a critical note, Mitropolitski states that a weakness of Fevziu’s book is that it “needs to go further beyond the simple accumulation of facts… into the realm of contemporary politics”,13 a statement supported

by Guardian correspondent Jonathan Steele. In a review of the book, Steele explains that Fevziu’s extremely critical perspective is detrimental to his interpretation, as his writing becomes one-dimensional and antipathetic towards Hoxha, excluding discussion into his political legacy.14 He writes that Fevziu focuses on the negative impacts of his leadership, lacking examination into Hoxha’s motives with an “end justifies the means” interpretation.15 He also omits many of Hoxha’s significant positive contributions to Albania, including its socioeconomic

2 “Citizens understanding and perceptions of the Communist past in Albania and expectations for the future”, which was used to ensure that Albanian society would be more informed in discussing their Communist history. From a nationally representative sample of 995 people, about 45% of respondents believed the role of Enver Hoxha in the history of Albania was a positive impact, whilst 42% thought he had a negative impact.

8 The editor of Fevziu’s book, who wrote the foreword and introduction.

Blendi Fevziu interprets Enver Hoxha’s leadership from a modern Albanian perspective, discussing evidence from in-person interviews and previously unpublished archival sources to justify that his rule was one of oppression and tyranny.6 His conclusion

7 Ibid.

OSCE Presence in Albania. (2016). Citzens understanding and perceptions of the Communist past in Albania and expectations for the future. https://www.osce.org/ files/f/documents/d/1/286821.pdf

Elsie, R. (2015). Blendi Fevziu Enver Hoxha: the Iron Fist of Albania. http://books. elsie.de/b098_fevziu_hoxha-the-iron-fist/

3 An Albanian investigative journalist and historian at the University of Tirana.

The book was first published in 2011 in Albania, before being translated into an English version in 2016. Fevziu, B. (2016). Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania.

I.B Tauris and Co. Ltd. p.9-11.

10 The English translator of Fevziu’s book from Albanian.

4 Wrote 14 years after Hoxha’s death and at the crux of Albania’s transition into a democracy in 1999. An American historian based in New York. O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). A Coming of Age: Albania Under Enver Hoxha. East European Monographs. p.3-4.

5 The Associate Director for Program at the Human Rights Watch. An author, journalist and historian focused on telling the stories of those impacted by war and political oppression.

9 Ibid.

Mitropolitski, S. (2016, April 12). Book Review: Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania by Blendi Fevziu. LSE Review of Books. https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/ lsereviewofbooks/2016/04/12/book-review-enver-hoxha-the-iron-fist-of-albaniaby-blendi-fevziu/ 11 Marxist Internet Archive. (n.d.). Enver Hoxha Archive: Library. https://www. marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works-index.htm 12 Mitropolitski, S. (2016). Op. cit.

13 Ibid.

Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe. New York University Press. p.11-12.

14 Steele, J. (2016). Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania by Blendi Fevziu review – the People’s Republic tyrant. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/ apr/30/enver-hoxha-iron-fist-of-albania-blendi-fevziu-review

6 Fevziu, B. (2016). Op. cit. p.11

15 Ibid.

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Critically evaluate historians’ interpretations of Enver Hoxha’s leadership of Albania from 1944-1985 | C A S S A N D R A S E E T O Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

progress under 15 years of communist rule, the eradication of malaria,16 his drive to purge illiteracy, the expansion of health services,17 and the transition from an agrarian based economy to an industrial one.18 Steele concludes that The Iron Fist of Albania is a book written more to condemn the leader, rather than provide an objective standpoint, as Robert Elsie introduces it.19 Despite the limitations of his book, Fevziu is able to justify his conclusions through primary source evidence and numerous quoted interviews. Whilst it is not an objectively written interpretation of Enver Hoxha’s leadership, The Iron Fist of Albania is still a source useful to those wishing to expand their general knowledge and understanding of Albania’s Communist history.20 Coming from a different viewpoint, James S. O’Donnell suggests in his study, A Coming of Age: Albania under Enver Hoxha, that the impacts of Hoxha’s leadership, in both the domestic and foreign spheres, enabled the small nation to modernize, develop, and retain its sovereignty.21 Throughout the study, O’Donnell examines the 40-year period of his leadership, beginning during World War II and ending with his death.22 Similar to critiques of Fevziu’s book, issues arise in O’Donnell’s failure to address the legacy of Hoxha’s impact on Albania’s development, as he wrote only one year following the promulgation of the constitution of the Republic of Albania.23 Likewise, Stephen R. Bowers wrote only four years after Hoxha’s death that “whether Hoxha’s Stalinist domestic policies will remain as an enduring legacy is yet to be seen”, establishing the limitation of being unable to analyse the long-term impacts of his leadership.24 O’Donnell bases his study on “the incontrovertible fact that definite progress was made in Albania during the Enver Hoxha period”, leaning towards a positive interpretation.25 O’Donnell’s study comes to the final conclusion that Albania “came of age” under Hoxha’s rule, to become “a solidly independent sovereign nation”, which justified the brutal methods he used to maintain power in the state.26 O’Donnell is supported by the writings of the theorist George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who wrote that a great leader is “devoted to the One Aim, regardless of all else” and to “trample down many an innocent flower” is a necessary evil to achieve a greater good.27

16 Glenny, M. (2021). Children of a circle of hell: The terror and bizarre reality of life in communist Albania. Times Literary Supplement, (6189), 11. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A685929214/ AONE?u=anon~adb57ad1&sid=googleScholar&xid=b57883c1

Drawing from a questionnaire O’Donnell conducted, the most mentioned positive developments under Hoxha’s leadership were “education, electrification of the country, land reclamation, and industry”, whilst negative aspects included “isolation, class struggle, low pay, loss of personal freedom, and the closing of churches.”28 These developments are affirmed by Luan Omari and Stafanaq Pollo, who explain Albania’s socioeconomic development, including moving from an agrarian to an industrialbased economy; educating the illiterate; and draining coastal marshlands.29 However, O’Donnell discusses the reasoning for the negative aspects of his leadership, quoting Hoxha’s own writings to analyse his character and motivations for oppressing the populace to retain absolute power over Albania. He cites an Albanian psychiatrist Dr Afrim Dangëllia, who states that Hoxha had a similar mental state to the likes of Stalin and Hitler30 in his belief that he was a hero to his countrymen. This is supported by historian Thomas Carlyle, who said “figures of Heroism… command over us…tell us for the day and hour what we are to do.”31 O’Donnell agreed with these assertions to an extent, but argued that Hoxha’s initial positive developments dwindled as the negative character of his regime grew, beginning with the 1976 Constitution.32 As evidenced in his questionnaire, isolation was the highest concern of Hoxha’s rule, and the most damaging to Albania as it involved being cut off from all foreign allies, a ban on Western culture, and a declaration as the first atheist state,33 and led to Hoxha’s growing paranoia and suspicion which drove the executions of those who dared oppose him.34 Despite Hoxha’s immoral methods of achieving control, O’Donnell still concludes that under Hoxha’s regime, Albania was able to grow into a nation that would have been impossible to achieve without his leadership.35 His study, A Coming of Age, provides a limited analysis of Enver Hoxha’s leadership as it is unable to address his long-term impacts and legacy, but is able to provide a reliable perspective from the time that Albania’s transition into a democracy from a dictatorship began.

In his book, Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe, historian Fred C. Abrahams writes of Enver Hoxha’s leadership, drawing from multiple perspectives, describing Albania’s transformation from an isolated communist state under Hoxha, to its democratic revolution after his regime.36 As a member of the Human Rights Watch, Abrahams recounts

17 Steele, J. (2016). Op. cit.

28 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.227.

18 Omari, L. and Pollo, S. (1988). The History of the Socialist Construction of Albania. 8 Nentori Publishing House. p.28-31

29 Omari, L. and Pollo, S. (1988). p.30-31.

19 Steele, J. (2016). Op. cit.

20 Mitropolitski, S. (2016). Op. cit.

21 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.3-4, 164.

22 Ibid. p.1.

23 Mitropolitski, S. (2016). Op. cit.

30 Dangëllia, A. (1991). The Paranoid Personality of One Dictator. Republika, 3. https://pamfleti.net/kush-ishte-sozia-qe-perdorte-enver-hoxha-diktatori-kishtefrike-nga-atentatet-ndiqte-shembujt-e-stalinit 31 Carlyle, T. (1941). Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic In History. Charles Scribner’s Sons. p.196.

32 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.241.

24 Bowers, S.R. (1989). Stalinism in Albania: Domestic Affairs under Enver Hoxha. Faculty Publications and Presentations, 87. https://digitalcommons.liberty. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=gov_fac_pubs

33 Smith, J.Y. (1985, April 12). Enver Hoxha Was Ruler For 40 Years in Albania. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/ politics/1985/04/12/enver-hoxha-was-ruler-for-40-years-in-albania/0b9f18ff-a6764b44-b284-f69ddf45dcea/

25 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.3.

34 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.198-200.

26 Ibid. p.4.

35 Ibid. p.242-243.

27 Hegel, G.W.F. (1894). The Philosophy of History. Batoche Books. p.47.

36 Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Op. cit. p.11-12.

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over 200 interviews, accounts, Albanian government documents, previously classified US records, research he personally conducted and more, to show the multi-faceted character of Enver Hoxha in both his personal and political life.37 Robert Legvold explains that Abrahams’ book is an “intimate portrait of the country” accrediting his reliability as he spent considerable time living in and researching Albania since 1993.38 Similarly to O’Donnell’s questionnaire, Abrahams explains that Hoxha’s complete isolation and his effectiveness at cutting off Albania from the world was the greatest barrier to ending the dictatorship.39 This is supported

by Aryah Neier, who compares the degree of isolation to that of North Korea’s.40 In exploring the negative impacts of Hoxha’s leadership, Abrahams writes about his purges of high-ranking political officials, which the historian Idrit Idrizi reasons were acts “in Hoxha’s definitive ascent as master over life and death in ‘his party.’”41 However, Abrahams also explores the other side of Hoxha, his personal life and life in the public eye. He reports an interview with one of Hoxha’s cooks, who revealed that Hoxha suffered from diabetes and heart attacks, and describes his character in opposition to the widely accepted image.42 Witold Szablowski’s interview with Hoxha’s cook parallels Abrahams’ conclusions; that beneath the public love for him and his image as a caring, gentle man was a ruthless killer and absolute leader.43 Abrahams delves deeper into Hoxha’s upbringing to investigate the causes of Hoxha’s brutal methods, with Will Nicoll stating that the book’s effectiveness is within Abraham’s “character portraits”,44 raising questions about how a person described by his pupils as “a cheerful and mild-mannered man” became such an oppressive dictator.45 The author Chuck Sudetic praises Abrahams’ purpose in delving deep into not only the lives of both major political leaders, but also giving voice to members of the public who struggled beneath Hoxha’s Stalin-like leadership.46/47

37 Gumbel, A. (2015, May 19). Europe’s Accidental Country. Los Angeles Review of Books. https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/europes-accidental-country/ 38 Abrahams had lived in Albania for 20 years, moving there just 3 years after collapse of old regime, witnessing the beginning of democracy.

Legvold, R. (2015, August 13). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/reviews/capsulereview/2015-08-13/modern-albania-dictatorship-democracy-europe

Concerning the weaknesses of Abrahams’ interpretation, he himself identifies and explains the limitations of his book; that it only focuses on Albania’s capital city Tirana, writes little of women, and primarily explores Albania’s relationship with the United States.48 The latter is an issue with Modern Albania as Abrahams fails to address Hoxha’s perpetual feud with China, which led to the complete isolation of Albania in the final years of his rule, which Hoxha described in his book, Reflections on China.49 However, Andrew Gumbel counters that Abrahams’ account is useful in encouraging these questions to be answered, with his focus on the United States highlighting questions of foreign involvement with corruption and authoritarian policies.50 Gumbel continues to conclude that “the book really shines when Abrahams presents the results of his scrupulous search for the few, brave souls who dared to raise protests against the communist regime.”51 The nature of Abrahams’ book as a cumulation of over 20 years of in-person research in Albania serves to acclaim his writing as an objective interpretation that provides evidence of both positive and negative impacts of Enver Hoxha’s rule.

Historians’ interpretations of Enver Hoxha’s rule vary widely across the years since the end of his regime and Albania’s transition to democracy. The divide between historians on whether the impact of his leadership was positive or negative has been discussed by Fevziu, O’Donnell, and Abrahams, and is primarily caused by Hoxha’s contradictions of character, with his unorthodox, and at times, inhumane methods of control used as means to achieve progress for Albania.52 Early interpretations of Hoxha, such as that of O’Donnell, written close to Hoxha’s death and the fall of his regime, provide excellent primary sources for learning of the public response and opinion of Hoxha whilst his influence remained. Later interpretations from the 21st Century still differ greatly, as shown when contrasting Fevziu’s heavily critical interpretation and Abraham’s neutral overview; however they are able to provide analysis of Hoxha’s lasting legacy on Albania, from before he came into leadership to Albanian society today. Although much of Albania’s Communist history has been exposed and made publicly available, historical interpretations of Hoxha’s leadership remain equivocal in weighing up his positive and negative impacts.53

39 Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Op. cit. p.2.

40 An interview with Abrahams himself on his book, and his process of writing and research over the years.

Neier, A. (Presenter). (2015, June 9). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy [Audio podcast]. https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/events/ modern-albania-dictatorship-democracy 41 Idrizi, I. (2021). Enver Hoxha’s Last Purge: Inside the Ruling Circle of Communist Albania. SageJournals, 36 (4). https://doi. org/10.1177/08883254211036184 42 Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Op. cit. p. 201-203.

43 Szablowski, W. (2019). How to Feed a Dictator. Penguin Books. p.142-150.

44 Nicoll, W. (2015, May 30). The museum which once displayed Enver Hoxha’s pyjamas now houses a pro-democracy radio station. Spectator. https:// www.spectator.com.au/2015/05/the-museum-which-once-displayed-enverhoxhas-pyjamas-now-houses-a-pro-democracy-radio-station/ 45 Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Op. cit. p.15-16.

46 Modern Albania. (n.d.). Book Reviews. http://www.modern-albania.com/ reviews 47 Witness History. (Presenters). (2014, February 20). The Fall of Albania’s Enver Hoxha [Audio podcast]. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01s60xg

48 Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Op. cit. p.12.

49 Marxist Internet Archive. (n.d.). Op. cit.

50 Gumbel, A. (2015). Op. cit.

51 Ibid.

52 O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). Op. cit. p.242-243.

53 Mitropolitski, S. (2016). Op. cit.

31

Critically evaluate historians’ interpretations of Enver Hoxha’s leadership of Albania from 1944-1985 | C A S S A N D R A S E E T O Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

BIBLIOGR APHY Books: Abrahams, F.C. (2015). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe. New York University Press.

Carlyle, T. (1941). Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic In History. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Fevziu, B. (2016). Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania. I.B Tauris and Co. Ltd. Hegel, G.W.F. (1894). The Philosophy of History. Batoche Books.

O’Donnell, J.S. (1999). A Coming of Age: Albania Under Enver Hoxha. East European Monographs.

Omari, L. and Pollo, S. (1988). The History of the Socialist Construction of Albania. 8 Nentori Publishing House.

Szablowski, W. (2019). How to Feed a Dictator. Penguin Books.

Journal Articles: Bowers, S.R. (1989). Stalinism in Albania: Domestic Affairs under Enver Hoxha. Faculty Publications and Presentations, 87. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1086&context=gov_fac_pubs Dangëllia, A. (1991). The Paranoid Personality of One Dictator.

Republika, 3. https://pamfleti.net/kush-ishte-sozia-qe-perdorte-enverhoxha-diktatori-kishte-frike-nga-atentatet-ndiqte-shembujt-e-stalinit Glenny, M. (2021). Children of a circle of hell: The terror and bizarre reality of life in communist Albania. Times Literary Supplement, (6189), 11. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A685929214/ AONE?u=anon~adb57ad1&sid=googleScholar&xid=b57883c1 Idrizi, I. (2021). Enver Hoxha’s Last Purge: Inside the Ruling Circle of Communist Albania. SageJournals, 36 (4). https://doi. org/10.1177/08883254211036184

Ypi, Lea. (2021). Free: Coming of Age at the End of History. Allen Lane.

Podcasts:

Blog posts/Book reviews:

Neier, A. (Presenter). (2015, June 9). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy [Audio podcast]. https://www.opensocietyfoundations. org/events/modern-albania-dictatorship-democracy

Gumbel, A. (2015, May 19). Europe’s Accidental Country. Los Angeles Review of Books. https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/europesaccidental-country/ Legvold, R. (2015, August 13). Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe. Foreign Affairs. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/ reviews/capsule-review/2015-08-13/modern-albania-dictatorshipdemocracy-europe Mitropolitski, S. (2016, April 12). Book Review: Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania by Blendi Fevziu. LSE Review of Books. https://blogs.lse. ac.uk/lsereviewofbooks/2016/04/12/book-review-enver-hoxha-theiron-fist-of-albania-by-blendi-fevziu/ Nicoll, W. (2015, May 30). The museum which once displayed Enver Hoxha’s pyjamas now houses a pro-democracy radio station. Spectator. https://www.spectator.com.au/2015/05/the-museum-which-oncedisplayed-enver-hoxhas-pyjamas-now-houses-a-pro-democracyradio-station/ Smith, J.Y. (1985, April 12). Enver Hoxha Was Ruler For 40 Years in Albania. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/ archive/politics/1985/04/12/enver-hoxha-was-ruler-for-40-years-inalbania/0b9f18ff-a676-4b44-b284-f69ddf45dcea/

Government/corporate publications: OSCE Presence in Albania. (2016). Citzens understanding and perceptions of the Communist past in Albania and expectations for the future. https:// www.osce.org/files/f/documents/d/1/286821.pdf

32

Witness History. (Presenters). (2014, February 20). The Fall of Albania’s Enver Hoxha [Audio podcast]. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/ p01s60xg

Websites: Elsie, R. (2015). Blendi Fevziu Enver Hoxha: the Iron Fist of Albania. http://books.elsie.de/b098_fevziu_hoxha-the-iron-fist/ Marxist Internet Archive. (n.d.). Enver Hoxha Archive: Library. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/works-index.htm Modern Albania. (n.d.). Book Reviews. http://www.modern-albania. com/reviews Steele, J. (2016). Enver Hoxha: The Iron Fist of Albania by Blendi Fevziu review – the People’s Republic tyrant. https://www.theguardian.com/ books/2016/apr/30/enver-hoxha-iron-fist-of-albania-blendi-fevziureview

With reference to the quotation, how does Christianity guide adherents to seek transformation of self and the world?

History, Theology and Philosophy

NYNIA NGUYEN Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

12 Therefore, I urge you, brothers and sisters, in view of God’s mercy, to offer your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and pleasing to God—this is your true and proper worship.2 Do not conform to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God’s will is—his good, pleasing and perfect will. (Romans 12:2)

Through changes in practices and ethics over time, Christianity has secured its influence in guiding adherents to seek transformation of self and the world. Christianity’s transformation is crucial to forming “true and proper worship”, as said in Romans 12:2, so adherents can fulfill “his good, pleasing and perfect will”.1 In 1517, Martin Luther sparked the Protestant Reformation, challenging the Catholic Church’s beliefs and teachings for individuals and the world.2 His focus on certain practices highlighted the importance of Baptism, and how its representation of rebirth transforms adherents’ lives as disciples of God.3 His teachings also shaped how Christians treat the Earth and came to view environmental ethics, serving the world in a way that worships God and values His creation.4 Through these transformations, a strong action for discipleship allows Christianity to guide adherents to seek transformation of self and the world.

Luther’s transformation of Christian beliefs guides adherents to transform themselves and the world through changed forms of worship. In his publication, Ninety-Five Theses, Luther criticised

1 New International Version Bible. (1973). Bible Gateway. https://www. biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%2012%3A2&version=NIV. Romans 12:2

the practice of “Indulgences” by challenging the buying of forgiveness,5 discouraging people from the widespread practice and urging them to seek forgiveness through faith and a relationship with God, rather than donations to the church.6/7 Luther emphasised the importance of relationships with God being built on righteousness, not judgement, through reinforcing the Five Solas, which transformed foundational Christian beliefs.8 For Sola Scriptura (“By Scripture Alone”), Luther emphasised the Bible as the main source of doctrine because of its supreme authority over the church, stating, “The Church does not make the Word, but it comes into being from the Word,”9 highlighting the importance of using Scripture to exercise true and proper worship.10 Through his publication of the Bible in German vernacular, the general public had first-hand access to Scripture, where previously only members of the clergy had access.11 Translations in other languages followed and these continue to be generated today, such as those by the Aboriginal Noongar Christians, who began translations of certain books of the Bible into Noongar in 2014.12 Greater access to the Bible transforms relationships with God on a deeper, more personal level and advances individual faith.14 This idea continues to impact Protestant churches today, with the pulpit at the centre of the church, representing the significance of Scripture in the service.15 Luther continued to transform Catholic liturgy through an emphasis on universal priesthood, creating equal spiritual authority for the clergy and laity.17 This promoted

5 Britannica. (2023). Lutheranism. In Britannica. Retrieved August 1, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lutheranism 6 Acocella, J. (2017). How Martin Luther Changed the World. https://www. newyorker.com/magazine/2017/10/30/how-martin-luther-changed-the-world 7 Wagner, R., Warner, K. (2016). Understanding Salvation by Faith. https://www. dummies.com/article/body-mind-spirit/religion-spirituality/christianity/generalchristianity/understanding-salvation-by-faith-199080/ 8 Danzey, E. (2023). What are the 5 Solas and Where do they come from?. https:// www.biblestudytools.com/bible-study/explore-the-bible/what-are-the-5-solasand-where-do-they-come-from.html 9 Hains, T. (2019). Martin Luther, the Rule of Faith, and the Bible. https:// mereorthodoxy.com/martin-luther-rule-faith-bible

2 National Geographic. (2022). The Protestant Reformation. https://education. nationalgeographic.org/resource/protestant-reformation/

10 Bible info. (2023). What does Sola Scriptura mean?. https://www.bibleinfo.com/ en/questions/what-does-sola-scriptura-mean

3 Piper, J. (2008). What is Baptism and How Important is it?. https://www. desiringgod.org/messages/what-is-baptism-and-how-important-is-it

11 Catholic Bridge. (n.d.). Did the Catholic Church forbid Bible reading?. https:// www.catholicbridge.com/catholic/did-the-catholic-church-forbid-bible-reading. php

4 UN environment programme. (2023). Religions and environmental protection. https://www.unep.org/about-un-environment-programme/faith-earth-initiative/ religions-and-environmental-protection#:~:text=Christianity%3A%20There%20 are%20approximately%20hundred,.info.%2C%20n.d).

12 Kube, M. (2023). A radical change in the call to translate dying languages. https:// www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/a-radical-change-in-the-call-in-translatedying-languages/

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With reference to the quotation, how does Christianity guide adherents to seek transformation of self and the world? | N Y N I A N G U Y E N Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

congregational involvement. This objective can also be seen in Pentecostal Church’s approach to services, which prioritise congregational singing over formal spiritual leadership to increase participation.15 Congregational involvement centred around Luther’s doctrine of salvation being freely gifted through Jesus’ sacrifice, undermining the importance of popes and priests as all adherents had equal access to God.14 This democratic aspect of the Church developed discipleship, as all adherents were part of the “priesthood of all believers”.14 This transformed the role of adherents in the Church and changed their ability to enter God’s family as their relationships with God were based on love, rather than ritual.14

Jesus’ sacrifice as compensation for their sins.21 In offering themselves to God, adherents replicate Jesus’ Baptism, so that a personal relationship and connection with God can be formed.22 Baptism represents rebirth, transforming the purpose of adherents as they fulfil their role of discipleship by following Christ and imitating His loving nature to provide a model for more to follow.23 As adherents are welcomed into Christian communities through Baptism, they become part of God’s family so they can receive eternal life in communion with Christ.24 Being part of this family means actively sharing the news and goodness of God, transforming the world through demonstrating a life modelled on God’s word.25

Baptism allows adherents to exercise discipleship by seeking to transform the world and individuals into a community based on serving and loving others. As the first sacrament for Christian initiation, Baptism publicly declares adherents followers of Christ,13 and proclaims their belief that they receive salvation through grace because of God’s mercy.14 This is the basis of Luther’s belief in Sola Fide (“By Faith Alone”), which is why it is also practised in most Protestant denominations, along with Catholic and Orthodox churches.15 While Baptism does not make an individual Christian, it is viewed as an act of obedience to Christ and a signifier that the person identifies with Christ’s sacrifice and resurrection.16 Either through immersion, aspersion, or affusion, water represents the cleansing of sin, symbolising a renewal of adherents’ lives.17 The necessity of Baptism differs among denominations. For example, in Catholicism, the practice is used to communicate God’s grace18 but, in Protestant churches, it is not necessary for salvation or for the reception of God’s grace. Infants are baptised in the Orthodox Church to cleanse original sin. Contrastingly, Pentecostal Churches do not practice paedobaptism as they believe the practice is for believers who have professed their faith in Christ and repented, so they can understand the importance of Baptism. Baptism follows Paul’s command to “offer your bodies as a living sacrifice”19 so adherents are transformed internally as their bodies are redeemed.20 This transformation means they can offer themselves as a temple for the Holy Spirit as they are “In Christ”, since they have accepted

Christian views on environmental ethics have also transformed behaviours and affected attitudes towards the Earth. Christian ethics are vital to guiding adherents’ treatment of the Earth and these ethics are a reflection of their love for others, and therefore their love for God.26 Richard Hays, an American scholar, argues that there are four tasks that shape New Testament ethics on how to treat the Earth.27 Hays urges adherents to act out the “Descriptive Task” through biblical exegesis to influence their environmental behaviour.28 Genesis 1 repeatedly describes the Earth as “good”,29 demonstrating the Earth’s value as God’s creation and the importance of adherents being stewards of the Earth.30 This role is crucial, since humans were made “in the image of God,”31 and therefore must practice dominion in a custodial manner.32 However, interpretations of how to be a good steward vary. For example, humanity’s power to “rule over the fish in the sea and the birds,” could be interpreted as the responsibility to nurture Earth’s resources, or the right to dominate the environment for humanity’s own ends.33 Hay’s “Synthetic Task” points out that the Genesis story of “The Fall”

21 Smith, C. (2020). What Being “In Christ” Means. https://openthebible.org/ article/what-being-in-christ-means/#:~:text=Here%20is%20a%20great%20 reality,this%20being%20%E2%80%9Cin%20Christ.%E2%80%9D 22 Just Disciple. (n.d.). Why do Christians get Baptised? The Biblical Answer. https:// justdisciple.com/christians-baptized/ 23 Stanley, C. (2010). What is the symbolism and importance of water baptism?. https://www.christianity.com/jesus/following-jesus/baptism/the-message-ofbaptism.html 24 Ibid.

25 Bricker, V. (2021). What Does it mean to be in the Family of God?. https://www. christianity.com/wiki/god/what-does-it-mean-to-be-in-the-family-of-god.html

13 Pritchard, R. (2023). What is Baptism? Its meaning and importance in Christianity. https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-terms/what-does-baptism-mean.html 14 New International Version Bible. (1973). Op.cit. Romans 12:2 15 Byer, B. (2022). Types of Baptism in Christianity and Other Religions. https:// owlcation.com/humanities/Which-Religions-Practice-Baptism-Which-Do-Not 16 Armstrong, A. (2021). Symbols and Signposts: What is Baptism?. https://voices.lifeway.com/bible-theology/symbols-and-signposts-what-isbaptism/#:~:text=Baptism%20is%20a%20symbol%20of,newness%20of%20 life%20in%20Christ.

17 Renner Ministries. (2019, January 24). Three Types of Baptism – Rick Renner.

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wmMB7LTpVKc 18 Sloun, M. (2017). The symbols of baptism. https://thecatholicspirit.com/faith/ focus-on-faith/faith-fundamentals/the-symbols-of-baptism/ 19 New International Version Bible. (1973). Op.cit. Romans 12:2 20 Christian Reformed Church. (n.d.). Baptism and New Life. https://www.crcna. org/welcome/beliefs/position-statements/baptism/baptism-and-new-life

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26 Meyer, J. (2023). Loving God, Yourself and Others. https://joycemeyer.org/ everydayanswers/ea-teachings/loving-god-yourself-and-others 27 Ellis, K. (2023). The Moral Vision of the New Testament: A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/ themelios/review/the-moral-vision-of-the-new-testament-a-contemporaryintroduction-to-new-testament-ethics/ 28 Christian Ministry EDU. (2022). What is Exegesis?. https://christianministryedu. org/faq/what-is-exegesis/ 29 The Bible, New International Version. (1973). Op.cit. Genesis 1 30 Williams, J. (2018). The Importance of Stewardship in the Christian Life. https:// servantsofgrace.org/importance-stewardship-christian-life/ 31 The Bible, New International Version. (1973). Op.cit. Genesis 1:27 32 Ladner, K. (2022). The quiet rise of Christian dominionism. https://www. christiancentury.org/article/features/quiet-rise-christian-dominionism 33 Action Institute. (2023). A Biblical Perspective on Environmental Stewardship. https://www.acton.org/public-policy/environmental-stewardship/theology-e/ biblical-perspective-environmental-stewardship

History, Theology and Philosophy

establishes man’s propensity to sin by mistreating the Earth and, in continuing to do so (by failing to address global warming, for example) humanity fails in its commitment to love God and others.34 Hay’s “Hermeneutical Task” allows for an understanding of the meaning of Scripture to transform an individual’s behaviour.

This can prevent a person from conforming to “the pattern of this world” with regard to the treatment of the environment where there are no commonly agreed upon standards of behaviour.35 For adherents, through Jesus’ sacrifice and God’s grace, Christians are resurrected in the New Creation along with this Earth, therefore humanity must take care of it as they care for themselves.36 God’s “good, pleasing and perfect will”37 to advance His kingdom where Creation’s harmony is restored, is an invitation for those who follow Him to take care of the Earth that will be renewed in the afterlife.38 This transforms patterns of how individuals treat the Earth since it is their choice to exercise discipleship through caring for the environment if they want to advance into His kingdom.39 This links to Hay’s “Pragmatic Task”, which relates to how individuals choose to embody Scripture in the Christian community in order to please God. As adherents learn the will of God, their behaviour towards the environment is transformed and they act in a way that worships God, such as by cultivating only land that is needed for survival or reducing pollution.40 This worship reflects Jesus’ love for humanity as adherents sacrifice their patterns of living to improve the wellness of the world.41 This form of worship was urged in the Catholic Church, where Pope Francis’ 2015 encyclical letter, Laudato Si’, urged all individuals to reduce consumerism and care for the environment.42 This led to, among other initiatives, the Catholic Church decreasing its consumption of fossil fuels by investing in cleaner energy.43 This example of adherents serving the Earth allows the exercising of discipleship as adherents aim to prevent further environmental issues for present and future

generations.44 This transformation of their behaviour allows adherents to seek to transform the physical world and their communities in order to serve God’s will.

Over time, a transformation of Christian practices and ethics has shifted adherents’ will to seek the transformation of themselves and the world. Martin Luther’s Reformation criticised the teachings of the Catholic Church, and promoted a doctrine of salvation through faith alone.45 The practice of Baptism reinforces this belief and is widely practiced today, allowing adherents to transform and renew their lives through symbolically resurrecting with Jesus.46 Adherents live out their rebirthed lives through a change in attitudes and behaviours, including towards the environment, which allow them to transform the world by modelling how to treat the Earth as stewards of God.47 Through these changes, Christianity guides adherents to transform themselves and the world.

34 Lumen. (n.d.). Human Impact on the Environment. https://courses. lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/human-impact-on-the-environment/ 35 Sugden, C. (1999). Christians, environment and society: A response to Michael Northcott. A Christian Approach to the Environment, 16(3), 110-112. www. jstor.org pg. 110 36 Ibid. pg. 110 37 New international Version Bible. (1973). Op.cit. Romans 12:2 38 Our Daily Bread. (2023). What does the NT Say about God’s Will?. https:// ourdailybread.org/article/what-does-the-nt-say-about-gods-will/ 39 White, B. (2006). Why should Christians care for the planet?. https://www.eauk. org/church/resources/theological-articles/why-should-christians-care-for-theplanet.cfm 40 Christian Green Living. (2023). Do Christians Have to be Green and Eco-Friendly?. https://christiangreenliving.com/do-christians-have-to-be-green-and-eco-friendly/ 41 Eternity News. (2021). How Christians can reflect God’s care for the Earth. https:// www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/how-christians-can-reflect-gods-care-for-theearth/ 42 Bailey, S. (2015). 10 key excerpts from Pope Francis’s encyclical on the environment. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2015/06/18/10-keyexcerpts-from-pope-franciss-encyclical-on-the-environment/ 43 Marquez, P. (2015). On Pope Francis’ encyclical letter, the environment and health. https://blogs.worldbank.org/health/pope-francis-encyclical-letter-environmentand-health

44 The Spectator Online. (2023). Christians’ role in environmental protection crucial. https://www.thespectatoronline.com/christians-role-in-environmental-protectioncrucial/ 45 National Geographic. (2022). Op.cit.

46 Sloun, M. (2017). Op.cit.

47 Meyer, J. (2023). Op.cit

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BIBLIOGR APHY Acocella, J. (2017). How Martin Luther Changed the World. https://www. newyorker.com/magazine/2017/10/30/how-martin-luther-changedthe-world Action Institute. (2023). A Biblical Perspective on Environmental Stewardship. https://www.acton.org/public-policy/environmentalstewardship/theology-e/biblical-perspective-environmentalstewardship Armstrong, A. (2021). Symbols and Signposts: What is Baptism?. https:// voices.lifeway.com/bible-theology/symbols-and-signposts-what-isbaptism/#:~:text=Baptism%20is%20a%20symbol%20of,newness%20 of%20life%20in%20Christ.

Bailey, S. (2015). 10 key excerpts from Pope Francis’s encyclical on the environment. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/ wp/2015/06/18/10-key-excerpts-from-pope-franciss-encyclical-onthe-environment/ Bible info. (2023). What does Sola Scriptura mean?. https://www. bibleinfo.com/en/questions/what-does-sola-scriptura-mean Bricker, V. (2021). What Does it mean to be in the Family of God?. https:// www.christianity.com/wiki/god/what-does-it-mean-to-be-in-thefamily-of-god.html Britannica. (2023). Lutheranism. In Britannica. Retrieved August 1, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lutheranism Byer, B. (2022). Types of Baptism in Christianity and Other Religions. https://owlcation.com/humanities/Which-Religions-Practice-BaptismWhich-Do-Not Catholic Bridge. (n.d.). Did the Catholic Church forbid Bible reading?. https://www.catholicbridge.com/catholic/did-the-catholic-churchforbid-bible-reading.php Christian Green Living. (2023). Do Christians Have to be Green and EcoFriendly?. https://christiangreenliving.com/do-christians-have-to-begreen-and-eco-friendly/ Christian Ministry EDU. (2022). What is Exegesis?. https:// christianministryedu.org/faq/what-is-exegesis/ Christian Reformed Church. (n.d.). Baptism and New Life. https://www. crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/position-statements/baptism/baptism-andnew-life Christianity.com. (2019). What is Original Sin? Meaning and Consequences of Ancestral Sin. https://www.christianity.com/wiki/sin/ what-is-original-sin-meaning-and-consequences.html Danzey, E. (2023). What are the 5 Solas and Where do they come from?. https://www.biblestudytools.com/bible-study/explore-the-bible/ what-are-the-5-solas-and-where-do-they-come-from.html Ellis, K. (2023). The Moral Vision of the New Testament: A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics. https://www.thegospelcoalition. org/themelios/review/the-moral-vision-of-the-new-testament-acontemporary-introduction-to-new-testament-ethics/ Eternity News. (2021). How Christians can reflect God’s care for the Earth. https://www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/how-christians-canreflect-gods-care-for-the-earth/ Griffith, H. (2017). Luther in 1520: Justification by Faith Alone. https://

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journal.rts.edu/article/luther-in-1520-justification-by-faith-alone/ Griffith, R. (2023). Priesthood of All Believers?. https://www.desiringgod. org/articles/priesthood-of-all-believers Hains, T. (2019). Martin Luther, the Rule of Faith, and the Bible. https:// mereorthodoxy.com/martin-luther-rule-faith-bible Hainsworth, J. (2020). Infant Baptism: What the Church Believes. http:// ww1.antiochian.org/content/infant-baptism-what-church-believes Heschmeyer, J. (2017). John the Baptist and Protestant Baptisms. https:// shamelesspopery.com/john-the-baptist-and-protestant-baptisms/ Just Disciple. (n.d.). Why do Christians get Baptised? The Biblical Answer. https://justdisciple.com/christians-baptized/ Kube, M. (2023). A radical change in the call to translate dying languages. https://www.eternitynews.com.au/australia/a-radical-change-in-thecall-in-translate-dying-languages/ Ladner, K. (2022). The quiet rise of Christian dominionism. https://www. christiancentury.org/article/features/quiet-rise-christian-dominionism LSE. (2020, January 24). What does Christianity have to say about the environment?. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=POf0rT5qImI Lumen. (n.d.). Human Impact on the Environment. https://courses. lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/human-impact-on-theenvironment/ Marquez, P. (2015). On Pope Francis’ encyclical letter, the environment and health. https://blogs.worldbank.org/health/pope-francis-encyclicalletter-environment-and-health Merker, M. (2017). 6 Lessons from Luther on Congregational Singing. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/reviews/the-whole-church-sings/ Meyer, J. (2023). Loving God, Yourself and Others. https://joycemeyer. org/everydayanswers/ea-teachings/loving-god-yourself-and-others National Geographic. (2022). The Protestant Reformation. https:// education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/protestant-reformation/ New International Version Bible. (1973). Bible Gateway. https:// www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans%20 12%3A2&version=NIV. Our Daily Bread. (2023). What does the NT Say about God’s Will?. https:// ourdailybread.org/article/what-does-the-nt-say-about-gods-will/ Piper, J. (2008). What is Baptism and How Important is it?. https://www. desiringgod.org/messages/what-is-baptism-and-how-important-is-it Pritchard, R. (2023). What is Baptism? Its meaning and importance in Christianity. https://www.christianity.com/wiki/christian-terms/whatdoes-baptism-mean.html Renner Ministries. (2019, January 24). Three Types of Baptism – Rick Renner. [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=wmMB7LTpVKc Sloun, M. (2017). The symbols of baptism. https://thecatholicspirit.com/ faith/focus-on-faith/faith-fundamentals/the-symbols-of-baptism/ Smith, C. (2020). What Being “In Christ” Means. https://openthebible. org/article/what-being-in-christ-means/#:~:text=Here%20is%20 a%20great%20reality,this%20being%20%E2%80%9Cin%20 Christ.%E2%80%9D

History, Theology and Philosophy

Smith, Preserved. (1913). Luther’s Development of the Doctrine of Justification by Faith Only. The Harvard Theological Review, 6(4), 407425. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1507031 Stanley, C. (2010). What is the symbolism and importance of water baptism?. https://www.christianity.com/jesus/following-jesus/baptism/ the-message-of-baptism.html Sugden, C. (1999). Christians, environment and society: A response to Michael Northcott. A Christian Approach to the Environment, 16(3), 110112. www.jstor.org. pg. 110 Taylor, J. (2007). The Case for Paedobaptism. https://www. thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/justin-taylor/case-for-paedobaptism/ The Religion Teacher. (2020, June 15). The Meaning of Baptism. [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuqIw2nkbXA The Spectator Online. (2023). Christians’ role in environmental protection crucial. https://www.thespectatoronline.com/christians-role-inenvironmental-protection-crucial/ UN environment programme. (2023). Religions and environmental protection. https://www.unep.org/about-un-environmentprogramme/faith-earth-initiative/religions-and-environmentalprotection#:~:text=Christianity%3A%20There%20are%20 approximately%20hundred,.info.%2C%20n.d).

Vainio, O. (2016). Martin Luther and Justification. https://oxfordre.com/ religion/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore9780199340378-e-336;jsessionid=1380D8EE706F061B76E77AB0756C 0DD3 Wagner, R., Warner, K. (2016). Understanding Salvation by Faith. https:// www.dummies.com/article/body-mind-spirit/religion-spirituality/ christianity/general-christianity/understanding-salvation-byfaith-199080/ Walters, S. (2020). Baptism: An Identity Crisis for New Believers. https:// godsmissionarychurch.org/2020/01/22/baptism-an-identity-crisis-fornew-believers/ Ward, D. (2013). Why is Corporate Public Worship so important?. https:// cvillegrace.org/Why-Is-Corporate-Public-Worship-So-Important White, B. (2006). Why should Christians care for the planet?. https://www. eauk.org/church/resources/theological-articles/why-should-christianscare-for-the-planet.cfm Williams, J. (2018). The Importance of Stewardship in the Christian Life. https://servantsofgrace.org/importance-stewardship-christian-life/

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How has Chinese cuisine been enculturated in Australian society over time?

VERONICA XIE YE AR 8, 2023

This essay was entered in the National History Challenge essay competition.

From the very first Chinese migrant in 17981 to the estimated 1.2 million citizens with Chinese ancestry today,2 Australia has a long history with China and its cuisine. Chinese food remains popular through the restaurant and catering industry, with approximately 70% of Australians viewing it favourably.3 Earliest instances of Chinese-Australian food can be traced back to Chinese labourers, who were employed as cooks for outback stations and country establishments in the early 1800s.4 However, the catalyst for the spread of Chinese cuisine was through the 1850s Australian gold rush, which attracted waves of Chinese migrants5 who established businesses catering to Chinese miners.6 Upon attracting European miners, the range of dishes offered

by Chinese restaurants gradually expanded to include European food,7 with the first documented instance being John Alloo’s in 1853 at Ballarat.8 Other establishments were located in early Chinatowns, where Chinese settlers congregated.9 Dishes utilised both local and imported traditional ingredients, making them uniquely Chinese-Australian.10 Though their cuisine was tolerated

by Europeans, the success of Chinese miners was perceived as economic competition. Cultural contrast and stigma, such as

1 National Museum Australia (2023a). Early Chinese Migrants. https://www.nma. gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/early-chinese-migrants 2 Department of Home Affairs. (2023). ​​​​Country profile - People’s Republic of ​China. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-statistics/statistics/country-profiles/ profiles/peoples-republic-of-china 3 Roy Morgan. (2019). Chinese Cuisine Most Popular, but Aussies Still Love McDonald’s. https://www.roymorgan.com/findings/chinese-cuisine-most-popularbut-aussies-still-love-mcdonalds Heanue, S. (2016). Chinese Restaurants in Australia Documented for Posterity 4

by Historians. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-21/humble-chinese-dinermapped-by-food-historians/7187218 5 Museums of History NSW. (2023). Chinese on the Goldfields. https://mhnsw.au/ stories/general/chinese-goldfields/ 6 Tong, A. (2022). Sweet and Sour. https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/sweetand-sour 7 Noone, Y. (2023). Why Does Every Town in Australia Have a Chinese Restaurant?. https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2018/11/22/why-does-every-town-australiahave-chinese-restaurant 8 Victorian Collections. (2017). Many Roads: Stories of the Chinese on the Goldfields. https://victoriancollections.net.au/stories/many-roads-stories-of-thechinese-on-the-goldfields/diverse-activities 9 Fitzgerald, S. (2008). Chinatown. https://dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/ chinatown 10

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ibid.

the fear of diseases spreading11 through drinking water,12 led to widespread discrimination. Anti-Chinese sentiment ultimately caused widespread violence such as the 1860 NSW Lambing Flat Riots,13 where Chinese workers were attacked, robbed14 and had their tents burnt down.15 The NSW Government passed the Chinese Immigrants Regulation and Restriction Act in 1861 as a response, to limit the number of Chinese miners working in Australia.16 Consequently, these restrictions caused Chinese migrants to turn to their cuisine as a vital way to earn favour (and money)17 in their adopted communities, incorporating items such as bread, soup, steak and chops18 into restaurant menus in order to appeal to Western consumers.

After the gold rush, cooks opened restaurants in cities to attract more customers19 and, by 1890, a third of cooks in Australia were Chinese.20 At the time, Cantonese food was the most prominent subcategory due to many migrants hailing from the Guangdong region.21 This style of cooking relied on retaining and balancing fresh flavours,22 though it changed to suit Western tastes23 by using more beef and lamb rather than fish, poultry and pork.24 Its growing popularity was again met with prejudice, encouraged by newspaper propaganda and magazine

11

(especially smallpox,)

12

Museums of History NSW. (2023). Op. cit.

13 National Museum Australia. (2023c). Violence on the Goldfields. https://www. nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/violence-on-goldfields 14 Britannica. (2023). Lambing Flat Riots. In Britannica.com encyclopaedia.

Retrieved June 6, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/event/Lambing-FlatRiots 15

Leong-Salobir, C. (2021). Op. cit.

16

National Museum Australia. (2023c). Op. cit.

17 Tong, A. (2018). Chinese Food in Australia: Diaspora, Taste, and Effect. https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/18228/Anne_Tongood_in_Australia-_Diaspora%2c_taste%2c_and_affect_Anne_Tong_PDF. pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y 18

Noone, Y. (2023). Op. cit.

19 Chang, C. (2023). A Love Letter to Australia’s Old School Chinese Restaurants. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/a-love-letter-to-australias-old-schoolchinese-restaurants/8d725cz3e 20 Dobson, R. (2021). The Peculiarly Tasty History of Australian-Chinese Cuisine. https://www.phaidon.com/agenda/food/articles/2021/may/19/the-peculiar-andpeculiarly-tasty-history-of-australian-chinese-cuisine/ 21 Kiddle. (2023). Australian Chinese Cuisine. In Kiddle.com encyclopaedia. https://kids.kiddle.co/Australian_Chinese_cuisine 22 Asian Inspirations. (2023). Discover Cantonese Food Culture. https:// asianinspirations.com.au/food-knowledge/discover-cantonese-food-culture 23

Noone, Y. (2023). Op. cit.

24 Nichol, B. (2002). Sweet and Sour History. http://www.multiculturalaustralia. edu.au/doc/Nichol_MelbChinRest.pdf

History, Theology and Philosophy

publications such as The Bulletin,25 The Boomerang26 and The Express and The Telegraph27 which promoted anti-Chinese ideas and misinformation such as the concept of Chinese migrants eating cats and dogs (see Appendix A),28 as well as propagandistic imagery, cartoons and caricatures (see Appendix B).29 Attitudes against Chinese-Australians resulted in the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act, the first legislation of the White Australia Policy, which legalised limits on non-white immigration, especially from Asia.30 This significantly hindered the growth of Chinese cuisine, yet did not damage its success, and in 1934, an exception allowed Chinese businesses (including restaurants) to employ overseas staff as long as they did not compete with European establishments.31 This caused a surge in public consumption of Chinese food, promoting takeaway. While the majority of restaurants offering authentic food remained in Chinatowns, restaurants outside of these primarily catered to Western customers.

Despite their origins, a majority of dishes were tailored to be inauthentic; reminiscent of European or “Anglified” recipes, such as chop suey, which resembled colonial stews,32 and sweet and sour pork,33 which was an acidic, localised version of the original dish.34 Furthermore, traditional methods of cooking, including steaming and braising, were combined with Western ones such as deep-frying.35 During this time, Chinese establishments gained more respect due to sympathy regarding the Japanese invasion of China and in response to China’s affiliation with the allied forces during WWII.36

As Chinese food continued to flourish, it contributed to popular support for the abolition of the White Australia Policy in the 1970s,37 as more Asian immigration caused Australia’s Chinese population to increase exponentially. Then-prime minister, Gough Whitlam, bridged diplomatic and cultural relations between Australia and China in 1971 when he became the first Australian prime minister to visit China. This prompted improved trade agreements,38 allowing traditional imported ingredients to be more accessible to Chinese cooks, enhancing the quality and authenticity of Chinese food.39 These new migrants set up more authentic restaurants and stores outside of Chinatown, introducing regional cooking styles such as Hong Kong, Shanghai, Beijing, Hunan and Sichuan cuisine.40 Despite being embraced as a fundamental part of Australia’s multicultural dining scene, the rise of Coronavirus in 2019 was followed by increased discrimination of Chinese-Australian communities, due to the virus being perceived as originating from China. Chinese restaurants were especially affected, because the virus was believed to have first been transmitted via contaminated food.41 Asian minorities were subjected to xenophobic behaviour, with 52% of victims being of Chinese ethnicity.42 Such incidents ranged from racial slurs to rubbish thrown at cars.43 Chinese people and food were associated with spreading the virus and thus were avoided or met with hostility.44 Many historic restaurants in Chinatown shut down, due to a lack of business profits from tourists, international students and citizens.45 Post-Covid, Chinese cuisine gradually saw a resurgence in popularity upon lifted travel and movement restrictions, as well as increased awareness, prevention and treatment of the virus.

25 NSW Migration Heritage Center. (2010). 1910: The Bulletin Magazine. https://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibition/objectsthroughtime/1910the-bulletin-magazine/index.html 26 NSW Department of Education. (n.d.) Timeline: 1800s. https://racismnoway. com.au/about-racism/timeline/timeline-1800s/

37

National Museum Australia. (2023d). Op. cit.

38 National Archives of Australia. (2019) Gough Whitlam: Timeline. https:// www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/gough-whitlam/ timeline

27

The Express and Telegraph. (1897). Op. cit.

39 Whitlam Institute. (2021). 1971: Gough Whitlam Visits China. https://www. whitlam.org/publications/1971-visit-to-china

28

ibid.

40

Leong-Salobir, C. (2021). Op. cit.

29 Hansen, G. (2019). Australia for the White Man. https://www.nla.gov.au/ stories/blog/australia-white-man

41 Kandola, A. (2020). Coronavirus Cause: Origin and How it Spreads. https:// www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/coronavirus-causes

30 National Museum Australia. (2023d). White Australia Policy. https://www.nma. gov.au/defining-moments/resources/white-australia-policy

42 Yang, S. (2021). COVID-19 Exacerbates Existing Racial Hatred Experienced by Australian Asian Communities. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-23/covid-19racism-australia-report-racial-hatred-pandemic/100316184

31

Heanue, S. (2016). Op. cit.

32

Tong, A. (2022). Op. cit.

33 Restaurant Guru. (2022). Wah Do Chinese Restaurant Menu. https:// restaurantguru.com/Wah-Do-Chinese-Restaurant-Tuart-Hill/menu 34 Asian Inspirations. (2023). The Origins of Chinese Takeaway Favourites. https:// asianinspirations.com.au/food-knowledge/the-origins-of-chinese-takeawayfavourites/ 35

Kiddle. (2023). Op. cit.

36

Noone, Y. (2023). Op. cit.

43 Walsh, M. (2020). Here’s What You Told Us About Racism in Australia During the Coronavirus Pandemic. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-05-14/racism-inaustralia-during-the-coronavirus-covid-19-pandemic/12234832 44 Purtill, J. (2020). As Coronavirus Fears Spread, Chinese Restaurants are Reporting an 80% Drop in Business. https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/programs/ hack/chinese-restaurants-reporting-drop-in-business-due-coronavirus/11963070 45 Marozzi, M. (2021). Chinese Businesses Still Suffering After-effects of COVID-19 as Lunar New Year Dawns. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-02-11/ chinese-businesses-still-affected-by-covid-this-lunar-new-year/13136646

39

How has Chinese Cuisine been enculturated in Australian society over time? | V E R O N I C A X I E Y E A R 8 , 2 0 2 3

Nowadays, modern-day Chinese food is Australia’s most beloved international cuisine, being extremely widespread and a common fixture in the everyday lives of many, regardless of background.46 Chinese-Australian cuisine has been refined in complexity alongside the palates of modern consumers. Diverse dishes continue to expose the Australian public to tastes and ingredients which would have been unheard of in the past fifty years.

The authenticity of Chinese food has vastly improved, but it retains elements of its history; some restaurants continue to serve Westernised “classics” from the mid-1900s, others serve a combination of traditional and localised food, while unique Chinese-Australian47 dishes such as mango pancakes and dim sim48 are widespread.

Chinese cuisine has prospered and become enculturated in Australia despite many hardships. Dishes are constantly evolving, making Chinese food one of the country’s favourite cuisines.

Today, it is deservedly acknowledged for its value to Australian society and identity.

BIBLIOGR APHY Encyclopedias Britannica. (2023). Lambing Flat Riots. In Britannica.com encyclopaedia.

Retrieved June 6, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/event/ Lambing-Flat-Riots Kiddle. (2023). Australian Chinese Cuisine. In Kiddle.com encyclopaedia. https://kids.kiddle.co/Australian_Chinese_cuisine

News and Articles Chang, C. (2023). A Love Letter to Australia’s Old School Chinese Restaurants. https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/a-love-letter-toaustralias-old-school-chinese-restaurants/8d725cz3e Dobson, R. (2021). The Peculiarly Tasty History of Australian-Chinese Cuisine. https://www.phaidon.com/agenda/food/articles/2021/may/19/ the-peculiar-and-peculiarly-tasty-history-ofaustralian-chinese-cuisine/ Heanue, S. (2016). Chinese Restaurants in Australia Documented for Posterity by Historians. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-21/ humble-chinese-diner-mapped-by-food-historians/7187218 Kandola, A. (2020). Coronavirus Cause: Origin and How it Spreads. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/coronavirus-causes Marozzi, M. (2021). Chinese Businesses Still Suffering After-effects of COVID-19 as Lunar New Year Dawns. https://www.abc.net.au/ news/2021-02-11/chinese-businesses-still- affected-by-covid-this-lunarnew-year/13136646 Noone, Y. (2023). Why Does Every Town in Australia Have a Chinese Restaurant?. https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2018/11/22/whydoes-every-town-australia-have-chinese-restaurant Purtill, J. (2020). As Coronavirus Fears Spread, Chinese Restaurants are Reporting an 80% Drop in Business. https://www.abc.net.au/triplej/ programs/hack/chinese-restaurants-reporting-drop-in-business-duecoronavirus/11963070 The Express and Telegraph. (1897). EATING CATS AND DOGS. http://nla. gov.au/nla.news-article209085277 Walsh, M. (2020). Here’s What You Told Us About Racism in Australia During the Coronavirus Pandemic. https://www.abc.net.au/news/202005-14/racism-in-australia-during-the-coronavirus-covid-19pandemic/12234832 Yang, S. (2021). COVID-19 Exacerbates Existing Racial Hatred Experienced by Australian Asian Communities. https://www.abc.net. au/news/2021-07-23/covid-19-racism-australia-report-racial-hatredpandemic/100316184

PDFs Nichol, B. (2002). Sweet and Sour History. http://www. multiculturalaustralia.edu.au/doc/Nichol_MelbChinRest.pdf Tong, A. (2018). Chinese Food in Australia: Diaspora, Taste, and Effect. https://ses.library.usyd.edu.au/bitstream/handle/2123/18228/Anne_ Tong-ood_in_Australia-_Diaspora%2c_taste%2c_and_affect_Anne_ Tong_PDF.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

46 47 48

40

Tong, A. (2018). Op. cit.

Kiddle. (2023). Op. cit. (not to be confused with dim sum)

History, Theology and Philosophy

Websites

APPENDIX A

Asian Inspirations. (2023). Discover Cantonese Food Culture. https:// asianinspirations.com.au/food-knowledge/discover-cantonese-foodculture Asian Inspirations. (2023). The Origins of Chinese Takeaway Favourites. https://asianinspirations.com.au/food-knowledge/the-origins-ofchinese-takeaway-favourites/ Department of Home Affairs. (2023). ​​​​Country profile - People’s Republic of C ​ hina. https://www.homeaffairs.gov.au/research-and-statistics/ statistics/country-profiles/profiles/peoples-republic-of-china Fitzgerald, S. (2008). Chinatown. https://dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/ chinatown Hansen, G. (2019). Australia for the White Man. https://www.nla.gov.au/ stories/blog/australia-white-man Leong-Salobir, C. (2021). From Lurid Orange Sauces to Refined, Regional Flavours: How Politics Helped Shape Chinese Food in Australia. https:// theconversation.com/from-lurid-orange-sauces-to-refined-regionalflavours-how-politics-helped-shape-chinese-food-in-australia-150283 Museums of History NSW. (2023). Chinese on the Goldfields. https:// mhnsw.au/stories/general/chinese-goldfields/ National Archives of Australia. (2019) Gough Whitlam: Timeline. https:// www.naa.gov.au/explore-collection/australias-prime-ministers/goughwhitlam/timeline National Museum Australia (2023a). Early Chinese Migrants. https:// www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/earlychinese-migrants National Museum Australia (2023b). Explore the Harvest of Endurance Scroll. https://www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-ofendurance/scroll National Museum Australia. (2023c). Violence on the Goldfields. https:// www.nma.gov.au/explore/features/harvest-of-endurance/scroll/ violence-on-goldfields National Museum Australia. (2023d). White Australia Policy. https:// www.nma.gov.au/defining-moments/resources/white-australia-policy NSW Department of Education. (n.d.) Timeline: 1800s. https:// racismnoway.com.au/about-racism/timeline/timeline-1800s/ NSW Migration Heritage Center. (2010). 1910: The Bulletin Magazine. https://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibition/ objectsthroughtime/1910-the-bulletin-magazine/index.html Roy Morgan. (2019). Chinese Cuisine Most Popular, but Aussies Still Love McDonald’s. https://www.roymorgan.com/findings/chinese-cuisinemost-popular-but-aussies-still-love-mcdonalds Tong, A. (2022). Sweet and Sour. https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/ sweet-and-sour Victorian Collections. (2017). Many Roads: Stories of the Chinese on the Goldfields. https://victoriancollections.net.au/stories/many-roadsstories-of-the-chinese-on-the-goldfields/diverse-activities Whitlam Institute. (2021). 1971: Gough Whitlam Visits China. https:// www.whitlam.org/

The Express and Telegraph. (1897). EATING CATS AND DOGS. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article209085277

Transcript: “To the Westminster Gazette Mr. E. H. Parker contributes an interesting article on “Diet and Medicine in China.” in which he says that the statement that the Chinese as a nation habitually feed on rats and mice is quite erroneous, but in the city of Canton rats, split open and dried, are commonly sold in the streets for purposes of eating. “An old Cantonese teacher of mine,” continues Mr. Parker, “never failed to cook and eat a rat whenever he was fortunate enough to catch one. He said the flesh was ‘warming.’ A Cantonese peasant woman of my acquaintance, who suffered much from rheumatism and chilis, told me that she found boiled rat always did her good. Other native women told me that it made the hair grow more rapidly.” Mr. Parker also informs us that in the same way cats and dogs are by no means usual food, though in some parts of China the poor are glad of any chance of meat which may be thrown in their way. In Canton, however, both kittens and puppies are hawked about as a delicacy, and Mr. Parker himself once bought a nice little dog in a cage for 6d. There is one shop in Canton where cat’s flesh is the sole article sold. Like rat’s flesh, it is said to be warmth-producing. But Europeans in some parts of China seem to have strange dishes occasionally. Mr. Parker says that when in Peking he and others, when living out of town, used regularly to eat camel, donkey, and goat!”

publications/1971-visit-to-china

41

How has Chinese Cuisine been enculturated in Australian society over time? | V E R O N I C A X I E Y E A R 8 , 2 0 2 3

APPENDIX B

Hansen, G. (2019). Australia for the White Man. https://www.nla.gov.au/stories/blog/australia-white-man The Bulletin was a prime example of a newspaper publication which used cartoons and caricatures to promote xenophobia against Chinese migrants in Australia. In this image, titled The Mongolian Octopus—Its Grip on Australia and drawn by Phil May, an exaggerated portrayal of a Chinese man is combined with the imagery of octopus tentacles to represent it ‘reaching out to claim its victims’ through methods such as disease (aforementioned in the essay), opium and immorality.

42

The Hagia Sophia through history

History, Theology and Philosophy

VA R N I K A A K A N N A N Y E A R 9, 2 0 2 3

This essay explores the impacts and changes the Hagia Sophia of Turkey has faced through its existence in the Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire and Modern Republic whilst continuing as a tool used to showcase imperial power under the rulers of its time periods. It was awarded Young Historian Silver in the National History Challenge essay competition.

On 27 December 2023, the Hagia Sophia will be celebrating its 1,486th birthday. Constructed in 537 CE, the Hagia Sophia has stood through many political changes and conflicts and remarkably little has changed from its original construction.

Throughout the history of Constantinople, later Istanbul, the Hagia Sophia has been a symbol of political and theological power. Robert M. Hayden and Timothy D. Walker define religioscape as, “the distribution in spaces through time of the physical manifestations of specific religious traditions and of the populations that build them.”1 The Hagia Sophia is a meaningful religioscape that has architecturally and symbolically mirrored the shifting beliefs and realities of powers on the Anatolian peninsula since the time of its construction up until current politics in modern-day Turkiye. The Hagia Sophia can be viewed as a political and spiritual avatar for imperial power in the three key stages of its history: the Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey.

From its inception, the Hagia Sophia was intended to be a strong statement of imperial dominion. Numerous churches had stood on the site before the current structure was constructed in 537 CE. In 360 CE, Emperor Constantius II built a church that would later be burnt down by the royal family under Emperor Arkadios in 404 CE.2 A church was once again constructed on this site in 415

1 Hayden, R. M., and Walker, T. D. (2013). Intersecting Religioscapes: A Comparative Approach to Trajectories of Change, Scale, and Competitive Sharing of Religious Spaces. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 81(2), 399–426. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24486017# 2 Hellenic-American Cultural Foundation. (2021). Justinian’s Hagia Sophia. www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=btGE4MjtwOA

CE by Emperor Theodosius II.3 Theodosius’s Church was burnt down in the Nika revolts, which were a series of rebellions against Emperor Justinian I.4 These riots started after Justinian refused to pardon two men of opposing ‘Demes’ or factions, who were very active in chariot racing and politics,5 had escaped their hanging and were hiding in a monastery across the Bosphorus Strait.6 The Demes did not want these men to be hanged and started shouting “nika”, meaning “revolt”. The city blazed as rioters destroyed many important buildings. The Nika Revolts caused uncertainty in the city and gave Justinian a mandate to assert his authority by rebuilding and restoring many of Constantinople’s buildings. The Hagia Sophia was his chief project of restoration, and Justinian envisaged it would symbolise his power and the empire’s wealth through its magnificent architecture.

In the wake of the revolts, Justinian’s building projects in Constantinople mirrored a similar renaissance of the golden age of Byzantium. Through his skilled general Belisarius, Justinian oversaw vast military expansion, reclaiming large swathes of the Eastern Roman Empire, including Africa, Spain and most of Italy.7 Justinian was the most consequential Byzantine ruler, rivalling Constantine himself. The intricate construction of the Hagia Sophia reveals this power. The sheer size of the construction would have been unlike anything at that time and its many decorative features, including mosaics, would have needed skilled workers. The Hagia Sophia took more than 10,000 labourers to finish construction in an efficient time of five years.8 Being located in the centre of Constantinople, part of the imperial compound, and having a great height would have made it easy to spot from long distances. This would be a constant reminder of Justinian’s reign and power. The topmost part of the structure’s dome is nearly 250 feet tall and the inside is decorated with intricate geometric designs, wooden carvings and many complex

3 Ibid 4

ibid

5 Extra History. (2015). Byzantine Empire: Justinian and Theodora - Purple is the Noblest Shroud - Extra History - #3. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=eGL_M1SQV5E 6

Ibid

7 Boundless. (n.d.). Justinian and Theodora | Western Civilization. Courses. lumenlearning.com. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimerwesterncivilization/chapter/justinian-and-theodora/ 8 Fidler, R. (2016). Ghost empire. Abc Books.p.104

43

mosaics on places such as walls and columns.9 The interlocking domes, symbolising the “canopy of heaven” is a direct allusion to the Hagia Sophia’s name, which means “Holy Wisdom”, reflecting its attribution, not to any given saint or person, but instead to the idea of wisdom attained through Christianity.10 The dome and other architectural features reinforce the building’s significance as a theological symbol.

The complex interconnection of religion and politics is deeply rooted in Hagia Sophia because Justinian’s church is not just a restoration of public property but propaganda for Justinian to assert exemplary rulership over his people. The Greek scholar Procopius (500-565 CE), was so astonished by the structure, claiming to see, ”a meadow blooming with flowers”11 upon seeing the magnificent tiling laid with green pebbles from Thessaly, black stone from the Bosphorus, and purple porphyry from Egypt.12 The Patria of Constantinople, a 6th-century text written by an anonymous author, recounts that Justinian also sourced his materials by raiding temples, baths and houses throughout his imperial territories.13The use of expensive imported materials from other regions outside of the empire suggests how the decoration of the Hagia Sophia was fused with Justinian’s wealth and military power. The Patria also indicates that Justinian employed a hundred master craftsmen who each had a hundred men working under them.14 It is clear that Justinian, in creating a monument to God, inherently monumentalised himself.

Another example of the fusing of Justinian’s theological and imperial power can be seen in a mosaic located in the south vestibule of the Hagia Sophia.15 The mosaic depicts Justinian holding a model of Hagia Sophia in his hands and Constantine is shown to be holding a model of Constantinople.16 Constantine’s model of Constantinople alludes to the fact that he had built a house for Roman citizens to live in and Justinian’s model of the Hagia Sophia indicates he had gone one step further to build a place of dwelling for God. This mosaic is not part of the original construction but was added later during the 10th century.17 That this mosaic was created five centuries after construction demonstrates that Justinian was perceived to be as consequential as Constantine had been.18

Therefore, architectural features of the Hagia Sophia in the Byzantine period richly demonstrate the interconnectedness of politics and religion in the Eastern Roman Empire. Throughout this period, the Hagia Sophia was an avatar of Byzantine imperial power.

The Conquest of Constantinople altered the Hagia Sophia’s functions, and it became the symbol of Islamic control in Constantinople. The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, and the Byzantine Empire shrunk to a small land mass.19 The conquest was important not only for extending Ottoman economic power, but also, and just as importantly, for religious reasons. The prophet Muhammed stated in the Conquest hadith, “One day Constantinople will certainly be conquered. A good emir and a good army will be able to accomplish this.”20 During the Prophet’s time, Constantinople was seen as a great threat to Islam.21 Constantinople was known as the “Big Apple” because the capture of this city was their biggest dream.22 MehmedII also aimed to take out this small Christian kingdom from the Islamic masses.23 The ruler of the Ottomans, Sultan Mehmed, was not the first Muslim leader to attempt to capture Constantinople, which was first besieged by Arabs from 674 CE and 678 CE.24 Mehmed successfully conquered Constantinople in 1453 bringing to an end 1,123 years of Christian occupation.25 The Muslim conquest of Constantinople led to significant changes to the Hagia Sophia as a religious and political space. It was on the first Friday after the city fell in 1453, that Sultan Mehmed II attended the first Friday prayer in the structure, now converted into a mosque.26 To use the basilica as a mosque, crosses and bells were taken away27 and a wooden minaret, mihrab and minbar were constructed,28 minarets were continued to be added by successive Ottoman rulers.29 The mihrab which indicates the direction of Mecca was used by Imams to lead in prayers. It is semicircular and adorned with verses from the Quran.30 The

19 Cartwright, M. (2018). Byzantine Empire. World History Encyclopedia. https:// www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/ 20 Mustadrak Al Hakim.(1002). https://archive.org/details/al-mustadrak-al-hakim/ Al%20Mustadrak%20Al%20Hakim%20Arabic%20Vol.%201/

9 Sullivan, A. I. (2020). Hagia Sophia and Its Transformations | SAPIENTIA. Sapientia. https://crc.blog.fordham.edu/arts-culture/hagia-sophia-itstransformations/ 10

Fiddler, R. (2016).Op.cit. p.3

11 Procopius, Of Caesarea, T Hayter Lewis, William, C., and Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society. (1886). Of the buildings of Justinian. S.N. npg 12

Fidler, R.(2016)Op.cit. p.104

13 Medievalists.net. (2015). How Hagia Sophia was Built. Medievalists.net. https://www.medievalists.net/2015/08/how-hagia-sophia-was-built/ 14 Ibid 15 Teteriatnikov, N. (1998). Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. p.19 16

Op.cit https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/the-vestibule-mosaic/

17 Ibid 18 Ibid

44

21 Küçükaşcı, M. S. (2019). THE CONQUEST HADITH AND THE MUSLIM SIEGES OF CONSTANTINOPLE | History of Istanbul. Istanbultarihi.ist. https://istanbultarihi. ist/423-the-conquest-hadith-and-the-muslim-sieges-of-constantinople 22 Finkel, C. (2007). Osman’s dream : the story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300-1923.

Basic Books. p.48 23

Ibid.p.48

24 Dbpedia.org. (n.d.). Siege of Constantinople https://dbpedia.org/page/Siege_ of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678) 25 History.com Editors. (2018). Constantinople. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/constantinople 26 Finkel, C. (2007).Op.cit. p.52 27

Ibid.p.52

28 Freely, J., and Baker, A. E. (2011). A history of Ottoman architecture. Wit Press. p.101 29 Emerson, W., and Nice, R. L. van. (1950). Link 30 Hagiasophiatr. (2017). Altar (Mihrab). Hagia Sophia. https:// hagiasophiaturkey.com/altar-mihrab/

History, Theology and Philosophy

Minbar was built during Murad III’s reign31 for Muslim preachers to give speeches, especially since it was the chief mosque of the Ottoman Sultanate.

Alterations to the interior of the Hagia Sophia during the Ottoman Period also reflect key theological interconnections between Muslim and Christian faiths. In the renovation undertaken by Sultan Ahmed I in the late 17th century, many mosaics were covered up according to Quranic law, however, the mosaic of the Virgin and Child was left untouched as they were regarded as ‘people of the book’.32 The Virgin was a holy figure of great value and thought to be one of the four perfected women in the world, having given birth to Jesus who is a prophet in Islam.33 Mary is the only woman to have a chapter named after her in the Quran.34 During the time of Abdulmejid I in the mid-19th century, the Hagia Sophia was renovated, not due to an inherent respect or appreciation for the building, but instead as a show of strength.

Considered by the global community to be “the sick old man of Europe”, the renovations were an opportunity for the Ottoman state, fracturing as it was, to showcase to the world its commitment to custodianship of an ancient building of enduring value to the Christian and Islamic worlds.35 During the Tanzimat, the Fossati Brothers undertook a major restoration of the Hagia Sophia and uncovered many Byzantine mosaics that were covered by previous sultans.36 The restoration took two years to complete and was finished in 1849.37 The First World War hastened the end of the Ottoman Empire and the emergence of the modern Turkish Republic, a process that again altered the use of the Hagia Sophia and its function as a space, not once, but twice. After the war, there was much speculation of the future of Constantinople due to the weakening state of the Ottoman Empire, as a member of the defeated Central Powers. An English group whose body mostly consisted of the Anglican clergy viewed the period of uncertainty as a perfect opportunity for resacralisation of the Hagia Sophia back to a church and called their movement the “redemption Aya Sofya”.38 Christian movements such as these in Constantinople demonstrate how the Hagia Sophia continued to be a potent symbol of governance and power in the region.

In the wake of instability and war in the region, the Hagia Sophia continued to be at the heart of change. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk came to power following victories at the head of the Turkish National Movement during the Greco-Turkish War of 19191922 which resulted in the international recognition of Turkish sovereignty and borders. He sought secularist policies to make the new nation progressive and aligned with European standards.

In wanting to create a modern, post-Ottoman state, he closed all Muslim institutions, changed the alphabet from Arabic to the Latin alphabet, and emancipated women, among many other changes.39 In 1934, Ataturk converted the Hagia Sophia into a museum to demonstrate the true nature of now-secular Turkey, inviting the world into a region that had now been renewed and modernised to stand next to its European neighbours.40 The conversion of the Hagia Sophia would guarantee its protection within a global landscape where Christian countries held power.41 The Hagia Sophia was once again converted back to a mosque in 2020 by President Erdogan, which has attracted negative attention.42 Many are unhappy about the reconversion of Hagia Sophia into a mosque because it is the site of an historic power struggle between Muslims and Christians.43 Conservationists and art historians are worried about the safety of the mosaics and other artworks inside because the citizens may request them to be covered again.44 It has also been condemned by Bartholomew, the spiritual leader of the Orthodox church who believes the conversion would divide Muslims and Christians since it has been a place of worship for both. The Greek Foreign Ministry also opposed this decision because they felt the action was in breach of its status as a UNESCO World Heritage site.45 This reconversion of Hagia Sophia was a powerful statement suggesting that the Turkish state was moving away from the republic’s original secularist ideas, back to a more Islamocentric position. This was not the first time Erdogan used religion to assert a political statement; he built an additional 9,000 mosques in 2002 when he served as Prime Minister.46 Today, tourists who visit Hagia Sophia must follow a strict dress code: no shorts or sleeveless shirts and

39 BBC - History - Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938). (2014). www.bbc.co.uk. https:// www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ataturk_kemal.shtml

31 Hagiasophiatr. (2017). Minbar. Hagia Sophia. https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/minbar/ 32

Finkel, C. (2007).Op.cit. p.193

33 Francis X. Clooney, S.J. (2015). What Islam really teaches about the Virgin Mary.

America Magazine. https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2015/12/18/whatislam-really-teaches-about-virgin-mary 34

The Quran.(n.d.).https://quran.com/

35

Finkel, C. (2007).Op.cit. p.447

36 Nelson, R. S. (2004). Hagia Sophia 1850-1950 : Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. The University Of Chicago Press. p. xvii 37

Teteriatnikov, N. (1998). Op.cit. p.8

38

Nelson, R.S. (2004). Op.cit. p.120

40 Correspondent, F. our C. (2020). Hagia Sophia’s conversion into a museum - archive, 1935. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/fromthe-archive-blog/2020/jul/29/hagia-sophia-conversion-into-museum-archive1935#:~:text=Ataturk 41 Ibid. p.121 42 Wion. (2020). Gli, the cat, can stay even as Istanbul’s Mosque Hagia Sophia converts into a Mosque. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=Qs1IMCBc9hU&t=181s 43 Gall, C. (2020). Erdogan Signs Decree Allowing Hagia Sophia to Be Used as a Mosque Again. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/ europe/hagia-sophia-erdogan.html 44

Ibid

45

Ibid

46 Hansen, S. (2017). Reading Erdogan’s Ambitions in Turkey’s New Mosques.

The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/14/magazine/readingerdogans-ambitions-in-turkeys-new-mosques.html

45

women must wear a headscarf.47 However, the entry fee has been relaxed because it is used for regular prayers, but guided tours are still available.48 The conversion is symbolic and represents an emerging Neo-Ottomanism within Turkey, led by politicians like Erdogan aiming to honour the Ottoman past through imperialism and irredentism. The functional change of Hagia Sophia is an act of power, a symbol that Erdogan has control over Turkey.49 The Hagia Sophia is a living religioscape that has once again mirrored major political and theological changes, continually reflecting the values of the ruling power and citizens of Turkey.

BIBLIOGR APHY

Through the rich history of the past 1,500 years presented by the Hagia Sophia, it is apparent that the building is a living and evolving religioscape. The Hagia Sophia perfectly mirrors the changing political and theological climate of Turkiye through its changing functions and expanding architecture. It has stood as a source of imperial power throughout the Byzantine Empire, Ottoman Empire and Republic.

Fidler, R. (2016). Ghost empire. Abc Books.

Videos Extra History. (2015). Byzantine Empire: Justinian and Theodora Purple is the Noblest Shroud - Extra History - #3. In YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=eGL_M1SQV5E Hellenic-American Cultural Foundation. (2021). Justinian’s Hagia Sophia. Www.youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=btGE4MjtwOA

Books Finkel, C. (2007). Osman’s Dream : the story of the Ottoman Empire, 13001923. Basic Books.

Freely, J., and Baker, A. E. (2011). A history of Ottoman architecture. Wit Press.

Mustadrak Al Hakim.(1002). https://archive.org/details/al-mustadrak-alhakim/Al%20Mustadrak%20Al%20Hakim%20Arabic%20Vol.%201/ Nelson, R. S. (2004). Hagia Sophia 1850-1950 : Holy Wisdom Modern Monument. The University Of Chicago Press.

Procopius, Of Caesarea, T Hayter Lewis, William, C., and Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society. (1886). Of the buildings of Justinian. S.N. Teteriatnikov, N., and Oaks, D. (1998). Mosaics of Hagia Sophia, Istanbul.

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.

The Quran.(n.d.).https://quran.com/

Websites BBC - History - Kemal Atatürk (1881-1938). (2014). Www.bbc.co.uk. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/ataturk_kemal.shtml Boundless. (n.d.). Justinian and Theodora | Western Civilization. Courses. lumenlearning.com. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/atd-herkimerwesterncivilization/chapter/justinian-and-theodora/ Cartwright, M. (2018, September 19). Byzantine Empire. World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/ Correspondent, F. our C. (2020, July 29). Hagia Sophia’s conversion into a museum - archive, 1935. The Guardian. https://www. theguardian.com/world/from-the-archive-blog/2020/jul/29/hagiasophia-conversion-into-museum-archive-1935#:~:text=Ataturk Editors of the Madain Project. (2019). Hagia Sophia Mosaics - Madain Project (en). Madainproject.com. https://madainproject.com/hagia_ sophia_mosaics Farago, J. (2023, May 25). How Erdogan Reoriented Turkish Culture to Maintain His Power. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes. com/2023/05/25/arts/turkey-election-erdogan-culture.html Francis X. Clooney, S.J. (2015, December 18). What Islam really teaches about the Virgin Mary. America Magazine. https://www. americamagazine.org/faith/2015/12/18/what-islam-really-teachesabout-virgin-mary

47 Op.cit https://muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/ayasofya#:~:text=The%20 identical%20minarets%20in%20the,complete%20Hagia%20Sophia’s%20 main%20structure 48 Ibid 49 Farago, J. (2023). How Erdogan Reoriented Turkish Culture to Maintain His Power. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/25/arts/turkeyelection-erdogan-culture.html

46

History, Theology and Philosophy

Gall, C. (2020, July 10). Erdogan Signs Decree Allowing Hagia Sophia to Be Used as a Mosque Again. The New York Times. https://www. nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/europe/hagia-sophia-erdogan.html Hagia Sophia | Muze Istanbul. (2023). Istanbul Museums. https:// muze.gen.tr/muze-detay/ayasofya#:~:text=The%20identical%20 minarets%20in%20the Hagiasophiatr. (2018, September 13). The Vestibule Mosaic. Hagia Sophia. https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/the-vestibule-mosaic Hagiasophiatr. (2017a, October 20). Altar (Mihrab). Hagia Sophia. https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/altar-mihrab/ Hagiasophiatr. (2017b, October 21). Minbar. Hagia Sophia. https:// hagiasophiaturkey.com/minbar/ Hansen, S. (2017, June 14). Reading Erdogan’s Ambitions in Turkey’s New Mosques. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes. com/2017/06/14/magazine/reading-erdogans-ambitions-in-turkeysnew-mosques.html History.com Editors. (2018). Constantinople. HISTORY. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/constantinople Küçükaşcı, M. S. (2019). THE CONQUEST HADITH AND THE MUSLIM SIEGES OF CONSTANTINOPLE | History of Istanbul. Istanbultarihi.ist. https://istanbultarihi.ist/423-the-conquest-hadith-and-the-muslimsieges-of-constantinople Medievalists.net. (2015). How Hagia Sophia was Built. Medievalists.net. https://www.medievalists.net/2015/08/how-hagia-sophia-was-built/ Sofuoglu, M. (2022). Top ten Ottoman-era mosques of Istanbul. Top Ten Ottoman-Era Mosques of Istanbul. https://www.trtworld.com/ magazine/top-ten-ottoman-era-mosques-of-istanbul-12787881 Sullivan, A. I. (2020, July 30). Hagia Sophia and Its Transformations | SAPIENTIA. Sapientia. https://crc.blog.fordham.edu/arts-culture/hagiasophia-its-transformations/

Journals Dbpedia.org. (n.d.). Siege of Constantinople https://dbpedia.org/page/ Siege_of_Constantinople_(674%E2%80%93678) Emerson, W., and Nice, R. L. van. (1950). Log in to eresources with your library card | State Library of NSW. Login.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au. https:// www-jstor-org.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/ Hayden, R. M., and Walker, T. D. (2013). Intersecting Religioscapes: A Comparative Approach to Trajectories of Change, Scale, and Competitive Sharing of Religious Spaces. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 81(2), 399–426. https://www.jstor.org/ stable/24486017# Sonyel, Salahi. R. (1991). Log in to eresources with your library card | State Library of NSW. Login.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au. https://www-jstor-org.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/

Images Hagiasophiatr. (2018, September 13). The Vestibule Mosaic. Hagia Sophia. https://hagiasophiaturkey.com/the-vestibule-mosaic

47

Michel Foucault and Islamic ideology in the Iranian Revolution ALICIA WANG Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Assess the different perspectives on Michel Foucault’s writings on the religious ideology of the 1979 Iranian Revolution

Michel Foucault’s writings on the Islamic ideology1 present in the 1979 Iranian Revolution2 have generated much critical analysis, from some condemning his advocation of Islamism to others agreeing with his analyses. Although the causes of the revolution are heavily debated, it is undeniable that religion played a significant role and was at the forefront of the minds of the masses.3 Islamism is portrayed in different lights, as influenced by the personal contexts of both Foucault and his critics. Foucault supported the religious zeal of the masses in the lead-up to the revolution, as a philosophical journalist4 interested in the viewing of an Oriental history untouched by common Western thought.5 In their book Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism, Janet Afary and Kevin Anderson criticise this endorsement, in light of the violent aftermath and totalitarianism of the post-revolutionary state, framing Foucault as a Western man who romanticised Orientalism and Islamism and thus disregarded its potential pitfalls. Behrooz GhamariTabrizi, however, defends Foucault from an Iranian perspective in Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment,

arguing that he views the revolution from an anti-teleological6 point of view and this is significant in the broader narrative of the revolution.7 Ultimately, critical perspectives of Foucault’s writings have been coloured by personal context and cultural viewpoints.

Michel Foucault8 was enthusiastic about the political spirituality and Islamic ideology of the Iranian Revolution. In opposition to many of his French contemporaries, he admired the Orient and struggled to see history untarnished by Western, modern thought.9 He rejected the argument that the Islamist role of the revolution was merely to provide a platform for the people to rise up,10 viewing it instead as the guiding torch of the revolution.11 During his stay, he interviewed many Iranians, discovering they didn’t want revolution but, “four times out of five [times they wanted] ‘an Islamic government.’”12 His established interest in premodernism13 transferred into his fascination and support of the notion of an Islamic government.14 He was aware that the current Pahlavi government at the time seemed strong and unbending on the surface – “it had everything going for it… [and] the economic difficulties were not sufficiently great for people to take to the streets…yet a people rose up in revolt.”15

6 A teleological view of history refers to viewing history as unfolding on a predetermined line; in the context of revolutions, the general teleological view is that all revolutions follow a set formula. This was common among European historians of the 20th century, who believed the age of revolutions were coming to an end – according to Ghamari-Tabrizi, this was true to them as European historians disregarded anything happening outside of Europe.

Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Op.cit.

7 Centre for Humanities Research, UWC. (2020, Nov 30). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi. [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDkU0VMhx94&ab_ channel=StanfordIranianStudiesProgram

1 Islamism can be split into two main categories: Sunni Islamism and Shi’ist Islamism. Iran converted to Shi’ism in the 15th century. In Iran, the Ulama (Islamic religious leaders) had much institutional and financial independence, which led to their supporting a great many revolutions in the recent history of the country.

The integration of religion into the everyday life of Iranians should be noted “Muslims have often considered Islam a total worldview, comprising religion and politics.”

Keddie, N. (1995). Iran and the Muslim World: Resistance and Revolution. New York University Press. p.36 2 The revolution’s aim was to overthrow the ruler of Iran, Reza Shah Pahlavi.

The mass mobilisation and revolution were led by the majority of political parties in Tehran at the time. Ayatollah Khomeini became its figurehead and leader in its later stages, which lent the entire movement an Islamic cast, and resulted in exile of the Shah and the eventual establishment of an Islamic state.

Afary, J. (2023, May 29). Iranian Revolution. In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved May 22, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/event/Iranian-Revolution 3

Keddie, N. (1995). Op.cit. p.2

4 Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Thinking the Unthinkable: Foucault and the Islamic Revolution by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDkU0VMhx94&ab_ channel=StanfordIranianStudiesProgram 5 Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Lecture on Foucault and the Iranian Revolution. [video]. Kevin B. Anderson. https://kevin-anderson.com/media/videolecture-on-foucault-and-the-iranian-revolution/

48

8 Foucault was born in 1926 in France, with a privileged background. He spent his career “criticizing the power of the modern bourgeois capitalist state”. He was inspired by Nietzsche’s essay titled On the Uses and Abuses of History for Life, where Nietzsche argued that people should learn from the past in order to shape the future. Many of Foucault’s essays and books focused on this idea, disagreeing with the view that modern medicine, prison systems and governments of power were all better and more humane in the past. He argued that the past should be learnt from instead of dismissed as less humane and developed.

The School of Life. (2015, Jul 3). PHILOSOPHY - Michel Foucault. [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBJTeNTZtGU&ab_ channel=TheSchoolofLife 9

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Op.cit.

10 Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment. Regents of the University Minnesota. p.64 11

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.73

12 Foucault, M. [translated by Bruin, K. and Anderson, K.]. (2005). What are the Iranians Dreaming About? https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/007863.html 13

The School of Life. (2015, Jul 3). Op.cit.

14

Foucault, M. [translated by Bruin, K. and Anderson, K.]. (2005). Op.cit.

15 Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: On Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. University of Chicago Press, Ltd. p.254 This conversation originally appeared in French in Iran: la révolution au nom de Dieu (227–41), first published in 1979. It has been translated by Alan Sheridan.

History, Theology and Philosophy

This incongruity led to his obsession with a “political spirituality” and a “collective will”, part of which was the fact that religion could make “a whole people rise up…against a whole regime, a whole way of life, a whole world.”16 With this in mind, he disagreed with Marx’s famous line that “religion is the opiate of the masses”, citing that it may have been true for his time and for Christianity but certainly not when pulled into other contexts.17 He also viewed the intensity of the movement as the result of a desire for radical change, echoing many other historians of the time.18 Yet, he also maintained that the Iranians found the need to change themselves, and this was conducted through the more religious aspects of the revolution.19 His interest was fostered by his fascination with martyrdom and the idea of self-sacrifice, which the Iranians exemplified in their protests – they were not “terrorized”, he reflects in his journals, despite there having been “four thousand dead”20/21, but there was instead an “absence of fear and an intensity of courage”, all of which he attributed to the spiritual transcendence of Shi’ist thought.22 Although French by birth, Foucault set aside the map of European Enlightenment and modern thought to write on the inspiring nature of Shi’ist Islamism during the Iranian Revolution.

Janet Afary23 and Kevin Anderson24 criticise Foucault’s enthusiasm for studying Islamist ideology in the Iranian Revolution from a Western, secular perspective, stating that he was seduced

by Islamism and “political spirituality”, overshadowing any

16

Macey, D. (1993). The Lives of Michel Foucault. [e-book]. Hutchinson. p.13

17 Aysha, E. (2006). Foucault’s Iran and Islamic Identity Politics Beyond Civilizational Clashes, External and Internal. International Studies Perspectives, 7(4), 377–394. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44218476 18

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Op.cit. p.95

19 Scullion, R. (1995). Michel Foucault the Orientalist: On Revolutionary Iran and the “Spirit of Islam.” South Central Review, 12(2), 16–40. https://doi. org/10.2307/3189968 p.22 20 On September 8, 1978, now known as Black Friday, the police opened fire on a mass of peaceful protestors.

Montag, S. [translated by Alaniz, M.]. (2021). Black Friday: The Massacre That Ignited a Revolution in Iran. https://www.leftvoice.org/black-friday-the-massacrethat-ignited-a-revolution-in-iran/ 21 The number of casualties is largely disputed across sources, some citing that up to 10,000 died while others refute this rumour and claim the casualties were under 100. Ghamari-Tabrizi cites that 88 were killed, in accordance with the data collected by the Martyrs Foundation, and that the largely inflated numbers – which Foucault himself quotes here – were rumours circulated by the international press.

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.205 22

Miller, J. (1994). The Passion of Michel Foucault. Anchor. p.308

23 Janet Afary is an Iranian by birth, who studied History and Near East Studies in Michigan, US. Afary, J. (2022). About Janet Afary. https://janetafary.com/ 24 Kevin Anderson is an American Professor of Sociology. He is married to Janet Afary. Both are currently based in the US. Anderson, K. (2019). About Me. https://kevin-anderson.com/about/

consideration of its dangers. While they acknowledge that his analyses of the Shah’s regime and the Islamic opposition are valuable and offer insight,25 they cite his ultimate sin as his romantic idealisation of premodern societies.26 They claim he “dropped most of his critical faculty when dealing with the Orient”,27 resulting in a problematic treatment of Islamism where he ignored the warnings of those with more balanced and critical attitudes towards the revolution.28 Similarly, they argue that his ignorance of what the revolution would mean for Islamic women denotes his theoretical shortcomings on feminism and politics.29 This line of argument is supplemented by Claudie and Jacques Broyelle, who published an article just months after the establishment of Khomeini’s Islamic government, comparing Foucault’s positive outlook on the “attempt to open a spiritual dimension in politics” to the new normal in Iran: “women stabbed precisely because they do not want to wear the veil”, “summary executions for homosexuality”.30/31 Afary and Anderson add to these statements through their assessment of Foucault’s antifeminist views and his ignorance of the movement.32 In the wake of 9/11 and the establishment of a “tyrannical” government in Iran, Afary and Anderson critique Foucault for his blindness to the “true” intention of the Islamists and their dream of an Islamic government, and for his unrepentance even after the event.33 In summation, they argue that Foucault was too “enamoured by the

25

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Op.cit.

26

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.110

27

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Op.cit.

28

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Op.cit. p.5

29

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.111

30 Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Op.cit. p.247 This article, titled What Are the Philosophers Dreaming About? Was Michel Foucault Mistaken about the Iranian Revolution?, was originally published in French in Le Matin, on March 14, 1979. It has been translated by Kevin Anderson and Karen Bruin.

31 It should be noted that Foucault himself was homosexual, adding a further layer to the repression against homosexual people in the wake of the Iranian revolution, according to David Macey, one of Foucault’s primary biographers.

Macey, D. (1993). Op.cit.

32 Afary and Anderson dedicate chapters 3-5 to reviewing Foucault’s ignorance of the consequences of the formation of an Islamic government on women, particularly in the light of his famed publication, The History of Sexuality. Their evidence is supplemented by the letter written by Atoussa H, an anonymous feminist critic of Foucault who called him out for his being moved by “Muslim spirituality”. She argues that many in Iran do not wish for an Islamic government, and criticised his Western perspective. Foucault counters simply and “nonresponsively” that she did not read his works. Afary and Anderson continue on to dissect the extremely negative outcome of the revolution on women’s rights, reiterating a common view that the establishment of Islamic government meant the burgeoning of the oppression of women in Iran.

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Op.cit. p.69-162.

Quotes by Atoussa H and Michel Foucault originally appeared in French in Le Noveul Observateur, Nov 6 and Nov 13, 1978, respectively. They have been translated by Karen Bruin and Kevin Anderson.

33

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.85

49

Michel Foucault and Islamic ideology in the Iranian Revolution | A L I C I A W A N G , Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

ability of the Islamists to galvanize tens of millions of people… that he ignored the dangers”, and thus the value of his essays are cheapened by this limited perspective.

Most critics charge Afary and Anderson with the same faults with which they charge Foucault, albeit in the opposite form; this time a predisposition against Islamism affecting their attempt to view events from a neutral perspective. As Bonnie Honig states, Afary and Anderson have an “essentialist reading of Islamic fundamentalism as martyrdom”, especially in the wake of 9/11.34 Afary and Anderson compare the recent Islamist terrorist attacks to the demonstrating crowds in Qom and Tehran in 1978, who were willing to lay down their lives to topple a corrupt regime, and this direct comparison immediately casts the religious ideology of the revolutionaries in an unfavourable light.35 Honig continues that Afary and Anderson conclude that Foucault’s interest in political spirituality meant he fully endorsed Islamic fundamentalism36, and therefore Paganism, sexism and fascism, with no supporting evidence.37 Similarly, Jeremy Carrette notes that Afary and Anderson’s credibility is undermined by a “patchwork of assumptions and the language of guesswork”, claiming that their imagination sometimes outweighs their genuine analysis.38 Moaddel elaborates on this argument, stating that Foucault’s view of the Iranian Revolution is historically inaccurate.39 Shiraz Dossa is even more critical; he calls the book an “unscholarly screed” and “a callow instance of coloniality and its racial zeal”. 40 He assesses the book by dissecting the backgrounds of the authors, [citing] that Anderson, being a US sociologist, and Afary, Iranian by birth yet “identif[ying] with the West”, resulted in an innate hostility towards Shi’ism and Islam.41

Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi,42 43 too, criticises Afary and Anderson for their misrepresentation of Foucault. He contends that Afary and Anderson make the assumption that the revolutionary movement was “initiated and led by secular-liberal-left factions, but hijacked by Islamists”.44 He goes on to prove that this is a false conclusion, establishing instead there was never any binary contest between secularism and Islamism amongst the opposition factions. 45 He also criticises their portrayal of Khomeini as a “dogmatic ideologue whose philosophical, theological, and political ideas require no serious consideration”,46 stating that their commitment to their own modernist ideology rendered them incapable of recognising that he was not simply a religious crusader.47 Similarly, he argues that their view of the events suffers from the same flaws as those of the international feminists in postrevolutionary Iran; it makes assumptions about what the Iranians thought, when these interpretations were coloured by Western viewpoints.48 Thus, he takes pains to expose Afary and Anderson’s many falsehoods.49 Instead, Ghamari-Tabrizi presents an opposing perspective, that Foucault was a philosophical journalist who viewed the Iranian revolution from an anti-teleological lens, and this reading lends his writings a significance in the further discussion and dissection of the revolution. He argues that Foucault was not romanticising the premodern world or seduced by Orientalism, but rather, witnessed the events “outside the purview of a Western teleological schema”.50 He praises Foucault’s attempt to

42 Ghamari-Tabrizi is a professor of history who was born in Iran and is currently based in the United States.

Princeton University. (2017). Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi. https://nes.princeton.edu/ people/behrooz-ghamari-tabrizi 43 He was present in Iran during the revolution, admitting to being a “militant Marxist-Leninist student who organised rallies, wrote pamphlets, recruited other students to the cause, and fought daily battles on the streets of Tehran during the ghastly period of martial law”.

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.xi 44 Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.78 45 Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Op.cit.

46 Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.93 47 Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.102 34 Honig, B. (2008). What Foucault Saw at the Revolution: On the Use and Abuse of Theology for Politics [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism; Shah of Shahs, by J. Afary, K. B. Anderson, and R. Kapuściński]. Political Theory, 36(2), 301–312. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/20452628 p.304 35

Honig, B. (2008). Ibid.

36

Honig, B. (2008). Ibid. p.309

37

Honig, B. (2008). Ibid. p.303

38 Carrette, J. (2006). [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism, by J. Afary and K. B. Anderson]. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(2), 531–533. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/4094055 p.532 39 Moaddel, M. (2011). [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seduction of Islamism, by J. Afary and K. B. Anderson]. Iranian Studies, 44(1), 127–131. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27919970 40 Dossa, S. (2018). Foucault’s “Political Spirituality”: Saving Iran From Western Saviors [Review of Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment, by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi]. Arab Studies Quarterly, 40(2), 175–182. https://doi. org/10.13169/arabstudquar.40.2.0175 p.178 41

50

Dossa, S. (2018). Ibid.

48 In fact, Ghamari-Tabrizi dedicates Chapter 4 of his book to this misreading of women’s rights in Iran. There is a view, common in the West, that women’s rights were lost in Iran post the revolution, especially considering the progressive [] of the two previous Shahs in allowing women more public appearances. He argues that it is not so simple: while some revelled in the new freedoms they were allowed, especially in the upper classes, others were disgusted by this “superWesternisation”. He quotes Al-e Ahmad, who says “We have allowed women to appear in public: a mere hypocrisy, a pretense. We have dragged the woman who is the guardian of our tradition, family and bloodline to the street and compelled them to become lascivious and spread depravity and debauchery.”

Ghamari-Tabrizi continues to describe the visit of international feminists to Iran, in particular, American Kate Millett. She went to Iran to “save” the Iranian women, yet was greeted with a lack of enthusiasm. Ghamari-Tabrizi claims that this was not due to the new government’s oppression of Iranian women’s voices, as Millett infers, but instead the genuine Iranian opinion. He quotes Iranian Minou Moshiri’s letter to the delegation, “Please try to understand that women’s liberation, Western-style, is irrelevant, inapplicable, unacceptable and distasteful in our country”, and also makes his own claim that Millett “saw the revolution through her unwavering white feminism”.

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p113-158 49 Dossa, S. (2018). Op.cit. p.178 50 Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.6

History, Theology and Philosophy

deprovincialise the revolution, placing importance in the way he saw that the revolution would result in endless possibilities and would not unfold in predetermined outcomes.51 The ambiguity of the revolution, which many of his French contemporaries critiqued,52 was instead a point of interest to Foucault, and allowed him to remain attentive to expressions inside Iran.53 Furthermore, Ghamari-Tabrizi argues that Foucault’s concept of “political spirituality” was not a defence of the establishment of an Islamic theocracy, but rather, in praise of its transformative powers.54 He makes the opinion that “if there was a revolution, it was Islamic, and it couldn’t have been as big without clerics”,55 thus disagreeing with Afary, Anderson and many other critics, who believed that Khomeini “stole the revolution”.56 Ghamari-Tabrizi explains in depth that Foucault avoided binary oppositions, whether between modernity and premodernity or secularism and religion, which further increases the credibility of his perspective.57 While he does not disagree with the fact that Foucault was unrepentant about his opinions, after the revolution, he argues that this unrepentance should be read in the context of a post-revolutionary stage and not in the context of an Islamist political state.58 The so-called “reign of terror”, Ghamari-Tabrizi paraphrases, was not the inevitable result of Islamism but the inevitable result of any revolutionary movement.59 He agrees with Afary and Anderson that the postrevolutionary executions cannot be justified, but maintains that it was not the simple realisation of Khomeinism.60 This assumption is a common source of the criticism aimed at Foucault.61 Hence, Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi declares that Foucault was correct in recognising the inspiration of religious ideology during the Iranian Revolution and praises his viewing of the event from an anti-teleological perspective.

Many of Ghamari-Tabrizi’s critics had praise for his book and subsequent lectures. Shiraz Dossa acknowledges the extensive knowledge that Ghamari-Tabrizi has of Iranian history, politics, culture and religion, which can be attributed to his native Iranian background and his proximity to the revolution itself, and praises his substantive and critical analysis.62 However, Dossa critiques Ghamari-Tabrizi mainly for his overly reactive and defensive tone, especially when he writes about Afary and

Anderson.63 Similarly, Sussan Siavoshi contends that his “mission seems to be one of rescuing Foucault’s reputation by refuting Afary and Anderson’s central theme”, which detracts from his otherwise significant and original argument.64 Golnar Nikpour commends Ghamari-Tabrizi’s text as a “brilliant challenge to Eurocentric epistemologies that assume the timeless march of universal History”, yet notes that he was perhaps too broad in his mentioning of the “conditions of possibility” and avoided engaging in potential effects of this.65 In contrast to these more dominantly positive viewpoints, Kenneth Timmerman heavily critiques Ghamari-Tabrizi, stating that he “drowns in a sludge of jargon and obscurantism” with the conclusion that Foucault in Iran struggles to say anything meaningful.66 Michel Foucault wrote positively and unrepentantly on the religious Islamic ideology of the 1979 Iranian revolution.

These works are highly contested as they were coloured by his established predisposition towards pre-modernism and against Western ideas.67 Janet Afary and Kevin Anderson heavily criticize this in their book Foucault and the Iranian Revolution, arguing that his over-romanticisation of Islamism and Orientalism blinded him to its faults.68 Yet they were influenced by their personal and temporal contexts, as Western, secular historians who were naturally inclined against Islamism, especially post 9/11.69 Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi provides an opposing perspective, agreeing with Foucault’s essays on the revolution. He cites Foucault’s anti-teleological readings of the revolution as significant, as opposed to many other historians of the time, as he attempted to view the event from an Iranian perspective, unfiltered by Western ideas.70 However, his own book was influenced by his need to defend Foucault and react to Afary and Anderson.71 All in all, various historians have dissected Michel Foucault’s essays on the role of religion in the Iranian revolution, yet their effectiveness is hindered by their personal contexts and predispositions towards or against Islamism and the revolution itself.

63 He argues that, through verifying their text as a credible and well-written source, it undermines Ghamari-Tabrizi’s own argument – it is evident, as seen above [footnotes 40 and 41], that Dossa vehemently disagrees with the contents of Afary and Anderson’s Foucault and the Iranian Revolution.

Dossa, S. (2018). Ibid.

51

Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Op.cit.

52 Claire Brière: “The Iranians themselves are swimming in [that] ambiguity and have several levels of language, commitment, expression, etc.” This phrase has been used to describe the revolution in several subsequent pieces of writing.

Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Op.cit. p.250 This quote originally appeared in French in Iran: la revolution au nom de Dieu (22741), first published in 1979. It has been translated by Alan Sheridan.

64 Siavoshi, S. (2017). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2016. 257 pages.). American Journal of Islam and Society, 34(2), 90–93. https://doi. org/10.35632/ajis.v34i2.779 p.90 65 Nikpour, G. (2017). On historical singularity and universal histories: Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi’s Foucault in Iran. Canadian Journal of History, 52(3), 560-563. https://doi.org/10.3138/CJH.ACH.52.3.07 p.562 66 It should be noted that Timmerman also refers to the revolution as an “Islamist revolutionary orgy”, which may reveal his limited perspective on the matter.

53

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Op.cit. p.190

54

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.189

55

Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Op.cit.

56

Dossa, S. (2018). Op.cit. p.179

57

Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Op.cit.

Timmerman, K. R. (2017). [Review of Foucault in Iran: Islamic revolution after the enlightenment.]. Middle East Quarterly, 24(3), 2. http://ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/ login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/foucault-iran-islamicrevolution-after/docview/2026327446/se-2

58

Centre for Humanities Research, UWC. (2020, Nov 30). Op.cit.

67 Scullion, R. (1995). Op.cit. p.16

59

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.191

68 Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Op.cit.

60

Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Ibid. p.103

69 Honig, B. (2008). Op.cit. p.304

61

Macey, D. (1993). Op.cit

70

62

Dossa, S. (2018). Op.cit. p.178

71 Dossa, S. (2018). Op.cit. p.178

Centre for Humanities Research, UWC. (2020, Nov 30). Op.cit.

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BIBLIOGR APHY Books Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: On Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. University of Chicago Press, Ltd. Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment. Regents of the University Minnesota.

Keddie, N. (1995). Iran and the Muslim World: Resistance and Revolution.

New York University Press.

Macey, D. (1993.) The Lives of Michel Foucault. [e-book]. Hutchinson.

Miller, J. (1994). The Passion of Michel Foucault. Anchor.

Encyclopedias Afary, J. (2023, May 29). Iranian Revolution. In Encyclopedia Britannica.

Retrieved May 22, 2023 from https://www.britannica.com/event/ Iranian-Revolution

Journal Articles Aysha, E. (2006). Foucault’s Iran and Islamic Identity Politics Beyond Civilizational Clashes, External and Internal. International Studies Perspectives, 7(4), 377–394. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44218476 Carrette, J. (2006). [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism, by J. Afary and K. B. Anderson].

Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 74(2), 531–533. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4094055 Honig, B. (2008). What Foucault Saw at the Revolution: On the Use and Abuse of Theology for Politics [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism; Shah of Shahs, by J. Afary, K. B. Anderson, and R. Kapuściński]. Political Theory, 36(2), 301–312. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20452628 Moaddel, M. (2011). [Review of Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seduction of Islamism, by J. Afary and K. B. Anderson].

Iranian Studies, 44(1), 127–131. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27919970 Nikpour, G. (2017). On historical singularity and universal histories: Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi’s Foucault in Iran. Canadian Journal of History, 52(3), 560-563. https://doi.org/10.3138/CJH.ACH.52.3.07 Scullion, R. (1995). Michel Foucault the Orientalist: On Revolutionary Iran and the “Spirit of Islam.” South Central Review, 12(2), 16–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/3189968 Shiraz Dossa. (2018). Foucault’s “Political Spirituality”: Saving Iran From Western Saviors [Review of Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment, by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi]. Arab Studies Quarterly, 40(2), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.13169/arabstudquar.40.2.0175 Siavoshi, S. (2017). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2016. 257 pages.). American Journal of Islam and Society, 34(2), 90–93. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v34i2.779 Timmerman, K. R. (2017). [Review of Foucault in Iran: Islamic revolution after the enlightenment.]. Middle East Quarterly, 24(3), 2. http://ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/login?url=https://www.proquest. com/scholarly-journals/foucault-iran-islamic-revolution-after/ docview/2026327446/se-2

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Websites Afary, J. (2022). About Janet Afary. https://janetafary.com/ Anderson, K. (2019). About Me. https://kevin-anderson.com/about/ Foucault, M. [translated by Anderson, K. and Bruin, K.]. (2005).

What are the Iranians Dreaming About? https://press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/007863.html Montag, S. [translated by Alaniz, M.]. (2021). Black Friday: The Massacre That Ignited a Revolution in Iran. https://www.leftvoice.org/black-fridaythe-massacre-that-ignited-a-revolution-in-iran/ Princeton University. (2017). Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi. https://nes.princeton.edu/people/behrooz-ghamari-tabrizi

Videos Afary, J. and Anderson, K. (n.d.). Lecture on Foucault and the Iranian Revolution. [video]. Kevin B. Anderson. https://kevin-anderson.com/ media/video-lecture-on-foucault-and-the-iranian-revolution/ Centre for Humanities Research, UWC. (2020, Nov 30).

Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution after the Enlightenment with Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi. [video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=X093jiO2yRc&ab_ channel=CentreforHumanitiesResearch%2CUWC Stanford Iranian Studies Program. (2018, May 19). Thinking the Unthinkable: Foucault and the Islamic Revolution by Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi. [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=uDkU0VMhx94&ab_channel=StanfordIranianStudiesProgram The School of Life. (2015, Jul 3). PHILOSOPHY - Michel Foucault. [Video].

YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BBJTeNTZtGU&ab_ channel=TheSchoolofLife

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SIENNA KIM Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

Part I Fukuoka, Japan, 1946

Liberated Korean Comfort Women after liberation, residing in Lameng, Yunnan, September 3, 1945. The US National Archives.

This story is based on true events, however characters and certain aspects are entirely fictional.

“I became scared of Saturdays, when most of the men came, more than death.”

— Gang Duk-gyang

“When the soldiers came into my room, horrifying and terrifying me, I cried and tried to run away…while crying, I became a tool for the sexual appetites of the soldiers.”

— Song Shin-do

Boram stood on the wet bank, the grains of sand cushioning her toes. The ocean’s salt rested on her damp cheeks, crystallising under the light of the emerging moon. Nothing dared to disturb the silence of Japan’s shores, not even the evening life that had begun to awaken behind her. The lively streets were a constellation, the flickering street lamps a warning of the night’s arrival. The autumn air was filled with laughter from drunken ghosts, their glasses filled to the brim with spirits, as booze-stained men babbling primitive Japanese dozed off like babies in decaying alleys. It was difficult to fathom that this had been a country ravaged by war, the same war that ripped her thousands of miles from home — robbing her of a deserved childhood — a country that suddenly didn’t want her, that didn’t even acknowledge her existence.

The waves thrashed; a hypnotising swirl of black water, its murky surface reflecting the white beads from burning stars scattered overhead. Ripples of agitated water echoed a firm rhythm, the gushing a chant in her ears, as she inched closer towards the border of sea foam. Just across that liquid horizon, she could practically envision the dance of evening lights which lined the coast of Busan1, where her mother would be kneeling under the same set of stars, hands clasped and whispering to some uninterested God, receiving nothing but silence as the answer to her undying pleas.

She let out a hushed hiss as something jagged stabbed into her bare toe, capturing her dazed attention. The foamy waves retracted from the shore, revealing a white seashell against her feet, gleaming under the emerging moonlight. Holding the fragile conch to her ear, she released a weighty breath, her ears perking at the comforting sounds encased within the shell’s walls.

Churning waves and swirling breezes danced in her ear, her face twisting in horror as they morphed into the faint screams of her mother, as she desperately attempted to board up their childhood home. Amidst the chaos, her father lay motionless on the grass, a dark red pool seeping into the fertile soil beneath him, as a Japanese soldier scrounged his body for treasure.

Cold will always overpower heat. The waves whispered to her through the conch shell, airy wisps of breath tickling her ear.

Boram gasped; the shell fell onto the moist sand below with a

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A city on the coast of Korea

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solemn squelch. She looked out towards the endless abyss of the ocean, an infinitely abandoned world waiting to consume her entirely.

You’re free now, you can go home. The words of the American soldier echoed in her mind. But when? It had been months, and she had been given no news of a possible return.

The girl waded further into the vengeful sea, the water now reaching around her waist as the end of her gown began to float on the surface. She was weightless, the liveliness of the world reduced to a rhythmic slosh as her hands rested on her swollen stomach, the skin beating with tiny kicks, as if the baby attempted to swim for her, to desperately return her to the safety of the shoreline of soft pale grains. Her eyelids beat heavier and, as her head finally bobbed under, the stars above began to bleed, heavenly artillery invading the blackened sky as the moon above became a fragmented beige sphere.

Maybe this current would be the one to take her home. ***** Her eyes opened to a vulnerable cry, a wailing infant wrapped in a blanket resting in her arms. Beads of sweat glistened under the drowning rays of sun, wisps of tangled hair glued to her damp forehead. Boram blinked slowly, lingering drowsiness weighing down her eyelids, leaving the world a blurred haze. Glancing down at her legs stained with a dry crimson, she winced, attempting to sit herself against the bed frame. The untouched walls barely concealed the whisperings of the nurses outside, most likely commenting on how she looked like the youngest mother they ever had on the ward, or that she spoke jumbled Japanese with a shameless Korean accent. Pain rippled through her swollen belly which protruded under her linen nightgown as she rested her hand on the bump to quell the rising discomfort. She had tried everything: pills, herbs, even hoping that one of the frequent beatings she received would relieve the child inside of its arrival in this unforgiving world. But the growth inside her was persistent, leeching off her, like a parasite grown too attached to its host.

She could almost forget the sensation hours earlier; her stomach twisting in on itself, organs being ripped apart, fresh cries as the nurse cut the umbilical cord, liberating Boram from the chain of flesh that unwillingly connected the two.

The warm gradient of Tokyo’s horizon beamed through the hospital windows, staining the sterile room with a resonant orange glow, the sort of natural beauty that entranced the thrashing trees outside into a simple sway. She glanced down at the child laying in her arms, its head peacefully resting against her breast. Such innocence, yet his blood was already tainted. Her mother told her that a child was a declaration of love. But how could she love a child when she was disgusted by its very existence? She was only fifteen, meant to be giggling about some stupid school crush, not chained to a hospital bed lying in a pool of her own blood.

Thud.

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She jolted, causing the metal rails of the bed to quiver violently in response. She narrowed her eyes, the world still a disorientating dance, until she could make out a shadow seated in the darkening corner, its boot tapping a delayed beat against the tile floor. A ghastly wisp of smoke emerged from the unlit area of the room, a fleeting flicker of orange sparking from the end of a cigarette.

The room filled with an offensive stench, lining her nose with a dreadful familiarity. Her chest heaved in syncopated breaths. The shock was almost laughable. The war was over, and he should be gone, morphed into a disgraced shadow in the backdrop of an ignorant Japan, just as she was. Yet he sat mere metres away, waiting for her like an old friend, whilst carrying the memories of her bruised skin, her throat that burned from screams ignored by the night. The migrating crows cackled outside, as if the world was laughing at her, reminding her of her constant misery, her destiny of infinite suffering that God had imposed on her.

“You are —” She swallowed, speaking into the void. She paused, realising the incorrect structure of her speech.

“Why are you here?” She corrected, her voice shaking with added force and vengeful spit.

He chuckled, two rows of yellowed teeth mocking her pathetic attempt at Japanese.

“What’s the name?”

She paused, fleeting breaths escaping her chest. “Nam-gil.” The words named after my father danced on the tip of her tongue, as if scolding her for forgetting how to phrase the words.

“A Korean name? He doesn’t even look Korean.”

“You forget that he’s half of me.” She gritted. His head turned, facing her directly, shaking fists concealing anger.

“And what is that half even worth? You’re just some Korean, born from, and destined for, nothing. To bear a Japanese child, my son; I gave your life a purpose you could’ve only wished to have.”

He approached the side of the bed, carrying the stench of whiskey and stale smoke with him. Her shoulders tensed, scrambling to push her body against the wall despite the cascade of pain which stabbed her stomach. The narrow distance between them revealed his new physique; he had gained some weight, some fat around the chin, his clean jaw removed of its usual stubble, a physical cleanse to distance the sins from the sinner. Yet his narrowed eyes carried the same emotionless gaze, observing her as if she weren’t a being, rather, a doll for his own pleasure.

But it was that stench, an unremovable odour that made sweat pool at the base of her neck. Her chest heaved in syncopated patterns as his rough hand trailed up the flesh of her thigh, her gown exposing the piece of trembling skin. Her mouth opened, jagged flakes from dry lips poked into her upper lip, threatening to pierce the sensitive skin, if she moved her lips to utter a word.

The faint chatter outside had dissipated, alerting her to the layer

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of silence now more of a threat than a soothing comfort. The saké which oozed from his pores made her sick. But what churned her stomach was the knowledge that her monster would likely die a content, satisfied old man, unfazed by the consequences she would be forced to relive every day.

His finger left her thigh, tracing the outline of her cheek, as she flinched under his suffocating touch. In his grasp, she was twelve again, frightened and alone, locked in a grimy room of the army station built on rotting wood, her pathetic excuse of a bed stained with her own blood.

“You still haven’t answered my question.”

Boram’s eyes trailed him reaching for the infant in her arms.

She gripped the blanket covering her son tighter, to no avail, her strength incomparable to his.

“Have you read that article about that Osakan lady; the one who smothered her own daughter and drowned herself from guilt?”

He shifted his coat slightly, the glint from the blade of a pocket knife exposing itself under the cashmere fabric.

“It’s surprising how often those sort of incidents happen.”

Boram’s eyes widened at the sight of the blade, as he smirked at her panic-laced expression.

“Make it shut up,” he ordered, removing the knife from her chest.

She obeyed, slowly resting the crying child against her shoulder as she rubbed his back, but it provided no relief from his pained screeches. The boy’s father sat just an arm’s length away, his face void of expression aside from the twitching of his lips that revealed his continuously festering rage, even as the door swung open with a heavy purpose, revealing a nurse cradling a bundle of fresh white sheets.

“Your husband?” She tilted her head, looking at Boram, her eyes avoiding the neck of the young girl’s gown, stained with droplets of blood.

“No, a friend.” The man spoke instead, a smiling mask replacing his anger. The edges of his eyes were now wrinkled, as the corners of his lips curled inwards; a chilling attempt to appear the slightest bit human. He stood up, planting a kiss on the boy’s head with such care, one could be fooled into thinking that he had affection for the child.

Boram stared at the man heading towards the door, his eyes empty of an ounce of humanity, as he tucked the pocket knife into his waistband and slipped through the crack of the door. Nam-gil babbled softly, slumping against his mother’s shoulders, eyes milky from his constant stream of tears, arms blindly reaching for the ghost of his father, who had dissolved into the unlit hallway.

“I’m sure the papers would be very sympathetic towards your situation.”

“But would they be sympathetic to you if they knew your son was half-Korean? That-that the mother of the General’s son was fifteen?”

The man’s nostrils flared, teeth bared like a predator, before his pursed lips broke out into a bitter laugh, wiping a clammy hand over his drying mouth.

“And who would believe you? I am a General of the respected Japanese Imperial Army. I put my life on the line for this war —” “A war that you lost.” The young girl spat the words, and his eyes twitched at the incoming spray of her saliva. He lunged forward, tossing the baby onto the stained sheets, as a rough hand gripped her throat. The tip of the blade pressed against her chest, settling above her pounding heart, the sharp pressure slightly penetrating the exposed skin, as she felt the warm ooze from droplets of blood trickle down the crevice of her breasts. Her breathing faltered.

“The scars still remain on my body. I can’t hear out of my right ear. The wounds of my time as a comfort woman are left behind on my body.” — Song Shindo “When I see other people married, living together so happily with their sons and daughters, grandsons and granddaughters, together in harmony, I really envy them.

My insides ache.” — Ahn Jeom-sum

She refused to die at this moment, not when she was so far away from home, not by his hands.

A shrill wail cut through the tense room, as the panicked baby was tossed onto the mattress.

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Part II Jeju Island, South Korea, 1956 Clack. Clack. The tips of Boram’s heels jabbed into the cement sidewalk with each furious step, her fingers scrunching the back of Nam-gil’s shirt. She didn’t want to hear the string of pathetic excuses that were about to gush out her son’s mouth, but his complete silence only aggravated her. She clenched her fist, the serrated edges of her fingernails digging into the reddening flesh of her palm.

“I had to come pick you up early just because some stupid little boy insulted you? Are you that sensitive you can’t take a simple jab without having to throw some silly punches?”

Her leather purse creased around her whitening fingertips, her grip still firmly anchored on her son’s shoulder. The murmurs spilling from her son’s mouth were lost on her boiling ears, yet one word stood out with the utmost clarity.

“Whore.”

Her body froze, leaving the two of them as silent statues, paused on the corner of the sidewalk. She let go of her son’s shirt, her quivering eyes slowly turning to face the meek boy whose mouth uttered the dreadful insult.

“That’s what he called you. I hit him because he called you a whore.”

She could feel her heart begin to thump against her rib cage, her blood pulsating through every vein, every artery. Boram loomed over her son, yet she felt just as small and vulnerable as he was.

Whore.

Gossiping birds chirped in the branches hanging overhead, mimicking that cursed word. It echoed in her mind like a broken record, the syllables distorting themselves to mould into that wretched Japanese accent that made her stomach drop, her hands trembling by her sides. Her son peeled his eyes from the pavement, lifting his head at her stunned silence.

God, he looks so much like him.

Like the man who would stand in the doorway each night, the scent of saké attached to his shadowed figure like a signature perfume. Her nightmares were no longer confined to the realm of sleep. Like a cruel, last laugh from God himself, he was forever bound to her in the form of the small, timid boy standing in front of her. The faint giggles from the nearby park echoed through the tense air, as her son quivered slightly, his gaze avoiding hers as it rested on the black grains of the pavement below.

“Nam-gil, I —” She reached out a hand, fingertips wisping over the black, spiky tips of his hair; her attempt at a wordless apology.

She sighed upon hearing the faint ring of the bell attached to their front door, her outstretched fingers retracting into a closed fist; she listened to the faint thumps of the boy racing to the safety of his bedroom upstairs.

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Now alone on the sidewalk, a small rush of wind caressed her face as a passerby walked past, a grey plume of cigarette smoke following closely behind. Boram’s stomach twisted at the scent, that putrid stench attaching to her like a parasite, setting her heart alight with adrenaline. He was only a child, her child, and he feared her. But she was just as, if not more, terrified of him.

No matter how many times she would rub her skin raw under the stream of scalding, hot water each night, the rotting tar dug past her complexion and stained the blood inside her, seeping itself into the confines of her heart and mind. It flowed through her veins, and now through her son’s as well.

Whore.

Squeezing her fingers into her palm, she pushed the glass door with a grunt, her son’s voice bouncing through the storm brewing in her racing mind. ***** Nam-gil kneeled on the bathroom floor, his head dangling over the edge of the bathtub as his mother gently massaged his head.

Soapy suds trickled past his ears, the warm sensation making him giggle. His mother kneeled behind him, reaching for the shower head, as the cotton of her dress fluttered against his exposed back, wisps of steam tickling the skin of his cheeks. He dipped his head slightly below the water, feeling the popping of bubbles on the water’s surface. When he shut his eyes, he was in the depths of the ocean, schools of rainbow-scaled fish dazzling his vision as strands of seaweed caressed his face. He was dragged out of the imagined aquatic ecosystem when his mother’s hands enlaced in his head, pulling him up. The stream from the shower drained his clogged ears, as the water beneath him grew soapier and the scent of oils from his shampoo pleasantly stimulated his nose.

A pain in his head grew; his mother’s once-gentle grip now latching tightly onto his hair, and her tugging risked ripping the strands from his scalp. The young boy strained, gritting his teeth at the pain. Suddenly, the rough hand pushed his head deep beneath the surface of the bubbling water, transforming the world into a blue hue. His muffled screams morphed into silent bubbles, which floated to the surface of the water violently around his struggling head. His lungs burned, an ashy fire setting alight his thrashing body. The strong fingers, interlocked with the stubby strands of his jet-black hair, suddenly loosened, and Nam-gil emerged from the water with a desperate gasp. Water droplets gushed down his reddened face, his mouth permanently shaped in an agape circle; every breath painful, yet helplessly intoxicating.

Nam-gil crumpled on the bathroom floor like a deflated balloon, chest expanding and contracting desperately. His mother’s back turned on his exhausted figure, as she exited the room.

Eyes clouded with nothing but apathy, her dress was completely dry, aside from droplets of water that cascaded down her now wrinkled hands. *****

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Nam-gil yawned as he stepped into the hallway, the blinding beams of the sun’s morning rays piercing through the covered windows. The muffled clash of colliding metal from pots and pans rumbled like distant thunder from the hallway as he rubbed his head, unable to tell vivid dreams from dazed realities. He let out a wheezed cough, the lingering ache of frothing water scarring his lungs.

The small mirror which hung on the wall in the hallway revealed the purple blotches which decorated the skin beneath his eye. In that glass reflection, he saw one of those boys that returned home from the war across the border; a bruised outer shell encasing a submerged childish wonder. But could he call himself a soldier, if the enemy was his own mother? He flexed his knuckles, the dull ache between joints spreading through his nerves like wildfire, reminding him of his careless action the day prior. He had told that stupid classmate to stop, to not describe his mother with that word. But what was the point of words when it only took a single fist in the face for him to listen? He hated that he had to hurt in order to be heard. Hated the way his classmate looked at him in that moment, as if confirming him as the monster his mother would mutter about, as she paced the apartment during the dead of night. Sometimes he wished to be reborn as a woman, so he could have some purpose other than puffing his chest to protect his own fragile ego. Maybe then, his mother wouldn’t be frightened by him, wouldn’t be driven so mad by his existence.

The intertwining smell of cooked fish and fresh rice enticed him to the kitchen, his eyes lighting up at the banquet of food spread on the dining table. He could barely see his mother’s back over the kitchen counter, but her soft hums gave away her position at the sink. Clearing his throat, something he learned over the years so as not to startle her into one of her breathing fits, his mother turned around. Upon meeting his gaze, a murky cloud of guilt swirled in her eyes, different to the momentary flashes of fear. The edges of her lips curled upwards.

His body jolted, as his mother brought both of her wet hands to cradle the sides of his head.

“Happy birthday.” She whispered, planting a soft kiss against his temple. The touch of her palms were unfamiliar against his skin, but the gestures caused a smile to spread across his lips.

Sliding into the dining chair, Nam-gil drummed his tiny palms against the wooden table with excitement, as he scanned the tiny pops of colour from the small plates laid out on the table. His attention landed on the photo frame which leaned against the wall, the fuzzy grey layer of dust outlining its burgundy edges.

He narrowed his eyes, tilting his head as he observed the creased black-and-white image shoved between the frame’s four corners.

Two women embracing in a hug, one a child, the other much older. The former, Nam-gil immediately noticed, was his mother; it was uncanny how her face barely changed with age.

“Why doesn’t grandma ever come to see us?” Nam-gil asked, lips smacking as grains of rice swished around in his mouth. He could hear the chopping of fresh vegetables on the cutting board behind him, that familiar rhythmic dance between blade and wood.

“She can’t, Nam-gil, it’s too painful for her to come.” The bluntness of her words parried with the relentless sharp scrapes of the knife in her hands. Nam-gil simply nodded, his curious eyes never straying from the yellowing picture.

“Why? Is grandma sick?”

Chunks of cabbage collapsed onto the chopping board with a thud, from a single, solemn slice.

“Yes, something like that.”

A gush of water followed, the sound of the cold liquid beating against the metal basin of the sink, making the young boy jolt in his seat. He gripped the edge of the chair, running his fingers over the foam, which had been exposed by his relentless picking at the leather covering.

“Well, maybe when I’m older, and earn lots of money, we can go visit her together.”

The flow of cold water ceased with a meek squeak, followed by a sigh carrying years’ worth of hesitation and resistance. He flinched, feeling that familiar hand caress the back of his neck, this time in a much more affectionate manner.

“Eat quickly, your food’s getting cold.”

His mother brushed past him, her figure morphing into a distant shadow as she disappeared down the hallway with the faint thud of the bedroom door closing. Nam-gil stared at the table littered with tiny delicacies. The kitchen was now eerily quiet, the only source of sound coming from his metal utensils scraping against glass bowls. He looked across the table, eyeing the vacant seat opposite. His chopsticks dug into each dish, picking up small chunks of spinach, kimchi and beef, and placing them onto his empty plate.

Maybe she would join him later, he thought. But the sniffles that echoed through the thin walls told him otherwise.

“I don’t know when I’ll die. Going to bed at night, I wonder if I can really achieve my wish and smile as I say goodbye to this world.” — Kim Bok-dong “Until the day I die, I cannot forget what I have been through. Even after I die, I won’t be able to forget.” — Ahn Jeom-sum

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Leave It With Me | S I E N N A K I M , Y E A R 1 2 2 0 2 3

Part III Busan, South Korea, 2000 Nam-gil stood at the doorway, bowing his head and smiling as the last of the guests left the funeral room. Watching the guests slowly blur into the distance, he rubbed his forehead, letting a heavy sigh escape his lips, as he shoved his hands in the pockets of his pants.

The room, once filled with the whispered mutterings of men and women dressed in black, was now vacant, shrouded in an intimate silence. The scent of burnt incense lingered in the disinfected air, as Nam-gil stepped inside, removing his shoes to feel the cold sting of the polished wooden floor. From the altar’s base, the weak light of dying candles illuminated the black and white photograph displayed on the mantle. His arm, covered by the black sleeves of his graduation gown, tightly wrapped around her back, a pristine document held in the other. He could count the number of times he had seen her toothy smile on two fingers; on that day she had smiled for him.

He slowly slid to the floor, his knees colliding with the mat beneath him; the woven wood warped under the sudden weight.

He lowered his head, shoulders jolting as he wiped away the slow flow of tears which trickled down his cheeks. A thousand different sentences, strung together by anger, emptiness, abandonment, threatened to leak out of his quivering lips, yet he only managed to squeeze out a quiet sob.

“Do you want one?”

A gritty voice speaking Japanese interrupted the symphony of nature happening around them. Nam-gil turned his head; he had not realised another figure was sitting beside him. The wrinkled man held out a cigarette, the tips of his fingertips were yellowed and cracked.

Nam-gil shook his head, finally meeting the source of his disgust.

“No thanks, it’s never really been my style.” He replied fluently, fingers drumming against the cold wood of the bench. He released a heavy sigh.

“Your Japanese is good.” He rasped, vocal cords scarred by a lifetime of cigarettes, leaving his voice a cloudy husk.

“I live there. Osaka region.”

The man snorted, rubbing his hand over the thin strands of white hair which scattered the top of his head.

“You? Living in Japan? And you hold no spite being around us Japanese people?”

Nam-gil only shrugged, rubbing his hands in small, soothing circles over his knees. “My wife is — was, Japanese. If that answers your question.”

A gentle knock on the door twisted his head to the funeral director, standing solemnly at the entrance. “Sir? If you don’t mind, we need to empty the room for another service happening tonight.”

A puff of grey smoke escaped the man’s lips, gradually dissolving into the cool air. He narrowed his eyes, noticing the white armband wrapped around Nam-gil’s arm3. He gestured to the band, the cigarette firmly lodged between shaking fingers.

Nam-gil sprung to his feet, wiping his puffy eyes as he apologised profusely, embarrassingly rushing to the bathroom across the hospital hallway.2 As the cold water flowed out of the metal tap, he cupped the liquid in his hands, splashing it over his reddened complexion. Droplets of water sprayed the bathroom mirror as the cold stream flowed into the basin below. Nam-gil sighed, resting his elbows against the porcelain basin, and fixated on the greying patches which spread like a pigmentless wildfire across the forest of his jet-black hair. Water droplets travelled along his emerging wrinkles, began to carve themselves into the skin of his face, etching a map of his ageing skin. As he leaned in closer to the mirror, his nose wrinkled with disgust when the scent of rotting tobacco seeped through the gaps in the bathroom door. Patting his wet hands against his suit, he stepped out of the bathroom, the sound of his dress shoes ricocheting off the sanitary walls.

“That thing means that you’re the host, right? Of that woman’s funeral?”

He shook his head, perhaps grief had finally made him crack?

Walking towards the entrance of the funeral hall, the doors slid open and a gush of the fresh evening air wafted his unkempt hair as he sat down on a bench with a soft grunt.

2

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In Korea, specific parts of hospitals are reserved to hold funeral services

Nam-gil snapped his head down to look at the loose band wrapped around his arm. He fiddled with it, smoothing out the edges which had begun to curl upwards.

“Ah, Kim Boram? Yes, I’m her son.”

The elderly man’s lips pulled downwards, resembling a frown.

“Boram,” he repeated, his voice a hushed exhale of breath, as whispers of= sparks erupted from a tiny metal canister. There was a beat of silence, barely covered by the hush of swaying leaves, before the man’s gravelly voice broke through the calming breeze.

“She did a good job with you. You seem like a good son.”

Nam-gil scoffed, rubbing perspiring palms against the polyester fibres of his suit pants.

3 The ‘chief mourner’ (the funeral host) wears a white armband with two black stripes on the left sleeve of their suit. The chief mourner is typically the first-born son or closely related male of the deceased.

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“Oh, no. I wasn’t even there with her when she went. So, she’s either forgiven me, or is currently cursing me with misfortune from heaven.” Nam-gil let out an airy chuckle, as he slightly raised his chin to the sky above, letting the wind ruffle his hair.

The man paused, his cigarette half-way in its journey to his discoloured lips.

“Ah, so you’re a religious one.” Wrinkles deepened the creases on his darkened lips.

With each breath, a cloud of ashy tobacco followed, slowly dissolved into the air.

“You say it like it’s a bad thing.”

The old man sighed, the force of his heavy exhale making his shoulders slump. He flicked the stick of tobacco onto the concrete floor, the orange flame at the end of the cigarette fizzling into clumps of black dust, staining the sole of his boot.

“Perhaps I’m jealous. Rebirth, heaven, whatever, it doesn’t matter.

The things I’ve done, I won’t be granted the mercy of an afterlife.”

The man flailed an ungraceful hand, as he pressed his lips into a fine line upon seeing Nam-gil’s puzzled gaze.

“I did something bad, a long, long, time ago,” the old man drawled. The pores of his wrinkled skin oozed with the stench of aged liquor, but his confession held the weighted words of sober thoughts.

“Well, we can’t all be saints, right?” Nam-gil chuckled, leaning his weight further on his arms which rested on his legs, making the bench groan beneath him.

Nam-gil turned his head to see the old man’s gaze now shifted to the floor, his eyelids closing in silent atonement. His chuckle dissipated, as another beat of silence filled the uncomfortable gaps of their conversation.

A young man sighed, hairline shimmering with sweat from chasing the young girl. “Ya, Boram. How many times have I told you to be gentle with grandpa?” The man’s voice was barely above an aggressive whisper, attempting to maintain the air of silent respect so quickly broken by his daughter. Nam-gil chuckled, picking up his granddaughter in his arms.

“It’s alright, Jae-sung.” Nam-gil smiled, two prominent crow’s feet sprouting from the corners of his eyes. He playfully ruffled his son’s hair at the sight of his slight frown.

“Besides, I think I need some joy on a day like this.” He faced Boram in his arms, pinching the young girl’s cheeks lightly; she squirmed, giggling. Jae-sung shoved his hands in his pockets, observing Nam-gil gently lower Boram to the tiled ground.

“Dad, I just want to say again, I’m very sorry for your loss.” His son began, beginning to bow his head. “I know today must be hard, especially with mum being gone so —” Nam-gil patted his son on the head, chuckling affectionately at his embarrassed grimace.

“Ah, come on Jae-sung, we rarely get to see each other in person, let’s not make this reunion so miserable. How about we just go home instead?” Nam-gil smiled, rosy cheekbones protruding. He turned to his granddaughter, kneeling down against the cement floor, clasping his hands behind his back.

“It’s a family heirloom, from your grandmother. I think she’d want you to have it.”

He turned back to the bench, a small puff of translucent smoke remaining where the old man once sat. As he walked behind the two, for a moment, he swore he could feel the familiar light brush of airy fingertips caress his greying strands. ___________________________________________________

“Look, I…took something from her, your mother.” The old man rifled around in the pockets of his jacket, pulling out a thin black necklace in his shaking palm. Nam-gil cupped his hands together, bowing as he accepted the piece of jewellery: two strands of black thread, interwoven to form a circular band, clearly threaded by inexperienced hands. The diameter was small, the perfect fit for the neck of a child.

“I — It means nothing now, seeing as she’s gone, but I thought it would —” “할아버지!”4 The full weight of a young girl slammed into Namgil’s side, knocking a sharp breath out of him. Nam-gil groaned at the impact.

4

Pronounced ‘hal-abeoji’, meaning grandfather in Korean.

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Leave It With Me | S I E N N A K I M , Y E A R 1 2 2 0 2 3

Epilogue Jeju Island, Korea, 1960 Nam-gil ran along the sandy shores, feeling the rippling edges of incoming waves pool around his toes. Seeing the faint outline of his mother slowly trailing behind him, he returned to her side, chest heaving as he fought to catch his breath. Boram stared at him, a faint smile creeping on her lips as she noticed a brown ring of ice cream staining the corners of his mouth. He suddenly paused in his tracks, making Boram raise an eyebrow at him.

“Mum, look!”

Nam-gil squatted against the moist sand, hands clasping around a seashell as he stood beside her again.

“A kid in my class told me, if you listen carefully, you can hear the whole ocean inside this tiny thing.” He pressed the hollow shell against his ear.

“Here, try it, mum.” Boram slowly extended a hand, her cheeks slightly inflating as her lungs stilled. She held it to the side of her face, ears perking as the faint roll of foaming waves echoed throughout the thin walls of the shell. Closing her eyes, she braced herself for the visions of forbidden childhood memories, laced with vengeful spirits and chilling screams and relentless artillery shells. Her son reached for her elbow, pressing the shell flush against the side of her face.

Her tense eyebrows loosened, her shoulders relaxed. There were no more storms, no distant screams filled with fear and pain.

Peace and serenity now sang to her, like a lost, nostalgic lullaby.

Nam-gil giggled at the sight of his mother’s surprised expression, her mouth open and cheeks flushed with awe.

“It’s cool, right?” Boram’s eyes fluttered open, eyelashes stuck together by droplets of tears, now slowly making their way down her cheeks. Nam-gil’s giggle quickly dissolved, replaced with shaking worry.

“Mum, are you okay? Did I make you sad?” Nam-gil asked softly, taking a wary step closer.

Boram wiped her cheeks with a finger, the cold shell still held against her burning skin. She shook her head softly as a wide smile spread across her face, the sensation unnatural against her hardened skin.

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“No, no, Nam-gil. I’m not sad.” She laughed softly, ruffling his untamed hair. He sent her a sceptical glance before running alongside the rolling waves, his bursts of laughter becoming more and more distant as he chased the setting sun.

Boram watched on, clutching the shell against her chest as the wind tickled the hem of her dress. Life wasn’t the way she had planned, but when was it? They were so hopelessly alone, two stowaways drifting further out at sea in a world looking to submerge them, wave after wave.

But maybe they could be alone together, just for a little while longer.

A Taste of Home CHLOE NGUYEN YE AR 8, 2023

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Spilled Chai S U H A N I PAT E L Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Suhani read and researched Jane Austen’s manifestation, Bollywood’s Bride and Prejudice.

blood, inflict pain, do something to get her out of there. He smiled widely, put his hand into his pocket, and pulled out the ring.

The diamond caught the dying embers of sunlight, glittering temptingly.

In her own creative reimagining and podcast

“Kareena, will you….”

reflection, Suhani encapsulated a realistic

***

classic text, Pride and Prejudice, and a subsequent

portrayal of a 2023 arranged marriage experience for Indian diaspora residing in Western countries, demonstrating the continuity of certain values from Austen’s context, while also highlighting changing values and advocating for female individuality.

Kareena’s stomach churned as she stared out the helicopter’s windows. The rippling waters of Sydney Harbour danced charmingly under the myriad sunset colours streaking the sky, just as the bright powders of Holi had stained her white clothes when she was younger. Even though the temperate spring season was politely fading into the long-awaited delicious warmth of Sydney summertime, Kareena could not appreciate the weather, nor the breathtaking landscape below her. Neither could she appreciate the man sitting across from her, though that very man was now going to propose. He had glanced periodically from the window back to her, for the entire trip, and she tried to maintain an expression that resembled what she felt she was supposed to feel; a combination of amazement, gratitude and innocence to the question that would be asked, but she couldn’t sustain it for much longer.

It wasn’t just the elaborate trip, the champagne that he had promised afterwards to be enjoyed on Observatory Hill, the fact he had delivered her a gift card for a nail appointment two days prior. It was the ring-shaped outline in his left chest pocket, with a significant bulge at the top half, indicating an incredibly large stone that probably cost more than both Kareena’s family’s and her neighbour’s rent combined. Feeling the guilty acidity of her stomach continue to build, Kareena fiddled with the backing of the jhumkas hanging from her ears, drawing in deep breaths yet still feeling constricted by the corset-like blouse of her sari. He turned his gaze from the window back to her, puffing his chest as he too drew in deeply. Oh no. Oh no no no no. How did she get here? Kareena dropped the back of her earring in shock, pressing her fingertip into the pointy end, hoping it would draw

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Kareena drummed her fingers on the benchtop, staring absentmindedly at the glistening silver handle of the chai pot. Her sister Anushka paced the kitchen behind her, cradling her one-yearold baby Avinash in her arms while humming to the music overscoring the movie playing in their living room. There was always a Hindi movie playing at the Kapoor house and today, it was Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, Braveheart Takes the Bride. The movie ran in cinemas for 10 years in Mumbai, so Mrs Kapoor thought it necessary to keep that tradition alive in their household.

She seated herself on the couch opposite the one where her husband sat, typing furiously on indianmatchmaker.com.au. Mr Kapoor was deeply immersed in Life of Pi and paid little attention to anything else. He didn’t believe in controlling matters of the heart and preferred to lose himself in literature than expel his energy (he rarely expelled energy in any circumstances, for that matter) on his lost cause of a wife.

Kareena too was immersed in thought at the anticipation of what new bachelor her mother would propose, but she kept her eyes firmly fixed on the pot of chai. She had always prided herself on her ability to make chai. Once the concoction of tea leaves, ginger, masala and lemongrass suspended in water reached boiling point, she would add the perfect measure of milk, solely on intuition, and watch. Watch as the mixture coalesced and rose, higher and higher, at which point she would turn off the stove before the foam broke and bubbled over the edge. But that wouldn’t happen. She was trained for this.

“Kareena,” her mother called. ‘“Kareena, look at this handsome man I found. He is a doctor too, he has a very wealthy family.”

Anushka sped over, still cradling Avinash.

“Ooh yes, yes you have to Kareena, he is perfect.’ Kareena’s fists clenched. The chai began to give way to its calm layer of warm brown liquid, bubbles forming tentatively around the edges.

She hated Anushka for this. She hated how in everything Anushka did, she left an expectation fresh in her parents’ minds for her. They had always competed academically, tried to be the most attractive, the fastest runner, swimmer, the more graceful

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dancer. After Anushka had gotten into her dream medical degree, Mr and Mrs Kapoor had boasted to their colleagues, relatives, neighbours; plastered her admissions letter on the wall.

his leaving train in the movie’s penultimate scene. As it had for the past 28 years, Braveheart took the bride. She glanced back to Anushka and Avinash.

Kareena had always wanted to pursue medicine so this only compelled her to work harder. She ranked higher and entered the same degree, triumphantly waiting for the celebratory sweetness of her mother’s ‘special occasion’ kulfi, a phone call from her ever-sceptical grandmother, and her father’s rare vocal validation.

But they had seen it before, and she felt their praise had the same hand-me-down quality her textbooks, clothes, and practically everything else she owned or loved reeked of. This overhanging stench had propelled her throughout her career but had also given her a tenacity and wit that gave her a competitive advantage over her sister’s timidity.

“Ok, Mama.”

She looked over her shoulder at Anushka, who was smiling wistfully as Mrs Kapoor ruffled Avinash’s hair and commented on how tall he was growing. Meanwhile, the chai slowly climbed the walls of the pot, as did Kareena’s guilt as she remembered how irritated she felt at Anushka’s wedding three years ago.

She remembered her witty intentions for her speech.

“Anushka married this Indian man she barely knows, gave up her medical degree of eight years, rejected any chance of practising, and is now going to devote her life to making chapattis for him until they grew old. Who could fathom such a life?”

But instead of laughter, she was met with a room of still, concrete faces. Time stopped. Her mother glared furiously at her. She heard the hissing whispers of her mother’s friends, Chandrika and Jyoti, to the left of the stage. A group of uncles directly in front of her contorted their aged faces in incredulity. She had fought back tears of anger, frustration, but above all, monstrous, clouding jealousy. They all praised Anushka for her outdated lifestyle, but where did that leave Kareena?

She watched the boiling pot of chai rise higher and higher, quickly turning off the stove just when she, it, was about to reach breaking point.

“Kareena!” Kareena shook herself back to the present. She turned around.

Kareena and Prakash planned to dine in the city. She had curled, then straightened, then re-curled her hair, applied makeup (which she never did), and wore a form-fitting dress. Even though she believed the date would be inconsequential, she wanted to make an impression. He looked even more dashing in person; he was smart, he was confident and proud. Twirling her pasta with her fork, she dizzily imagined their life together, but suddenly realised what that life necessitated of her, and was no longer hungry, nor intrigued by him. But as she came home to see Anushka and her husband laughing with her mother and father, and as she saw that unmistakable, rare gleam of pride in her parents’ eyes when they looked at Anushka and her perfect life, she agreed to a second date. What she didn’t account for was the fact that this date was a proposal. **** “I can’t,” Kareena cried as she exhaled.

Prakash’s gorgeous smile quickly faded, but he didn’t press. God bless him, Kareena thought. Even though the scenic helicopter ride back down was extremely awkward, compounded by the now sad picnic laid out on the vantage point of Observatory Hill, Prakash was gracious. He wished Kareena well and offered her the picnic as he was called away to an emergency at the hospital.

Kareena kicked off her heels and lay out on the picnic blanket.

She closed her eyes, only to be interrupted by an event notification appearing on her phone: USYD Medicine Invitation - Further Study Seminar. Breathing in the warm air, feeling her feet sink into the grass, gazing out at the twinkling water of the harbour, Kareena closed her eyes and basked in the moment for as long as she could. She re-envisioned that scene of Kajol running after her beloved’s leaving train, grasping Shah Rukh Khan’s hand before releasing it for a new life, void of expectation or pressure or rules.

Kareena smiled. She pressed ‘Accept.’

“Kareena, there is no other option.”

Her mother turned the laptop to face her. She raised her eyebrows. He wasn’t unfortunate-looking. Her gaze drifted to the TV. Shah Rukh Khan grabbed Kajol’s hand as she chased after

LISTEN TO THE PODC AST

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Threads of My Tapestry AMANDA CHEN Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

The intertwining tapestry of personal relationships is irreplaceable. Threads of my Tapestry embraces the inevitable and influential notion of human connections through intimate, candid moments that imprint upon my individuality. Through the continuous layering of vibrant colour, my works focus on the multifaceted, intricate nature of human connections, inspiring audiences to appreciate their own personal connections.

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A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov

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CL AUDIA FERNANDES Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

Contemporary composer Osvaldo Golijov “Modulates cultures like other composers modulate keys,”1 exploring musical styles within the context of his works. Utilising an array of influences from a diverse range of cultural musical styles, Golijov draws on personal cultural heritage and traditional ritualistic artforms to create an innovative musical style. From Middle Eastern Yiddish klezmer to Afro-Cuban drumming and South American traditional music, Golijov captures a multiplicity of individual musical styles within historical and traditional parameters.

Through the recontextualisation of these cultural influences, a unique type of genre-blurring in his works, Golijov embodies a “polyglot compositional style”.2 In La Pasión Segun San Marcos (2000) (The Saint Mark’s Passion), “The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind” (1994) and “Azul” (2006), Golijov demonstrates the diverse range of his cultural influences. However, Osvaldo Golijov blends musical characteristics to transcend cultural boundaries in music, successfully combining individual styles while maintaining unique features of these cultural nuances within his works. This is achieved through the development of instrumentation, rhythm, pitch and expressive techniques influenced by specific traditional cultural musical features. These features are further emphasised through vocal and instrumental tone colour. Golijov’s compositional techniques vary between pieces, as methods for utilising cultural themes or styles vary.

1 Author Unknown. (2006, January 14). From the theatre of the synagogue.

The Economist. p. 83.

2

Polyglot: someone who knows or has the ability to use several languages.

Osvaldo Golijov’s best known work, La Pasión Segun San Marcos, was released and premiered in 2000.

Commissioned to commemorate 250 years since the death of Bach, Golijov retells the story of the birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus, creating, “a dark Jesus, and not a pale European Jesus.”3 Golijov reshapes instrumental roles to develop unique tone colours, through a percussive foundation in the orchestra. This is achieved by embracing the rich diversity of traditional South American and African styles, preserving individual musical identities through hybridised representations in this piece. To accomplish this, Golijov composed in close collaboration with Brazilian vocalists, Afro-Cuban singers, Venezuelan dancers, and percussionists to embed individual cultural presence within this piece.

3

Los Angeles Philharmonic AssociatIon. (n.d.). La Pasión Segun San Marcos.

https://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/2187/la-pasion-segun-san-marcos

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A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov | C L A U D I A F E R N A N D E S , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

Instrumental combination inspired by Argentine folklore

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A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov | C L A U D I A F E R N A N D E S , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

In the opening of “Vision: Bautismo en la Cruz” (Vision: Baptism on the Cross), the orchestration centres around traditional Latin American and African instruments, with European instrumentation of the piano and string section being placed in the background [0:00-0:45]. Through this opening, the Berimbau [0:48-1:08], a traditional Brazilian stringed instrument, part of the Capoeira instruments, establishes an ostinato in rhythmic unison with the guitar and piano. The piano is specified to be muted with the left hand placed on the strings and in imitation of the Berimbau, in a lower register, with a static contour and narrow range. In this ostinato, the rhythm shifts between remaining on the beat in 3/8. Displacing the pulse, by placing a semiquaver on the first beat, shifting the quavers in the bar, creating syncopation and rhythmic dissonance against other layers.

Further, use of the percussion instruments, the maraca and caxixi, of Brazilian origin, and the Bombo [1:13-1:21], influenced

by Argentine folklore, establishes the presence of percussive instrumentation within the orchestra. These layers create further syncopation through the displacement of pulse through the use of accents and variation in note groupings.

Golijov utilises the accordion “shivering” technique, which is also later materialised in the upper string parts through the B minor tremolo technique, to solidify these instruments into an accompanying role. The sound of the “shivering” technique in the accordion creates the Argentine influenced “hyper-accordion”, which is usually played or characterised in this style.

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The “shivering” technique in the strings is accomplished through a combination of fast ascending and descending octave string-crossing and artificial harmonics mimicking the tremolo-like effect in the accordion. This provides more background textural effects, contrasting typical roles of the string section in a traditional orchestra [1:23-1:31].

Golijov produces this percussive sound in order to highlight the layers of individual cultural styles within the music, establishing setting in traditional Brazil through tone colour. In combination with these traditional cultural musical features, Golijov utilises the contemporary minimalistic feature of a “loop style” in ostinato patterns in the opening. This is created through phasing in repeated rhythmic cells across the building repeated layers, gradually building texture in density.

Aier the introduction of the trombones in the first movement, instrumental roles are shifted, and tone colour is used programmatically to portray religious and cultural contexts. With phasing effects in the ostinato layers over the orchestral layers; this allows for instruments in the foreground to represent individuals in the storytelling of Jesus’ birth. Over the percussive foundation, a vibrant trumpet call is utilised to signify the birth and voice of Jesus. This is played over a canonic repeated semiquavers in the trombones on a B (concert pitch), creating rhythmic dissonance through polyrhythms in the first introduction to the “Jesus” call motif ’ [1:33-2:16]. Thus, Golijov crafts textural variation through rhythmic changes, to highlight cultural styles and programmatic elements.

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A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov | C L A U D I A F E R N A N D E S , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

In the third movement “Primer Anuncio” (The First Announcement), Golijov blurs a loose Latin American Carnival-style music with West African chant. When the choir is first introduced in Ab major, the only accompaniment used is percussion to support the vocal parts. This also reflects chant music style, as the lyrics throughout the movement are evolved through canonic imitation or call-and-response of the static tone and perfect intervals, and variation in sequences with only percussive accompaniment [2:19-3:29].

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Throughout the Passion, Golijov uses a foundational percussive layer to create a rhythmic drive through syncopation and repetition. This is used to emphasise the layering of individual cultural styles. This is seen in the opening of the first movement when originally establishing the individual cultural roles within the instrumentation. However, Golijov reworks this rhythmic orientation in this movement, using the three Nigerian drums the Iyá [3:33-3:40], Itótele [3:42-3:52], and Okónkolo [3:564:06], used in batá toques fatal drumming [4:12-4:32]. This is a style of traditional, ritualistic, or festive drumming used in West African countries, layering syncopated rhythms creating an ostinato backbone, typically to singing or dancing. In this section, this is used to create polyrhythms and setting to emphasise the hybridised lyrics, which replicate African chant in the Spanish language. This is seen through the varying rhythms through the types of note lengths used and how each layer is rhythmically different within the ostinato pattern. This continues to move away from Eurocentric orchestral tone colour, and also shifts away from a traditional Brazilian setting to a ritualistic and traditional African setting.

The tenth movement, “El Primer Dia” (The First Day), is sung by a female Brazilian alto vocalist as Judas, in Spanish lyrics (“It’s the real first day, of the matza party and sacrifice of the paschal lamb”). With the opening of this movement only using a cajón, a percussive instrument from Peru, and an udu [4:38-4:53], a traditional Nigerian percussive instrument, Golijov combines transitions through cultural musical styles over another polyrhythmic structure, reinforced by the 6/8 to 3/4 time signature. Utilising the lower register of the alto range, Golijov places emphasis on diction and elements of speak-singing to characterise the chant-like style. Imitation through scalic passages a minor third above in the cello part, also creates the setting from the Bible through a G# Phrygian tonality influenced by a chant-like style [5:00-6:03].

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At the emotional climax of the Passion, in the movement “Agonia” (Agony), Golijov utilises the batá toques drumming further, as well as rhythmic manipulation to drive tension. In this movement, a Spanish setting is established through the entrance of the acoustic guitar in the opening. This is created through use of sustained rubato chords with arpeggio signs and dramatic tempo change. This replicates Spanish style inflections also highlighted through the sustained harmonics allowing the overtones to resonate in the ascending arpeggio on a E minor chord. This also emphasises the dramatic climax of this section with use of acciaccaturas and mordents at the end of phrases. In the opening, the orchestration of the guitar and accordion playing these passages further accentuates the Spanish setting [6:08-6:51].

Further, Golijov displaces pulse and augments rhythm, leading into the transition that reintroduces the batá toques drumming in this movement. This serves to counter the Spanish setting through repetition immediately into a minimalistic African setting, further accentuated by the sudden shift to the bata toques drumming and singing only, causing the texture of the orchestra to be less dense [6:57-7:37].

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Golijov’s “polyglot style” is achieved across much of his repertoire and is evident in his cello concerto, Azul (2006), the Spanish word for “blue”, where he recreates orchestral setting as a tool for manipulating cultural influences. Golijov imagined Azul as evoking experiences of hearing bucolic summertime Tanglewood concerts under the canopy of a blue sky. When revising this composition before its premiere by Yo-Yo Ma at Tanglewood, Golijov “did not want to write a virtuosic cello piece”, rather, he wanted to utilise a traditional orchestra with an unconventional instrumentation to explore the dichotomy of individual soloist and group orchestral playing.4 Utilising the macro structure of a neo-Baroque adagio like a modern concerto grosso, Golijov creates his own continuo in percussion and hyper-accordion synced through digital processing, as a foundation to the transitional medium of the orchestra [7:43-9:01]. A Baroque Adagio is a genre term for an Adagio with subtypes varying in

4

4 Los Angeles Philharmonic AssociaIon. (n.d.). Azul. hKps://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/213/azul

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manipulation of characteristics, style and texture.5 Some characteristics borrowed by Golijov include the slow character with use of a common time signature and predominant bass line or part. Golijov stated that he wanted to recapture the “majesty of certain baroque adagios”.6 A way that Golijov achieves this is his adaptation of pitting instruments together, exploring both combinations of styles and also individual versus groups playing. This is in addition to Golijov’s hyper-accordion and 20th century technique, looping sustained chords in G major, blurring varying stylistic influences.

5

Ledbetter, D. (2001). On the Manner of Playing the Adagio: Neglected Features of a Genre. JSTOR, 29 (1), pp.15-26. hKps://www.jstor.org/stable/3519086

6

Los Angeles Philharmonic AssociaIon. (n.d.). Op. cit.

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Golijov’s manipulation of the 20th century technique, looping, is seen in repeated harmonic lines in the string section. With a more “call-and-response” approach, Golijov identifies the tonal centre of G major and utilises this as a foundation to the introduction of the cello solo. While this is established in the string parts, the hyper-accordion plays sustained notes, highlighting the Argentine folk technique. Further, Golijov highlights the percussion continuo 1 and 2 by the rhythmic dissonance against the orchestra, highlighting a key change to C# minor and stylistic changes, seen throughout the concerto.

In Golijov’s chamber work, The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind, for clarinet and string quartet, composed in 1994, Golijov takes an alternative approach to combining differing cultural styles. This is done by embracing the exploration of Judaism through language, where Golijov takes inspiration from linguistic characteristics in the development of material in this work. Drawing on a background of Eastern European Judaism, Golijov reflects on the experiences of Isaac the Blind, a great kabbalist rabbi who lived eight centuries ago.7 Golijov highlighted blindness as a key motif in this piece, as it creates a level of intuitive communication with the music, performers and audience. This motif also reflects the importance of dreaming and prayer, experiences individuals can have without the use of their vision, reinforcing the intuition required by the performers to reflect a “dream and prayer” theme through the rhythmic complexities in this piece. Golijov stated he wanted to “recognise” the languages of Aramaic [9:04-9:10], Yiddish [9:12-9:17] and Hebrew [9:19-9:25], throughout the movements of this piece.

These linguistic features are explored through influences from lamenting Yiddish klezmer in the Bb, A, and bass clarinet,

7

Erik, K. (2023). The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind. hKps://redwoodsymphony.org/piece/the-dreams-and-prayers-of-isaac-the-blind/

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across extreme range with piercing, heavily ornamented melodic lines, combined with rich, expressive techniques and spirited dance rhythms. Golijov’s use of genre-blurring in this piece allows varying musical styles to express the characteristics of these languages, emphasising the ancient and traditional settings.

Throughout this work, Golijov layers fragmented ideas and intensifies characteristics of the klezmer folk dance style through rhythmic features. This is created through fast alternations between slower and faster passages, creating the klezmer dance impression. For a slower section, usually to portray the language Aramaic, this is created by sustaining the length of note values or creating a more static contour. Contrastingly, fast ascending and descending melodic lines can indicate a faster dance or language theme, usually Yiddish. This captures and distinguishes language themes within each movement. In the opening of the first movement, “Prelude”, Golijov’s use of multi meters (12/8, 6/8, 2/4, 4/4, 3/4, 8/8, 9/8, 5/4, 5/8), fragments quaver and suspended notes between the string parts, creating variation in the klezmer style as this displaces the pulse, emphasising uneven and sustained phrasing of the Aramaic language. These short quaver fragments, layered together, create the “dream and prayer” motif within “the dream setting” represented through dissonances and suspensions [9:29-10:55].

Use of these repeated quavers between parts creates a forward motion and a sense of expectation to the introduction of the clarinet part. When the clarinet is first introduced, Golijov represents the language of Aramaic through the pedal notes suspended across meter changes, maintaining the sustained linguistic theme. Utilising the infiltration of the clarinet sound that is sustained in the opening section, Golijov disrupts the “dream setting” through the D natural (concert pitch) in the lower register of the clarinet against the D sharp and A in the string parts. The dissonance created as a result of the low register, combined with the pianissimo “subtone like air” performance direction, characterises the clarinet to manifest as the Aramaic language among the string parts. This continues to build from introducing the klezmer clarinet line over the homo-rhythmic

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accompaniment, intensifying density through texture to a climax. This is emphasised by the sudden change from sustained note values to short triplet melodic ideas in the clarinet part, implying development into the Yiddish language in coming movements [10:58-11:32].

To develop intensity moving towards the introduction of a “Yiddish” idea, Golijov supports the building in pulse with a sudden key change from G sharp minor to G minor, then B minor, returning to G sharp minor. Further, in this section, with sudden shifts in key, this is aided by the abrupt switch to the higher register of the clarinet. Additionally, Golijov uses the ornamentation of acciaccaturas, trills and mordents characteristic of klezmer music. This ornamentation also serves to emphasise the sudden change from a static contour to the large interval jump over two octaves in the melody. Thus, portraying use of varying musical styles to represent linguistic influences. Further transition in the language characterisation of the clarinet is made within the second movement through contrasting use

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A Compositional Globetrotter: Osvaldo Golijov | C L A U D I A F E R N A N D E S , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

of range in both the clarinet in A, clarinet in Bb and bass clarinet. In the building of the beginning of the first movement, repeated ascending, and descending quaver phrases with extensive accidentals in the clarinet part, pass through varying registers within the A clarinet range [11:35-12:03]. These shortened note values ascending and descending through semitones over the static string section creates a contrast from the opening movement.

The “Yiddish” section is further progressed in the shift from the clarinet in A to the clarinet in Bb. This is seen in the additional ornamentation of trills, acciaccaturas and mordents added by the performer and pitch bends within the static contour of this phrase [12:08-12:57].

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Golijov explores range to maintain the “Yiddish” characterisation by introducing the bass clarinet in the clarinet part.

Opening on a low D (concert pitch), it eventually progresses into the upper register of the bass clarinet. This is emphasised at the end of the movement when the bass clarinet plays freely with a very angular contour, with large intervals across a wide range of the bass clarinet [13:00-14:11]. This section further emphasises the linguistic characteristics of “Yiddish”, through the pitch bends and klezmer wails that are created in this section, mimicking the harsh consonant nature of the language.

Golijov achieves this through the extreme register in both the clarinet and string parts, sustained and without a time signature, distorting the pulse, emphasising the piercing klezmer wails.

Golijov continues to utilise the characteristics of the clarinet and klezmer music throughout the third movement to sustain use of language in his work. Golijov wrote, “While I was composing the second movement, for example, my father...would shout, ‘There you go! Another Yiddish chord!’”8 usually on a Phrygian Dominant chord (C#, F, G#) and cluster notes (A and E) [14:16-14:53]. With the performance direction, “like a dead accordion playing by itself ” and shifts between 3/4 and 2/4, Golijov blurs the genres of klezmer and tango. Use of multi meter and sustained cluster chords in C# minor, serve to mimic the sound of an accordion in this section further distorting the pulse and combining the influences of both tango and klezmer

8

Erik, K. (2023). Op. cit.

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in this section. However, its shift back to klezmer reintroduces Yiddish characteristics through acciaccaturas, pitch bends and fragmentation within the melodic line. These expressive techniques emphasise the klezmer style and Yiddish characterisation of this movement, moving away from the tango influences.

Osvaldo Golijov combines musical styles within a single orchestral framework, while maintaining their individual and unique musical features. While showcasing the ability to seamlessly shift between styles, Golijov also demonstrates the ability to simultaneously unify juxtaposing musical styles. Through the foundation of a percussive backbone, Golijov allows the traditional characteristics of cultural styles to remain, as they transition seamlessly through rhythmic manipulation. Drawing on klezmer and Yiddish music from the religious setting of the synagogue to theatrical South American and ritualistic African styles, Golijov unites historically disconnected musical ideas into a singular composition. Golijov achieves this further through recreating traditional orchestration and developing a contemporary instrumental foundation as well as utilising existing instrumental techniques to develop programmatic characterisations of instruments within his works. Osvaldo Golijov’s use of genre blurring through individual techniques and methods, affirms his identification as a polyglot composer.

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BIBLIOGR APHY

Websites

Journal Articles

Erik, K. (2023). The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind. hops://redwoodsymphony.org/piece/the-dreams-and-prayers-ofisaac-the-blind/

Ledbeoer, D. (2001). On the Manner of Playing the Adagio: Neglected Features of a Genre. JSTOR, 29 (1), pp. 15-26. hops://www.jstor.org/ stable/3519086

Newspapers

Friends of Music. (2022). Osvaldo Golijov - A Composer of Passion and Controversy. hops://www.friendswv.org/osvaldo-golijov-a-composer-of-passionand-controversy/

Author Unknown. (2006, January 14). From the theatre of the synagogue. The Economist. p.83.

Los Angeles Philharmonic Association. (n.d.). Azul. hops://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/213/azul

Crispino, P. (2015). Osvaldo Golijov’s The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind for KlezmerClarinet and String Quartet, Including an Introduction to Klezmer for Performance. FloridaState University Libraries. Pp. 12-47.

Los Angeles Philharmonic Association. (n.d.). La Pasión Segun San Marcos. hops://www.laphil.com/musicdb/pieces/2187/la-pasion-segun-sanmarcos

Fonseca-Wollheim, C. (2020, November 5). Aier a Decade of Silence, a Composer Reappears. The New York Times. Pp. 1-4. hops://www.nyHmes.com/2020/11/05/arts/music/osvaldo-golijovmusic.html#:~:text=Osvaldo%20Golijov%20was%20one%20 of,came%20a%20long%2C%20unexpected%20drought.

Master Class. (2021). Learn About Klezmer Music: History, Style, and Musical Characteristics. hops://www.masterclass.com/arHcles/learn-about-klezmer-music

Mostel, R. (2006, January 20). Celebrating a Composer Who Celebrates Multiple Cultures. The Forward. Pp. 23-24.

Ross, A. (2001, February 25). Resurrection, The Passion According to Osvaldo Golijov. The New Yorker. Pp. 1-4.

Tommasini, A. (2013, March 11). A Rousing ‘Pasión’, This Time Spanning Generations as Well as Cultures. The New York Times.

Pp. 1-2.

Sheet Music Golijov, O. (Composer). (2006). Azul [Sheet Music]. Hendon Music Inc. Sourced from, hops://app.nkoda.com/my-library Golijov, O. (Composer). (2000). La Pasión Segun San Marcos [Sheet Music]. Hendon Music Inc. Sourced from, hops://app.nkoda.com/ my-library Golijov, O. (Composer). (1994) The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind [Sheet Music]. Hendon Music Inc. Sourced from, hops://app.nkoda. com/my-library

Oxford Languages. (2023). English Dictionary. hops://languages.oup. com/google-dicHonary-en/ Ruhe, P. (2009). Osvaldo Golijov’s “Azul” from Yo-Yo Ma and ASO. hops://www.artsatl.org/blue-genius-golijovs-azul-from-yo-yo-ma-andaso/ West Cork Music. (2023). The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind. hops://www.westcorkmusic.ie/works/the-dreams-and-prayers-ofisaac-the-blind-2/ Your Classical. (2021). Golijov’s ‘Azul’. hops://www.yourclassical.org/episode/2021/08/04/golijovs-azul

DISCOGR APHY Golijov, O. (2017). Kronos Quartet. The Dreams and Prayers of Isaac the Blind. Nonesuch Records.

Golijov, O. (2010). Orquesta La Pasión. La Pasión Segun San Marcos.

Caracas, Venezuela: Deutsche Grammophon Golijov, O. (2017). Yo-Yo Ma and The Knights. Azul. Boston, United States:Warner Classics.

Videos Gasperoni, L. (2021, February 8). Bata Drums [Video]. YouTube. hops://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4mjeWIYZo4 LaHn Percussion. (2017, November 23). Bata – Iyá, Itótele, Okónkolo [Video]. YouTube. hops://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j6eY0in--Tk&list=TLGGCNaRenj1P NgyOTA4MjAyMw Sul Da Bahia. (2008, September 24). Capoeira Instruments Berimbau [Video]. YouTube. hops://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jm5sTIHluVU Vildoso, H. (2021, August 18). Bombo Leguero Solo [Video]. YouTube. hops://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUEc2fuakkE X8 Drums. (2012, August 7). Ceramic Udu Drum [Video]. YouTube. hops://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OideE1pTeA

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Navigating the unkown NINA KRECKLENBURG Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

As a child, I migrated from South Africa to Australia, however, I had a naïve perspective of the hardships that can arise from migration. Many migrants move to escape crime, persecution, political violence, war and poverty, in hope of a better future.

But at what cost? My artwork encapsulates the struggles that millions of families around the world face in pursuit of safety, new opportunities and freedom. The interplay between the woven squares and the obscured maps offers insight into the multifaceted experiences of migration. The weaving technique represents the interconnectedness of individuals and their stories, linked by shared challenges and aspirations. By rendering the maps unreadable, I symbolise the often convoluted and disorienting nature of the migration journey, where individuals face barriers and obstacles that hinder their path.

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Head in the Clouds

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L I S A C H E N , O L I V I A K I M , J A S M I N E YA N G YE AR 8, 2023

This poem and associated

Snout pointed to the sky

And yet, just for a passing moment

artwork earned Meriden’s

Head held high; regal

The waves subside

Golden glistening fur shifting

And the clouds part

Ever so slightly

The darkness retreats

In the sun

Their flowers see the light

Eyes closed; oblivious

So they start to reach

To the world that lives below him

Scrambling; climbing; and gaining speed

To the legs firmly planted

Their twisted vines cling to

On the ground eternities below

Strong, planted lengths of gold

Year 8 team first place in the Art and Poetry section at the 2023 NSW State da Vinci Decathlon.

But he only lives among the birds And up there, in the clouds, Where the breeze whistles past

He feels something - so ajar

And his ears are tugged along

To the numbness of aeons spent alone

With the passing clouds

A sensation that demands his attention

As his memory slowly disappears

And slowly

And he loses his mind

He remembers.

So there he stands

He remembers who lives below him

Forgetful of who he is.

So he dips his head Leaving the clouds to their wiles

They crave the sun

And watching as they wind up

Muffled screaming, strangled

His legs, like vines twisting up a tree

By relentless waves pounding Their helpless figures

They feel the warmth on their faces

Into the sand

And remember how to breathe Bodies against bodies

Here in the darkness

Together

They are nothing

They remember.

No air, no sun; just black Darker and darker Until there is nothing at all.

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Head in the Clouds | L I S A C H E N , O L I V I A K I M , J A S M I N E Y A N G , Y E A R 8 , 2 0 2 3

Explanation: The task set for this event was to explain a link between two unlikely objects through art and poetry. The artmaking process involved collaboration under a rigorous time limit; during which we delegated roles to create a 3D, pop up artwork accompanied by the poem. Our team discussed the antithesis between the earth and the sky, light and dark, and animals and plants, and settled on creating an artwork and poem juxtaposing a giraffe with its “Head in the Clouds” so to speak, and plants drowning in an ocean below, yet also, aiming to unify them in some way. The purpose of this piece was to explore mutualism in nature through the narrative of plants needing to climb the giraffe’s neck to reach sunlight, and the giraffe needing the plants to draw him back to the land and remind him of his home. On a metaphorical level, we aimed to deliver a clear message about the dangers of forgetting your roots, and the importance of dependence in relationships for ubiquitous progress. The giraffe portrays self-satisfaction and complacency in contrast with the plants which portray ‘drowning’ in pressure or troubles. Both are extreme examples of the realities of the human condition - and the consequence is losing or forgetting your identity and values at the expense of personal ignorance. By portraying these, we hoped to encompass a spectrum of sensations, emotions and situations that can lead to a loss of self. The theme of the da Vinci Decathlon, Unity, provides a resolution to our own disillusionments - as two unlikely beings come together in a symbiotic relationship of dependence and vulnerability to form a fortified union. The purpose of the shift of protagonist and the enjambment throughout the poem was to convey how trust and mutual service with those around us is utilitarian. Thus, we’ve interpreted this task as an opportunity to explore how in relationship with others, we experience a sense of belonging and unity which is integral to our humanity.

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Skyside

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ISABEL HONG Y E A R 10, 2 023

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String Quartet No.1 ZO E CH A N Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Composer’s Note I started working on this composition project in May 2023, developing four bars during Composition class. Afterwards, I decided to give it a four-bar ending. The urge for me to complete the string quartet became the motivation for me to develop new connecting ideas.

I found immense satisfaction in composing an original piece with three movements. This endeavour was undertaken with the explicit intent to examine the capacities of tone, colour and harmony, as well as to develop musical research, creativity and time management skills in preparation for my HSC core composition in 2024.

The first movement is neoclassical, in a free structure.

The inspiration stemmed from my fellow classmate’s HSC performance piece, Debussy’s String Quartet in G Minor.

The second movement is heartwarming, sentimental and romantic, a waltz in sonata form. Some of the structure and form were drawn from the influence of the renowned Shostakovich Waltz No. 2, which I played during my primary school years in Hong Kong.

The third movement is in the form of theme and variations, where the main melodic motif is developed into analogous, yet distinct, melodic material. I have been inspired by Kreisler’s Variations on a Theme of Corelli, where its variations include trill notes, triple stops and rapid semiquavers. These elements have also found a place within my composition.

This process allowed me to examine the enchanting balanced spectrum of sounds and timbres of a string quartet and its versatility. I have very much admired its ability to convey different musical styles and forms and its capacity to communicate complex emotions. This evoked my appreciation for not only classical music, but also modern compositions, and widened my perspective with new forms of music. I enjoyed the freedom to create music without rubrics and limitations, yet that meant that I had to be continuously vigilant with my progress.

An important realisation for me was that the process of composition is not simple in the way that it gives shape to ideas. It requires constant enhancement and meticulous refinement, and these extra ideas are derived through daily engagement with a diverse range of music genres.

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COMPOSITIONS AND AUDIO TR ACKS I. N ew Classicism (2:42).

The musical score for this section only is included in this publication.

LISTEN

II. Waltz (3:10)

LISTEN

III. Weather Variations (2:24)

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String Quartet No.1 | Z O E C H A N , Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

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Aurelia Aurita 1, 2 and 3

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ANNABELLE FREDERICK Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

My non-representational photographic work is inspired by the continuous development of nature’s ephemeral beauty. Through the process of dripping a mixture of milk and cream into a volume of water, I captured photographs representing the beautifully complex organisms of the sea, with a specific focus on jellyfish. Using a macro lens, LED lights, water and milk, I was able to reveal the ephemeral transience of the natural world, and the complex details unnoticed in creation. The vivid colours in the series — green, pink, and blue — allow details of the photograph to be identified with clarity, in contrast with the background.

The photographs capture an instant in time, an instant in nature, at the moment where the milk interacts with the water before it dissolves out into a cloudy substance. The series relies on the interaction between the substances in their original forms, reflecting this interdependence of organism and nature, whilst reminding us of their individual importance as well.

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Aurelia Aurita 1, 2 and 3 | A N N A B E L L E F R E D E R I C K , Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

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The Cracked Television

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A N J A L I K A I L A S A N AT H A N Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Anjali read and researched Euripides classic text, ‘The Bacchae’, and a subsequent manifestation, Donna Tartt’s ‘The Secret History’, using this as a model for her own creative reimagining and podcast reflection. Anjali has adapted Ovid’s values in the Bacchanalia myth, including social disorder, immorality and perceived realities, to a postmodern Western context.

Her mother said thoughtfully, “That man, William, must be just horrid. I mean, directors choose actors that can really relate to the show and authentically represent it, don’t they? Well, a show like this…it really makes you wonder about the actor himself.”

“I’d still date him,” her sister laughed, receiving sharp disapproval.

When Lyssa had seen William’s first dramatic strangulation of a victim, that righteous anger had been overwhelming and she retrospectively searched his face for that same evil and indifference. But that night had shifted the world beneath her, and that projection seemed to glitch.

Beverly Hills, California

“So did Lyssa,” her father snorted, “Used to follow him around, building him a shrine, like some cult – ”

July 2019

“Shut up,” she snapped at him.

In slow, dream-like movements, the man’s elegant fingers extended, his eyes bored. His moody features were comically twisted, the artifice of his smooth skin and curved cheekbones enhancing each expression. William reached for the woman’s throat, before aligning his features to malice, hands positioned to pull the air from her lips. He gritted, a moment late.

What her friends – she – had done that night had swept up a curtain on a starkly inane show, frightening in its ignorance.

Since that night, weeks ago, she’d lived in a perpetual twilight of sleepless nights and haunted days, revisiting it like a film played on repeat. She vaguely remembered that old need for small details of William’s life, small drops of ecstasy that never quite satisfied her. Its ending had been the only reprieve that night had offered, the illusion of intimacy destroyed. She had seen his innocent fear, rabbit-like as he cowered, pleading, as she turned her back. Too easily caught. The shadow of the little rabbit loomed over the room.

“You asked for this.”

As she fell limp, William stood and examined his fiancé’s body with a curious detachment, teeth glinting in the dim light. He stepped over her body unceremoniously, and the mangled corpse was magnified in a close-up shot.

As William’s eyes met the camera, Lyssa could only recall his bloody terror the previous night, seeing his body sprawled on her living room floor. The walls seemed to recoil away from the scene, distorting the world and sending her head spinning.

“God,” her father said, exasperated. “He looks so calm. What a psychopath.”

Lyssa’s sister shrieked indignantly, her eyes widened, and mouth parted in a movie-like imitation of shock.

“Dad! Honestly, he’s not a bad person, haven’t you been paying attention to the show at all?”

“Reminds me of the President’s speech last night – give these migrants an inch and they’ll take the whole damn country,” her father muttered, hands twitching for his phone, where a news update had sparked another online schism.

Lyssa’s eyes cut to the television as theme music ended and the camera tracked William as he strode away from the murder.

The show, ‘Inside the Mind of William Byrd’ followed the man’s personal life and destruction, diving into the dark recesses of his mind, and lending itself to their fixation on his inner world.

She followed her sister’s enraptured gaze, where suddenly the actor appeared disconcertingly self-conscious, his arms dangling awkwardly and movements performative. It was suddenly horribly over-indulgent; the colours oversaturated, the dialogue poorly scripted, the lachrymose actor positioned next to his fiancé.

William’s villainy appeared comical, and the realisation was dizzying.

“Seriously,” her deadened voice cut through their excitement.

“What are you talking about? This... this isn’t really William, it isn’t real, do you guys even realise that?” Her hand shot out to the television, where William was indulgently laughing, seemingly at her despair.

Their quiet confusion stared out at her. Her mother murmured, “Well, everything’s somewhat autobiographical these days, darling. Truth is so relative.“ Lyssa didn’t realise she was standing until her father’s brow furrowed in concern.

“Are you okay, Lyssa?”

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Her chest felt too tight. William’s face peered out from the television, behind the couch, his arms were wrapping around her, like boa constrictors. Strangely, the staged show background didn’t seem much more artificial than her family’s gathering to watch it. Lyssa felt sick at the thought, turning changed eyes to them.

The group’s voices were eerie and discordant in the night, and she grabbed for a rock in sudden fear. She met their gazes, each a blur of hard and fluid lines, seeming to morph when she looked away.

A young boy stepped forward from the group, gold embroidery draped over his gentle curves and grapevine crowning his perfumed hair.

“Stop it.” Her fingers twitched, rage bubbling through her veins.

Her words came out in a snarl, ripped from her throat. “Get out of here!“

“You’re back.”

Clutching the remote, her hand swung into the television, cracking it back into the wall and fracturing the screen, wrecking William’s face once again as delicate lines exploded outwards. She couldn’t bear the sound, only hearing scripted dialogue where she had once raged over his evil with her family.

Something like insanity crept over the edges of her mind, a reprieve from the duality of the world she had been thrown into.

She remembered that fatal episode, where William’s burst of violence had tipped her over the edge. There had been a fixation on him, she remembered the mindless desperation with which she and her friends had scrounged for information, found his address, found him. They had been following him for months and, in a final burst of vengeance, confronted him with the destructive revelry of Maenads1 and disfigurement of Satyrs2. Her friends had been dizzied with wine, drunk on their frenzied ecstasy and pleasure, while Lyssa lingered behind, essentially a bystander, and watched his mocking grin falling away into a jarringly authentic fear. This world she’d discovered of his anguished screams behind her was slowly overtaking the carefully constructed William on the television, unravelling her mind.

She ran like he had run, her mind balancing on a sharp precipice of awakening.

The world came alive around her, in stark contrast to the artificial colours on television, and she rediscovered the steady hum of traffic with birds wheeling above, and the heady warmth of summer nights. Finally, she reached a park that seemed to have pushed out the surrounding buildings to create room for itself.

Lyssa stood in its centre, remembering the ivy-twined branches tipped with pinecone3 that prodded her like a horse, spurring her forward. Lyssa had felt her mind warping in degrees amidst the ghostly trees, quivering and pale in the moonlight. She remembered a wisp of white ahead, the flickering movements of a rabbit fleeing into the bushes while the revelling group leapt in pursuit, leaving Lyssa behind, blood staining her hands.

“Lyssa.”

1 Female followers of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and ecstasy, and when under his influence, possessed unnatural strength and violence.

2 Creatures, part human and part animal, that were closely associated with the god Dionysus, a counterpart to the Maenads in the Dionysiac cult.

3 An ivy wreath, along with a thyrsus (singular) was a personal attribute of the god Dionysus.

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She shook her head, arms wrapped around her body, as if to keep it in place.

“What’s happening to me?” she whispered. “What did you do?”

His voice had an otherworldly, cold quality.

“Only what you asked of us. But you understand now, don’t you? This was the only way to open your eyes; there is rebirth in destruction, reality in illusion. And that knowledge is irreversible.”

Everything before that night seemed blurry, a half-forgotten dream, like she’d only ever been living in a dulled stupor. But the memory of her parents’ aghast expressions and tears filming over her sister’s eyes was too vivid.

“I don’t want to,” she pleaded, “Just let me... make it stop, please.”

The boy laughed quietly.

“Once change has begun, it demands completion. Can you pull back a wave once the tsunami moves? No.” His voice darkened, “I’m afraid your chance to protect that man has passed, and you simply don’t get to close your eyes again.”

“I’ll tell the police,” she offered weakly.

But Lyssa felt her will being crushed before the group, a rabbit against a pack of hunters. She met the predatory gaze of one of the beings, uncanny and fluid, and was deeply unnerved. Strangely, Lyssa’s father’s words echoed in her mind, and resounded; the boy’s foreign features, warm effeminacy and Eastern heritage set off alarms in her mind. Her foot shifted back. Quickly, she swung the fisted rock at the boy’s head. He stepped back with a supernatural speed, soft hand tightening over a pine-cone staff.

Lyssa flinched at the sight. The lucidity she’d felt, the ethereal collectiveness with those creatures, slipped away as she ran, unhinged, through the park.

Lyssa imagined a tracking shot of a rabbit dwarfed by the woods, twigs cracking in warning behind it. Birds had vanished from the sky; breath stolen from the air. A cut to the hunters, whose footsteps seemed to break the forest ground. The rabbit hid beneath a rock, fur trembling. Silence. Suddenly, an explosion of birds from the trees. The world was restored with a cacophony of blended screams, victorious and anguished.

Inside Out

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ANNA LIU Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

Under our complex layers of tissue — blood, bone and skin — the vital foundations of our existence remain obscured, entangled within our likeness, yet hidden away where light can never reach. My Body of Work aims to initiate a desire for self-discovery, beckoning the audience to interpret, embrace and unveil the intricacies of our inner self. It urges viewers to go beyond the confines of mere appearances, towards acceptance of ourselves and others.

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Beyond the Binary: A Search for Nuance PH O EB E VA N N I EK ER K Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

Years’ worth of culture wars, violence and conspiracy collided on 12 December, 2022, when Nathaniel and Gareth Train, accompanied by Vanessa De Jager, were shot dead on a rural property in Northern Queensland. The Wieambilla ordeal, resulting in the vicious murder of two police officers and a neighbour, unveiled a far-reaching web of conspiracies and anti-government sentiment. A bizarre love triangle, anti-vaxxer revelations and resentment towards the NSW Government were merely the tip of the iceberg that took Twitter by storm.

The Train trio, frequently associated with “US far right garbage” and members of the Sovereign Citizen movement, became the most recent “punching bag” to critique right-wing politics. A stream of fed-up left-wing individuals distanced themselves from their political opponents, consolidating an existing division. I am confronted with a disheartening challenge, as the widening chasm of discourse has eroded the possibility of reaching across the divide. For me, this is analogous to arrows on the magnetic needle of a compass, for which there can be no centre but only extremes of direction.

The rise of extremist discourse It is difficult to pinpoint when discourse became restricted to black and white viewpoints. In his text, A War for the Soul America (2015), Andrew Hartman espouses that Patrick Buchanan’s 1992 “Culture War” speech is representative of the rise of divisive issues in the 1980s and 1990s. Buchanan’s declaration of the eminent culture wars came during the 1992 Republican National Convention in the United States, “There is a religious war going

on in our country for the soul of America. It is a culture war, as critical to the kind of nation we will one day be as was the Cold War itself.”1 Right-wing political sentiment has led to controversial debates, ranging from abortion and homosexuality to US gun control.

This polarisation was anticipated by Yuval Noah Harari, who believed the rise of quarrelsome global politics since the 1980s was due to the failure of liberal democracy. This breakdown led to culture wars, as citizens experienced exploitation by a system larger than themselves. This division predates the current century of Trump-infested waters. So why is there such a disproportionate uptick in extremism now? A recent European Union report2 attributes the rise in single-use extremists, characterised by extreme right-wing ideology, including Covid-19 and “5G conspiracies”. The report notes that recent technological advances have hastened the internationalisation of right-wing extremist discourse as the internet enables a far-easier recruiting method than ever before. Whilst I agree with the report’s findings, I struggle to detach the recent surge in extremist rhetoric from the Covid-19 pandemic. As avid social media users, my generation are often at the mercy of the proliferation of messages at extreme points of the compass.

Recent global events, Trump’s rise, Brexit and the #MeToo movement were preludes to Covid-19, intensifying culture war divides. Pandemic-driven disruptions sometimes swayed ordinary individuals toward extremist fringes. Thus, these dormant, disenfranchised individuals serve as conduits for the resurgence of extreme ideologies spanning the political spectrum, contributing to the binarisation of sociocultural discourse.

Quiet Chaos During months of screen-bound existence in 2021, our zeitgeist found vivid expression. My screen time escalated during the lockdown, but whose didn’t? I often found myself down YouTube rabbit holes and whisked away into fractured worlds of vaccine hesitancy and censorship. In the artificial bubble of my home in the Blue Mountains, geographically bounded by the Nepean river, Covid-19 felt like a distant concept, perhaps even an “untruth”.

1 Voices of Democracy: The U.S. Oratory Project. (n.d.). Patrick Joseph Buchanan, “Culture War Speech: Address to the Republican National Convention” (17 August 1992). https://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/buchanan-culture-war-speechspeech-text/ 2 European Union. (2021). Contemporary manifestations of violent right-wing extremism in the EU: An overview of P/CVE practices. https://homeaffairs. ec.europa.eu/networks/radicalisation-awareness-networkran/publications/ contemporary-manifestations-violent-right-wing-extremism-eu-overviewpcvepractices-2021_en

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Amid Sydney’s turmoil, I revelled in my bushland vista, an altered but familiar scene. Yet, an underlying ennui loomed. The vibrant boutiques lost their lustre and swing sets hung suspended, their movements orchestrated by the gentle wind. Red tape encased the playground, ceding ground to encroaching weeds. I have come to realise that my geographically-removed residence has coloured my understanding of the magnitude of polarising discourse.

Emerging from Covid-19, we were all forced to navigate a changed world.

Now, I’m a bystander of the swiftly evolving political panorama.

In my adolescence, the conflation of polarising political sentiment added to my confusion. I experienced a heightened sense of pressure to align myself with a side, oddly reminiscent of schoolyard picks in primary school. I am unwilling to choose an ever-evolving side that may inadequately represent my beliefs.

To find certainty in this overly fluid milieu, I turn to literature – an enduring source of wisdom. Literature reciprocated, and its responses are not oblique; quite the opposite. The literary response explicitly interrogates the impacts of Covid-19 on sociocultural discourse, serving as a catalyst for the expansion of political schisms during our ongoing culture war crisis.

My quest In a post-Enlightenment age, life’s most curious questions transcend simplistic religious frameworks. Whilst literature historically illuminates contexts, its role evolves, and is now tasked to untangle this mess.

As I continue to navigate a post-covid world, and texts that try to make sense of it, I will attempt to interrogate the ever-changing multiplicity and subsequent widening of binaries. I barely know how I should navigate fringe ideologies, so how do texts do this so seamlessly? How are we, as readers, meant to digest these texts? Cultural wars reshape binaries; they no longer define, but constantly collide.

Armed with a guiding compass, I steer my thoughts like a steadfast star through uncharted seas between these divisions.

This introspective response mirrors my journey grappling with a deluge of messaging and its inclination towards binaries. This inclination is becoming increasingly concerning, as it stifles discussion and constrains nuance. My exploration aims to unveil whether literature’s revered capacity to bring clarity amidst chaos can live up to expectation.

Sci-Fi: A means for social commentary While not naturally inclined to enjoy science fiction’s dystopian realms, my appreciation for the genre was sparked upon reading Ursula Le Guin’s The Left Hand of Darkness. This genre adeptly conveys familiar concepts in unfamiliar settings. Le Guin herself asserts that, “Science fiction is often described, and even defined, as extrapolative.” Hence, the science fiction genre is crucial to transcend binaries, as the worlds depicted within its texts are liberated from the social structures which govern reality. This potential is fully harnessed by Emily St John Mandel and Sequoia Nagamatsu, whose latest works explicitly reference the impacts of Covid-19. These texts owe their existence to the pandemic, being shaped by its recent and unresolved effects.

The antithesis of Swift’s A Modest Proposal Following the first lockdown, I became accustomed to the disconcerting silence of trains. Seats stood expectant, untouched by absent passengers. The rhythmic clatter of wheels on the tracks whispered a repentant lullaby. The shuffling of footsteps was replaced by an unsettling symphony of emptiness, reverberating through dim compartments. A handful of businessmen remained, diehards or in denial. The windows which once framed dense bush and its transition to suburbia now reflected a surreal void capturing shadows of a dormant world, waiting to be awakened from its slumber. We “protected” ourselves as instructed, adopting a delicate disposable mask and the false comfort of a few rows of seats. Plenty of space fosters a plethora of possibilities, as I was able to dive into a fictional world for an hour facilitated by the tranquillity of my surroundings. I unzipped my bag to reveal Nagamatsu’s newly-published science fiction novel, How High We Go in the Dark (2022). As I flipped the pages, whilst slightly adjusting my mask, I was invited into a fictional world which strangely reflected my own.

The second story, “City of Laughter”, explores the enduring reverberations of a fantastical plague which darkly reimagines the innocence of a child’s theme park. The story follows Skip, a disenfranchised former sanitation worker who is at the mercy of a virus unleashed by melting permafrost. His desire to, “fill dive bars with laughter in exchange for drinks” provides an unlikely job opportunity whilst dressed in a mouse costume to amuse terminally ill children in their last days. Skip is thrust into the “euthanasia park” - a place to end children’s pain as their “little hearts quit pumping in the third [inversion]” upon the final ride, the Chariot of Osiris.

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To some extent, Skip is a version of the modern man. His career transformation, from sanitation worker to amusement park worker, due to unfortunate circumstances, isn’t far off our world. The notion of an individual switching life paths and career aspirations to adapt to an uncertain world is reflective of many people’s experiences of Covid-19. It became increasingly normal for jobs and roles to be repurposed, such as Qantas staff transitioning to stacking shelves in Woolworths3, all in an endeavour to make ends meet. In my view, the narrative underscores the depths to which humanity is willing to go to survive.

Darkly poignant, “City of Laughter” echoes the chaos felt by those who lived through the Covid-19 pandemic, a phenomenon which established a “new normal” in so many aspects of life.

The tale, riddled with black humour, is a satire suitable for our post-pandemic milieu. The cinematic-like montage of Skip’s interactions with several terminally-ill children on their final day of life is disconcerting, as it evokes a poignant sense of pathos as readers gain emotional investment in the characters, only to have them abruptly removed from the narrative. Skip maintains the “illusion of cheer and merriment” for his first boy Dan, followed by a girl, Dorrie, whose comfort with Skip is evident as her legs would “tuck tight against” his. In some ways this reduces the children to numbers in a mechanical system, echoing our darkest days amid the Covid-19 virus. The deadliest day, on 28 January 2022, recorded 98 deaths, exemplifying how rapidly we were becoming accustomed to death. Illness and subsequent death were normalised and accepted into our discourse as the result of a “once in-a-century pathogen”. The acceptance of death permits the measurement of human life. How many deaths in Sydney would garner a lockdown response? Could tipping over 100 deaths in a day be the wake-up call for health regulation? Most likely, yes. Covid-19, in more ways than one, reduced individuals to statistics, cogs in a wheel. In this way, Nagamatsu captures the mood of a world destined to human death.

Nagamatsu’s “City of Laughter” reimagines the Covid-19 context in its extreme, with its outrageous desensitisation to child mortality, yet the “logic” of the children’s deaths fosters a moral ambivalence for contemporary audiences. This is reinforced by the use of shock tactics that immediately confront the reader.

Upon my first read, grappling with the blatant acknowledgement of child mortality was challenging. However, upon reflection, I came to appreciate the function of the text, and its service as a distorted mirror of our drastic shift in zeitgeist with its unsettling concept prompting us for introspection. It’s through its operation in this liminal space of mortality that allows Nagamatsu to navigate our strange environment which somehow

3 Marin-Guzman, D., Baird, L. (2020). Woolworths offers jobs to laid-off Qantas workers. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/workplace/woolworths-offersjobs-to-laid-off-qantasworkers-20200319-p54br5

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strikes a balance between outrageous and rational. My compass spun erratically, yanking me in different directions with an unpredictable lurch.

The theme park is depicted as a dark imitation of reality with “colour murals of children’s bumper cars” and a “rainbow painted on the linoleum”, creating a cynical Baudrillardian simulacra of Disneyland. The amusement park provides a pleasant experience juxtaposed by the omnipresent authoritative control of the state. The traces of the dingy prison space, belying its previous function, are merely in the periphery with the unsettling “Dead Man’s Cave” cafeteria accompanied by dilapidated “cracked pavement[s] [and] papier-mâché dragons”.

The dichotomy between the blissful laughter and the “silhouettes of rifles” on guard towers create an oppressive space under the guise of moral superiority. This is what strengthens political binaries; each party’s skill at undermining opposition. Right now, we can see this in the discourse surrounding The Voice Referendum, which has been distorted into mere “yes/no” politics along party lines. Contrastingly, I appreciate Nagamatsu’s depiction of an extreme fictional pandemic, compelling readers beyond artificial binaries. His work assists my quest to transcend these divisions and grapple with the complexities surrounding pandemics and child mortality.

In many ways, the theme park echoes Jonathan Swift’s hyperbolic satire A Modest Proposal (1729) because it is darkly outrageous.

To comment on the ongoing economic exploitation of Ireland at the hands of England, Swift’s satire proposed that Ireland could eliminate poverty by selling children as food to wealthy English landlords. The “City of Laughter” builds on the absurdity of Swift’s text as the rationality of the “humane” death of terminally ill children intersects with Swift’s outrageous proposal to eat poor children before they can become a burden on society. Nagamatsu imitates our extremist discourse where human life is broken down into its components; numbers of bodies, and a set number of days to live – a Covid-19 reality. In turn, “City of Laughter” exposes the binary of human life and death, which should prompt nuanced discussion but is instead seen in simple terms. The story’s use of ontological arguments to determine the value of human life parallels that manner in which culture wars decimate reasoned philosophical debate, weaponising single-sided arguments that reduce complex issues to simple binaries.

In between stories, I scrolled through social media and an article from the New Zealand Herald caught my eye. It consolidated my fears that Covid-19 has taken a toll on even the most inauspicious people. In 2020, New Zealander Michael Cruickshank was sentenced to a year in prison for death threats against thenPrime Minister Jacinda Ardern4. Cruickshank’s outrage over

4 Kapitan, C. (2022, 2 November). Conviction quashed for Michael Cruikshank, who sent threatening emails to Jacinda Arden. NZ Herald. https://www. nzherald.co.nz/nz/crime/conviction-quashed-for-michael-cruikshank-whosentthreatening-emails-to-jacinda-ardern/PXJ7HBNVSVBWPPPXV5ROQQRPEE/

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Ardern’s lockdown policies at the height of the pandemic saw his threatening emails connect with “criminals, slave traders and state-sanctioned terrorists5”. In that moment, I saw the farreaching impacts of a global pandemic, polarising previously dormant fringe individuals now enthralled by the tempestuous whirlwind of culture wars. The “rising star of the American right6”, Ron DeSantis, encapsulates extremist discourse as he weaponises conservative politics to recruit fringe individuals to a larger cause. DeSantis’ conservative movement and mantra of “war on woke”, characterised by censorship and legislation, has made Florida the epicentre of the United States’ culture war divide. His devotion to his political framework has made him a captivating figure, as he used the springboard of Covid-19 to tap into a growing community of disillusioned citizens. As individuals become enthralled by his movement, there is a reduction in reasoned debate, leading to a firm consolidation of America’s culture war divide. Thus, perhaps everybody is vulnerable to being swept away in a cause.

On the other side of the political divide, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., from the liberal Kennedy family, has become a prominent figure in culture wars, outrageously comparing covid vaccine mandates to laws that restricted the freedom and safety of people in Nazi Germany.

Amid this turmoil, the texts maintain pluralism and align with the “sensible centre”.

For a fleeting moment, my compass arrow hesitated, only to regain its resolute course. Fuelled by a magnetic pull, I pressed on in my quest, a tangible advancement made evident.

You cannot kill what is not dead In many ways, Derrida’s theory of deconstruction of “sign” and “signified” is more relevant today than ever before. The perversion of the “sign” of political boundaries and their associated “signified” have become accentuated during Covid-19, resulting in the widening of binaries. Dr Scott Masson, an English Literature professor at Tyndale University, likened Derrida’s deconstruction to a virus in his lecture, “Deconstruction – Jacques Derrida7”, where the absence of a fixed agenda leads to dismantling the host unit. This notion has seemingly disrupted language’s inherent clarity, allowing room for interpretation between “sign” and “signified”. This liminal space, which thrives on “non-being”, remains open for exploration. In this way, extremist discourse exploits such gaps, distorting messages, and undermining nuance. Derrida’s deconstruction has gained new relevance, providing a critical framework to examine how culture wars exacerbate socio-cultural divides through widened binaries.

Through his science-fiction concept, with the creation of a virtual café in urban Tokyo, Nagamatsu affords audiences the psychic distance to interrogate their post-covid milieu with a nuanced perspective. Nagamatsu’s story, “Melancholy Nights in a Tokyo Virtual Café”, follows Akira, a homeless man, who is part of a larger group of underemployed individuals following disrupted education during “the plague years”. The tale acts as a distorted mirror to reveal the consequences of Covid-19, as the world attempts to rekindle what has been lost and the future of disenfranchised groups. The bleak future of our reality is described in the opening, with “vendors clos[ing] their shops, lock[ing] their stalls, load[ing] their merchandise into the backs of vans”. The familiar imagery of retail after hours captures a recognisable modern scene with a looming sense of ennui attached to a desolate environment following lockdowns.

The aftermath of the plague is dreary as “many more people… turned to VR to connect and to escape – new friends and lovers replace the dead”. Takahashi, the owner of the virtual café, Takahashi’s Many Worlds, provides refuge to the disillusioned, allowing individuals to “belong among others who feel like they… don’t quite fit anywhere”. The impacts of the virtual café, providing a sense of belonging during uncertainty, is reminiscent of previously submerged fringe groups being reignited by the catalyst of Covid-19, fuelling pre-existing American culture wars.

The relatability of the loneliness and longing for connection is more powerful than ever in a post-covid world. During lockdown in 2021, isolation wrapped around me like a shroud, the world beyond fading into a distant hum. To some extent, I appreciate the allure of joining a greater cause and the sense of belonging it provides. I think we can all relate to the high school desire to climb the social ladder. Despite its superficiality, the group mentality holds moments of admirable unity. The opportunity to enter the fantastical affirms our desire for “a little time to feel normal” and reflects the rhetoric of right-wing extremist groups which affirm marginal views to the mainstream. The online space depicted in Nagamatsu’s tale is indicative of the rise of online spaces, such as MyPlace and Christian Lives Matter, used as a platform to avow distorted sentiment. The sense of belonging fostered in Nagamatsu’s rendition of online chat rooms mirrors the loss of individualism due to the rise of the collective, a catalyst for the widening of binaries. When this group mentality becomes extreme and suppresses individuality, binaries are widened.

My compass realigned once more, reminding me of unsettling images of neo-Nazis at the anti-trans rally in Melbourne in March 2023. The event captured the upsurge of extremist discourse which has risen to the surface in a post-covid world. The binary between the two opposing groups has been strengthened, as we are no longer able to consider each other’s point of view. The expanse between East and West intensified, as North and South faded; progress came to a halt, obstructing my pursuit.

5 Ibid 6 Macmillan, J. (Presenter). (2023, April 20). Florida: The War on Woke [Television broadcast]. Canberra, Australia: ABC TV. 7 Dr Scott Masson. (2020, March 12). Deconstruction - Jacques Derrida. [Video].

YouTube. Deconstruction - Jacques Derrida

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Nagamatsu’s “Melancholy Nights in a Tokyo Virtual Café”, encourages an optimistic recovery of society in a post-covid world, embracing the possibility of enlightenment and nuanced understanding following major global disruptions. Within an objectively dark book, the optimism of learning and improving from collective mistakes is indisputable. Akira’s contemplation of hara-kiri, the honourable death of Japanese samurais, recontextualises suicide for a Western audience. In his own way, Akira’s consideration of hara-kiri is an oblique fulfillment of purpose in life. The final blow of Akira’s wavering purpose is confirmed with the suicide of potential lover Yoshiko. Both confrontations with death conclude the tale with an idyllic future of a post-plague society with Akira’s newfound enlightenment yielding kindness as he aids a homeless man with “his bags… his jacket, the gifts he brought for Yoshiko… whatever he [could] fit in a tote bag”. The full circle moment sees Akira give back to the community to which he once belonged and feels akin to. In doing so, Nagamatsu posits the potential for increased empathy through collective lived experience. His unfulfilled optimism, as we enter a post-covid world in 2023, leaves us with more questions than answers. Where did we go wrong? When did our collective experiences turn to division? Without a doubt, the evolving comprehension of our world post-covid, coupled with the unquestionable media influence amplifying divisions, remains fluid and complicates our path to recovery.

My thoughts coalesced, perhaps we all contribute to the conflation of binaries? Without a moment’s notice, those thoughts ceased abruptly and I was woken by the hissing of the train’s wheels as they hit the small imperfections in the steel rail. My trance disrupted, it was time for a new text, something fresh and provocative. I paused to think, but only for a second, as I unpacked my makeshift portable library to reveal Emily St John Mandel’s speculative fiction Sea of Tranquility (2022). It was only shortly after Barack Obama published the titles of his favourite books of 2022 that I discovered Mandel’s text but, with his recommendation, I knew I was in for something distinguished.

Obama’s capacity to bridge America’s ideological chasms showcases his commitment to a shared humanity, his attempt to unite right and left. I tucked Nagamatsu’s compendium of vignettes into my bag and traded it for Mandel’s science-fiction text. In an instant, I was transported away from the empty Blue Mountains train and welcomed into a paradoxical world, built with familiar elements of my life, yet engulfed by the sciencefiction of time travel.

Past, present, future: A means of capturing discourse Unlike Nagamatsu’s text, which captures a singular post-plague moment, Mandel’s speculative fiction, Sea of Tranquility (2022), traverses a continuum of time, encompassing four distinct periods.

Through this approach, Mandel traces the historical emergence of extremist discourse and speculates about its future trajectory.

The timelines are connected through a void in time, symbolised through the orchestral violin. In 2401, Gaspery Roberts, a newly

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appointed member of the Time Institute, investigates the anomaly in the previous three time periods resulting in the collision and subsequent breakdown of the epistemological bounds of time.

Gaspery serves as a unifying presence across space and time, delving into the evolving discourse surrounding it.

The structural device of the temporal void, symbolised through the orchestral violin, acts as a medium for tracing a continuum of discourse throughout time and connecting disparate narratives.

The initial 1912 timeline introduces the motif through the sensory and celestial imagery of the “flash of darkness, like sudden blindness or an eclipse” which elicits a “vast interior” response from Edwin. The continuation of the motif in the 2020 timeline, with the sublime “dreamlike swelling of strings” with “the orchestral strings labouring to produce the idea of hidden beauty”, offers a newfound appreciation of the role of art to unite disparate groups. In this way, Mandel refreshed my pursuit of knowledge by presenting literature as a conduit to bridge the gap created by culture wars.

The opening timeline of “Remittance” in 1912 is framed by Edwin’s defiance of the singular truth of his British family; the Christian patriotism which rationalises the colonisation of India. A family dinner with the invited Barrett family, who had spent considerable time in India, sparks a discussion regarding colonial oppression. Edwin’s discomfort surrounding his father’s admission that “the heat was rather oppressive”, denying the Indian experience, results in Edwin’s dissent that “evidence suggests [Indians] feel rather more oppressed by the British than by the heat”. Edwin’s defiance counters his father’s xenophobia by noting the traditional landowners’ longstanding history, “[Indian people] managed quite well without us for some time, didn’t they? Several thousand years?” Edwin’s “outburst” fast-tracks his exile to Canada. Upon my first reading of Edwin’s family dinner, I felt unsettled but was later reassured that this was a world much different to ours. I thought this to be true, that the persecution of marginalised groups, under the guise of religion, was merely a thing of the past. The Cruickshank incident was just the beginning as I stumbled upon an abundance of articles detailing the “unauthorised protest activity” of the provocative Christian Lives Matter group and I was disproven. In March 2023, as the Sydney World Pride events ended, a demonstration led by the Christian Lives Matter group (closely associated with right-wing sentiment) emerged in Newtown, a historically significant hub for Australia’s gay rights movement, aiming to protest the LGBTQIA+ community. Armed with rosary beads above their heads8, the group reignited the notion of far-right groups using religious sentiment to disguise a more sinister intent.

Equipped with the knowledge of current rises in fringe attitudes, Mandel’s first timeline can be viewed as an allegory to counteract

8 Kelly, C. (2023, March 3). Christian prayer march along Newtown street was ‘unauthorised protest activity’, policy say. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/australianews/2023/mar/04/christian-prayermarch-along-newtown-street-was-unauthorised-protestactivity-police-say

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singular Christian metanarratives which undermine fruitful and constructive discussion. Hence, Mandel reinforces the notion that singular Christian metanarratives drive extreme right-wing sentiments.

Mandel’s encouragement of the coexistence of multiple narratives, underpinned by her first timeline, is reinforced by later timelines which rekindle the role of literature and art in a post-covid world.

Through its self-reflexive qualities, Mandel’s novel retrospectively analyses a post-pandemic world which prioritises science to ensure humanity’s survival, thus undermining the role of literature.

Olive’s book tour 2203 timeline reconstructs the value of literature as a unifying solution to structural anomalies. Likewise, in a postcovid world, literature may be seen as a unifying force against the uprising of fringe groups which binarise discussions; providing a liminal space for discourse to evolve. The autofictive chapter laments the self-imposed burden upon artists, as Olive struggles to accept the importance of her literature in a post-apocalyptic world, undermining her work through the performative simile of “inadequate… which made Olive feel somehow fraudulent, like an actor playing the role of Olive Llewellyn”. Olive Llewellyn’s feelings of self-doubt and the floundering role of art were merely the beginning of Mandel’s warning for individuals not to be subsumed by the collective. The sequencing of the release of Olive’s post-apocalyptic novel, Mariembad, and the subsequent announcement of a “fairly well-contained” virus in Australia, reconstructs the relationship between literature and reality.

Mandel offers a bidirectional symbiotic relationship between the two, extending upon the rhetoric of anti-mimesis presented in Oscar Wilde’s essay “The Decay of Living” (1889). Through this, Mandel reorientates art and literature as a unifying force against plague, fragmentation and division; offering a source of solace and an inward mirror to return to normality during uncertainty.

As my compass urged me Northward, the importance of this revelation was underscored. Mandel offered literature as a point of solace amidst the cacophony of cultural wars and my neverending quest. This sanctuary of literature carries the potential to steer us towards nuance and transcend the confines of extreme ideologies.

The final chapter, “Anomaly”, collapses the epistemological bounds of time, uniting multiple versions of Gaspery to break down singular narratives. The convergence of a younger Gaspery, working for the Time Institute, and an older Gaspery, provides a simultaneous multiplicity and disconnection of identity, as a retrospective older Gaspery questions his position. He is “…so embarrassed for him—for me? For us?”. Gaspery’s disassociation from his younger counterpart where he “was grateful that [his] dog had slept through [his] younger self ’s incompetence” portrays an ambiguity within the union, placing responsibility on audiences to interpret the complexity of their world. Gaspery’s separation from his younger counterpart emphasises the importance of growth; acknowledging that individuals evolve and inevitably diverge from their youthful selves. In a way, I appreciate this reality, as I wouldn’t relish being trapped in my awkward “tween” phase. The process of maturing, inextricable

from the development of attitudes, challenges the binaries that rigidly define extreme ideologies. Mandel positions Gaspery within this ambiguous, liminal space to emphasise the importance of ideological growth – a crucial component in my pursuit of nuance. In saying this, maybe the world has just grown and, with that, we latch onto the only constant we have left, our sociocultural binaries. Though Mandel’s text leads me to wonder whether this worldly advancement has been beneficial, as she lampshades the importance of empathy over modernity’s craving for material gain.

Sea of Tranquility is more than a science-fiction time-travel text.

To push this text into this literary compartment would not do the novel justice. Mandel’s progressive ideology aims to invert established orders in our world, whether this be the linear nature of time or material desire. Throughout, one message stands taller than the rest; the ability of art and literature to rekindle our humanity. Mandel presents art and literature as a source of continuity whilst dismantling singular narratives and promoting multiplicity.

Eureka! Or not?

Amid the rhythmic cadence of the train’s journey, the announcement of my stop beckoned me closer to the edge of arrival. I closed Mandel’s novel, slipping it into my school bag where it nestled harmoniously alongside Nagamatsu’s How High We Go in the Dark. Stepping onto the platform at Central station, an unusual hush enveloped the surroundings, as time seemed to pause in the wake of the train guard’s echoes of, “Doors closing, please stand clear”. The once-animated crowd dissolved into a congregation of masked phantoms. The air bore the weight of newfound knowledge and the fragility of comprehension. The station’s familiar vistas had been reframed by the prism of an altered perspective, where echoes of debates, once resounding, now whispered as reverberations from an era untouched by the relentless march of isolation.

This physical journey has concluded, yet the pursuit of enlightenment will continue. Through reading these texts and writing this critical response, my compass relentlessly pulled me in varied directions, a constant struggle against conflicting binaries. Amidst the lingering uncertainty, one fact remained resolute; the significance of literature in understanding my own milieu. These science-fiction texts have effectively transcended the binary by conjuring a world that reimagines its very absence. The lack of a singular “eureka” moment hasn’t cast a shadow over my voyage; rather, the tranquil embrace of literature has emerged as a conduit to decipher our perpetual discourse.

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BIBLIOGR APHY Collee, L. (2023, 1 May). The Last of Us and the Radical Possibilities of Eco-Horror. https://www.killyourdarlings.com.au/article/the-last-of-usand-the-radical-possibilities-ofeco-horror/ Dr Scott Masson. (2020, March 12). Deconstruction - Jacques Derrida.

[Video]. YouTube. Deconstruction - Jacques Derrida European Union. (2021). Contemporary manifestations of violent right-wing extremism in the EU: An overview of P/CVE practices. https://homeaffairs.ec.europa.eu/networks/radicalisation-awarenessnetworkran/publications/contemporary-manifestations-violent-rightwing-extremism-eu-overviewpcve-practices-2021_en Foster, F. (2021, 15 April). How News Corp Polarised Australian News Media. https://www.killyourdarlings.com.au/article/how-news-corppolarised-australian-media/ Hartman, A. (2015). A War for the Soul of America. University of Chicago Press.

Hustvedt, S. (2005). A Plea for Eros: Essays. Picador.

Kapitan, C. (2022, 2 November). Conviction quashed for Michael Cruikshank, who sent threatening emails to Jacinda Arden. NZ Herald. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/crime/conviction-quashed-formichael-cruikshank-who-sentthreatening-emails-to-jacinda-ardern/ PXJ7HBNVSVBWPPPXV5ROQQRPEE/ Kelly, C. (2023, March 3). Christian prayer march along Newtown street was ‘unauthorised protest activity’, policy say. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/australianews/2023/mar/04/ christian-prayer-march-along-newtown-street-was-unauthorisedprotestactivity-police-say Macmillan, J. (Presenter). (2023, April 20). Florida: The War on Woke [Television broadcast]. Canberra, Australia: ABC TV. Marin-Guzman, D., Baird, L. (2020). Woolworths offers jobs to laid-off Qantas workers. https://www.afr.com/work-and-careers/workplace/ woolworths-offers-jobs-to-laid-off-qantasworkers-20200319-p54br5 McHale, B. (1987). Postmodernist Fiction. Methuen, Inc. Tolentino, J. (2019). Trick Mirror: Reflections on Self-Delusion. Harper Collins Publishers Mandel, E. (2022). Sea of Tranquility. Penguin Random House LLC. Nagamatsu, S. (2022). How High We Go in the Dark. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Voices of Democracy: The U.S. Oratory Project. (n.d.). Patrick Joseph Buchanan, “Culture War Speech: Address to the Republican National Convention” (17 August 1992). https://voicesofdemocracy.umd.edu/buchanan-culturewar-speech-speech-text/ Woolf, V. (1929). A Room of One’s Own. Hogarth Press.

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June 12, 2173: SYD 33°45’56.16’’S 151°4’2.064’’E

1. 起 Qǐ Daily cultivation and recitations are very important.

Accumulated energies are very large.

If we are not diligent; a day’s shortfall in our faith will only produce improper thoughts from previous life’s karma. − 大藏经 Dàzàngjīng

For the first time in three days I was unable to outrun sleep. It was fitful and dreamless, but at least it was rest. When I woke up uncharacteristically late, my MechFriend, Happy, whom I named at ten years old, was already booted up and sitting at the edge of my bed.

I rubbed my fingers gently against the small dents and scratches on the dome of his cover; as if I could undo them, as if my fingers could rewind time. Automatically, my fingertips scrolled through his menu options until I found a folder labelled “MEMORIES”. I clicked on the first video in the folder, projecting it over the navy pixels on his screen.

“It’s the newest model!” a younger me squealed.

I was back in the kitchen, missing a few front teeth, freshly ten years old.

If I could smell the memory, it would smell of the spicy warmth of burning incense. The sticks Baba burnt always had the scent of sandalwood. It still clung to our kitchen even in his absence, just like it clung to the kitchen fifteen years ago, immortalised in my memory.

Mama has a smile on her face. Baba is also there, in a party hat, no less. MechFriend 9, newly unwrapped, sits gleaming on the countertop.

I run my fingers along the rounded dome of the robot, leaving grubby fingerprints in my wake.

Baba shows me how to set it up, pushing various glowing buttons until the options screen pops up. “Completely customisable!” Baba says, quoting the advertisements. “Eons more advanced than previous models!” He grins.

I remember again how badly I had wanted a MechFriend of my own, pausing to stare at them through the windows of shops, pressing up against the glass and leaving sweat marks behind.

How I told my parents, “Everyone at school has a MechFriend,” promising to do well in spelling bees and talent shows if it meant I could get one of my own. My Mama was against it, rightly arguing, “Tech advances far too fast these days; in a matter of years this current one will be outdated. Not to mention how costly the rapid upgrades would be!” But Baba caved and got me one for my tenth birthday.

The freshly unwrapped MechFriend opens its eyes to the world, scanning the room. I name the bot “Happy”, because I am so joyful in that moment, and he seems to chirp back in agreement. “He’ll learn more as he grows with us,” Baba says. “That’s the joy in it. As we speak about our values and traditions, he will pick up what we say and process it and, eventually, he will even learn to communicate back, give tailored advice.

Think about it as an extension of one of us, as an extension of me.”

In the video, Baba turned to me - the version of me that existed fifteen-odd years ago, immortalised in copper and pixels - and his voice, though slightly muffled and grainy from the outdated speaker, was clearer than ever, echoing around the four walls of my room.

“Annabeth, there’s something truly incredible about this technology.

I believe it can be used to make good in the world.” He looks away, fumbling clumsily with the buttons on the screen. “Here it is! Something I made for you! I knew those years working in IT making store fronts and coding backlogs would have some practical use.” He gingerly clicks on an oak-brown icon, as if pressing too hard would dent the lines of code he wrote. A similarly brown screen opened, punctuated with a title, “BuddhismBuddy”, in a simple font. “Just something I thought would help you better keep up with our family’s beliefs. Even in China today, there is hardly any room to maintain traditions. Everyone’s focused on their personal futile efforts to understand through worldly eyes. The temples have equally as many tourists as pilgrims seeking enlightenment.”

Baba’s eyes are gleaming with pride, and another unreadable, semi-sweet emotion. “I’m so hopeful for your future, Annabeth. The world will only grow around you if you first carve out a junction in it. Buddhism will ground you, and gift you the opportunity to look at your life with otherworldly eyes. There is a beautiful place, somewhere above all this, with a happy ending, carved in gold for us.” He pokes me in the chest, and I giggle, wriggling away gleefully. “This silly body here is only transient.”

He is tickling me now. “In your next life, you might be a princess, and I’ll be a scary ogre to live under the bridge of your castle!”

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I stopped the video there, hot tears pooling in my eyes. The noise from the speaker fizzled out, and the video minimised, kicking me out to the main display.

Happy was an older model and, admittedly, he had long fallen behind the demands of contemporary technology. While billboard screens could easily count into the tens of billions of pixels, Happy’s screen sat at a measly 256k resolution. I would treasure him regardless. Mama was right about the rate of technological advancement; it took less than a year for MechFriend X to hit the shelves, boasting a bigger size, then MechFriend X Max — even bigger. By the time MechFriend 12 Pro was gracing the advertisements, Happy was long outdated, settling into an ironic redundancy, outdone by newer models.

However, I couldn’t bear to replace him, even when Baba was still okay. He had offered once, when I turned thirteen, then again on my eighteenth birthday, and one final time four years ago, when I stopped listening to those Buddhist teachings ingrained into Happy (and he sat untouched in the back of my wardrobe, befriending dust). Even then, reaching in for a pair of jeans and catching the light reflecting off Happy’s black dome, I didn’t even consider throwing him out. There was something grounding about his presence, and part of me yearned for the tranquillity I felt on those rainy days spent in my room, listening to Happy’s gentle humming as he lectured on whatever Buddhist philosophy I had chosen. Outside, the world was shaken madly, like a snowglobe in the hands of a restless child, but within that space, I was present only in the moment.

Three days ago, Baba had a stroke, and, as the faceless doctor who broke the news had said, “expired”. My little world, contained within the orb of that snowglobe, burst open. The best parts of it were nightmarish, and I was suddenly small again, jolting up through the broken glass, wailing and reeling from such a bad dream.

The crying that followed was simultaneously the high, shrill descants of something ultrasonic, and the groaning tenor of unforgiving waves far out at sea. An incessant noise. A horrible level of noise, one completely inappropriate and foreign for a twostorey suburban home.

Happy’s mechanical voice cut through the layers of sound, startling me, “You’ve got quite the road ahead of you.”

I paused to think about this. My destination was clear: Eastshore Hospital, where I trained for years, chasing my dreams of becoming a surgeon. Three years prior to my graduation, Assisted Living Programs entered the medical world and they cut medical surgeon quotas by half, then by another half, until I was relegated to the role of hospital doctor. All I really wanted to do was make my parents proud, but now, rather bitterly, I was stuck doing menial rounds and night shifts. Much like how Happy

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was outclassed by those newer models of MechFriends, I too had deferred to a machine. Luckily, I departed with skills well-adapted for working with technology in the medical world and, luckily, these skills were also geared towards what I intended to do. No time like now to live in the present.

“I can easily walk, or hitchhike. Or I can Monobus, see if it really is as fast as they say.”

Happy only smiled at me.

“I still have my transport pass. It has money on it, more than enough,” I added.

“That is all impermanent,” Happy started. “Money is unlike the river of life which flows through each soul. It has a start and it has an end. It is not fluid, protean, kaleidoscopic.”

He was correct, as usual, but I didn’t mention this. I had more pressing matters on my mind, none of which concerned money in the slightest.

“Money is not a problem, not when a life is at stake! I’ll do anything — I mean it — anything, to get dad back. I know it’s possible.”

I thought about the billboards and giant screens out on every corner block in the city, each yelling at me, grabbing my attention, and waving in my face the benefits of an artificially-prolonged life. The ad they played on repeat on the Central station AdBoard started and ended with a pentatonic earworm of a jingle, “A-L-P: eternity is yet to be!”

Until three years ago, it was impossible for a human person to live past one hundred and ten years of age, unassisted. It was desperation, I thought, pitiful, innate, human, desperation, that drove the sale of high-risk, high-reward advancements in a field that was previously only speculated about: Assisted Living Programs. It was less of a program, more of a pay-signstab-release situation. I thought about the three-month training module we had to undertake, shadowing strange doctors in stiff lab coats as they released preliminary, expensive access to ALPs. The medicine of the future contained all in a little microchip. I tapped impatiently on Happy’s screen, searching for an article I had saved the morning after Baba passed away.

Cryo-electro chips: The foundation of Assisted Living Programs, an in-depth explainer EastShore Hospital, NSW The immune system is simultaneously man’s worst enemy and best friend. In one’s youth, it detects and responds to environmental stimuli: antigens, triggering antibody-driven immune reactions.

Note figure a) a nanoscopic illustration of an influenza particle with antigens protruding in protein “spikes”. In the common

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immune response, self-lymphocytes clonally select antigen-specific antibodies to target the non-self invasion. This immune response triggers a range of physiological responses, such as vasodilation, the production of pyrogens and acute adenoid swelling or, the symptoms of infection. In the elderly, the process of the immune response is fatal. The aged are more susceptible to illnesses; their bodies cannot handle the changed internal environment created by regular immunoreactions. Fever, cough and headaches are leading concerns raised by the elderly in hospital and other care settings, thus pushing innovation and development into Cryoelectronic technology.

Resurrection Possibilities

The Cryo-Electro Chip (CEC) prolongs life through rapid immune superconduction, condensing the immune response to mere seconds, forgoing any adverse symptoms. Only a few millimetres long, the CEC has a relatively simple structure. A deoxyribose electrode baseplate interwoven with antibodies, Major Histocompatibility Complexes, dendrites and nucleotides, to facilitate connection and absorption into the body. To prevent oxidation of the baseplate, each CEC has an air-locking mechanism to seal the chip between the clivus and C1 vertebrae.

At EastShore Hospital, we believe that precision is key, and have developed leading computational models to identify exactly where incisions should be made to insert the chip into the body.

***

Unprecedented research has gone into understanding the resurrectional capabilities of CECs. Dr Jonathan P.T. Dives has identified that if the CEC is inserted into a person up to 96 hours post-mortem, the cryo-electro superconduction is enough to restore signs of vitality. Extensive isolation, monitoring and stabilisation efforts are necessary post-resurrection. The inner workings of the resurrection procedure are mostly unknown, and the process is not always successful, with many inconclusive test results and failed applications in the field.

The article continued for some time, but this small section was proof enough that what I wanted to do wasn’t out of reach. Not for me at least.

For a second, my thoughts wavered. Would Baba truly be happy if I succeeded in bringing him back? Were my actions entirely unselfish and altruistic? The ringing in my ears was now quite impossible to ignore. It grabbed at me, like the crashing of treacherous waves against the rocks of the sea floor, rocks which only knew how to remain stationary, taking each flogging, slowly being reduced to gravel and sand.

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I stood there for a while longer, subsumed by a great tsunami of sound. The shattering wall of water beat against my eardrums, swelling in polyrhythms that had no discernible start or end.

Pull yourself up, Annabeth. Pull yourself up or drown. It was all in my head, I diagnosed myself, post-traumatic stress. Nothing uncommon. Nothing to be worried about.

I cast my eyes down to Happy again, closing the video to pull up a familiar note.

Plan: 1. Return to work at ESH a. Storeroom marked on map — take latest shift offered b. Keycard entry requirements? i. Happy can unlock storeroom?

2. Baba @ Clovelly a. Happy NECESSARY for calculations and measurements - cannot bring PPU from ESH 3. ??

“I didn’t even think to pick it back up when Baba had his accident.

He won’t have the experience he deserves. If you help me this once, I promise I’ll keep up with my spirituality! I’ll recite sutras every day and do extra to make up for all the years I’ve missed!”

The words were out of my mouth before I could even process their weight. The room was so quiet that I could hear Happy’s wires firing and receiving signals.

“In theory, yes, I can run the calculation…” He trailed off, as pitchy as you’d expect from a human. If I closed my eyes it would sound like I was talking to someone who looked like me.

“But if you get caught? The world will not be as tolerant of your… special circumstances as I am.”

“It won’t happen. I won’t get caught; I have everything planned out! Listen, I’ll think about it when the time comes.”

“When the time comes,” Happy repeated, and I imagined him rolling the phrase over in his mouth, like a hard candy. “When the time comes, you may have nowhere to run, nowhere left to run. Not that running away is going to solve anything.”

I mulled this over as he moved around me, toying with the frayed edges of the throw blanket I kept over the side of my bed. I held a few things in the forefront of my mind, two of which I knew for certain were fact: I, Annabeth Li, am not running from anything.

It was scarcely a two-step plan. Simple enough.

“Happy, you can help me right? It’s just a quick calculation to locate the —” “Annabeth, are you sure of your decision?” His question caught me off guard. “Your father has great peace awaiting him. He has done good in his life. His ending is carved in gold. It would not be right for me to assist you with such…well-intentioned but nefarious actions.”

“Please just help me out. I need you.” It felt a little silly, pleading with this dome-shaped robot companion, and I paused when Happy took a beat too long to respond. Maybe his age and my neglect had worn him down.

“Annabeth, your father coded a core part of me. My hesitation in assisting you is grounded in something ostensibly of his nature.

His belief in Buddhism has already ensured him a spiritual eternity of peace, one much more rewarding than these Earthly experiences!”

“No, Happy, he won’t have a peaceful eternity, or whatever.

It’s my fault. I stopped praying and reciting sutras long ago!” I blinked away tears, basking in the feeling of angry irony.

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My dad died and I will get him back.

2. 承 Chéng Contemplate on the fact that our body is prone to disease and illness.

Contemplate on feelings and be aware of strong manipulation on our state of mind.

Contemplate on the impermanence and brevity of thought.

Contemplate on the non-self nature of all phenomena. − 念處 Niànchù

It was foreign, I thought, the feeling of strolling the halls after visiting hours. I had taken a break from my studies and duties in the hospital, and to be back with such criminal intentions felt foreign. Getting back in was easy enough, my ID pass was good for another two years; two years to finish my degree, two years just to miss out on the last intake of surgeons for the decade.

The rise of robot precision (and human trust in machines) meant hospitals had the ability to raise the skill ceiling, requiring fewer

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and fewer human surgeons. I bit back this thought as a sharp pang of anger shot up my spine. Baba was ecstatic when I was accepted into medical school a little over six years ago.

“Saving lives!” he had exclaimed when I waved the acceptance email in front of his face. “My little girl is going to save lives! Your spiritual karma is going to benefit greatly from this; you’ve made us so proud.”

Now, I’ve been forced to stop just short of reaching my surgical certificate. I should be happy, I reasoned with myself, but I had a terrible sense of unfulfilled potential. I would be a doctor with all the skill and knowledge of a surgeon. Surgeons saved lives, machines saved lives. Doctors like me just walked around, faking smiles and doing examinations.

I had just finished my shift, after swapping rounds with a coworker who was eager to leave early. HR initially reasoned with me to take a week off, promising paid compassionate leave but, when I insisted on taking a shift to keep my mind off things, they didn’t question it. The ALP wing was still small, with only a select few undergoing its processes, the majority being the wealthy middle-aged — CEOs, scientists, researchers — ready to devote eternity to their work.

My fingers clenched and unclenched along the handle of my cart, leaving the metal foggy with condensation in their wake, as I ran over the plan in my mind before considering the ways that it could all go wrong.

#include<bits/stdc++.h> int SIDE ; // [given = 5P_Elock] int PINS ; // // UtFunc -- CHECK -- (rw, col) {valid = T/F} isValid(int row, int col) { return (row >= 0) andand (row < SIDE) andand (col >= 0) andand (col < SIDE); } //if = TRUE, then disp.RGB 64-150-93 #CHESSBOARD The only real security measure between me and the chips at that moment was a relatively archaic five-pin-elock, which could be bypassed easily with a small EMTransmitter and knowledge of the locations of the pins. Luckily, I had access to both of those things. The pins inside the lock generated just enough ionising radiation to be affected by the waves of a small, pocket-sized EMT, and Happy was able to generate a “chessboard” of the pin’s locations.

After a moment of humming, his screen displayed:

And if you get caught? Happy’s words echoed in my mind. He was right, once again, in saying that whoever caught me would certainly not be forgiving. I steeled myself, gritting my teeth, clenching my jaw until his words were drowned out by the white noise ringing in my ears. Remain focused, I reminded myself, in a tone not dissimilar to Happy’s uncanny pacing and register; remain focused, the clock is ticking.

Baba, I’m going to save a life.

Once in front of the storeroom, I booted Happy up to find the program I asked him to generate earlier that day.

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All I had to do was press the EMT accordingly on the lock, which popped open with a satisfying click.

The chips were in a small airtight case, arranged and stacked in neat, vertical columns. They looked rather unassuming, and I almost giggled at the irony of the situation. Such immense potential to save lives, stacked and placed on a low shelf, protected only by a five-pin lock. The small blue lights on each of them blinked in unison, monotonically, periodically.

I’m going to save a life.

The single chip I tentatively plucked out was only slightly bigger than my thumbnail. A life in the palm of my hands. I reached into my pocket for a small sealed bag with a similarly-sized chip in it. As the ALP industry grew, online stores started popping up, presenting similar products which vaguely promised to “relieve symptoms”, whatever that meant. During one of our testing runs at training, we bought a bulk pack of these knock-off chips for a suspiciously low price from an online vendor and compared the fake chips to the real deal. Hilariously, the knock-off chips were just regular cold-and-flu antihistamine pills pressed down and coloured to resemble the chips.

The knock-off chip did not blink in unison with the other chips in the airtight box, but it looked convincing enough to bypass the routine inventory checks. The decoy would buy me enough time to get out of there and do what was necessary to save Baba. I could deal with the consequences later.

The universe suddenly shrank, squeezing down on me, compressing until it was no bigger than a clenched fist, denser than tungsten, a cramped heart. Every time the universe-heart pumped, I felt its shockwaves rolling through me. But if you get caught? Just this morning, I told Happy that I would deal with consequences when the time came, and now they had caught up with me. I would be imprisoned, certainly, and lose all my credibility as a doctor. Did that matter?

I could spend another hundred lifetimes wishing, begging for another nanosecond with Baba. I would spend a thousand more despising the inevitable end, dreading impermanence. There was a sharp pang of guilt somewhere deep within me, as I realised how sacrilegious my actions were. It swelled up into a distant thunderous roaring, and from the polyphonic mess, a fragmented memory emerged.

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As long as there is attachment to things that are unstable, unreliable, changing and impermanent, there will be suffering — When they change, when they cease to be what we want them to be.

If craving is the cause of suffering, then the cessation of suffering will surely follow from the complete fading away and ceasing of that very craving: its abandoning, relinquishing, releasing, letting go.

An extract from the Anitya, one of the first lectures I watched on Happy. It must have been the night of my tenth birthday, when he was still shiny and new. I remember promising Baba and Mama to sleep early (a testament to my maturity) and, instead, I hid under my bed sheets to play with Happy. The lesson was something like a preliminary introduction to Buddhism, covering the Four Noble Truths, highlighting the beauty of impermanence as one of the pillars of Buddhist spirituality. At ten years old, I don’t think I quite understood the gravity of the lesson, instead, grinning cheerily at the prospect of learning something new, something which Baba thought was important.

The chip was still in my palm, growing warmer by the second.

Hurriedly, I placed it into a snap-lock plastic bag to create an airtight seal between the deoxyribose electrodes and the external environment. I had around ten hours before visible oxidation, and even less time before the baseplate started to chemically oxidise.

I patted my pocket, feeling the rough texture of the chip. Time was against me.

3. 轉 Zhuǎn

Within the framework of right thought, Everything arises and ceases from a combination of conditions.

This brings us to the realisation of impermanence, The agony of life rises and falls according to external factors. − 四圣谛 Sìshèngdì

Baba’s body was right where it should have been. Mama had been extremely distant for three days and hadn’t even discussed the plans with me until the night before his funeral. I yelled at her, taking out my anger on her when she rightfully pointed out that we couldn’t afford a chip. It was unfair, working in such close proximity to a storeroom full of chips, but being barred from using one to save Baba. She chose for him a private scenic funeral on the rocky cliffs of Clovelly beach — just for family.

The Arts

Scenic funerals had become the norm since the start of the century. Graveyards were much too morbid, and the increasing need for space in urban places meant that humanity could not afford to sacrifice huge plots of land to bury the dead, so people’s loved ones were farewelled at a location of the family’s choice, then cremated. It was quite poetic, since bodies decomposed at a much slower rate thanks to modern technology, so there was no need for the ancient process of embalming and pumping veins full of preservatives. They went exactly as they had come.

I hated it. Baba, dressed in a suit, completely fine and missing absolutely nothing from his body systems, lying above the ocean, basked in emerging rays of shy sunlight and angry irony. The scenic funeral services charged just to handle his body and set up his casket in a holding room at the determined location. They gave Mama and I twenty-four-hour access to view the body in complete privacy. It was too easy; a single card swipe and I was in the same room as Baba.

The chip was growing warm in my pocket. It was now or never.

Happy hummed remorsefully beside me, and I wondered if he understood the situation, despite all his knowledge of sympathy being based on textbook learning.

“Happy, you need to help me. I’ll flip him over onto his stomach, the chip has to slip into the gap between his clivus and C1 vertebrae. Precision is key here, Happy, find that place without mistake.”

Approaching him, the pounding in my head crescendoed, fortissimo, a polyphonic mess of something. The decibels bled through me, polluting my veins, and plaguing my nerves. Why was it so loud?

I reached out, gingerly, to touch him, and my hand shrivelled back at how stiff his shoulder felt. This wasn’t the shoulder I leant against to sleep on the monobus home.

The noise in my mind was shrieking at me as I flipped him over.

I screwed my eyes shut, as if I could block out the cacophony within, but it just sawed through me until my body was a stack of fleshy discs piled up on top of each other.

A mechanical “ding” sounded somewhere far in the distance. It was out of reach.

Within the calamity, I thought, there is a place for silence, but again within this silence was something else. It came with a feeling not unlike unwrapping a present, opening the box only to reveal a smaller, tightly wrapped gift within. Within the polyphonic madness was a smaller truth, carved in gold. Gold.

Soft and malleable, for a metal. Un-engravable. Not permanently, at least. You could sharpen an icepick and easily dig through a block of gold. The message you carved would never stand the passage of time.

Things get lost in passing. Meaning gets lost in the moment between speech and computation. If I said, “Take my hand,” you’d understand it as, “Hold my hand”.

“I know, you’ve told me before,” he paused, as if deliberating the consequences of saying the words he wanted to. “You know, your father has accumulated enough positive karma in his life. He was a very good man. I know —”

Isn’t that beautiful? That loss of direct meaning? Somewhere in the synapse between thought and process and everything in between, meaning is lost but a form of humanity is gained.

“Happy, please, just run the calculations.” I felt bad for snapping at him, even though he wouldn’t be bothered by my tone. “I can’t explain it, Happy, I need this to work. It’s extremely irrational, but I need it. I just can’t let go.”

What good is appreciating something that exists without question, in constancy? If I said “Take my hand,” and nothing was lost in understanding, I’d be handless. In the same way, what good is mourning something that lasts forever?

I approached Baba’s coffin, gritting my teeth and bracing myself for whatever emotion would come rushing at me.

Baba’s face looked different to me each time I looked at it. I would notice a new wrinkle and forget about a freckle that I had noticed in the past, only to note it again on a second viewing, perhaps only after forgetting about that wrinkle.

For a single second, I was back home. Home, in the kitchen, the spicy warmth of burning incense, the scent of toasting sandalwood. Baba was on the couch, fast asleep after dinner. He had the same peace about him, something so serenely silent that it flooded my ears and pressed up against my eardrums, painfully beating down that paper thin membrane.

Why was it so loud?

That mechanical “ding” rang out again, this time much closer, and I held onto the resonant ends of it circling through the air.

The pounding swelled away, ebbing back until the only sounds around me were truly diegetic; the soft sigh of waves breaking against the rocks, and the wind exhaling through the grass and trees outside. Happy “dinged” again, this time sounding almost impatient. Baba was flipped over in his coffin, and Happy had projected onto him a fifteen-millimetre line adjacent to the run of his spine, right between the base of his skull and his first vertebrae.

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The easiest part of this process was cutting. I had done it countless times before, on mannequins during training, and a few dozen times on humans. Follow the projected line, incise a small slit with the whole depth of the scalpel blade, insert the chip, and the rest will sort itself out. A three-step process to saving lives.

I tried to disassociate the body below me from Baba. Just like in training, it was a mannequin, a silicone dummy. The chip grew warm in my pocket, and I paused. The training mannequin smelled like toasting sandalwood and spicy incense. I’ve leaned against its shoulders to sleep on the monobus home. Baba’s body lay below me, and I was trying to save his life. I was trying so desperately to immortalise him with me, in me.

Glancing down at the close-shaven hairs on the back of his neck, I tried to remember, after failing and trying again, to recall how his face looked. I couldn’t count the number of wrinkles on his forehead, nor could I place which cheek was dimpled. Just as the body below me shifted from mannequin to Baba and back to silicone, my memory of him changed. For a second, he was alive again, and I was looking up at him, fighting against the sun to count his wrinkles and dot his dimple.

I’ve already saved his life, I thought to myself. His being doesn’t have to remain with me in constancy, in perfection. If he changes in my mind, isn’t that enough? He can be with me forever, but in a way that is unique only to me, just as he can be with Mama forever in a way that is specific to only her.

There is no space for appreciation and mourning for a life which will never end. The value of a person is unlocked the moment you realise that they are truly gone. You shake the memories of mundanity again and again, like you would a snowglobe, and you never tire of remembering, as the sequins and glitter never tire of floating through the glycerine.

Far beyond the cliff edge, the ocean looked calm and as still as an empty canvas. Yet it moved in small, imperceptible oscillations with such entropy that it would never be able to be remade or photographed down to its living exactness.

I looked down at Baba and the pounding crept back in along the margins of my mind. As it threatened to crescendo, I clenched my fist around that chip, growing warm in the plastic bag, hearing small snaps and crackles.

Baba was already at peace. That mortal body of his was innately transient.

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I didn’t look down at Happy as I left the holding room. I didn’t look at the trajectory of the chip as I hurled it beyond the cliff.

I didn’t open my eyes to see the spot it landed in the water.

I couldn’t hear the indiscernible splash it would make on impact.

I saw Baba in my mind and allowed myself to cry.

4. 合 Hé Even a Buddhist temple is not truly peaceful.

Often, there are as many tourists as there are pilgrims.

One is only peaceful when they can find peace even within a bustling city.

Find emptiness to find that peace. − 地球往事 Dìqiúwǎngshì

For the first time in days, I sat in silence. The world around me was still unchanging, an ever-undulating symphony of noise.

The sound of traffic, fleeting notes of birdsong, the syncopated scraping of shoes against linoleum floors, all coalesced into a general humming, buzzing noise around me.

I had tasked Happy with lecturing me, an action I hadn’t done in almost fifteen years. Opening the BuddhistBuddy program for the first time in ages reminded me of Baba. Within that scuffed shell of LEDs and copper wiring was some sort of ghost — the recollection of Baba encased in electrochemical activity. Baba read to him, discussed philosophy with him, prayed alongside him, and Happy, whether or not a conscious participant, absorbed all of Baba’s knowledge — a sponge of spiritual energy.

In pursuit of peace, I emptied myself, creating a sort of void.

However, this vacant universe did not unfurl into silence, instead, it folded in on itself, impossibly tight, and detonated into a nameless anxiety. Within it, I floundered.

“Emptiness is quite distinct from nothingness. It is rather a different type of existence.”

So, I created a space within infinity, grounding myself in an area within this spiralling matrix. I drew for myself, a man in a polo and white tennis shoes. Baba.

My empty void burst into unpruned splendour — basal redolence; dread, glaciers of frozen tears, violent metastatic pain carving lines through the ice. This is lineage.

“Do not allow anything to hang, unmoving, unchanging. It is an interpretation for death.”

The Arts

In the only printed photograph I have of Baba, he has his back turned, facing a wine-red sea — it’s titled 大海; Dahai, 2153. I realised, and held onto this thread before I forgot again, that in this void, it’s his face I’m approximating. The tumour swelled and threatened to burst, but in a patternless waltz I realised once more that his shoes never remained white for too long. It’s his face I’m inventing and though I can’t remember which cheek is dimpled, the movement is enough. This is impermanence.

Even amid this noise, this polyphonic calamity, my heart was completely tranquil.

I remembered my promise to Happy, and for the first time in half a decade I recited a sutra, in the everlasting, yet changing, memory of Baba.

Namo Di Zhang Wang Pusa, Please let Baba be free from sufferings.

Let him spend eternity with happiness.

Let him be praised by divine beings.

END OF ANNAL

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STEM and Innovation

130

Muse 2023 MERIDEN

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Engineering eggbeater: An investigation of the trochanter angles effect on the height achieved by eggbeater kick over 14s in females [pilot study (Abridged)]

A N N EKE DY KGR A A FF Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

Abstract

Project rationale

This study examined the effect of the trochanter angle on the average height above the water, over 14 seconds. The application of Pearson’s correlation coefficient found that there was a strong negative correlation (R 2 = 0.9293) between the trochanteric angle and the average height that was achieved. This trend showed that decreasing the minimum trochanteric angle would increase the average height over the 14s, as it altered the stroke shape to maximise its upwards force. The study identified that other kinetic movements of the lower limbs had effects on the lift that can be explained through circulation and Bernoulli’s principles. Further, the study suggested that height of female players may decrease their ability to achieve height out of the water.

The importance of this study to water polo communities is significant. Increasing scientific understanding will help to develop the best teaching practices (Water polo Australia, 2022).

The results of the study can help update the model of kinematic variables, to streamline its teaching and training.

Literature Review Understanding eggbeater Water polo is a team sport with seven players on each team.

Players are not permitted to touch the bottom of the pool, rather, they do eggbeater kicks to stay afloat in defensive and offensive action (Water Polo NSW, n.d.). Water polo is an “intermittent” sport, meaning that intensive energy output normally lasts 7-14 seconds (Smith, 1998).

While Sanders (1999b) conducted similar research on males, this study has never been undertaken for female players. In addition, since the original testing, technology and research in this scientific field has become more valid and reliable, making retesting important.

Variables known to affect eggbeater efficiency Sanders (1999), Kawai (2016), Oliveria (2015), conclude that to achieve greatest height, the vertical force upward on the player must counteract body weight. Kawai found that the net downwards force was largest at the end of the stroke, when the leg kicks downwards (Figure 2) (Kawai, Tsunokawa, Tsubakimoto, Takagi, 2016).

Eggbeater kick is a specialised kick developed for water sports which counteracts the effects of body weight. Stylistically, the kick is two alternating circular strokes of the lower limbs (Figure 1). It provides players with stability, achieving the greatest consistent height and resisting fatigue, enabling optimal aerobic endurance (Zinner, Sperlich, Krueger, et al. 2015).

Figure 2: Graph of propulsive force over time of eggbeater stroke. Out, in and up refer to the directions of movement of the legs during the stroke.

Figure 1: Diagram of eggbeater kick (Richard, 2020)

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Sanders (1999a) found that height and mass of players was independent of the results. The greatest variation (72%) in height that participants achieved was based on increasing the foot speed during eggbeater rotation. The kick shape that maximised foot speed had larger horizontal velocity. This corresponds to maximising horizontal displacement in knees and feet (Sanders, 1999b). More skilled players maximise their hip flexion and abduction, while keeping maximal knee height (corresponds with trochanter angle).

STEM and Innovation

Understanding the hip joint

Figure 4: Labelled diagram of the hip joint (Hip Pain Professionals, 2018).

Figure 3: Digitised model showing movement of feet during the eggbeater stroke, created using data from the player that gained the greatest height in Sanders’ research (1999b).

Understanding circulation and Bernoulli’s equation An understanding of the circulation of water and Bernoulli’s principles are critical when analysing the eggbeater kick.

Circulation is a macroscopic measure of rotation for a finite area of a fluid. About a closed circular path, the circulation is represented as the line integral of the velocity vector (Katopodes, 2019). Circulation affects the amount of force that is generated along a circular path. In a barotropic fluid, such as water, the circulation will increase as the horizontal area of the circular path increases. This means that optimising the area of the circle will increase the force generated by circulation (Yu, 2011). This can be applied directly to the size of rotation of the foot during eggbeater.

Bernoulli’s principle applies to the principle of conservation of energy in a frictionless laminar flow. It quantified the relationship between flow speed and pressure within a fluid (Princeton University, n.d.). Bernoulli’s principle states that within a horizontal flow of fluid, points of higher fluid speed will have less pressure than points of slower fluid. The pressure change over an aerofoil will cause a lift force to be generated (Khan Academy, 2015). This has relevance as during the eggbeater kick the fluid pressure will vary at different locations around the player’s body.

The hip joint is a ball and socket joint, which allows for multidirectional movement and rotation. The hip joint allows for flexion, extension, and rotation, allowing for the circular motion of the leg that is observed in eggbeater kick (Cleveland clinic, 2023).

The main muscles that control the movement of the hip joint are the gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus. Both are located on the outside of the pelvis and connect to the greater trochanter (see Figure 4). These two abductor muscles work in conjunction to abduct the thigh when the leg is extended, and their anterior fibres, by drawing the greater trochanter forward, rotate the thigh inwards (Gray, 1974).

In this study the angle that is made between the pelvis and the trochanter is called the trochanteric angle (labelled θ on Figure 5 below).

Figure 5: Labelled image of trochanter angle (Adapted from Neustockimages, 2013.)

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Engineering eggbeater | A N N E K E D Y K G R A A F F , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

Scientific research question How does the minimum trochanteric angle affect the sustained height above the surface that can be achieved during eggbeater over 14 seconds?

On each subject, the centre of joints (knee, ankles) were marked using a permanent marker to form a cross. A point on the hips and shoulders were marked with a peg attached to the swimwear.

Scientific hypothesis Decreasing the minimum trochanteric angle will increase the sustained height above the surface of the water that individuals will achieve over 14 seconds.

Methodology Sample group The sample group included six female participants of ages 15-20.

The skill ability of these players ranged from novice (played the sport for less than a year) to professional (current national players).

All subjects or their guardians completed a signed consent form.

All testing was carried out with supervision of a registered coach.

Pool and participant set up A camera rig was constructed as shown below. The PVC pipes were connected with hot glue and electrical tape connected the pool noodle. The GoPro was levelled and attached to the PVC pipe with zip ties. The rigging was placed in the pool with the pool noodle half submerged. The pool noodle was zip tied to the side of the pool, after ensuring the piping was vertical. A weight was placed on top of PVC piping on the edge of the pool. The player was then set up 2m from the wall, in line with the camera.

Figure 7: Peg and cross locations

Collection of data The testing occurred in a chlorinated moderate (25-30 degrees) temperature outdoor pool. Each participant completed three trials of eggbeater over 14 seconds facing the camera and completed three trials facing the side. Both of the participants’ wrists were above the surface of the water. Subjects began each trial floating vertically with their arms at 90 degrees to their body. The average height of the shoulder throughout 3 seconds of the float was taken as the initial height. The final height of the hips and shoulders was taken as the average across the 14 seconds. Each participant was given a 30-second break between each trial.

Analysis of data Once all the trials were completed, the camera rigging was removed, and the video footage was imported onto a laptop to a video analysis software program, Tracker. The videos were split into individual trials and were labelled with each person’s name and the trial number. The videos were then imported into Tracker.

Calibration

Figure 6: Diagram of camera rig.

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Firstly, the video was calibrated using the calibration function in Tracker. The calibration stick tool was selected, and then the stick shortened to the length of the peg placed on the right hip when it was parallel to the camera (to avoid parallax error). The length of the stick was changed to 0.075m. Following this step, the coordinate axis was also set up, using the function in Tracker. The

STEM and Innovation

pink crosshair was then dragged to the point where the player’s body reached the surface of the water. The y-axis was aligned with the centre of the player’s body.

M E A N H EI G H T CO M PA R ISO N (SH O U L D ER S)

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

Tracking

N05

0.18437

0.10651

0.12998

0.14029

N06

0.15461

0.11963

0.18793

0.15406

I05

0.18853

0.17246

0.25073

0.20391

I06

0.12363

0.18787

0.12378

0.14509

E02

0.11071

0.17717

0.10306

0.13031

E07

0.28898

0.25459

0.28227

0.27528

Using the track button on the menu bar, I selected the point mass feature and kept the mass at 1kg. I began by pressing shift on the keyboard and clicking on the centre of the cross on the right ankle. This was done continually until the point had been tracked across the whole trial. Once this was completed a new point mass was selected and the tracking process was completed for the left foot, right knee, left knee, hip and shoulder. This was repeated for all front trials.

Analysis The data was copied into an excel spreadsheet. The average function was used to find initial height and sustained height for both the hip and shoulder. The change in height was calculated by subtracting the final height from the initial height. The average of the trials was calculated for each participant’s hips and shoulders. The hip and shoulder means were averaged to calculate the final change in height.

The minimum angle was calculated by taking a screen capture when the angle was smallest and importing the photo into an online protractor tool (Ginifab, 2023). The centre of the protractor was dragged to the peg on the hip. The pinpoint marker was moved to the cross on the knee, and the angle was calculated from the vertical.

Excel was used to graph the relationship between the value of the minimum angle and the change in height. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was then calculated using the excel graph function and inserting a line of best fit.

Results

Shoulder height change (m)

COMBINED ME AN HEIGHTS

Participant

Height average (m)

N05

0.14096

N06

0.15981

I05

0.23205

I06

0.18625

E02

0.14815

E07

0.28822

TROCHANTER ANGLE

Participant

Minimum trochanteric angle (degrees)

N05

126

N06

118

I05

110

I06

67

E02

119

E07

90

A N G L E H EI G H T CO M PA R ISO N

35

Combined average hieght (cm)

Player codes indicate the experience level of each player. E – experienced (7> years playing), I – intermediate (7-2 years playing), N– novice (2< year playing). The number for each player was randomly assigned.

30

Angle height comparison, without outlier

25

M E A N H EI G H T CO M PA R ISO N (H I PS)

Participant

Participant

20

Hip height change (m) Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

Average

N05

0.18962

0.13060

0.10468

0.14163

N06

0.15334

0.14371

0.19963

0.16556

I05

0.26328

0.24048

0.27680

0.26019

I06

0.29053

0.21998

0.17171

0.22741

E02

0.13215

0.20198

0.16385

0.16599

E07

0.30252

0.28073

0.32024

0.30116

15

R² = 0.9298

10 5 0

70

80

90

100

110

Minimum angle (degrees)

120

130

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Engineering eggbeater | A N N E K E D Y K G R A A F F , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

Q UA L I TAT I V E O B S E R VAT I O N S F R O M T R I A L 1

D I G I T IS AT I O N O F S T R O K E

FOOT MOVEMENT

Participant

Rotational speed (revolutions per second)

Rotational diameter (m)

Displacement from start (m)

N05

1.5

X- 0.4

X- 0.4

Y- 0.7

Y- 0.5

Right X- 0.3

X- 0.4

Left X- 0.2

Y- 0.6

N06

1.5

Y- 0.3 I05

I06

E07

E02

1.5

1.5

1.75

1.25

Right X- 0.5

Right X- 0.8

Left X- 0.35

Left X- 0.3

Y- 0.3

Right Y-

X- 0.4

X- 0.2

Y- 0.4

Y- 1

X- 0.2

X- 0.6

Y- 0.4

Y- 1

X- 0.2

X- 0.4

Y- 0.4

Y- 0.5 Figure 8: digitised model of feet and knee movement, from player with greatest height (created using Tracker)

KNEE MOVEMENT

Participant

Rotational speed (revolutions per second)

Rotational diameter (m)

Displacement from start (m)

Discussion

N05

1.5

X- 0.2

Y- 0.5

Trend

Y-0.2 N06

I05

1.5

1.5

X- 0.35

X- 0.3

Y- 0.35

Y- 0.5

Right X- 0.2

X- 0.4

Left X- 0.1

Y- 0.6

Right Y- 0.6 Left Y- 0.4 I06

E07

1.5

1.75

X- 0.4

X- 0.4

Y- not consistent

Y- 0.8

Left Y- 0.4

X- 0.4

Right Y- 0.42

Y- 0.7

X- 0.1 E02

1.25

Left X- 0.15

X- 0.4

Right X- 0.3

Y- 0.35

Y- 0.3

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The relationship between the trochanter angle and the change in height was a strong negative correlation with an R-squared value of 0.9289, when an outlier was excluded.

Explaining the trend The outlier was excluded due to player I06 having a forward lean in torso and pelvis. The trochanter angle occurs between the pelvis and trochanter, which means it changes when the pelvis is tilted forward at significant (>5 degrees) angles. This meant that measuring the angle in 2D did not provide an accurate value.

Hence the value was treated as an outlier.

The trend observed follows a similar trend described by Sanders (1999b). This explained that the players that achieved greater hip abduction and flexion while maximising knee height had stronger eggbeater kicks (Sanders, 1999b).

STEM and Innovation

Similarly, the increase in the trochanter angle maximised the diameter of the stroke in the knee and foot component. Player E07 had a diameter of 0.4m for the y and x component. They also had a 0.4m diameter for both components of the knee movement. The general trend is that as the height decreases, the rotational diameter decreases. E07 diameters also correlate to an observation made by Sanders that players whose strokes were more “rounded” (closer to a circle in shape) tended to achieve greater height (Sanders, 1999b). This means that the diameter of the player’s stroke would be equal in the x and y component as seen in E07.

The impacts of fluid analysis

Figure 9: diagram of the abduction and flexion of the lower limbs, and its impact on trochanter angle

Women’s eggbeater kick has now been shown to display a similar trend to men’s eggbeater with a negative correlation between the trochanter angle and height. This can be seen in the resemblance between the digitisation in Figure 3 and Figure 6, which show the stroke of the player who maintained the greatest height.

This does not mean that causation can be assumed. Strong correlation is a key factor for causation, but this experiment is unable to establish temporality. Due to the expansive kinematic movement of the lower limbs, it cannot be determined which factor is solely responsible for gaining greater height.

The effect of trochanter angle on the stroke The relationship between the trochanter angle and the rest of the stroke is significant. Through quantitative analysis, it appears that the trochanter angle affects the displacement of the knees and feet.

These variables have been found to have a direct correlation with the lift forces that are acting to propel the body upwards (Sanders, 1999a).

Minimising the trochanter angle meant the gluteus medius gained more elastic energy to convert into greater kinetic energy within the kick (Gray, 1974). The energy allowed for the knee to gain a greater height without increasing the drag as substantially. It also increased rotation diameter for the knee and foot, in the horizontal and vertical component.

The qualitative results showed that the players with the larger angles had a greater displacement from the start. E07 gained the maximum height in this study, which corresponded with the largest foot displacement in the Y- component of 1m. This correspondence also occurred for the knee movement, having a displacement of 0.7m, which meant that as the trochanter angle increased the foot height increased. The increase in the foot and knee height within the water increased the upward propulsion of the hips.

As the stroke gets more “rounded” the movement of the feet approach perfect circular motion. In doing so the circulation around the path of the fluid will increase, which will increase the total “push” force that is generated when the foot is moving along its path. This means that the player will produce greater downward force when the path of the foot movement is more “rounded”. With greater downward force, the height will increase.

This explains the increased efficiency of player E07.

Due to Bernoulli’s principle, the lift is maximised with the anterior movement of the foot. The anterior motion increases flow in the posterior direction, which will cause the flow to hit the bottom of the foot with angles of pitch. This, according to Bernoulli, will generate lift force, which will increase the player’s height. The anterior motion of the foot will increase as the y-component’s displacement is maximised. This means player E07 will experience a greater lift force than all other players, maximising the height.

Strengths The measuring accuracy of this report was high. Online programming allowed for the exact same point to be tracked across every 0.3 second interval of the 14 seconds. The limit of reading for the technology was 0.00005m, which meant that the results had an extremely small percentage error.

External reliability was high. The results of studies by Sanders (1999), Kawaii (2018) and Oliveria (2015) supported the trend that an increase in trochanter angle would increase sustained height.

The results of the Sanders study also found similar correlations between players’ strokes and height achieved.

The validity was strengthened by a testable hypothesis. The hypothesis included the independent variable of minimum trochanter angle. It had the dependent variable of sustained height. It was also strengthened by the wide range of data. To calculate the sustained height, each point while doing eggbeater was averaged. This was about 300 individual points of data.

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Engineering eggbeater | A N N E K E D Y K G R A A F F , Y E A R 1 2 , 2 0 2 3

Limitations Due to the large number of kinetic components in the eggbeater kick, it’s impossible to control all variables that affect height.

Some steps were taken to attempt to control these variables such as testing players with a wide range of water polo experience.

However, not all variables could be controlled, limiting validity.

As little research has been undertaken on female players, accuracy cannot be determined through comparison with a theoretical value or previous results. For this reason, accuracy was assessed in terms of measurement techniques. Another limitation of data analysis accuracy is that tracker technology is susceptible to calibration errors. For the calibration tool to correctly calibrate, the item needs to be parallel to the camera. It is possible that calibration error did occur between trials as they were all analysed independently and by hand.

Improvements Reliability could have been improved in measurement precision.

Most results were reliable as they had similar values, within 4 cm of each other. Notable difference in data were: — N05 decreasing height change — I05 third shoulder height change — I06 third hip height change — E02 second trial N05’s decrease in height was consistent with observations from the study. This player fatigued between each trial causing the decreasing trend in data. All other differences had no explanation.

To increase the reliability that is observed, these errors should be eradicated. This is possible by changing parts of the methodology.

Also, increasing the number of trials would minimise the impact of errors.

The validity of the results could be improved by increasing the sample size. With the limited sample size, it is unknown if the trochanter angle will continue affecting height when the number of players increases. Sample size has also limited the study’s use of inferential statistics, to find statistical differences in the data. This, in turn, limits the scope of trends that can be quantified.

Areas of further research One area that requires further research is determining how female body height affects the kick stroke. According to Sanders, height in male players was independent of the result achieved.

However, observation of participant I06 suggests that this trend may not be the case in women’s eggbeater stroke. Note that participant I06 has a height of 185cm, where the average of the other players’ heights is 171cm. Observing the side trial, it is evident that the following actions occur in the taller participant:

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— T he shoulders moved forward and caused a hunch in the upper back.

— T he hips rose higher than the shoulders, which caused the back to compress.

— T he knees moved forward and up to compensate for the changed weight distribution through the torso.

As this study is only a pilot, it is impossible to conclude that the body’s physical make-up is responsible for this. However, due to the relatively consistent results for hip and shoulder increase in other players, and the back shrinkage, there is the potential for height to affect a player’s ability to perform an efficient eggbeater kick.

Conclusion The results showed a strong negative correlation (R2 = 0.9293) between the trochanter angle and the height achieved over 14 seconds. This finding suggests that the kinetic variables affecting men’s eggbeater kick and women’s eggbeater kick are the same.

The closer the movement gets to perfect circular motion, the more force the stroke generates due to circulation. Meaning that, to maximise force, players should increase the diameter of the y and x components of knee movement, while also attempting to make the foot movement “rounded” which will increase lift, according to Bernoulli’s principle. All these stroke changes are naturally achieved with the increase in trochanter angle.

This research also provided areas of further investigation, the main being whether body height was a factor that affected eggbeater efficiency.

Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the following: My mentor Dr Laurence, for providing feedback and research material which helped me to achieve the final report. She also provided material to build camera rigging.

All participants of the study, without whom the data wouldn’t have been collected. The participants were also generous in their contributions to setting and packing up testing equipment.

Meriden water polo staff, who allowed me access to their pool and to their players during training time.

Edie Arkell and Mahek Jain for their support for my report.

They provided helpful suggestions for formatting and research endeavours. They also helped set up equipment during testing.

Zoe Wang for allowing me to borrow her GoPro for the length of this project.

STEM and Innovation

REFERENCES

Books

Journals

Katopodes, N. (2019). Free-surface flow, Environmental Fluid Mechanics. Butterworth-Heinemann. https://books.google. com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vYdqDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg= PP1&dq=Free-Surface+Flow+Environmental+Fluid+Mechani cs&ots=7FE7eefSz3&sig=g9zfQZ5UKiv5EMnpTHpx7fChjf4 #v=onepage&q=Free-Surface%20Flow%20Environmental%20 Fluid%20Mechanics&f=false

Kawai E, Tsunokawa T, Tsubakimoto, S, Takagi, H. (2016).

A study of fluid forces acting on a foot during eggbeater kicks of water polo players. 34rd International Conference on Biomechanics in Sports. https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/cpa/article/ view/6910 Kawai K, Tsunokawa, T, Takagi, H. (2018). Estimating the hydrodynamic forces during eggbeater kicking by pressure distribution analysis. Heliyon, 4(12), No page range. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405844018314701

Halliday D, Walker J, Resnick R. (1998). Fundamental of Physics extended Fifth Edition. John Wiley and Sons.

Oliveria N, Chiu C, Sanders, R. (2015). Kinematic Patterns Associated with the Vertical Force Produced during the Eggbeater Kick. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33(16), 1675 – 1681. https://doi.or g/10.1080/02640414.2014.1003590

Websites

Sanders, R. (1999a). A Model of Kinematic Variables Determining Height Achieved in Water Polo Boosts. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 15(1), 270-283. 10.1123/jab.15.3.270.

Ginifab. (2023). Online Protractor | Angle Measuring Tool. https://www.ginifab.com/feeds/angle_measurement/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282136201_A_Model_ of_Kinematic_Variables_Determining_Height_Achieved_in_ Water_Polo_Boosts Sanders, R. (1999b). Analysis of the Eggbeater Kick Used to Maintian Height in Water Polo. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 15(3), 284-29. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/ jab/15/3/article-p284.xml Schleihauf, R.E.. (1979). Swimming propulsion: A hydrodynamic analysis. Swimming III. 70-109. https://www.iat.uni-leipzig.de/ datenbanken/iks/bms/Record/4036933 Smith, H, K. (1998). Applied physiology of water polo. Sports Med, 26(5), 317-34. 10.2165/00007256-199826050-00003.

Stirn I, Strmecki J, Strojnik V. (2014). The examination of different tests for the evaluation of the efficiency of the eggbeater kicks. J Hum Kinet, 41(1), 215-26. 10.2478/hukin-2014-0049.

Gray, H. (1974). Grays Anatomy. Arcturus Publishing.

Cleveland clinic, (2023). Hip Joint https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/24675-hip-joint

Khan Academy, (2015) What is Bernoulli’s principle? https://www. khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-isbernoullis-equation Princeton University (n.d.). Bernoulli’s equation. https://www. princeton.edu/~asmits/Bicycle_web/Bernoulli.html Videos Prof. Van Buren. (2021, February 18). Rotational and irrotational flow [Aerodynamics #7]. [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=aRaNCZL7kEY Photos Hip Pain Professionals. (2018). Hip abductor muscles gluteus medius and gluteus minimus and the trochanteric bursa of hip [Image]. Hip Pain Help is Here. https://hippainhelp.com/the-hipabductor-muscles-trochanteric-bursa-and-lateral-outside-hippain/

Zinner C, Sperlich B, Krueger M, Focke T, Reed J, Mester J. (2015) Strength, Endurance, Throwing Velocity and in-Water Jump Performance of Elite German Water Polo Players. J Hum Kinet, 45(1), 149-56. 10.1515/hukin-2015-0015.

Neustockimages. (2013). Fit Man Practicing Yoga. IStock. https:// www.istockphoto.com/photo/fit-man-practicing-yoga-isolatedgm180844257-25054938

PDF’s

Richard. (2020). Eggbeater Kick [Image]. Swimming teaching. https://www.swimteaching.com/2020/03/eggbeater-kick-treadingwater-for_10.html

Water Polo Australia. (2022). Annual Report 2021/22. https:// issuu.com/olympic3/docs/annualreport_a4_2210_wpa MIT, (2004). 13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics Lecture 9. http:// web.mit.edu/13.021/demos/lectures/lecture9.pdf Yu, J-Y. (2011). Lecture 4: Circulation and Vorticity https://www. ess.uci.edu/~yu/class/ess227/lecture.4.vorticity.all.pdf

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Alchemy’s enchantment QIANQI ZHOU Y E A R 9, 2 0 2 3

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Christina’s artwork was awarded first place in the Royal Australian Chemical Institute (RACI) Chemistry and Art Competition. The competition is designed to provide students with the opportunity to creatively express their understanding of, and interest in, chemistry, chemicals and chemists. In her artwork, Christina highlighted the mystical and magical appearance of chemical reactions. Like the wizards in fantasy novels, chemists use their knowledge of Science to create new compounds and spectacular reactions.

The Toxicity of Sydney Waterways

STEM and Innovation

SOPHIE YI AND MEREDITH XU Y E A R 10, 2 023

Introduction Optimal water quality in freshwater rivers is essential as they are a major source of drinking water as well as the habitats of aquatic biodiversity. Furthermore, agricultural and tourism industries rely on healthy waterways for fishing, swimming, and irrigation (Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, n.d.).

However, in NSW, research over the past five years has indicated the rapid deterioration of marine life in rivers, especially fish populations, due to natural disasters, industrialisation and an increasing human population, which is predicted to reach 10.6 million in 2041, leading to more pressure on the natural environment, including river systems (Hanrahan, 2022). It is crucial to test and maintain water quality in these freshwater rivers to prevent the degradation of aquatic biodiversity and avoid potential economic and health risks for humans (NSW State of the Environment, 2021). This investigation provides practical information for understanding current toxicity levels of important freshwater rivers in NSW. Aim The aim of this experiment is to test the toxicity of Sydney freshwater rivers by conducting a bioassay using Daphnia magna.

Background research Bioassays involve using living organisms to indicate the presence of toxic substances or contamination, such as metal and chemical pollutants. The organisms used are sensitive to these substances, ensuring the effects of these toxins can be measured through the death or deterioration of organism health (Hoyle, 2021).

Daphnia magna are microscopic crustaceans commonly used as a bioindicator to test the toxicity of freshwater as they are highly sensitive to water contaminants, especially metal pollutants (Hoang, 2007). Daphnia magna is recognised by the OECD and IOS as a sufficient test species according to test guidelines, thus it is a reliable way to effectively test for water toxicity (Cui, Kwak and An, 2018). Daphnia can survive by eating yeast, algae or bacteria in cultures and, therefore, are easy to maintain outside laboratory conditions (Carolina Biological Supply Company, 2013). Its high fertility rate also allows for multiple Daphnia to be cost-effectively tested at once (Rodriguez et al., 2020). However, Daphnia adults grow to a maximum of 5 millimetres in width and their bodies are covered in a translucent carapace, so they are difficult to observe with the naked eye (Ebert, 2005). The optimal water temperature for Daphnia survival is 20-21°C, according to scientific studies published in PloS One online journal (Müller, Colomer, and Serra, 2018).

A study conducted by scientific researchers in South Korea, published in PubMed, found evidence that Daphnia magna are very sensitive to heavy metals, particularly copper, cadmium, mercury, manganese and zinc (Cui, Kwak and An, 2018.) These metals most commonly occur in water and air pollution due to heavy industrial waste, and the gradual buildup of metal pollutants in soil, as well as from water runoff from nearby infrastructure (Queensland Government, 2022).

Pollutants can enter waterways through two main sources: point sources and nonpoint sources. Point sources are a single, identifiable source of pollution. Industrial waste is often discharged this way, directly into waterways through pipes or drains. Nonpoint sources are referred to as “diffuse pollution” — these occur over a wider area and do not have a single source (EPA Victoria, 2018). In urban areas, a major nonpoint pollution source is runoff, which can carry any surface pollutants into waterways during rainfall. This pollution is exacerbated because 90% of urban land is composed of hard, impervious surfaces.

Run-off in industrial areas is also likely to contain toxic chemicals and metals (National Ocean Service, 2023). Another notable source of nonpoint water pollution can be air carrying toxic, airborne particles.

The Australian government grades freshwater quality according to water clarity, algae levels and toxicity. Government data on water quality in the Cooks River and Parramatta River classified the overall water quality in both as a low D grade in 2019-2020.

The Georges River and Hawkesbury River have an overall C grade, slightly better than the former waterways but still with moderate levels of pollution (Department of Planning and Environment, 2021).

In order to complete this study, it is important to understand the land uses and environments surrounding these rivers in Sydney.

The Canterbury Bankstown Council area, which surrounds most of the Cooks River, has a density of 3,370 people per square kilometre. The Georges River Council has a density of 3,990 people per square kilometre. The City of Parramatta Council has a density of 3,103 people per square kilometre and the Hawkesbury City Council area has just 24 people per square kilometre (ABS, 2021).

The Cooks River is one of the most heavily polluted rivers in Australia. Studies have shown that there are still high levels of heavy metals, faecal contaminants and nutrients in the water (Walker, 2006). Since European settlement, the Cooks River has been heavily polluted by industrial waste from sugar mills and tanneries and its course was altered to build Sydney Airport. Today, factories still line the Cooks River, especially in Canterbury, shown on the map below, and the land beside

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the southern section of the river has become a conduit for many services, such as sewage pipes, high pressure oil pipes and high voltage lines (Yarrow, n.d.).

Map of the Cooks River (Department of Planning and Environment, 2021)

The Georges River has been a site of both leisure and industry.

Steep banks and sandy soil lining the river meant that the surrounding land was not developed for many years after European settlement. In the late 19th century, a paper mill, wool washing plant and abattoir were established along the river. These were closed in the early 20th century, which reduced the amount of pollution entering the water. In the present day, urban run-off accounts for over 90% of the pollution which enters the Georges River (Lennon, 2015).

Map of the Georges River (DPE, 2021)

The Parramatta River was subjected to industrial pollution throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. From Rhodes to Parramatta, the banks of the river were lined with factories, warehouses and carparks. Estates were sold to abattoirs, coal factories, smelters, wheat mills, brickworks and other manufacturing plants. The river also became a popular site for illegal waste dumping. However, these factories have now closed down, parks have been built and attempts are being made to rehabilitate areas surrounding the river. Swimming is prohibited and fishing is discouraged due to contamination still present in the sediment (Hoskins, 2015).

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contamination by toxic chemicals and fertilisers carried through stormwater runoff, untreated wastewater, sewage and leachate from landfill (Agrawal, 2021). As a result, rivers which are in (or have historically been in) highly populated and industrialised areas will likely have higher levels of toxicity and therefore higher Daphnia mortality.

RISK ASSESSMENT

Map of the Parramatta River (DPE, 2021)

The Hawkesbury River encircles the fringes of Sydney’s north and west and is surrounded by many national parks and reserves, including the Blue Mountains. Historically, the regions surrounding the Hawkesbury River have been known as Sydney’s “food basket” as its quality soil and water sustains high-yield farmland. Food production is still an important feature of the river and many family farms and orchards remain. Towns such as Windsor and Richmond were also established and continue to thrive by the river (Sydney Visitor Guide, 2023). The Hawkesbury has become a popular spot for tourism and recreation, with over 300,000 nights spent by domestic tourists at the Hawkesbury in 2021-2022 (Tourism Research Australia, 2022).

Risk

Injury

Prevention

Contaminated/ toxic water

Consuming contaminated water can cause sickness, vomiting and stomach pain.

Do not drink the water.

Dispose immediately after use.

Daphnia magna

Consuming Daphnia magna may cause food poisoning/allergic reaction.

Do not consume the Daphnia magna. Dispose immediately after use.

Containers/ buckets

Dropping a heavy load may lead to foot injury.

Hold containers with both hands and wear protective, enclosed footwear.

Wet ground

Slipping, resulting in bruises, cuts and broken limbs.

Dry water spills with paper towels. Handle buckets of water carefully with both hands, being careful when accessing rivers. Wear suitable footwear such as hiking shoes near rocky environments.

Rivers

Falling in and drowning.

Choose a location where it is safe to access river water with stable ground.

Have a responsible adult to supervise.

Wear suitable footwear such as hiking shoes when near rocky environments.

Flood waters

Map of the Hawkesbury River

Getting caught in flood waters may result in drowning,or injury such as bruising or hypothermia.

Check weather reports before travelling to the rivers.

Do not drive through flood prone areas during heavy rainfall.

Avoid visiting rivers during flood seasons.

Hypothesis Water samples from rivers running through highly polluted, densely populated and industrial areas of Sydney, specifically the Cooks River and Parramatta River, will show higher rates of Daphnia mortality. Rivers which are located near industrial areas, or used for chemical waste disposal will exhibit higher rates of toxicity, thus the aquatic life will deteriorate. Urbanisation has led to the increased pollution of local rivers through

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Experimental variables

Diagram of Experiment Setup:

Independent variable The type of river water in which the Daphnia will be tested: water collected from the Parramatta, Georges, Cooks and Hawkesbury rivers.

Dependent variable The survival rate of the Daphnia in the water samples over a period of time.

Control variable Dechlorinated water.

Steps:

Constant variables

1. Using a measuring cup, pour 1L of dechlorinated water into a clear 3L container.

The volumes of the water samples, the time interval between each test and the type of food used to feed the Daphnia.

Other variables The temperature, random environmental conditions such as pollution, particles of dirt or other organisms entering the water samples, the number of Daphnia in each water sample, extra dechlorinated water added when transferring the Daphnia and the organism’s maturation rate.

Method Equipment: — 3L of dechlorinated water — 15 x 3L clear containers — Measuring cup — Pipette — 360 live Daphnia magna (less than five days old) in a container of dechlorinated water — 4 different river water samples x 3L each — 10g baker’s yeast — Stirring rod — Magnifying glass

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2. Repeat step 1 with the 4 river water samples. Label each container according to the river sample. This will be Group 1.

3. Using a pipette and a magnifying glass, transport 25-40 Daphnia magna to each container.

4. Feed the Daphnia by crushing 8 grains of baker’s yeast and sprinkling across the surface of the water.

5. Repeat steps 1-4 twice, recording each group of river samples as Group 2 and Group 3.

6. Count the number of dead Daphnia magna after 5, 10, 15 and 20 hours using a magnifying glass. A stirring rod can be used to see if the Daphnia are still alive.

7. Record observations.

Results

STEM and Innovation

Discussion The hypothesis was proven correct; the results indicated the Parramatta, Georges and Cooks rivers had the lowest survival rates of Daphnia; 0% overall, shown in Graph 1. The data corresponded with government data concluding that the three rivers had very low water quality due to widespread industrialisation and pollution (NSW Department of Planning and Environment, 2020).

For the experiment to be reliable, the results needed to show consistency in the three separate sets of data collected. Hence, this experiment was reliable, as shown in Tables 2, 3 and 4. The data collected on the Parramatta, Georges and Cooks rivers had a consistent 0% survival rate after the first five hours of testing. Furthermore, the survival rate of the Daphnia in the Hawkesbury River water was between 82.759 and 85.185%, showing similar results across the samples. This also applied to data collected on the control dechlorinated water sample, which had a range of 87.097 to 93.548%. All the data collected on the Hawkesbury River and control water samples had consistent Daphnia mortality, ranging from 0-3 Daphnia deaths every five hours, according to Graph 2, with average survival rates of 84.1% and 90.4% respectively, shown in Graph 1, which were very similar to the individual percentage rate for each of the three tests conducted. Thus, this experiment was reliable.

An accurate experiment must ensure that measuring techniques enable results close to the true value of a variable. This experiment was not accurate, as the equipment utilised was not suited for measuring the number of Daphnia in the water samples.

A major challenge faced in conducting the experiment was counting the number of Daphnia initially placed into each water sample. Whilst a magnifying glass was utilised, it was not accurate since not all Daphnia were made plainly visible, and thus, it was difficult to account for them. Therefore, estimates were made for the initial number of Daphnia transferred into each water sample, reducing the overall accuracy of results.

However, other variables such as the volume of water tested for each river type was accurately measured as a beaker was used to carefully measure 250mL four times to make up 1L for each test.

To improve accuracy, a light microscope could be used to enable clear observation of Daphnia numbers in each water sample (Royal Society of Biology, 2019). Furthermore, the heartbeat of the Daphnia can be observed under a microscope (Sci-Inspi, 2017). Using a microscope would ensure that the number of living Daphnia recorded was accurate, as the human eye cannot always accurately distinguish dead Daphnia from stationary Daphnia (Cornell University and Penn State University, 2009).

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An experiment needs to test the aim to be valid. This experiment was valid as there were four different local freshwater river samples tested, hence fulfilling the requirement of testing Sydney freshwater rivers. To ensure that there weren’t any other factors affecting the survival rate of Daphnia apart from the river water quality, dechlorinated water was used as a control. The experiment validity was affirmed by the direct link between water toxicity levels and Daphnia survival, as the dechlorinated water provided optimal conditions for Daphnia magna survival with no present metal pollutants or harmful chemicals. Even though the number of Daphnia in each water sample differed, this experiment was still valid by calculating the overall percentage survival of the Daphnia.

Whilst the temperature of the environment changed because the experiment was conducted outside, the experiment was still valid as the temperature which affected the Daphnia was the same for all the water samples.

A minor mistake made was the approximation of baker’s yeast used to feed the Daphnia in each water sample. Too much baker’s yeast can lead to bacteria blooming and cause the Daphnia to die due to a lack of dissolved oxygen in the water (Aquarium Care Basics, 2019). Too little food might cause the Daphnia to die due to a lack of nutrients. However, because overall trends were still observed without any outliers, this factor did not affect the experiment results much and hence it was still valid.

Another variable which could not be controlled was the natural death rate of the Daphnia due to age. However, this did not significantly impact results as this was a variable which would have affected all water samples and thus the experiment was valid.

As Daphnia magna usually live for between 10 and 30 days, and the Daphnia used were less than three days old, the impact of death rates from natural causes was reduced.

To improve efficiency, the recording intervals for counting the number of dead Daphnia should be reduced to five minutes to collect more data. Further investigations may use this data to compare the precise rate at which the Daphnia magna died for each water sample.

Furthermore, the initial number of Daphnia magna to be tested for each sample was reduced from 50 to 25-35 because it was extremely difficult to efficiently count how many Daphnia were dead and alive.

Another challenge faced in observing the Daphnia was the initial volume of water measured for each sample. It was originally 2L for each sample, but this turned out to be unnecessary as it made counting and locating Daphnia extremely difficult. Therefore, the volume was reduced to 1L, which was more manageable.

However, to improve future experiments, the volume of water could be further reduced to 250mL - 500mL with 30 Daphnia in each to make observation easier.

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The trends observed in this experiment affirmed our background knowledge indicating the high levels of toxicity and pollution in the Parramatta, Cooks and Georges rivers due to an overall 0% Daphnia survival rate. As mentioned in the background research, all three of these rivers have been affected by industrial waste at some point in their history because of industrial activity nearby and at present, they are all exposed to a high population density and high degree of urbanisation. Multiple studies have concluded that land use impacts the quality of surrounding waterways, with water in highly urban and industrial areas performing significantly worse than highly vegetated areas. These areas demonstrated higher levels of chemicals such as metal ions, nitrogen and phosphorus which mostly came from domestic and industrial waste (Ding, Jiang, Fu, Liu, Peng and Kang, 2015).

Upon further research, a study on the effects of copper sulfate — which often comes from industrial waste — reported that Daphnia have a 0% survival rate when the concentration exceeds 120 μg/L (Vilem, 2018).

A study of the effect of lead, another common pollutant from urban and industrial waste, on Daphnia has shown that the organisms died when exposed to 440μg/L (Altingdag, Ergonul, Yigit and Baykan, 2008). This could potentially indicate that these Sydney rivers have similar or higher concentrations of these heavy metal pollutants. Therefore, the significantly higher 84.1% survival rate of Daphnia exposed to the Hawkesbury River water samples after 20 hours (shown in Graph 1) could indicate the absence or lower concentrations of pollutants and toxins present in the water than the rivers running through metropolitan Sydney may have. This could be attributed to the low population density of the Hawkesbury area, the national parks offering the river environmental protection and the low degree of urbanisation and industrialisation along the Hawkesbury River.

However, the Daphnia survival rates in the Hawkesbury River water were still slightly lower than in the control sample. This may indicate some level of contamination due to agricultural runoff from nearby farmlands, as studies have found that nitrates and nitrites typically used in fertilisers have negative effects on Daphnia, including developmental and reproductive problems, even in low concentrations (North Carolina State University, 2010).

The control sample had the highest overall survival rate at 90.6% (shown in Graph 1), which was expected, as Daphnia survive optimally in dechlorinated water under controlled conditions.

With further improvements to this experiment, scientists and researchers can collect data to understand which Sydney waterways are affected most by toxicity. This data can then be used to implement strategies and potential protective, preventative and rehabilitation measures to reduce the amount of industrial waste polluting the water. Thus, the quality of water can be improved, and can be sustainably used for drinking, as well as to support agriculture, aquaculture and the tourism industry, as well as natural aquatic ecosystems.

STEM and Innovation

Conclusion This investigation tested the toxicity levels of Sydney freshwater rivers by using Daphnia magna as a bioindicator of toxicity levels.

The results showed that the Parramatta River, Georges River and Cooks River have extremely high levels of toxicity, proven by the overall Daphnia survival rate of 0%. The Hawkesbury River water samples had the lowest toxicity levels, aside from the control water sample, with an average 84.1% survival rate of Daphnia.

Acknowledgments Thank you to our parents, who helped us purchase the necessary equipment, drove us to different rivers, took photos and provided advice as to how we could efficiently carry out our experiment.

Thank you to our Science teacher, Mrs Juhn, for keeping us on track with our SRP, answering our questions and approving our idea. Finally, thank you to the Daphnia magna seller who provided us with insightful information as to how to feed the Daphnia properly and keep them alive.

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Cornell University and Penn State University. (2009.) Why Daphnia? http://ei.cornell.edu/toxicology/bioassays/daphnia/ Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment (n.d.)

Issues Affecting Water Quality. https://www.waterquality.gov.au/issues Florida State University. (2002). Water Flea (Daphnia). https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/olympusmicd/galleries/ oblique/daphnia.html#:~:text=Water%20fleas%20 NSW Department of Planning and Environment. (2020).

Cooks River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/water/estuaries/ estuaries-of-nsw/cooks-river NSW Department of Planning and Environment. (2020).

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Hawkesbury River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/water/estuaries/ estuaries-of-nsw/hawkesbury-river

NSW Department of Planning and Environment. (2020).

Parramatta River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/water/estuaries/ estuaries-of-nsw/parramatta-river NSW State of the Environment. (2021). River Health. https://www.soe.epa.nsw.gov.au/all-themes/water-and-marine/ river-health#references PocketOz. (n.d.) The Cooks River. https://www.visitsydneyaustralia.com.au/cooks-river.html Queensland Government. (2022). Metals. https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/monitoring/air/ air-pollution/pollutants/metals Royal Society of Biology. (2019).

Investigating factors affecting the heart rate of Daphnia. https://practicalbiology.org/control-and-communication/ control-of-heart-rate/investigating-factors-affecting-the-heartrate-of-daphnia#:~:text=The%20heart%20must%20be%20 observed,shape%20of%20a%20letter%20S. North Carolina State University. (2010).

Fertilizer chemicals linked to animal development woes. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/08/100827192023.htm Sydney Visitor Guide. (2023). Hawkesbury River. https://sydneyvisitorguide.com.au/hawkesbury-river/ Tourism Research Australia. (2023). National Visitor Survey results. https://www.tra.gov.au/Domestic/domestic-tourism-results Dictionary Gale. (2021). Bioassay. In K. H. Nemeh and J. L. Longe (Eds.), The Gale Encyclopedia of Science (6th edition). Retrieved May 4, 2023 from https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX8124400308/ SCIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmark-SCIC&xid=c77bfacc State Library of NSW. (2015). From freshwater river to estuary.

In Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved May 4, 2023 from https:// dictionaryofsydney.org/entry/river_cycles_a_history_of_the_ parramatta_river Online News Articles Hanrahan, K. (2022, Feb. 10). Sydney’s population is predicted to explode — this is where people will live in 20 years. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-02-10/population-growthoutstrips-infrastructure-in-outer-sydney/100816952 Lennon, K. (2015, Feb. 25). River has been a site of recreation and industry for centuries. Daily Telegraph. https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/river-has-beena-site-of-recreation-and-industry-for-centuries/news-story/ dda922a600a4ea465a4b821f4b01ebfd

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The Toxicity of Sydney Waterways | S O P H I E Y I A N D M E R E D I T H X U , Y E A R 1 0 , 2 0 2 3

Walker, F. (2006, Jan. 15). The river that died of shame: polluted, foul and neglected. https://www.smh.com.au/national/the-river-that-died-of-shamepolluted-foul-and-neglected-20060115-gdms71.html

Video

Online Document

Maps:

Carolina Biological Supply Company. (2013.)

Daphnia Carolina CareSheet. http://static.fishersci.com/cmsassets/downloads/segment/ ScienceEducation/pdf/CarolinaBiological/Daphnia-CareSheet.pdf

Author Unknown. (n.d.). Map of Hawkesbury River. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283564560/figure/fig1/ AS:470123019542528@1489097470171/The-Hawkesbury-NepeanCatchment.png

Online Book Ebert D. Ecology, Epidemiology, and Evolution of Parasitism in Daphnia [e-book]. National Center for Biotechnology Information (US) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2036/ Journal Articles Cui, R., Kwak, J. I., and An, Y. J. (2018). Comparative study of the sensitivity of Daphnia galeata and Daphnia magna to heavy metals. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 162, 63–70. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2018.06.054 Ding, J., Jiang, Y., Fu, L., Liu, Q., Peng, Q. and Kang, M. (2015).

Impacts of Land Use on Surface Water Quality in a Subtropical River Basin: A Case Study of the Dongjiang River Basin, Southeastern China. Water, 7(8), 4427-4445. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4441/7/8/4427 Müller, M. F., Colomer, J., and Serra, T. (2018). Temperaturedriven response reversibility and short-term quasi-acclimation of Daphnia magna. PloS one, 13(12), e0209705. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209705 Vilem, G. (2018). Effects of Copper Sulfate on Mortality Rates of Daphnia magna. Honors Projects, 1(340), 6-7. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1472&context=honorsprojects

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Sci-Inspi. (2017, Jan 6). Daphnia magna under the Microscope.

Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A4TRXFGV8Bg

Department of Education and Planning. (2021).

Map of Cooks River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/ieo/maps/ COOKS_LG.GIF Department of Education and Planning. (2021).

Map of Georges River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/ieo/maps/GEORGES.GIF Department of Education and Planning. (2021).

Map of Parramatta River. https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/ieo/maps/SYDHARB.GIF

FutureFit Footwear Business Plan

STEM and Innovation

ESTHER YUM Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Executive Summary This report outlines crucial steps for the medium-sized startup, FutureFit Footwear, to achieve long-term success. It encompasses vital aspects including Operations, Human Resources, Marketing and Finance, with the goal of ensuring stability, profitability, and risk mitigation. Detailed market analysis has identified the competitive advantages of using 3D printing technology to drive effective marketing strategies within the secondary and tertiary industries. The increasing relevance of this business is indicated through the expected $187.3 billion value of the footwear industry by 2027 (Gitnux, 2023). This plan establishes relevant milestones for success and guidance for predicted challenges. Additionally, the plan enhances the potential to attract investors. This report pertains to the initial establishment stage and spans the first five years of operation.

Overview of the business Prime function The business will produce 3D-printed shoes, customised to fit an individual’s specific foot shape and size, with personalisation available through the brand’s app and website. This allows customers to create a one-of-a-kind shoe that fits their requirements, whether they are purchasing sports shoes or footwear to cater for disability. 3D printing technology will allow the business to utilize thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), making the shoes lightweight, waterproof and biodegradable (Makenica, 2020). Technology will also be used in retailing and marketing processes due to its convenience and cost-effectiveness.

The business will operate as a for-profit business in the secondary and tertiary industries, manufacturing and selling shoes in-store and online. The primary objective is to increase the availability of affordable specialized footwear, catering to health-conscious individuals who lack affordable options. The business aims to establish a reputation for high-quality products while advocating for environmental sustainability through energy-efficient manufacturing processes and biodegradable materials.

Location of temporary retail store FutureFit Footwear will lease a pop-up store in Westfield Chatswood to increase brand awareness and minimise costs. With a high pedestrian traffic of 60,000 visitors daily (Willoughby City Council, 2023), and a growing population with high disposable income (Willoughby City Council, 2021), this location will attract customers who are likely to be willing to purchase products.

Furthermore, the proximity to competitors like Nike and Ecco positions the business as a viable alternative in the market. Thus,

locating within a popular shopping centre increases awareness of the business, proximity to customers and provides easier access to the target market.

This pop-up store will open every two months for the first five days of the month, displaying the business’ latest products and interactive models for engagement. Leasing a pop-up store in Westfield costs $2,750/5 days (Scentre Group, 2022), significantly less than the cost of rent for a permanent retail store, which is $125,000 annually (Real Commercial, 2023). This allows the business to save money in the earlier stages of establishment, while giving it adequate exposure to raise awareness of the brand and opportunities for face-to-face sales.

Location of warehouse The warehouse will be located on Short St, Chatswood (Real Commercial, 2023). This location is optimal due to its proximity to the pop-up store – allowing for same-day pick-up of customised shoes during the pop-up store’s operating weeks.

Chatswood’s central location in Sydney’s North Shore (Wikipedia, 2023) allows for easy access to customers from both the city and regional areas, resulting in convenient product pick-up from the warehouse. The property’s affordable rental price of $1,820/month (Real Commercial, 2023) and sufficient space, along with its location which lowers transportation costs, will assist the business in maintaining a higher profit margin.

Digital location The business is expecting the primary source of revenue to be derived from online sales due to the numerous advantages an online store offers over traditional retail stores. Firstly, online selling allows the business to reach a wider audience and enables purchases at any time. Additionally, customers can conveniently personalise shoes through the website or app, with the option to pick up products from the warehouse or have them delivered to their desired location. Secondly, an online store eliminates the need for a permanent physical storefront, greatly reducing overhead costs, such as rent. This allows for competitive pricing while maintaining healthy profit margins. Finally, an online store offers the ability to collect data on customer behaviour, allowing for better-targeted marketing and improved customer experiences.

Overall, online selling offers greater flexibility, convenience and cost-effectiveness for the business.

Legal structure of the business Selection to become a private company provides several advantages that cannot be attained through unincorporated legal structures such as sole traders and partnerships. This includes the limited liability for owners – making it safer in case of business

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failure (Chapman, Devenish, Gallina, 2021). Additionally, large funds are more easily raised through private investors, reducing reliance on personal savings, and allowing for greater capacity to purchase equipment, advertise and more (Chapman et al., 2021).

Private companies earning high incomes may also benefit from a lower tax rate of 25%, compared to personal income tax levels for unincorporated structures (ATO, 2022). Moreover, with a board of directors, risks and workload are better distributed and dealt with through a higher degree of collective competence.

Staffing Plan

Operation plan Production process The following chronological steps will be taken for production and are categorised into the three key elements of production processes:

Marketing plan Target market

Quality management strategy Maintaining quality is vital to ensure customer satisfaction, increase brand loyalty and drive business success (Chapman et al., 2021).

Quality Control (QC) involves the inspection of the product at stages of production as determined by standards. FutureFit Footwear’s inspection benchmarks will be based upon Australian Industry Standards for Footwear (aka. AS 2210). For example AS 2210 requirements include: providing grip on common surfaces, resistance to natural changes in temperature, correct product labeling, and more (Uvex, 2019).

The proactive Quality Assurance (QA) acts to prevent defects and will increase the business’ competitiveness as costs associated with waste products are reduced.

Finally, Total Quality Management (TQM) is a comprehensive approach that involves everyone in the organisation in order to continuously improve the quality of products, with a focus on customer satisfaction.

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According to primary market research, the optimal target age range is between 18 and 24 years old, a group making up 26.9% of the researched market. Advantageously, this demographic is techsavvy and possesses a strong online presence, which compliments the reliance on the business website as the main source of revenue.

This is supported by 61.5% of the market preferring to purchase online. Furthermore, the chosen target market is inclusive of both males and females, with a near 1:1 ratio of both showing interest in the business, providing the company a larger audience.

Main psychographic characteristics of the target market include an active lifestyle and a need for supportive footwear for daily activities. This is reflected in the fact that 65% of the market identifies with a health consciousness rating of 4 or 5 out of 5.

Thus, these individuals are more likely to invest in footwear that offers therapeutic benefits and an association with footrelated professionals. The majority of the market indicates they visit healthcare professionals once a month. Thus, this provides the business with opportunities to collaborate with healthcare professionals to reach this market segment more effectively.

The socioeconomic status of the target market will comprise individuals from middle to higher incomes, with the majority of customers being a little to very sensitive to price changes.

STEM and Innovation

Competitors and counteracting strategies New Balance is the primary competitor in the custom shoeshape industry (a.k.a orthopaedics), holding a dominant 44% market share in Australia (Francis, 2021). FutureFit Footwear will counteract competition by employing differentiation strategies by offering advanced customisation options that go beyond New Balance’s focus on customising only the sole (New Balance, 2022).

Through the technology of the app and website, the company will provide customisation for the entire shoe, including the toes, heels and ankles, ensuring enhanced comfort throughout the foot. Additionally, the convenience of allowing users to accurately measure foot dimensions through the app and their phone camera at home eliminates the need for external scanning machinery currently used by all other competitors (The Foot Hub, 2022).

Thus, the business is utilizing more modern, untapped technology to overcome competitors. Furthermore, the brand will emphasise the aspect of sustainability by using biodegradable and ecofriendly material currently only delivered through 3D printers, becoming the first sustainable orthopedic shoe brand in the Australian market (Francis, 2021). These differentiation strategies will help the business stand out from established competitors and draw in customers.

Promoting to the target market Strategy 1 – Personal selling The business will forge partnerships with healthcare professionals such as Chatswood Podiatry to enhance brand visibility and credibility. Statistics reveal that about 2/3 of orthotic patients purchase from hospitals, clinics, or pharmacies (Grandview Research, 2021). Thus, collaborating with industry experts will create brand advocates who engage with patients who regularly visit healthcare professionals. This optimises promotion efficiency as the healthcare professional provides publicity and acts as an opinion leader who will promote our products to the appropriate target audience, reducing the need for additional advertising. The business earns 100% of sales made in medical centers, however, a flat rate of $1,000/month is paid to partnering clinics.

engagement duration, demographics and more, allowing us to gather market data for future advertising campaigns (TikTok, 2023). Specifically, FutureFit Footwear will post videos showing customer experiences, the versatility of the shoes, and tutorials on customisation. Posts will also convey detailed information on the latest sales, pop-up store information and other practicalities.

Overall, social media advertising, especially on TikTok, has the potential to generate significant demand within our target market with minimal costs.

Pricing FutureFit Footwear’s shoes will be priced at $150 per pair, with an additional $5 shipping fee, if applicable. This pricing decision considers various factors, including market demand, the target market, and competitor prices. The cost of producing each pair is $18. This results in a profit margin of $137 per pair. Our pricing strategy will be competitive in the market, as it is lower than the prices of key market share holders such as New Balance ($200 + $15 shipping) (New Balance, 2022) and Rollie ($238.95 inclusive of shipping) (Rollie, 2023). This affordability appeals to pricesensitive customers and aligns well with the purchasing range of our surveyed target market, capturing 88.4% of the market within just a dollar difference. Additionally, our pricing strategy capitalises on the moderately high demand for customised shoes, with a price similar to standard footwear and lower than competitors in the orthopaedic market, serving as an incentive for customers to choose our products. A heavy emphasis on the sustainability of the shoe also allows the business to capitalise on the demand for environmentally-friendly shoes.

SWOT Analysis

This method also targets customers who prefer in-person shopping (38.5% of the market).

Strategy 2 – Advertising Given the target market’s strong online presence, advertising through social media, specifically TikTok, will be highly effective.

With 46.2% of our survey respondents indicating regular use of the app and online statistics indicating that 70% of TikTok users are under 24 years old (Khoros, 2022), the platform aligns perfectly with our target demographic. The cost-free nature of TikTok posts enables us to communicate product messages and essential information seamlessly (TikTok, 2023).

Online ads also have the advantage of reaching a wider, global audience through sharing capabilities. Additionally, TikTok provides valuable insights into viewer behaviour, including post

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Financial plan Start-up costs

Source of funds

Analysis of financial plan

The majority of startup costs, around $10,000, will be funded by family and friends, while the owner will self-fund the remaining amount of $4,402 from personal savings. Funding from family and friends offers flexible repayment terms and little interest costs compared to other options. Friends and family also have a higher risk tolerance and can provide valuable support and advice. Additionally, acquiring funding from family and friends is faster than approaching traditional financial institutions, with the added benefit of the possibility that some family members may consent to not recoup the funding.

The sales forecast’s peak sales trends can be justified by consumers purchasing more during festive seasons such as at Christmas and end-of-year sales. As the business matures from month to month, the production capacity increases as the consumer database and demand also develops.

Finally, utilising personal savings ensures a safety net from shortages of funding from family and friends. Thus, if funding falls short, missing support can be substituted with personal savings. It also guarantees the retainment of full ownership and control over the business.

The cash-flow statement indicates a relatively high closing balance by the end of the first year. This suggests potential inefficiencies in the use of financial resources. It is recommended to invest more into website development and marketing and promotion in the second year of business, which will allow the business to continually use updated methods of attracting consumers and harness the secondary target market further.

Consequently, the growth of the business will be stimulated more effectively in the future.

Sales forecast for 12 months from July 1, 2023 to June 30, 2024 Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Price/unit ($)

150

150

150

150

$150

$150

$150

$150

$150

$150

$150

$150

Total

Units sold

124

132

156

163

175

196

190

186

184

178

193

195

2072

Total ($)

18,600

19,800

23,400

24,450

26,250

29,400

28,500

27,900

27,600

26,700

28,950

29,250

310,800

FUTUREFIT FOOTWEAR PTY LTD.

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STEM and Innovation

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STEM and Innovation

Future prospects FutureFit Footwear aims to expand into a public company, leveraging the Australian share market (ASX) for increased financial capability and reputation. This will enable the company to open more permanent stores across Australia and venture into prominent international markets such as America, China and the UK (WorldData, 2021). Global expansion presents opportunities for large-scale advertising schemes such as celebrity endorsement and participation in major events. Hiring more employees, both domestically and internationally, as well as establishing a board of directors, will support this growth.

Complementary products will be offered, such as specialised soles with advanced tracking capabilities, aligning with the business’ health-conscious values. These soles will have the potential to determine user weight, body temperature, jump height and more.

Additional services like scanning and customisation will enhance the in-store experience.

Future product enhancements include sockless-ready designs and machine-friendly washing for more convenience and comfort.

Diversified product ranges tailored to specific sports or activities such as basketball, running or more office-appropriate shoes can also be offered. These strategies will expand the customer base and enable FutureFit Footwear to compete with established market leaders.

Overall, the expansion into a public company will be the first step to globalising operations and attaining a larger market dominance.

BIBLIOGR APHY Websites ATO. (2022). Company tax rates. https://www.ato.gov.au/Rates/ Company-tax/ Gitnux. (2023). The Most Surprising Footwear Statistics And Trends in 2023. https://blog.gitnux.com/footwear-statistics/ Khorus. (2022). The 2022 Social Media Users Demographics Guide. https://khoros.com/resources/social-media-demographicsguide#:~:text=TikTok%20demographics,-(Source%3A%20 TikTok)&text=Like%20Snapchat%2C%20younger%20audiences%20 dominate,under%20the%20age%20of%2024.

Real Commercial. (2023). Shop 8/409 Victoria Avenue, Chatswood, NSW 2067 - Shop and Retail Property for Lease. https://www.realcommercial.com.au/for-lease/property-shop8-409-victoria-avenue-chatswood-nsw-2067-504316880 Rollie (2023). Orthotic Friendly Shoes – Rollie Nation. https://www.rollienation.com/collections/orthotic-friendly Scentre Group. (2022). Westfield Chatswood. https://www.scentregroup.com/our-customers/westfield-destinations/ westfield-chatswood The Foot Hub (2022). Custom Orthotics: How They Are Made, Types, and Cost. https://thefoothub.com.au/custom-orthotics/ TikTok. (2023). TikTok for Business | Marketing and Advertising on TikTok. https://www.tiktok.com/business/en-AU Uvex. (2019). Footwear standards. https://www.uvex-safety.com.au/en/knowledge/safety-standards/ standards-for-safety-footwear/ Wikipedia. (2023). Chatswood, New South Wales. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatswood,_New_South_Wales Willoughby City Council. (2021). Community profile. https://profile.id.com.au/willoughby/individual-income?WebID=130 Willoughby City Council. (2023). Chatswood market hall statistics. https://www.willoughby.nsw.gov.au/Community/Chatswood-MallMarket#:~:text=Chatswood%20Mall%20Market%20is%20 a,travelling%20to%20Chatswoo d%20every%20day.

WorldData. (2021). The 50 largest economies in the world.https:// www.worlddata.info/largest-economies.php

Books Chapman, S., Gallina, R., Devenish, N. (2021). Jacaranda Business Studies in Action Preliminary Course, Sixth Edition. John Wiley and Sons Australia.

Images Francis, C. (2021). Medical Footwear Market Analysis [Image]. https://www.emergenresearch.com/blog/top-10-globally-leadingand-prominent-medical- footwear-industry-leaders-revealed Grandview Research. (2021). Global foot orthotic insoles market share [Image]. https://www.grandviewresearch.com/static/img/research/global-footorthotic-insoles- market.webp

Makenica. (2020, September 28). 3D PRINTING WITH THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANE (TPU) FILAMENT. https://makenica.com/a-complete-guide-3d-printing-withthermoplastic- polyurethane-tpu-filament/ Murugesan, G. (2022). Ultimate Guide on TPU Filament and TPU 3D Printing. https://electroloom.com/tpu-filament-guide/ New Balance. (2022). New Balance – Supportive Footwear.https://www.newbalance.com/nbrx/ Real Commercial. (2023). 27/1-7 Short Street, Chatswood, NSW 2067 – Warehouse for Lease. https://www.realcommercial.com.au/for-sale/ property-27-1-7-short-street- chatswood-nsw-2067-504187371

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The evolution of the Meriden Duck CANICE LEI Y E A R 10, 2 023

In Year 10, Meriden students compare the evolutionary theories of Lamarck, Darwin and Wallace. Lamarck’s theories were initially discounted in favour of Darwin’s and Wallace’s, however, aspects of his theories are now gaining credence, with the discovery of epigenetics. This humorous cartoon represents the Lamarckian evolution of the Meriden duck, a fictional breed, as it experiences changes to its environment. First, the duck experiences extreme rainfall which requires him to adapt by using gumboots, an umbrella and a rain hat. The rain leads to an increase in the height of the plants upon which the duck feeds and this makes it more difficult to obtain food. The Meriden duck adapts by growing a longer neck. Then, female Meriden ducks show a preference for mates with vibrant plumage, so the duck adapts to display boldly patterned feathers. Later, a goose from another school invades the duck’s territory, so the Meriden duck adapts by building muscle and obtaining a sword. Finally, Meriden is hit by an ice age, so the Meriden duck grows fluffy feathers and wool to help it survive.

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The ARK

STEM and Innovation

INDIA WHIP Y E A R 9, 2 0 2 3

DESIGN BRIEF Introduction My design brief was to design a flood rescue kit to assist households that may need to evacuate in moderate to major flooding. As we have seen recently in Australia, the occurrence and intensity of flood disasters is on the rise, and predictions are that factors like urbanisation and climate mean that flood risk will continue (Queensland Government, n.d.). Hence, People in floodprone areas should have a flood plan, and part of that plan should include an emergency kit if evacuation becomes necessary.

Figure 1 The Aqua Rescue Kit (ARK)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The aqua rescue kit, aka, ‘The ARK’ - provides items that may be needed in an emergency flooding. The design consists of a cooler/’esky’ bag, which floats on water, using principles of floatation and buoyancy. The contents are kept dry and protected in a clear airtight sealed bag, so the contents are easy to identify.

The outer layer is fluorescent bright yellow to attract attention. It is also wrapped with reflective tape to increase the visibility of the bag. It is envisaged that the exterior of the final product will be printed with important emergency contact numbers.

The ARK may be fastened around the neck (quick-release plastic buckle strap) to ensure it does not float away in flood or storm. It provides for the quick retrieval of items important for survival in emergency situations like floods or storms. The inside contents include LED head torch, emergency glow light sticks, emergency blanket, emergency whistle, small first aid kit, children’s bands, emergency drinking water, and important documents on a USB stick. The design could be extrapolated for use in a car, by designing smaller-sized ARKs.

There are emergency kits on the market, but none that are portable, and give the owner the ability to ‘wear’ the kit while navigating floodwaters. An emergency box or kit that needs one or two hands is not much use if you are trying to move to higher ground or evacuate carrying other necessary items, like young children. In situations where flood waters are rapidly rising, and floor levels of buildings have been affected, an emergency kit will also be impractical if it gets wet and/or is unable to remain afloat.

There exists a need to develop a flood rescue kit that is portable, waterproof, and has the ability to float. What goes into the kit needs to be relatively lightweight if it is to be ‘wearable’ and ‘floatable’. Its content needs to centre on items that can be relied on in situations where power might be lost and access to phone and mobile services cut.

The Problem A flood is essentially an event that occurs when areas, normally dry, are submerged by water (Queensland Government, n.d.).

Rainfall in catchment areas is the primary reason for flooding.

When rain falls over a catchment area, the soil and vegetation, as well as water storage facilities such as dams, ‘absorb’ the rain, but the remainder flows as ‘run-off’ into waterways (Queensland Government, n.d.). If the catchment area is small, a flood may rise quickly, and there may not be much warning or time to evacuate.

Where the catchment area is larger, though the flood water may rise more slowly, the impact may be more severe, with larger areas affected by the inundation that may persist for days or even months (Queensland Government, n.d.).

Floodwater is generally not considered as hazardous as wildfires or tropical cyclones, but flooding can pose a significant threat, especially because it is underestimated. According to Haynes et al.

(2017), flooding is Australia’s second-most deadly natural disaster, with people dying in their attempts to cross floodwaters on foot or by car.

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Flooding is difficult to predict in Australia because our rainfall is variable, particularly on the eastern coast, due to the El Nino - Southern Oscillation (ENSO). ENSO refers to the variable wind patterns and sea surface temperature changes in the eastern Pacific Ocean, which during La Nina, result in moist tropical air being driven across Australia (Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action, 2023). Last year, multiple La Nina events saw Australia suffering four flood crises in one year, where flooding cut roads to towns and caused people having to be rescued from trees and rooftops (see figure 2).

Design objectives Two important factors will make my product viable or not: •

Design function – the ARK needs to be effective in keeping contents waterproof and being able to float.

•

Design form – the ARK needs to be lightweight, visible, easy to store and handle or ‘wear’.

Assessment of initial needs The effects of flooding can be short-term or prolonged, and can impact individuals, communities, businesses, economies as well as the natural environment (Queensland Government, n.d.).

The people who will use the ARK are likely in flood prone areas or in areas which have previously flooded. The ARK could be incorporated into flood evacuation planning. The ARK will also assist in creating an awareness of the risk of flooding and the impact it can have on a community.

Areas of Investigation

Figure 2: March 2022 floods - Lismore - couple on their roof (dos Remedios, 2022)

An emergency kit should be part of a flood action plan to help mitigate loss of life or injury. It could be aimed at aiding individuals stuck in floodwaters by enabling them to alert emergency services to their whereabouts. For example, you could be stuck on a roof or on a car with rising flood waters and phone and mobile services cut, so ready access to an emergency whistle or emergency glow stick could be lifesaving.

The best possible solution The most effective solution was to design an aquatic rescue tool that did not sacrifice comfort to the point that the kit was ‘unwearable’, so it had to be both lightweight and sufficiently ‘soft’ to avoid discomfort and obstruction while worn around the neck or over shoulder. It also had to be both waterproof/resistant and importantly it needed to float. My focus was on the development of a flotation device that can be inserted on or within the base of the unit to enable it to float. Secondly, the device had to be lined with a water resistant or waterproof material that was also fluorescent to attract attention.

158

To design a product that was fit for purpose, the following areas were analysed: •

The needs of the target market were investigated in order to determine which items were necessities during a flood emergency.

•

Currently available survival kits were examined to identify gaps in the market and problems with existing designs.

•

The scientific principles of buoyancy and floatation ensuring the product’s floatation device was successful.

•

The sustainability and longevity of potential materials.

•

The best construction equipment for production, including instructions for safe handling and use.

In addition, materials testing was undertaken to determine the suitability of a variety of materials. These tests ranked the materials in terms of their buoyancy, imperviousness to liquids and longevity.

STEM and Innovation

Criteria for success The parameters for the design, construction and evaluation of the product were as follows: REQUIREMENTS

JUSTIFICATION

I WILL TEST THIS BY:

EVALUATION CRITERIA

Able to float.

The ARK must float to be fit for purpose.

Placing the ARK with its contents, and its outer lining cover, in the body of water, and testing whether it floats.

The ARK remains afloat and does not sink.

The ARK remains there for a period of at least 30 minutes.

Waterproof or water resistant

The ARK must float without its inner lining and contents becoming wet.

Placing the ARK with its contents, and its outer lining cover, in the body of water, and testing whether it floats.

The ARK’s inner lining and contents remain dry.

The ARK remains there for a period of at least 30 minutes.

‘Wearable’.

The ARK must be able to be worn around the neck with minimal discomfort and minimal to nil obstruction.

Observations and a survey of a focus group to feedback on use of the ARK.

Observations and feedback will confirm that the ARK is comfortable to wear and allows the wearer to use hands and arms freely.

Luminescent and bright

The ARK must be sufficiently bright, including visible at night, to attract the attention of rescuers.

Observations that the ARK is sufficiently bright during day and night- time.

Observations that the ARK is visible day and night.

Non­toxic to native plant and animal life

The ARK must not be made up of material that is toxic to plants or wildlife.

Demonstrate that floating ARK will cause nil native plant or wildlife death on or around area of floatation.

Unable to evaluate at this time.

More effective than similar existing products

Existing survival kits are not floatable and wearable, designed for the purpose of attracting the attention of rescuers during a flood disaster.

Placing the ARK with its contents, and its outer lining cover, in the body of water, and testing whether it floats.

The ARK remains afloat and does not sink.

The ARK must leave a small footprint.

Construction should be limited to use of sustainable material for the design of the floatation device, where possible.

Use of sustainable and renewable materials.

For future study.

The ARK must be safe, durable, and easy to maintain.

The ARK must be safe to users and the environment, and durable to withstand adverse weather and must be easy to store until use.

Use of sustainable and renewable materials, rely on information gained about materials about their durability.

Use of sustainable and renewable resources

The ARK must be easy to identify and access.

The ARK must be placed where it is easily identified and easy to access during an emergency.

Location of the ARK in a position that will allow users to access safely, effectively and Observations that the ARK is located in a position of easy access and is efficiently. Easy identification of the ARK.

Observations that the ARK is located in a position of easy access and is easily identifiable.

Observations and a survey of a focus group to feedback on the use of the ARK.

Observations and feedback will confirm that the ARK is comfortable to wear and is not obstructive.

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Competitors A study by Pickering et al. (2018) highlighted that there are gaps in evidence that exists for putting together a ‘grab bag’ or ‘disaster kit’ as a strategy for minimising risk in the event of a disaster.

The study suggests that there may not be sufficient evidence that ‘grab bags’ reduce demand on essential services or enhance preparedness for emergencies. That said, there are numerous government and emergency services websites (for example, Red Cross, SES NSW, Emergency Services agencies) that advocate for the preparation of a home emergency kit as part of a flood or bushfire action plan and/or to assist in times of natural disasters. There appear to be some ‘staple’ items common to the various kinds of emergency kits in existence, including particular items designed to attract the attention of rescuers if caught in floodwaters: torch, first aid kit, important papers, waterproof bag for valuables, candles and waterproof matches or glow sticks, emergency whistle, thermal blanket, small first aid kit and emergency water.

As the ARK is designed specifically for attracting the attention of rescuers during rising floodwaters, and based on the commonality of items across emergency services websites, the ARK will have the following content: a LED head torch, emergency glow light sticks, emergency blanket, emergency whistle, small first aid kit, children’s bands, emergency drinking water, and a USB stick (uploaded with important documents) in an air sealed bag.

Note: due to limitations on time, emergency water sachets were unable to be ordered and delivered prior to the due date; hence a bottle of water has been added to complete the content list.

The following table examines the strengths and weaknesses of the Ark’s existing competitors.

Competitor’s product

Strengths and weaknesses

The Deluxe 48 Hour BUG OUT BOX

The ‘Bug Out’ Box, on the website, Survival Supplies Australia, claims (n.d.) to be a great all-round survival/emergency kit, containing many essential items to prepare you for an emergency situation, including food and water rations for 48 hours.’

It has a larger amount of items within the box - including the items intended for the ARK. However, as its name suggests, the items are provided in a cardboard box. The ‘Bug Out’ Box is evidently not designed to be ‘worn’ in an emergency evacuation. It would require two hands to remove during an evacuation, leaving no hands-free for other essential equipment. If it was dropped in flood waters, the cardboard would collapse and fall apart.

The STORM SURVIVAL First Aid Kit

According to the website, First Aid Kits Australia, the STORM SURVIVAL Kit ‘will ensure you are prepared for storm season’ (2023).

The website advises that it caters to injuries caused by debris, hail, smashed glass, as well as helps you manage power outages by providing phone charging capability. It also has thermal blankets to ‘keep you warm if you are exposed to the elements’ The Storm Survival kit appears focused on first aid items, although does include a glow stick and hand crank emergency torch/ratio. It is made of rigid plastic and is unsuitable as a ‘wearable’.

The WATERPROOF BEACH First Aid Kit

The First Aid Kits Australia also touts the WATERPROOF BEACH First Aid Kit which has been ‘designed specifically for beach conditions’ to provide assistance with injuries from the surf, cuts from rocks and shells, sunburn and sea lice bites.

It is made from waterproof material and has straps that provide for the kit to be attached to bikes and backpacks. There is however no indication that it is floatable. It also seems large and cumbersome and unsuitable as a ‘wearable’.

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METHODOLOGY

Prototype Design

To achieve the criteria for success for my technology project, the following steps were undertaken: •

To research the principles of floatation and buoyancy to determine the most appropriate construction for the ARK’s floatation device.

•

To determine what material might best be used for the floatation device.

•

To determine what material might best be used for the outer lining of the ARK.

Principles of floatation and buoyancy Archimedes’ principle states that, ‘the buoyant force exerted on an object submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid that the object displaces’. In other words, the weight of the water that is pushed aside by a submerged object is equal to the force pushing the object upward (buoyant force) (Anderson, 2015).

As figure 3 shows the box experiences pressure at both the top and bottom, with a cross- sectional area of A. The force is calculated by multiplying pressure and area. The buoyant force, equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, must equal the weight of the box if the box is at rest. This buoyant force is equal to the difference between the pressure at the top and bottom of the box, Pt and Pb respectively. The weight of the displaced fluid is calculated by multiplying the density of water (A) with the volume of the box (V), which is equal to the area (A) multiplied by the height (h). If B is greater than mg, the box will float; while if mg is greater than B, the box will sink. The density of the box determines if it floats or sinks. If the density of the box is less than the density of water, the box will float; if the density of the box is greater, the box will sink (Anderson, 2015).

Figure 4: Final prototype designs for the floating base

The design process included many prototypes. Figure 4 shows the final design for the floating component of the Ark. The Ark was designed using the following materials.

Base: I considered both PVC piping and thermoplastic polymer 3D printing material as the base material for the ARK. My preliminary view was that the 3D printed design would be more lightweight and durable, so this was my initial preference. This was confirmed by analysis testing. However, the PVC piping was chosen as it was more readily available and quickly assembled.

Filler: Marine boat buoyancy foam (figure 6) with a ‘buoyancy force of 9806N (100kg upward force) per 1 cubic metre’ ( JPW Marine, 2023) was selected as the filler material for the floatation device to improve floating capability.

‘Shelf ’: In the 3D printed design, the ‘shelf ’ and raft base are one unit. The prototype used balsa wood as ‘shelving’. This is not ideal as balsa wood rots in water, is not a durable solution. The balsa wood will be replaced with a more durable material in the commercial kit.

Figure 3: The mathematics of Archimedes’ Principle (Anderson, 2015)

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Outer lining on shell To be effective the outer lining must be fluorescent and preferably waterproof. The most appropriate material appears to be workwear which is 190D polyester/PU and claims to be waterproof. The material complies to AS/NZS 46002: 1999 Class D/N, which means it meets the Australian and New Zealand standards for ‘garments designed for both day and night use, comprising retro reflective elements on a fluorescent or other nonretro reflective high visibility background material’ (Standards Australia, 1999). Unfortunately, it does contain polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which has been considered harmful to the environment, though more recent studies have indicated there are ‘high recycling possibilities’ for PVC (Papageorgiou, 2022).

Water repellent testing.

Figure 7: The ARK’s strapping

To ensure that I was making the best choice of materials I undertook a multi-criteria decision analysis, based on my selection criteria for the ARK. ANALYSIS Weight Alternative 1 (Plastic

Weighted Alternative Weighted score 2 score (Velcro)

quick release buckle)

Functionality 5

3

15

3

15

Lightweight

3

3

9

3

9

Durability

5

3

15

1

5

Usability

4

3

12

3

12

Comfort

3

2

6

1

3

Total

20

66

44

Figures 5-6: Water repellent testing

Source: (Taherdoost and Madanchian, 2023).

The term ‘waterproof ’ refers to a material’s capacity to withstand water and dampness. For a material to qualify as waterproof it must meet certain criteria, including passing a waterproof test. A water repellency test of the chosen fabric was undertaken (water repellency being the ability of the fabric to withstand wetting; Kim, 2022). Figures 5-6 illustrate the process used to test the water repellency of the fabric sample. The sample was placed down flat on a table with a paperweight and 250 ml of water was then poured onto the fabric for a period of 10 minutes. The resulting wet fabric was then compared to another fabric piece.

There was no difference between the two pieces, indicating that the degree of water repellency was 100%.

The table shows the effectiveness of the alternatives for the fixing that attached the floatation device to the kit of essentials.

A score of 0-3 was used to represent the effectiveness of the two alternatives, where 3 means fully satisfies the requirements, 2 means substantially satisfies, 1 means partly satisfies and 0 means does not satisfy. Based on this, the plastic quick release buckle was chosen.

FINAL DESIGN

THE ARK’S STRAPPING I considered both a Velcro and a plastic quick-release buckle clip cord strap as attachment devices for the ARK. My preliminary view was that the Velcro may come ‘unstuck’ with water (as happens when Velcro is washed), so I was leaning toward the quick-release buckle clip.

Figure 8: Final design for the Ark

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Product Testing I completed floatation tests on the PVC piping to determine whether the marine buoyancy foam value added to the floatation device. I hypothesised that as it was less dense than water, and improved the buoyancy thrust, the device would demonstrate an improved floating capacity, with larger amounts of foam filler. This was confirmed by floating prototypes with different depths of foam for a period of 30 minutes. Optimum buoyancy was achieved with 45mm of buoyancy foam (figure 15). The final product showed little change in submersion levels before and after attaching the Ark’s emergency supplies.

Figure 9 Base with 45mm buoyancy foam

The objective of this product testing was to indicate the effectiveness of the ARK’s floatation device. This objective was met, i.e. the floatation device is floatable when packed with the necessary ‘grab bag’ items, although further testing will be required to ensure that the apparent effectiveness is scientifically reliable and accurate. If time had permitted, the tests would have been repeated (to ensure reliability), and for longer periods (to ensure accuracy).

PROJECT EVALUATION Final project evaluation CRITERIA

MET OR NOT? /

COMMENT

The ARK must be able to float.



This objective was met because the ARK was able to float with its survival kits contents added. The testing was only performed once with each modification (½ hour in length). If time permitted, testing for longer periods may have confirmed accuracy, and repeated tests would have confirmed reliability.

The ARK must be waterproof or water resistant



This objective was met because the ARK’s outer lining was not wet following ½ hour submersions in water at each stage of the testing. Again If time permitted, testing for longer periods may have confirmed accuracy, and repeated tests would have confirmed reliability.

The ARK must be ‘wearable’.



Feedback from three trial users on the ARK to date, noted it is comfortable to wear, leaving hands-free. Further the material is sufficiently flexible not to cause discomfort or obstruction to the wearer.

The ARK must be luminescent bright.



The ARK’s outer lining is a luminescent bright yellow with reflective banding, which provides for visibility both day and night.

The ARK must be non-toxic to native plant and animal life

?

Due to time constraints, this was not able to be effectively tested.

The ARK must be more effective than similar existing products



The ARK is more effective than other existing products. There is currently no product on the market that provides for functionality in the form of floatability and wearability of the product.

The ARK must leave a small footprint.



The materials currently used in the working model are not quickly biodegradable, so that may be a factor that needs to be considered if the ARK is commercially produced. Materials like PVC may be recyclable, and the PVC piping has very good longevity.

The ARK must be safe, durable, and easy to maintain.



The ARK materials (with the exception of the balsa wood, which will not be in the final prototype) is durable. Safety to animal and plant life has not been tested. The ARK is easy to maintain and can easily be stored in a cupboard or pantry for easy access.

The ARK must be easy to identify and access.



The ARK is easy to identify with its bright fluorescent yellow colour, and can be placed on a hook - somewhere easily accessible.

/ not easy in the sense of time-consuming for the purposes of this production) /

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FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

BIBLIOGR APHY

Further testing needs to be undertaken to ensure the ARK is reliable, effective, durable and safe. The product has application as part of a flood evacuation action plan and the idea could be extrapolated for use as a car kit. The ARK could also be fitted with a wrist (paracord) attachment, to provide another alternative to wearing across the shoulder or around the neck.

ABC News. (2022, Nov). Rooftop rescuers and flash flooding after intense storms hit NSW. [Video]. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=detybK253ns

Considerations of health and safety and environmental issues are important. There is an ethical (and legal) duty to ensure the product is safe for people and the environment. The materials have not been shown to have a negative impact on wildlife or bird sources, but further testing may be required to ensure any negative side effects are minimised.

The ARK has the potential to improve the lives of people facing severe hardship and risk of harm. It can also be used as a marketing tool to assist in focusing communities on the risk of flooding and the dangers that arise as a consequence.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to both my parents for their assistance in completing my science project with success. Specifically, I want to express my appreciation to my mother, who played a significant role in this research project by acting as my unofficial mentor. My father was also instrumental in this endeavour, as he provided all the necessary materials and equipment for me to create my product and offered unwavering support throughout the project.

Additionally, I want to acknowledge Macpac for their advice and assistance in selecting the supplies for my emergency kit. Finally, I am especially thankful to my mother for serving as my mentor, as her guidance was crucial in completing this project.

ACT Emergency Services. (2019). Home emergency kit. https://esa.act.gov.au/be-emergency-ready/resources-plans/homeemergency-kit.

Aljazeera. (2022, Nov 15). Australians rescued from rooftops as floods sweep New South Wales. https://www.aljazeera.com/ news/2022/11/15/australians-trapped-on-roofs-as-floods-sweepnew-south-wales American Red Cross. (n.d.). Survival kit supplies. https://www. redcross.org/get- help/how-to-prepare-for-emergencies/survivalkit-supplies.html Anderson, M. (2015). Fluids Archimedes’ Principles. [Video]. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=wkVCKZeM0VY Bureau of Meteorology. (2023). Understanding floods. http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/flood/knowledge-centre/ understanding.shtml.

Conway, R. (n.d.). Rural Indians and Technological Innovation, From the Chinampas of Xochimilco and Beyond. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Latin American History. https://oxfordre.com/latinamericanhistory/view/10.1093/ acrefore/9780199366439.001.00 01/acrefore-9780199366439-e-530 Denny, S.A., Quan, L., Gilchrist, J., McCallin, T., Shenoi, R., Yusuf, S. … Quinlan, K. (2019). Pediatrics, 143(5). https://doi. org/10.1542/peds.2019-0850 Department of Energy, Environment and Climate Action.

(2023). Enso -El Nino southern oscillation. https://agriculture.vic. gov.au/climate-and-weather/understanding-weather- climateand-forecasting/the-climatedogs-the-six-drivers-that-influencevictorias- climate/enso Diymarta. (n.d.). Floating Water Treatment. https://www.diymarta. com/floating-bio- filter-island/ Dos Remedios, P (2022). Neighbours huddling on rooftop.

[Photograph]. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-01/lismoreresidents-recount-their-flood-ordeals-stuck-in-roof/100869384 First Aid Kit Australia. (2023). Storm Survival First Aid Kit. firstaidkitsaustralia.com.au Gissing, A. (2003). Flood action plans -making loss reduction more effective in the commercial sector. The Australian Journal of Emergency Management, 18(3), 46-54. https://www.ses.nsw.gov.au/ media/2554/flood_action_plans.pdf.

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Haynes, K., Coates, L., van den Honert, R., Gissing, A., Bird, D., Dimer de Oliveira, F., , D’Arcy, R., Smith, C. and Radford, D. (2017). Exploring the circumstances surrounding flood fatalities in Australia—1900–2015 and the implications for policy and practice.

Environmental Science and Policy, 76, 165-176. https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901117301818 Kim H-A. (2022). Water Repellency/Proof/Vapor Permeability Characteristics of Coated and Laminated Breathable Fabrics for Outdoor Clothing. Coatings, 12(1), 12.. https://doi.org/10.3390/ coatings12010012 Lewandowski, K., and Skórczewska, K. (2022). A Brief Review of Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Recycling. Polymers, 14(15), 3035. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14153035 .

Local Land Services. (2022, Nov.). Farm flood readiness kit.

NSW Government. https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/data/assets/pdf_ file/0007/798901/LLS-flood-readiness- 091122-web-final.pdf Meng, T.M. (2014). Volatile organic compounds of polyethylene vinyl acetate plastic are toxic to living organisms.

J Toxicol Sc, 39(5), 795-802. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/25242410/#affiliation-1 OCHA. (2011, Jan 31). How to: rescue people from a flood. https://reliefweb.int/report/australia/how-rescue-people-flood Pickering, C.J., O’Sullivan, T.L., Morris, A., Mark, C., McQuirk, D., Chan, E.Y., Guy, E., Chan, G.K., Reddin, K., Throp, R., Tsuzuki, S., Yeung, T. and Murray, V. (2018). The Promotion of ‘Grab Bags’ as a Disaster Risk Reduction Strategy. PLoS Curr, 10. doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.223ac4322834aa0bb0d6824ee424e7f8.

Queensland Government. (n.d.). Understanding floods: questions and answers. https://www.chiefscientist.qld.gov.au/data/assets/ pdf_file/0028/49528/floods-fact- sheet.pdf.

Survival Supplies Australia. (n.d.). Deluxe 48Hour Bug Out Box. https://www.survivalsuppliesaustralia.com.au/Deluxe48Hour-Bug-Out-Box-1- Person?gclid=Cj0KCQ jw2vgBhC1ARIsAOQdKY1KoOKWSZE9rRY-_ UoMTbbqtPbmI83kaPPvTgdShpTA1jefh5lGPnwaAjNOEALw_ wcB World Health Organization. (2023). https://www.who.int/health-topics/floods#tab=tab_1

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The Fishing Rod MERRYN QUANG Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

ABSTRACT

Impact on society

This report examines the functionality of a fishing rod and how its design features, materials and manufacturing processes create an effective product suited to a range of users and circumstances. The fishing rod is a third class lever which produces a mechanical disadvantage. However, the offset for greater effort is greater distance, allowing the load to be moved a comparatively greater distance than the effort expended.

Different rod lengths, in addition to load weight and effort placement, all have varying effects on both the effort needed and distance covered. While minor adjustments can be made to improve various aspects of a rod, the generality and scope of materials and mechanics available make some form of fishing rod suitable for almost any situation.

Fishing rods have facilitated fishing for over 4,000 years (Bejcek, 2014). Historically, fishing provided a low-cost and low-effort method of hunting. This gave people the ability to sustain growing populations and helped provide the foundation for the development of many major societies. Fish is now one of the main proteins for billions of people; The Climate Review found that “3.2 billion people rely on it for 20% of their protein intake” (Berman, 2021), and this figure rises to 70% for people living in island environments. Fishing also plays an important role in the local economy of many coastal communities by providing income (UTS, 2020). The fishing rod is an instrumental tool in improving the efficiency of fishing, and so provides the opportunity for both food and income.

INTRODUCTION

RESULTS

Historical development

Description

Fishing has been an essential source of food for humans for over 40,000 years, however, fishing rods were only invented around 4,000 years ago by the Chinese and Egyptians (Bejcek, 2014).

These fishing rods were made of thin, six-foot hazel or bamboo shoots, with a horsehair line and simple hook (ibid). In the 1600s, the reel was added, which allowed the angler to cast longer distances, catch heavier prey and achieve more control. By the 1700s, fishing rods were developed to suit specific circumstances, so we see the evolution of the fly fishing rod and the sea fishing rod. Materials used also evolved, moving from bamboo to various types of wood, then to nylon monofibre (The Fishing Museum, 2011) and, most recently, carbon fibre, graphite and fibreglass. While the core design of fishing rods has only changed in minor ways over time, the mechanics and materials utilised in contemporary rods have significantly improved performance and ease of use (Signature Fishing Rods, 2018).

Fishing rods consist of a long thin rod, known as the blank, with 5-8 guides on its underside. These guides reduce friction and ensure the line stays tangle-free when exiting the spool In a spinning rod, the most common type, the reel hangs below the blank, which makes long-term use more comfortable (Vermont Government, n.d.). The rod sits in the wielder’s dominant hand to increase control; longer spinning rods feature extended handles that allow users to cast further with more power. Spinning rods can vary in both weight and length, making them suitable for a range of settings and skill levels (Wallace, 2022).

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Materials Material

Description

Strengths

Limitations

Fibreglass

— Silicon dioxide + calcium carbonate + other compounds (Secrest, 2006)

— Flexible, so can withstand tugging and harsh movements of fish — More durable — Cheaper — Better for precision casting — Low maintenance — Resistant to corrosion (Trout Haven, n.d.) (Ryan, 2021)

— Not suitable for large catches or long distances — Less accuracy at greater distances — Not as much power — Lower sensitivity — Generally only available in shorter lengths (Paul, 2019)

Carbon Fibre

— 90% polyacrylonitrile +10% rayon/petroleum — Classified as organic polymers: molecules arranged into long interlocked chains bonded by carbon atoms in hexagonal crystal structure (HCP structure) (Zoltek, 2021)

— Lightweight — High sensitivity — Can cast great distances with fast action and high power — Better suited for larger fish — 20% stronger than fibreglass (higher strength:weight ratio) (Zoltek, 2021)

— More expensive — Brittle and rigid, more liable to snap — Faster action and less flexibility requires more technique and perfect timing — Not as resistant to salt water corrosion (DesMarais, n.d.) (Spinning Reel, n.d).

Polyurethane resin

— Resin base + curative + dye — Mixed together to form a liquid — Liquid is heated to cure and then compression or open cast moulded — Creates a shiny thermoset polymer (Polydrive, 2018)

— Generally waterproof — More flexible — Impact and vibration resistant — Retains glossy finish (United Plastic Components, 2020)

— Poor weatherability — Takes longer to cure — Can be hard to incorporate into a production process, sensitive to environment conditions prior to curing (Steucek, n.d.)

Epoxy resin

— Monomeric resin + hardener + accelerator + plasticizer in varying proportions — Cross links are formed with a hardening or curing agent to form a 3D structure, making it a thermoset polymer (Stirling, Woods, 2019) (Epoxy, n.d.)

— Hard surface coating — Can have specific properties - fast setting or chemical resistant — More durable — Can build up resin to create thicker coats — Easy to apply — Generally cheaper to produce (Matta, 2021)

— Greater rigidity can lead to long term cracking — Hardens quickly, so has to be worked with quickly — Requires exact mixing ratios to obtain certain properties — O ften requires high temperatures to cure (Epoxy Central, 2018)

Cork

— Bark from the cork oak tree boiled (to soften, flatten and clean) then sawed into whole workable pieces — OR cork granules are bound together with resin and placed in heated mould to set, then reamed and/or sanded into desired shape using high speed lathe (Gil, 2009) (Wine Anorak)

— Lightweight, low density (buoyant) — Easy to shape — Moulds to anglers’ hands over time — Less slippery when wet

— Lower quality cork may crack — Less durable — Harder to keep clean — More expensive (Bulmer, 2015)

EVA Foam Rubber (Ethylene Vinyl Acetate)

— Copolymer made of varying proportions of vinyl acetate + ethylene — Placed in an injection or compression mould; heat and bubbles determine density and structure of final product (Custom Case Group, 2017)

— Can be made in varying densities — Softer and less abrasive — Better long-term shape retention — Cheaper

— Tends to slip when handling under pressure — Not recommended for heavier rods as they provide less support when casting (NCOC, 2018)

Shaft

Resin

Handle

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Manufacturing process Modern fishing rods most commonly feature a synthetic fibre blank; either fibreglass or carbon fibre (Silvestre, n.d.). In order to create a fibreglass blank, varying amounts of sand (silicon dioxide), limestone (calcium carbonate) and smaller quantities or other compounds such as sodium carbonate and magnesium oxide are used (Secrest, 2006). The smaller quantities of the additional compounds act as a flux, which allows the sand and limestone to fuse together at a lower temperature (ibid.). This mixture is extruded through a die to create fibres, which are spun into a yarn and woven into sheets. Carbon fibre is a polymer with long strands of carbon-based molecules (911 Design, 2019) and is typically made from synthetic fibres such as rayon and polyacrylonitrile. These fibres are heated at high pressure and temperatures of 1,000-3,000°C, causing the fibre to lose the non-carbon atoms and causing the carbon atoms to bond together (Secrest, 2006).

The fibres are then coated in polyurethane or epoxy resin (911 Design, 2019) and extruded between hot rollers to ensure a consistent coating. Once set, these sheets are heated slightly to make them more malleable, before being cut to a set pattern (American Legacy Fishing Company, 2014). This pattern is then wrapped around a mandrel to obtain the tapered shape, and hotrolled to secure the edge of the rod (Secrest, 2006). Thin layers of plastic are then wrapped around the shaft, before it is heated to temperatures of 120-180°C (psyberspacesuperstar, 2008).

During this process, both the plastic wrap and the resin shrink, compacting and strengthening the fibres (Silvestre, n.d). The plastic wrap and mandrel are then removed, before the blank is sanded and polished on wet rollers (Favorite Fishing International, 2020).

Once the blank is made, the remainder of the rod is assembled.

The cork or foam rubber grip is manually added and sealed onto the rod using epoxy glue (ibid.). The guides are attached along the seam of the blank. The guides are held in place by tightly wrapped nylon thread, and coated in varnish to seal (Secrest, 2006). Finally, the reel seat is attached to the rod using epoxy glue (American Legacy Fishing Company, 2014).

Simple machines At its core, the fishing rod is a third class lever, with the effort between the fulcrum and load. The load is the top with the fish or lure and the fulcrum is the handle. The effort force is the applied force from human effort. As a third-class lever, a rod offers no mechanical advantage (MA). MA requires the load > effort, or the input arm distance > output arm distance. This results in a lesser amount of effort being exerted to lift a heavier load.

However, because the fulcrum lies at the opposite end of the beam to the load, this distance (the output arm) will always be greater than the distance from the effort to the fulcrum (the input arm) (Figure 2). This means it is impossible to get a MA > 1. Instead of having force increased by a MA, the speed of the load is increased

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instead, namely load velocity > effort velocity. This means that a smaller displacement of effort will result in a larger displacement of the load (Anupam, 2021).

These principles are demonstrated in Figure 4, where x5 the amount of effort is required to manoeuvre the load. However, the inverse of this shows that the load was moved x5 the distance of the effort (Figure 8), showing the velocity ratio (VR) of distance moved by effort (DE) to distance moved by load (DL) was 1:5 respectively. This makes this shorter fishing rod easier for beginner anglers, as the rod gives a relative distance advantage and is more accurate and sensitive (Rod Geeks, 2021), while still being easier to transport and manage (BassMaster, 2021). It is also preferable for areas with dirty or murky water, or heavy foliage cover, which are often factors when freshwater fishing (Schadegg, n.d. and Abu Garcia, n.d.).

A longer rod comes with its own merits and limitations. When the rod length is increased, it decreases the MA but increases the VR, allowing a greater distance to be cast. The rod twice the length of the original requires twice as much energy to wield, and gives half the mechanical advantage, at a MA of 0.1 compared to 0.2 (Figure 5). However, the VR doubles in turn, as seen in the 1:10 VR in the longer rod, compared to the original 1:5 VR (Figure 9). Longer rods are therefore ideal for clear or shallow water situations, where casting considerable distances is needed to avoid alerting aquatic life to the fisher’s presence (Thomas, 2020). They are also preferred for saltwater conditions, where casts need to be further from the boat to attract more favourable catches (Hanson, 2019). However, the trade-off for power is accuracy, and these rods are also harder to transport and use (BassMaster, 2021).

Changing the positioning of the effort point can vary the characteristics of fishing rods. If the effort point is further away from the fulcrum, it increases the MA of the rod for any length (Figures 6 and 7). While this does mean less effort is required to handle this rod, it also reduces the VR produced. In both longer and shorter rods, increasing the length of the effort arm produced a reduced VR, the difference of which is proportional to the change in arm length, reducing the distance cast by this rod with the same effort (Figures 10 and 11). This may be more appealing to beginners, who would benefit from the lesser effort required, and don’t need the additional casting distance.

CONCLUSION It is hard to determine which materials, manufacturing processes and rod designs are “best”, as all have their merits depending on the circumstances. If a fishing rod is made for a beginner, a shorter rod length would be ideal, as it requires less effort.

However, a shorter rod has a smaller VR compared to a longer rod, making it harder to cast long distances. A fibreglass rod is the most commonly used, as flexibility lessens the effect of sudden and jarring movements. These rods are also cheaper, which is an advantage to a consumer experimenting with different rod types.

Fibreglass is formed through extrusion and this helps to keep

STEM and Innovation

production costs low while still supplying a consistent product.

Although fibreglass has less power, this would not typically be an issue for those new to the sport. A polyurethane resin is an appropriate coating, as its greater flexibility increases resistance to cracking. It is also impact- and vibration-resistant. An EVA foam rubber handle would finish this type of rod, as its softer grip would provide a greater level of comfort.

If the rod was intended for a more experienced angler, a longer rod would generally be preferred. While this rod type gives a greater VR and can cast further, it does require more effort and therefore technical skill (Figures 5 and 7). The material used in the blank needs to withstand added weight and pressure, making carbon fibre the ideal choice. This is more expensive to produce, given the more complex manufacturing processes and high temperatures required, but this market is more likely to see the value in higher quality products. Carbon fibre is more rigid, which helps when casting greater distances, and also improves accuracy. This material is better suited to heavier loads, as it is 20% stronger than fibreglass. Epoxy resin is the most likely pairing with carbon fibre, as it is more durable, which improves the quality of the end product. A cork handle would be used, as its ability to mould to the user’s hands is ideal for more frequent users. Cork is more expensive, given the lower level of automation in the reaming and shaping of the handle.

RECOMMENDATIONS Fishing rods that are commercially available are well-suited to their designated purposes, and there is a wide variety of materials and design choices on the market. Where rod length increases, the VR and distance cast increases proportionally. However, at a point, the additional effort needed to manoeuvre the rod makes it impractical, limiting the scope of this adjustment. The longer length favours saltwater fishing, where distance is prioritised over precision. A longer rod would be unsuitable for freshwater areas, where environmental factors limit the distance available to cast.

The materials used on any rod could be upgraded to high-quality options, to improve the durability and lifespan of the product.

This could include carbon fibre instead of fibreglass, or highgrade cork instead of mass-produced EVA foam. However these materials carry a greater cost, which reduces the market demand.

So, while small modifications could be implemented, each potential improvement has its drawbacks.

BIBLIOGR APHY Government or Organisation Websites Fishing Museum, The. (2011). A short history of the fishing rod. http://www.fishingmuseum.org.uk/rods_overview.html UTS. (2020). Valuing Coastal Fisheries. https://www.uts.edu.au/about/faculty-arts-and-social-sciences/ research/fass-research-proj ects/social-science-fisheries/valuingcoastal-fisheries#:~:text=They%20provide%20the%2 0foundation%20 of,really%20nutritious%20source%20of%20food Vermont Government. (n.d.). Spinning Rods and Reels. https://vtfishandwildlife.com/fish/fishing-basics/fishing-rods-and-reels/ spinning-rods-and -reels#:~:text=Unlike%20casting%20rod%20 with%20line,single%20and%20multi%2Dpiec e%20versions Wikipedia. (2023). Fishing Rod. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_rod World Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). Threats | Overfishing. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing#:~:text=When%20 too%20many%20fis h%20are,like%20sea%20turtles%20and%20 corals.

Websites Abu Garcia. (n.d.). Choosing the Proper Rod Length. https://www.abugarcia.com/proper-rod-length#:~:text=A%20 short%20 Anupam, M. (2021). Mechanical Advantage of a Lever with Formula. https://physicsteacher.in/2017/02/20/mechanical-advantage-lever/ BassMaster. (2021). Fishing Rods: Lengths, Powers and Actions. https://www.bassmaster.com/news/fishing-rods-lengths-powersand-actions/#:~:text=Whi le%20there%20are%20extremes%20 on,affect%20both%20accuracy%20and%20distance Bejcek, M. (2014). A Brief History of Fishing. https://bouldercountyopenspace.org/i/history/fishing/ Bulmer, A. (2015). ROD HANDLES – CORK OR EVA FOAM. https://activeanglingnz.com/2014/05/01/rod-handles-cork-or-evafoam/#:~:text=Cork%20h andles%20tend%20to%20be,that%20 they%20transmit%20vibrations%20better Chat GPT. (2023). History of the fishing rod. https://chat.openai.com/?model=text-davinci-002-render-sha Custom Case Group. (2017). EVA Foam – 3 Things to Know (Cheat Sheet). https://customcasegroup.com/eva-foam-3-things-to-know-cheatsheet/#:~:text=EVA%20is %20a%20copolymer%2C%20which,the%20 more%20brittle%20the%20product DesMarais, M. (n.d.). Fishing Rod Comparison Guide. https://hikingandfishing.com/fiberglass-vs-graphite-vs-compositevs-bamboo-fishing-rods/#:~:text=Today%2C%20fiberglass%20 fishing%20rods%20remain,user%20more%20time %20to%20correct Epoxy. (n.d.). How are Epoxies Made? https://epoxy-europe.eu/epoxies/how-are-epoxies-made/ Polydrive. (2018). How is Polyurethane Made? https://www.polydrive.com/how-is-polyurethane-made/ Ryan. (2021). Why you should fish Fibreglass. https://flyfishsd.com/fish-fiberglass/#:~:text=Fiberglass%20flexes%20 and%20bends%20so ,which%20means%20catching%20more%20 fish

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Silvestre, B. (n.d.) How are Fishing Rods Made? https://www.begintofish.com/how-are-fishing-rods-made/ Spinning Reel, The. (n.d.). The Pros And Cons Of Carbon Fiber Vs Graphite Fishing Rod. https://thespinningreel.com/carbon-fiber-vs-graphite-fishingrod/#:~:text=They%20can%2 0be%20expensive%2C%20but,not%20 resistant%20to%20saltwater%20corrosion Thomas, S. (2020). Long Vs Short Fishing Rods. https://orbitfishing.com/long-vs-short-fishing-rods/ Trout Haven. (n.d.). Your Guide to Fly Fishing Rods. http://www.trouthavenguide.com/index.php/graphite-vs-fiberglassvs-bamboo-a-buyers-guide-to-fly-fishing-rods/#:~:text=Graphite%20 fly%20rods%20are%20only,flexibility%20an d%20response%20 of%20fiberglass United Plastic Components. (2020). PU (Polyurethane). https://www.upcinc.com/resources/materials/PU.html Wine Anorak. (n.d.) How cork is made? https://www.wineanorak.com/corks/howcorkismade.htm Wallace, R. (2022). Spinning Rods Explain: A Complete Guide. https://tacklevillage.com/spinning-rods-explained/

Blogs CNOC. (2018, February 08). Once and for All: Cork or EVA Handle?

CNOC. https://cnocoutdoors.com/blogs/blog/once-and-for-all-cork-oreva-handle#:~:text=EVA%20 is%20lighter%20than%20cork,is%20 much%20cheaper%20to%20make Epoxy Central. (2018, Marsh 27). EPOXY V. POLYURETHANE: WHICH COATING IS BETTER? Epoxy Central. https://www.epoxycentral.com/blogs/epoxy-floor-coatings/epoxyv-polyurethane-which-c oating-is-better#:~:text=when%20it%20 comes%20to%20hardness,applied%20to%20on%2 0these%20 surfaces

Signature Fishing Rods. (2018, April 2). History of the Fishing Rod. Signature Fishing Rods. https://www.signaturefishingrods.com/the-history-of-the-fishing-rod/ Steucek, T. (n.d.). Pros and Cons of Urethane, Epoxy, or Silicone Adhesives. Ellsworth. https://www.ellsworth.com/resources/insights/technical-bulletins/ pros-and-cons-of-ureth ane-epoxy-or-silicone-adhesives/ Zoltek. (2021, June 30). Carbon Fiber vs Fiberglass: What’s the Difference?. Zoltek: Toray Group. https://zoltek.com/carbon-fiber-vs-fiberglass/#:~:text=Though%20 either%20material%20i s%20substantially,check%20out%20our%20 previous%20blog 911 Design. (2019, August 14). Carbon FIbre vs. Fibreglass: Texture, Strength and Cost. 911 Design. https://www.nine11design.com/blog/carbon-fiber-vs-fiberglasstexture-strength-and-cost/ #:~:text=As%20the%20names%20 imply%2C%20fiberglass,fit%20any%20shape%20or%20 mold

Journal Articles Gil, L. (2009). Cork Composites: A Review. National Library of Medicine.

2(3): 776–789. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articlesPMC5445758/#:~: text=Accordingly%2C%20co mposition%20cork%20is%20 made,%2C%20melaminic%20and%20phenolic%20resins Secrest, R. (2006). Fishing Rod. How Products are Made.

Vol 5. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Fishing-Rod. html#:~:text=Modern%20fishing%20ro ds%20are%20made,are%20 wrapped%20around%20the%20mandrel Stirling, J. Woods, A. (2019). Epoxy Resin, Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference, 2012. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/ epoxy-resin#:~:text=Epoxy %20resins%20usually%20comprise%20 four,amount%20of%20the%20individual%20com ponent

Hanson, D. (2019, February 26). SALTWATER VS FRESHWATER FISHING RODS: WHAT TO KNOW BEFORE YOU BUY. Take Me Fishing. https://www.takemefishing.org/blog/february-2019/saltwater-vsfreshwater-fishing-rods/#:~:text=Light%20tackle%20saltwater%20 rods%20can,components%20that%20saltwater%20 rods%20are

Presentations

Matta, R. (2021, April 13). Polyurethane vs. Epoxy. Copps. https://www.coppsindustries.com/blog/polyurethane-vsepoxy/#:~:text=While%20epoxy% 20coatings%20are%20 hard,from%20moving%20through%20the%20coating

Videos

Paul. (2019, September 19). 3 Things You Might Not Like About Glass Rods. Demystifly. https://www.demystifly.com/post/2019/09/18/3-things-you-might-notlike-about-glass-rods #:~:text=Less%20Sensitivity%2D%20Glass%20 has%20more,difference%20in%20fly%20fis hing%2C%20too

Favorite Fishing International. (2020, November 20). How are fishing rods made? Production process of spinning rods.

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AL9vGSStjKE

Rod Geeks. (n.d.). Why Should I Consider a Short Fishing Rod? Rod Geeks. https://rodgeeks.com/blogs/news/why-should-i-consider-a-shortfishing-rod#:~:text=A%20 longer%20fishing%20rod%20has,The%20 sensitivity%20is%20extremely%20high Schadegg, A. (n.d.). How to Fish Heavy Cover Better. Lucky Tackle Box. https://rodgeeks.com/blogs/news/why-should-i-consider-a-shortfishing-rod#:~:text=A%20 longer%20fishing%20rod%20has,The%20 sensitivity%20is%20extremely%20high

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Chinmahapipat, N. (2017, March 1). simple machine (FISHING ROD).

[Prezi presentation]. https://prezi.com/xd9yyndmt5wu/simple-machine-fishing-rod/

American Legacy Fishing Company. (2014, October 2). How Fishing Rods Are Made.

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h3NJhPNW0fM

psyberspacesuperstar. (2008, October 7). “How It’s Made” Graphite Fly Rods.

[Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U9CdLg209_4

Images Snitovets, V. (n.d.) Fishing rod, spinning with bait isolated on a white background [Image]. Deposit Photos. https://depositphotos. com/53393047/stock-illustration-fishing-rod-spinning-with-bait.html Colson. (2016). The Reel. [Image]. Autodesk Instructables. https:// www.instructables.com/How-to-Setup-and-Use-a-Spinning-Rod-andReel/

STEM and Innovation

Edwards, D. (2023). Parts of the Fishing Rod. [Image]. Salted Angler. https://saltedangler.com/fishing-tips/how-to-choose-a-fishing-rod/ ASI Admin. (2021). Fishing Rod Parts. [Image]. Arts Sphere Inc. https://artsphere.org/blog/fishing-rod-handout/ Angelfire. (n.d.). Parts of the Fishing Rod. [Image]. Angelfire. https://www.angelfire.com/ia3/fishing/fishingrod.htm

APPENDIX Note: For all Figure 1-13 drawings, the scale is 3cm:1m (on paper)

Figure 1 - 3rd class lever

Figure 4 - 0.4m MA (the original rod)

Figure 2 - 3rd class lever with effort and load arms, + calculations

Figure 3 - The fishing rod as a 3rd class lever (the original rod)

Figure 5 - Rod of 4m, with 0.4m effort point and MA calculations

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Figure 9 - Rod of 4m, with 0.4m effort point and VR calculations

Figure 6 - 0.6m MA Figure 7 - Rod of 4m, with 0.6m effort point and MA calculations

Figure 10 - Rod of 2m, with 0.6m effort point and VR

Figure 8 - 0.4m VR

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Figure 11 - Rod of 4m, with 0.6m effort point and VR calculations

STEM and Innovation

Isometric depiction Scale 1cm:5cm (on paper)

Orthographic depiction Scale 1cm:10cm (on paper)

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How can drones coordinate by delegating tasks in search and rescue missions to assist firefighters in a limited time frame?

D A N I E L L E G A L L I CO A N D K E I R A TA G A N E S I A YE AR 8, 2023

Overview Dear NSW Rural Fire Service Thank you for your service in protecting Australians from bushfires. Today, we offer you our solution to enhancing the thoroughness and efficiency of your work: DGKT drones.

We have noticed that in high-stress, time-poor situations like search and rescue missions, firefighters experience resource, safety and communication challenges. Furthermore, the physical environment that firefighters are exposed to in these situations can negatively impact their physical and mental wellbeing.

Drones could provide a solution to these challenges. Since they can be controlled autonomously, they can take on tasks that firefighters would otherwise spend time and energy undertaking, and initiate missions that would present unjustifiable risks to human safety.

In this report we will detail for your consideration different aspects of our drone’s design and the tasks it is able to complete.

Kind Regards Danielle Galico and Keira Taganesia DGKT Corporation

We aimed to explore how drones could assist firefighters.

Drones are able to achieve a high level of coordination and efficiency. They can complete tasks that would put firefighters in considerable danger, including completing search and rescue missions and extinguishing fires. The use of drones would reduce risks posed to firefighters and increase the efficiency of search and rescue missions as the drones could work in calculated, methodical ways without being limited by the physical constraints that affect humans, such as heat, smoke and difficult terrain.

Aeronautical expertise In the case of an aircraft, lift is generated through the differences in velocity between solid objects and fluid. Various mechanisms, including Bernoulli’s Principle, Newton’s Laws and the Coanda effect help explain how lift occurs. Bernoulli discovered that increasing the speed of a fluid resulted in a decrease in the pressure of the fluid. Fluids can be liquids or gases like air.

When a drone moves, air is pulled upwards through the rotating propellers. This movement results in the downward flow of lower pressure air from above the propellers. Following Newton’s Third law, an equal and opposite reaction occurs simultaneously, producing lift. Thus, while air is being deflected downwards over the wing guards, the drone will be pushed upwards.

The aspects necessary for a drone to fly are vertical, lateral and rotational movement, and thrust, which is achieved through the drone’s four propellers. When the lift pushes the drone upwards it will move vertically, yet if lift were to act at an angle it would move laterally, due to some of the force keeping the drone flying both upward and toward the drone’s side. Rotational movement depends on the torque force, which allows for rotation. When torque force is applied, an opposing reaction will occur.

Due to the high-speed winds that often accompany a bushfire, our drone is equipped with large propellers, which deliver a larger surface area, increasing lift as per the lift formula (L = (1/2) d v2 s CL). Wing guards ensure consistency of airflow within the aircraft, allowing it to maintain a consistent pressure, and therefore a constant source of lift.

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Mechatronics expertise

Logistics of the design

Functionality through design

With investment from the NSW RFS, DGKT Corporation can build and deliver this potentially life-saving device.

We selected this design as it proved most efficient in assisting firefighters with search and rescue missions during bushfires. In terms of mechatronics, the design is simple, yet effective, featuring a camera with thermal technology, motion detectors to detect survivors and a canister of fire retardant. Our drone prioritises the safety of firefighters by detecting and mapping a clear path for firefighters so they can move through a fire-affected area in the safest possible way.

The drone carries a standard lithium-polymer battery at its base, which provides far more power and speed than alternative electric motors and gasoline engines. To mitigate the risk of chemical leakage, these batteries are well protected by the quadcopter frame that makes up the body of the drone. The frame has been engineered to withstand the high temperatures that come with a bushfire. It is insulated with aerogel, which is a lightweight material capable of withstanding temperatures of up to 200 degrees celsius. Aerogel is a thermo-regulating material, and keeps the temperature of the drone consistent so the components don’t overheat.

Within the exoskeleton of the drone lie the main components that make the drone fit for purpose: the camera, thermal detectors and motion sensors. They are accompanied by a CO2 sensor that can detect dangerous levels of CO2 and alert the firefighting crew, allowing for better communication about fire conditions.

The drone was designed with a heavy emphasis on the technology and principles of computer engineering. The camera, thermal and motion detectors are controlled by a “microcontroller”, a physically small but extremely powerful chip that features necessary communication sensors, such as a GPS, and telemetry communication that transmits all data to a computer. The microcontroller receives commands via radio waves, reads and acts on these commands, then delivers feedback through the use of electrical signals.

The materials and technology required are inexpensive and easily accessible, including thermal sensors, camera, flame retardant, administrative controls and hazardous gas detectors. Drones may sound high-tech and expensive, but a fire truck costs around $685,000, whereas a fleet of our drones (which can navigate any terrain) would cost but a fraction of that.

Technical expertise Technology utilised to implement our design Our design incorporates features such as a navigation system, thermal detector technology, a motion sensing camera, a normal camera, and a carrier containing a canister of fire retardant.

We have applied a navigation system which the drone will use to calculate the fastest and most efficient route for the firefighter to take when rescuing those trapped by the fire. The drone has the ability to release fire retardant in order to help control the flames and create a safe path through the fire. The fire retardant will be placed in a position that will allow for it to effectively reduce flames as soon as it detects them.

Furthermore, we have implemented thermal detector technology within our design to allow the drone to more easily identify those trapped and to offer them reprieve from the flames. The drone also has a motion sensing camera that will support the thermal technology, detecting not only the movement of anyone trapped, but also identifying if the fire is moving in their direction. A regular camera has been applied to our design as a safety net; if the other detection features were to fail, firefighters could monitor and control the drone’s vision and movement manually.

Additionally, the drone features hazardous gas detectors that notify firefighters of high levels of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, smoke, etc. The firefighters can then adopt the appropriate personal protective equipment to reduce safety risks.

The detectors are placed on the bottom of the drone to ensure the propellers do not affect the air reading.

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When deciding which technology to use to set the drone’s flight path, we faced some challenges, such as ensuring flight boundaries could be clearly set, taking into account restricted areas as well as acceptable flight paths for the drone if placed in autonomous modes. We identified Google’s “My Maps” as the most efficient and accessible program to perform the required tasks.

Below is an image of the code applied to the drone to steer its automated flight

Collaboration expertise Drones should be commandeered by calm, tech-savvy and efficient handlers who understand how best to support the work of firefighters. While the drones have autopilot settings and can work autonomously, their flight paths must be set on the navigation system. As such, their pilots should have experience with technology and an understanding of drone coding, as well as some flight experience. The drones are able to coordinate with other drones by dividing tasks among the group and they can be controlled in-sync for maximum efficiency.

BIBLIOGR APHY Fontes, J. (2023). Sensor Types. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermalsensor#:~:text=Thermal%20sensors%20have%20been%20 intensively,flow%2C%20acceleration%20and%20angular%20 velocity.

Communication expertise The drones will communicate with the fire department via radio waves, which have proven to be the most reliable in search and rescue missions.

Safety expertise The drones are, for the most part, safe. The only immediate safety concern is chemical leakage from the lithium-polymer batteries.

However, this battery is not exposed to flame, as it is covered by the quadcopter shell. The drones are designed to avoid collisions, with motion detector technology scanning for obstacles. Our drones are protected by a firewall, the cameras can only be turned on with the permission of the fire department and two-factor authentication is required for startup.

Operational expertise Our drone has a simple and quick operating process, which is necessary in high risk, time-sensitive emergency situations.

1.

Connect to the drone via radio control.

2.

Turn on the controls button and set the flight boundaries using Google Maps (optional if Google Maps is not available, however this will affect the drone’s autonomy).

3.

Place the drone in the take-off position.

4.

Allow for the drone to take off, travel to the flight boundary autonomously (or control manually if not available).

5.

If needed, turn on autopilot or leave on automatic control.

Analyse pictures taken by the drone. Send support if people are trapped and a rescue mission is required.

6.

Turn on other features where necessary.

7.

Land the drone.

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Google. (2022). My Maps. https://www.google.com/maps/dedit?mid=17VNiv1dINuXsk2YK_ jFSkjlgmVcsdqo&ll=-32.13188453253294%2C151.5644953&z=10 Monument Australia. (2010). Firefighters Memorial. https://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/disaster/fire/ display/33815-firefighters-memorial Narre Warren and District Family History Group. (2020). Critchley Parker Jr Reserve. www.caseycardiniaremembers.org.au/critchley-parker-jr-reserve/ NASA. (n.d.) STEM Learning: Advanced Air Mobility. https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/aam-sciencebehind-quadcopters-reader-student-guide_0.pdf Pyrosales. (2020). Industrial temperature sensors and thermocouples Australia. https://www.pyrosales.com.au/

VIEW DRONE VIDEO

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How has Lego shaped ideals and expectations of gender? A comparative study between Generation X and Generation Z ZARA CHAN Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Introduction My Mini-Personal Interest Project (PIP) aims to investigate the development of Lego over time, and how this product has shaped the ideals and expectations of gender across Generation X (1965-1979) and Generation Z (1995-2009). I have chosen to investigate this as I was intrigued by the seemingly stereotypical design of popular children’s toys in society, and wanted to look at how this affected people’s perceptions, ideals and expectations of gender. Toys, as agents of socialisation, have been found to have a significant role in the foundation of children’s perceptions and construction of gender and sexuality1 and, consequently, it is highly important to analyse the norms and ideals that toys promote in society.

Having had personal experience with Lego, I was interested in how this has impacted me personally, and how it has impacted those around me, and to compare these impacts with the experiences of older generations. This investigation will give me insight into gender, identity and the process of socialisation. I will conduct primary and secondary research to learn of the gender ideals, identities and norms that The Lego Group (TLG) has promoted over time. It will help me gain a greater understanding of the influences and agents which shape personal identity, understanding and beliefs, particularly in how the environments and objects with which we interact influence worldviews.

Furthermore, this investigation will improve my social and cultural literacy by helping me gain a greater understanding of the culture that underpins attitudes, behaviour and values, and to learn and observe how Lego, as a toy and agent of socialisation, has impacted the way in which society perceives gender at the micro, meso and macro levels of society. The research processes I have chosen present opportunities for me to learn how to undertake ethical research and communicate effectively to achieve greater awareness of how the process of socialisation and gender as a social construct have changed over time.

To investigate this topic, I intend to conduct a content analysis.

I plan to analyse the advertisements of Lego over time, as well as the nature of different Lego sets, to extrapolate trends

1 Salgam, D. (2015). International Play and Toy Congress Proceedings.

Ataturk University. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277507628_ The_Roles_of_Toys_in_Gender_and_Sexual_Identity_Co nstruction_in_Early_ Childhood p. 434.

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about possible targeting towards different genders, and gender stereotypes which Lego sets reflect. I will analyse these in the different contexts of Generation X and Generation Z to make a comparison between the Lego played with by the two generations, and to investigate how Lego has promoted ideals and expectations of gender over time.

My second primary research method will be a questionnaire, where I will ask questions of individuals from both Generation X and Generation Z on their personal experiences with Lego, and how it has shaped their expectations, ideas and beliefs surrounding gender. I will ask closed and open-ended questions to ensure I am gathering both qualitative and quantitative data and seek to include both male and female respondents to gather a wide range of opinions from the perspectives of both genders.

Central Material Chapter 1 – The Impact of Lego on Generation Z As integral agents of socialisation, toys influence children from a young age.2 32 respondents to the questionnaire were from Generation Z, 87.5% of whom played with Lego.3 When asked, “What Lego sets did you typically play with?” 23/25 of the female respondents replied with “Lego Friends”.4 Furthermore, when asked, “What Lego set are/were you most likely to play with?” (out of five options), 100% of the 16 respondents who selected Lego Friends and Disney Princesses were female, while 4/9 of Generation Z respondents who selected Star Wars were male. This highly prevalent association of sets with each gender is affirmed in my content analysis findings where, in the sets of Lego City and Star Wars, 92% of the Lego figures were male.5 These sets were associated with more physical fighting, construction and driving vehicles, contrasting with

2 Hodosi, T., Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., Schultes, M., Spiel, C. (2018). Parents’ Judgments about the Desirability of Toys for Their Children: Associations with Gender Role Attitudes, Gender-typing of Toys, and Demographics.

Springer, 79(5), 329 – 341. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ PMC6096664/#:~:text=Toys%20play%20an%20important%20role p.321.

3 Questionnaire, 55 responses, How has Lego shaped ideals and expectations of gender? A comparative study between generation X and Generation Z, distributed 26 May 2023.

4

Ibid

5 Content Analysis, Investigating sets and advertisements of Lego between Generation X and Generation Z, completed 1 June 2023.

Global Outlook

the “feminine” sets where female mini figures were depicted as domesticated; caring for others, undertaking beauty treatments and relaxing.6 This is similar to my experience with Lego, where I (female) was predominantly gifted with, and interested in, stereotypical “girly” sets, including cafés, homes, animals and hairdressers, while my male counterparts had spaceships, guns and planes.

Furthermore, male Generation Z respondents were more likely to have played with construction-based Lego such as Technic,7 while females typically played with more decorative, low-skill, role-play-based sets.8 This gender-based division of products, and their associated interests, activities and skills, promote stereotypical pursuits, including caring for children, beauty, fashion, and domestic life for girls, and STEM-related skills and interests for boys,9 thus reinforcing stereotypical gender roles, ideals and expectations in society. This corresponds with my analysis of Lego advertisements, where “technological” Lego sets involving helicopters and other vehicles, were portrayed with male actors, whilst Lego Friends was advertised with young girls.11 Additionally, when asked, “Would you say that Lego sets are gender specific?”, 96.9% of Generation X respondents said “yes” or “somewhat”.10 One respondent explained that sets with women “always take on a nurturing role rather than a ‘masculine role’ like building”, while another commented that, “Usually, females have Lego sets that use ‘girly’ colours like pink and purple… [boys’] sets use darker colours like red and black and advertise dragons, fighting, and machines.”11 This separation of “girls’ Lego” as fun, light and peaceful, and “boys’ Lego” as violent, dark and physical, contributes to the formation of stereotypical ideals and expectations of gender identities in children, particularly at an age where these expectations are consolidated.12 This formation persists throughout adolescence and influences young

people’s perceptions of generalised gender roles.13 Thus, the advertisements, gender division of sets, and portrayal of gendered figures within Lego has contributed to shaping stereotypical ideals and expectations of gender within Generation Z. Chapter 2 – The Impact of Lego on Generation X and Comparison with Generation Z When asked to complete a questionnaire about their experiences with Lego, 23 individuals from Generation X responded, with 87% having played with Lego as a child.14 When asked, “What Lego sets did you typically play with?” many of these respondents said “generic Lego blocks”, “mismatched Lego” and “houses and structures”, without gendered Lego figurines.15 When asked how Lego had influenced their ideals and expectations of gender, many responded that it had minimal identification of gender, and that “the focus was on creative building”, and the small blocks “had no gender orientation”.16 This perceived gender neutrality of Lego in the childhoods of people in Generation X corresponds to my content analysis, where I discovered 2/5 of the Lego sets analysed had no Lego figures,17 as the Lego mini-figure was not released until 1973.18 Thus, there was minimal association of gender with specific Lego sets.

This reflects my parents’ experiences with Lego, as the majority of their Lego playsets were made up of random pieces without full sets or characters. They found that Lego was about building and creativity, which contrasted with my Lego experience, which heavily featured female figurines, with preconceived roles and narratives for each, and greater focus on role-play rather than construction.

The gender neutrality of Generation X’s Lego is affirmed in my content analysis of Lego advertisements from the 1970s and 1980s, where 60% had equal representation of male and female actors playing with Lego.21

6 Ibid.

7

Questionnaire. (2023). Op.cit.

8 Pickett, D. (2012, May 8). Part 1: Historical Perspective on the LEGO Gender Gap. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/05/08/ part-i-historical-perspective-on-the-lego-gender-gap/ 9 Cheng, A. (2021, October 12). Lego pledges to make toys more genderneutral and eliminate stereotypes after global survey. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/12/lego-eliminatesgenderbias-stereotypes/

14

Questionnaire. (2023). Op.cit.

15

Ibid.

10

16

Ibid.

Questionnaire. (2023). Op.cit.

13 15 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

17 Content analysis. (2023). Op.cit.

12 Upitis, R. (2001). Girls (and Boys) and Technology (and Toys). Canadian Journal of Education, 26(2), 164 – 182. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602199 p.165

18 Pickett, D. (2012, May 8). Part 1: Historical Perspective on the LEGO Gender Gap. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/05/08/ part-i-historical-perspective-on-the-lego-gender-gap/

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A comparative study between Generation X and Generation Z | Z A R A C H A N , Y E A R 1 1 , 2 0 2 3

Consequently, 65.2% of Generation X respondents felt it had not impacted their ideals and expectations of gender.19 This contrasted with the 56.3% of Generation Z questionnaire respondents who said that Lego had shaped their ideals and expectations of gender,20 reflecting how Lego has increasingly shaped these concepts over time, as a result of products being targeted to each gender.

The beginning of this move towards gendered products is reflected in Lego sets from 1980 and 1992, where approximately 84% of Lego figures were male.21 These males were put into stereotypical “masculine” roles (e.g. knights and firemen), while the four female figures were pictured undertaking “feminine” and domestic tasks including nursing and chores, and depicted with lipstick, eyelashes and revealing clothing.22 When Generation X was asked, “What Lego would you have been most likely to play with?” 100% of the respondents who selected Lego Paradisa were female.23 The content analysis revealed that mechanical sets, e.g. diggers and cranes, associated with colours including red, blue and black, were more likely to be portrayed being played with by males, whilst the less technical sets associated with beauty and pastel colours, such as the 1979 Scala series were depicted with female models.24 This distinct difference between “girl” and “boy” sets is even more evident in the Lego of Generation Z. The Generation X respondents who selected “yes” to Question 7 explained that, “female Lego figurines were not prevalent” and that Lego “had little representation and roles for women,” likely in response to these later Lego sets. Beryl Langer explores this development in gendered Lego, stating that Lego, which was “bags of gender-neutral plastic blocks in 1947, moved through… desire-inducing packaging transformations [to] age and genderdifferentiated ‘stories’ in the 1980s and 1990s”.25 Furthermore, when asked if Lego sets are gender specific, 86.9% of Generation X respondents said “yes” or “somewhat”,29 whilst 96.9% of Generation Z said the same. Additionally, when Generation X were asked, “Would you say that Lego has become more gender specific over time?” 43.5% of Generation X respondents selected “yes”.26 This response affirms that Lego has become more gender specific over time through the increased inclusion of traditional gender roles and suggests that Lego has appealed

19

Questionnaire. (2023). Op.cit.

to the stereotypical values of each gender to gain profit.27/28 By presenting these stereotypical gender ideals and expectations as the norm to Generation X, and even more so to Generation Z, Lego has shaped children’s perceptions, ideals and expectations of gender, impacting the ideals and expectations of individuals in society today.29 Conclusion After completing this investigation, I can conclude that Lego, as an agent of socialisation, has shaped ideals and expectations of gender by portraying and enabling the affirmation of stereotypes, influencing the way that individuals understand gender roles and identities. In comparing the way this has influenced Generation X and Generation Z, I have found that the level at which Lego asserts traditional gender roles, thus promoting stereotypical ideals and expectations, has increased over time, so Lego has more greatly influenced Generation Z’s ideals and expectations of gender than those of Generation X. Conducting this research into Lego has given me an understanding of the cross-generational impacts of culture and agents of socialisation on my own personal, social and cultural identity, as well as the identities of those around me.

This investigation has given me the opportunity to expand my social and cultural literacy. My awareness of the influence of our environment, technology, agents of socialisation and gender on the micro, meso and macro levels of society has also grown as a result of both the primary and secondary research conducted.

Carrying out and analysing primary research in the form of a questionnaire was helpful as an opportunity to communicate and empathise with, and learn more about, the experiences, beliefs and understandings of different individuals in society who I may not usually interact with. Furthermore, conducting a content analysis showed me how to critically evaluate information in the media and the environment around us, and how this influences society and the individual’s worldview.

These research methods, however, could have been improved.

Whilst the questionnaire was useful in gathering both qualitative and quantitative data, the reliability of this data could have been enhanced by increasing the number of respondents, and making the number of male and female respondents more equal, so as to investigate the influence of Lego on each gender more fairly.

Furthermore, my content analysis could have been conducted on more than five Lego sets and advertisements for each generation, to gather a greater and more in-depth understanding of the stereotypes, roles and ideals present in Lego and Lego

20 Ibid.

21

Content analysis. (2023). Op.cit.

22 Ibid.

23

Questionnaire. (2023). Op.cit.

24

Content analysis. (2023). Op.cit.

25 Langer, B. SAGE. (2020). Children’s Culture Industry. In The SAGE encyclopedia of children and childhood studies. Retrieved May 15, 2023 from https:// search.credoreference.com/content/entry/sageukcacs/children_s_culture_ industry/0?institutionId=11095 26 Ibid.

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27 Qian, J. (2020, December 11). LEGO: The Marketing Strategy Behind the Toy Industry Titan. ContactPigeon. https://blog.contactpigeon.com/legomarketing-strategy/ 28 Pickett, D. (2012, May 29). Part IV: Historical Perspective on the LEGO Gender Gap. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages.org/ socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historical-perspective-on-the-lego-gender-gap/ 29 Salgam, D. (2015). International Play and Toy Congress Proceedings. Ataturk University.

Global Outlook

advertisements of that generation. Putting a greater focus on one type of data, rather than analysing both Lego sets and Lego advertisements, would also have enabled me to have a more detailed understanding of the specific content, as analysing two types of content took much more time and meant that both could not be investigated in-depth.

Possible bias could have arisen from my expectations when entering the project, as I was expecting Lego to have stereotypically gendered ideals and expectations. This may have influenced how I viewed and understood the results of my research. Furthermore, my own experiences with Lego may have influenced how I interpreted the content analysis, so the results may have been skewed to align with my own beliefs.

Despite this, I believe this investigation was largely successful, as I was able to extrapolate clear trends in the portrayal and relation of gender with Lego, and to understand how individuals interact with, and are influenced by, Lego as an agent of socialisation.

BIBLIOGR APHY Blog Posts Pickett, D. (2012, May 8). Part 1: Historical Perspective on the LEGO Gender Gap. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages.org/ socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historicalperspective-on-the-legogender-gap/ Pickett, D. (2012, May 29). Part IV: Historical Perspective on the LEGO Gender Gap. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages. org/socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historicalperspective-on-the-legogender-gap/ Qian, J. (2020, December 11). LEGO: The Marketing Strategy Behind the Toy Industry Titan. ContactPigeon. https://blog.contactpigeon. com/lego-marketing-strategy/

Books Salgam, D. (2015). International Play and Toy Congress Proceedings. Ataturk University. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/277507628_The_Roles_of_Toys_in_Gender_and_Sexual_ Identity_Construction_in_Early_Childhood

Content Analysis Content Analysis, Investigating sets and advertisements of Lego between Generation X and Generation Z, completed 1 June 2023.

The following sources were referenced: Lego. (1974). Lego Cover 1970s. [Image]. OverSixty. https://www.oversixty.com.au/lifestyle/family-pets/vintage-lego-ads Lego. (1981). Lego Expert Builder Advert. [Image]. The Society Pages. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historicalperspective-on-the-legogender-gap/ Lego. (1979). Scala Mirror. [Image]. The Society Pages. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historicalperspective-on-the-legogender-gap/ Lego. (1980). New Basic Sets. [Image]. Flashback. https://flashbak. com/lego-marketingmaterials-from-the-1960s-1980s-encouragedboys-and-girls-to-build-together-404973/ Lego. (1982). What is beautiful. [Image]. The Society Pages. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/05/08/part-i-historicalperspective-on-the-legogender-gap/

Lego. (1976). Basic Building Set 1976. [Image]. Brickset. https:// brickset.com/sets/year-1976 Lego. (1980). Lego Classic Mini Town.

[Image]. Bricklink. https://www.bricklink.com/v2/catalog/catalogitem. page?C=m80euto#T=S&O={%22iconly% 22:0} Lego. (1992). Seaside Cabana. [Image]. Brickset. https://brickset.com/sets/theme-Town/subtheme-Paradisa Brickset. (2012). Olivia’s House. [Image]. Brickset. https://brickset.com/sets/3315-1/Olivia-sHouse Lego. (2013). Heartlake city pool. [Image]. Fandom. https://legofriends.fandom.com/wiki/Heartlake_City_Pool_(41008) Lego. (2012). Police Dog Van. [Image]. Bricklife. http://thebricklife.com/lego-city-2012-setimages-and-details/ Lego. (2013). Lego City Summer. [Image]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/brickultra/8648765308 Lego. (2013). The Cage. [Image]. AdsoftheWorld. https://www.adsoftheworld.com/campaigns/the-granny Lego. (2010). Rebel Troopers. [Image]. Amazon. https://www.amazon.com.au/LEGO-Star-Rebel-Trooper-Battle/dp/ B002RL7W9C Lego. (2014). Lego Print Ad 2014. [Image]. 121 Creative. https://www.121creative.com.au/blog-ideas-that-inspire/inspiration/ best-print-ads-of-2014 Lego. (1972). Legoland town centre set. [Image]. Brickset. https://brickset.com/sets/theme-LEGOLAND/subtheme-Town Lego. (2015, January 16). Lego Friends TV Commercial. [video].

Behance. https://www.behance.net/gallery/22801301/LEGO-Friends-TVCommercial-%28forAdvance%29 The Toy’s Channel. (2013, October 18). Lego City – Fire Station – TV toy commercial. [video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/ifUr2-1c3QQ

Encyclopedia Article Langer, B. SAGE. (2020). Children’s Culture Industry. In The SAGE encyclopedia of children and childhood studies. Retrieved May 15, 2023 from https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ sageukcacs/children_s_culture_industry/0?in stitutionId=11095

Journal Article Upitis, R. (2001). Girls (and Boys) and Technology (and Toys).

Canadian Journal of Education, 26(2), 164 – 182. https://doi.org/10.2307/1602199

News Articles Cheng, A. (2021, October 12). Lego pledges to make toys more gender-neutral and eliminate stereotypes after global survey. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/10/12/lego-eliminatesgender-bias-stereotypes/ Author Unknown. (n.d.). The Generations Defined. Mccrindle. https://mccrindle.com.au/article/topic/demographics/thegenerations-defined/

Questionnaire Questionnaire, 55 responses, How has Lego shaped ideals and expectations of gender? A comparative study between generation X and Generation Z, distributed 26 May 2023

183

Do the effects of foreign aid contribute to economic development?

SABRINA CAO Y E A R 10, 2 023

Introduction

Consequences

Foreign aid is the international transfer of capital, goods or services for the intended benefit of the recipient country (Williams, 2022). Largely shaped by complex structural changes in the international system, foreign aid remains controversial in influencing global developmental economics. Decades-long debates examining the relationship between foreign aid and economic development in less developed countries have produced a myriad of inconclusive results regarding the effectiveness of its implementation. Economics concerns the study of scarcity, analysing its implications on the distribution, production and consumption of goods and services of vital importance to society (University of Buffalo, n.d.). Thus the effects of foreign aid on economic development remain a global issue, requiring analysis of differing perspectives between developed and developing countries.

Numerous early studies concluded success in a diverse range of contexts. For example, after controlling for the effects of trade, finance and government intervention, an analysis of thirteen Asian countries found significant positive impacts from upscaling economic development projects through funding public investments (Dowling, Hiermenz, 1982). This was similarly supported by a study of Sub-Saharan African countries. Reports too, have shown more viability to economic stability over the last 30 years of aid implementation – from 1.9 billion suffering extreme poverty in 1990 to 592 million in 2019 (Ingram, 2019).

Furthermore, theoretical proponents suggest foreign aid would lead to an increased supply of economic infrastructure and support. This supplementation of domestic savings in developing countries would therefore lead to increased capital formation and investment into the global trade system, and thus facilitate economic development (Graham, O’Hanlon, 1997).

Analysis of Global Issue Why do we use foreign aid in economic development?

Foreign aid, as understood today, arose as a product of ideological confrontations during the Cold War. This development assistance surfaced during the increasing polarisation between the developing and developed world, fuelling a fracture of economic relations (Chowdhury and Garonna, 2007). It began, not as a programme assisting long-term development in impoverished countries, but to facilitate short-term economic recovery after World War II. This period marked the structure and scope of current foreign aid programmes, traced to the implementation of the Marshall Plan and the founding of significant international organisations such as the World Bank (Phillips, 2013).

Shifts in political, economic, and moral allegiances caused greater pushes for international equality, garnering support for potential equitable economic improvements. Trade also acted as a powerful engine, stimulating increased market access and liberalised economic developments (OECD, n.d.). Thus, foreign aid was seen as a preventative measure for poverty; a way to distribute the selective allocation of resources to limit the effects of developing nations’ debts encumbered through the international economic system (Graham, O’Hanlon, 1997).

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However, other research found little impact on economic development. Mallik (2008) conducted short and long-run co-integration investigations on aid effects upon six of the poorest African countries. The natural record of foreign aid as a percentage of real GDP (inflation-adjusted total monetary value of goods and services produced within a country in given time periods) was observed to create adverse long-run effects on the log of real GDP per capita. The consequences thereby suggested none to negative impacts on economic improvements, citing little evidence supporting a correlation between aid and economics.

Moreover, the potential privileges for certain donor countries are highly debated. Important resources, such as oil or minerals, could possibly be unevenly distributed due to aid incentives.

Analysing 91 countries, a study concluded a consequential increase in government consumption, rather than investment or economic improvements (Moseley, 1980). This suggests a resulting higher corruption rate, unemployment rates and inflation.

However, research utilising more recent datasets (2005-2017) and larger samples of countries (122) also found suggested positive results. After including time-fixed effects, however, these also became largely inconsequential and statistically insignificant (Krazniqi, Demukaj, 2021). Further, quality of governance in aid-dependent countries typically garnered lower institutional quality and thereby low accountability and pressure to reform

Global Outlook

inefficient policies and institutions (Knack, 2000). The past 50 years of aid in Sub-Saharan African countries, for example, has failed to produce significant positive results, due to disruption by exploitation (Kasper, 2006). The consequences of foreign aid thus continue to remain largely contentious.

Global Perspective A growing global approach to reinforcing economic development and stability is through foreign aid implementation. Subsequently, a drive for broader international commitment exists; the expectation by the OECD Official Development Assistance that wealthy countries should provide 0.7% of GNP (Gross National Product; the total value of goods and services, including domestic and foreign investments, provided by a country annually) to assist poorer nations (Ingram, 2019). As the recognition of humanitarian concerns increases, focus on economically underdeveloped countries, and need for collaboration and mutual support in international relations also has grown. Concentrating on broader goals and outcomes of aid programs facilitates the provision of financial resources to improve economic promotional development. It is especially significant in addressing the structural inequalities and power imbalances existing globally, and to encourage greater economic justice on a worldwide scale (Taylor, 2021).

The post-war period saw rising assumptions that old colonial powers would progressively phase out direct economic aid as colonies increasingly became independent. Through this, multilateral organisations, including the UN and the World Bank, oversaw development projects as preferable neutral parties. They prompted cooperation and coordination among countries through specialised agencies, for example, the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, to globalise foreign aid values and establish foundations for developing structures and principles for aid effectiveness (UN, n.d.). This highlights the rising global preference for increased transparency and accountability behind foreign aid (Phillips, 2013) and the increasing perception of foreign aid as economic development assistance that aims to achieve global equality and, consequently, improved humanitarian matters.

National Perspective Foreign aid is fundamentally influenced by the self-interests and needs of specific countries and these impact its effectiveness.

Often, it is dependent on the perception of the flow of economic power; political scientists such as Carol Lancaster note the relationship between domestic politics and international pressures shaping how and why donor governments provide foreign aid (Lancaster, 2007).

In 2016, the American government proposed cuts to foreign aid funds in a bid for sovereignty, thereby drastically slashing economic development support through humanitarian aid.

It represented a major diversion from a goal to attain “smart power”; a strategy supplementing the ability to exercise force in gaining support from distant regions. This action prioritised domestic economic developments and influences over globalisation and international support. The US typically provides substantial assets to budget support and bilateral economic development programs (Congressional Research Service, 2022).

On the other hand, China is aiming to bolster its “soft power” (the ability to influence through persuasion). It demonstrates a different national perspective of evolving foreign economic development contributions to advance a more active role in international affairs. The research cited analysed Chinese economic aid responses to Sub-Saharan African countries. China offers grants and concessional loans, prioritising infrastructure.

It aims to expand its own global influence with the government encouraging domestic businesses to engage more in the economic development processes. This controls the implementation process by bypassing the public administration of recipient countries through its foreign aid process, making it easier for recipient nations to award increasingly essential contracts to Chinese companies. As such, foreign aid benefits Chinese economic development. Many African administrations continue to look favourably upon these interventions, desiring more visible forms of economic development (Banik, Hergertun, 2017).

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Possible Courses of Action

Reflection

One possibility is improving research consistency investigating aid effectiveness on economic development. Without considering and systematically identifying heterogeneous effects of all lessdeveloped countries together, the different factors do not define clearly whether it be underlying economic characteristics or specific factors of countries that influence the conclusions.

Initially, I anticipated a positive, linear correlation between foreign aid and economic development. My perspective was largely garnered by the numerous success stories highlighted through the media, such as the historic example of the Marshall Plan and its widespread impacts throughout Western Europe.

Furthermore, due to the additional domestic savings provided, I expected greater economic opportunities and investments could be capitalised upon, leading to accelerated economic improvements.

By separately examining in LIDCs (Low-Income Developing Countries) and HIDCs (High-Income Developing Countries) classified by the World Bank, studies can consider the vast differences caused by the observable and non-observable, such as financial, socioeconomic and political features. It offers several advantages: clearly outlining potential heterogeneous effects on countries through economic features and producing a more standardised sample from estimates studied. Thus, it can find concrete differences between the effects of foreign aid among different groups. Examples of results garnered through this method suggest that foreign aid’s effectiveness depends on the country’s development stage, conditional on controllable economic characteristics. As HIDCs appear to benefit more, it also suggests countries need to gain traction before the effects of aid can improve upon this momentum (Rahnama et al., 2017).

However, whilst this course of action is easily implementable as an innovative research strategy, it lacks immediate impacts, instead benefitting long-term projects.

Alternatively, establishing more macroeconomic frameworks behind foreign aid could ensure a more stable process.

Theoretically, it outlines personalised sets of policies, strategies and tools designed to promote stability and sustainable growth. This involves identifying key economic challenges and opportunities in specific countries, thereby developing monetary or trade policies and strategies to manage government spending and promote inclusive growth (World Bank, 2021). By providing a basis for planning, specific areas can be targeted and held accountable. This transparency is reflected in the scaffolding of clear goals and benchmarks, allowing aid programs to be critically evaluated concerning their impact on the broader economy. However, its sustainable approach undermines shortterm results. Thus it should only be implemented within HIDCs where developments are already underway. A further limitation is that the implementation process requires a highly collaborative effort between donor agencies and recipients, involving technical assistance and financial support, while recipient countries gradually gain independence and drive their personal economic developments. A macroeconomic framework could potentially mitigate the negative effects of administrative corruption, a highly influential factor reducing aid effectiveness (Isard et al., 2006).

Thus, it would be the preferable course of action.

However, various studies suggest the effects of foreign aid contribute beneficially to HIDCs in comparison to insignificant or negative benefits acquired in LIDCs. Through my research, I now recognise the complex relationship between aid effectiveness and economic development due to its dependent nature upon diverse national factors influencing individual countries.

BIBLIOGR APHY Articles Banik, D and Hegertun, N. (2017). Why do nations invest in aid? Ask Norway. And China. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost. com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/10/27/why-do-nations-invest-ininternational-aid-ask-norway-and-china/ Ingram, G. (2019). What every American should know about US foreign aid. https://www.brookings.edu/policy2020/votervital/what-everyamerican-should-know-about-us-foreign-aid/ Phillips, K. (2013). The history of foreign aid. ABC. https://www.abc. net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/the-history-of-foreignaid/5162100

Books Berrittella, M and Zhang, J. (2013). A Global Perspective on Effectiveness of Aid for Trade. [e-book]. Springer. https://iris.unipa.it/ bitstream/10447/78555/1/10.1007-s11079-013-9278-4.pdf

Encyclopedia Williams, V. (2022, December 9). foreign aid. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-aid

Scientific Journals Chowdhury, A and Garonna, P. (2007). EFFECTIVE FOREIGN AID, ECONOMIC INTEGRATION AND SUBSIDIARITY: LESSONS FROM EUROPE. https://unece.org/DAM/oes/disc_papers/ECE_DP_2007-2.pdf Graham, C., and O’Hanlon, M. (1997). Making Foreign Aid Work.

Foreign Affairs, 76(4), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/20048124 Isard, P, Lipschitz, L, Mourmouras, A and Yontcheva, B. (2006).

THE MACROECONOMIC MANAGEMENT OF FOREIGN AID. https://www.imf.org/External/Pubs/NFT/2006/mmfa/eng/mmfa.pdf Kahsay, S. (2019). The Effect of Foreign Aid on Economic Growth in Developing Countries. [e-book]. GRIN Verlag. https://www.grin.com/ document/537309 Mallik, G. (2008). Foreign Aid and Economic Growth: A Cointegration Analysis of the Six Poorest African Countries, Economic Analysis and Policy,

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38(2), 251-260. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ S0313592608500208 Page, A. (n.d.). Why Do States Give Aid? https://www.luc.edu/media/ lucedu/law/centers/ruleoflaw/pdfs/Page.pdf Rahnama, M., Fawaz, F., and Gittings, K. (2017). THE EFFECTS OF FOREIGN AID ON ECONOMIC GROWTH IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. The Journal of Developing Areas, 51(3), 153–171. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26416938 Lancaster, Carol. (2007). Foreign Aid: Diplomacy, Development, Domestic Politics. Bibliovault OAI Repository, the University of Chicago Press. 5. 10.1017/S1537592707072738. http://ewclass.lecture. ub.ac.id/files/2019/01/Carol_Lancaster_Foreign_Aid_Diplomacy_ DevelopmBookFi.org_.pdf Albian Krasniqi and Venera Demukaj (2021) Does aid fuel corruption?

New evidence from a cross-country analysis, Development Studies Research, 8:1, 122-134, DOI: 10.1080/21665095.2021.1919538

Government/International Organisation Publications Congressional Research Service. (2022).

Foreign Assistance: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R40213 OECD. (n.d.). AID FOR TRADE: IS IT WORKING? https://www.oecd.org/dac/aft/45581702.pdf UK Parliament. (2021). Importance of Foreign Aid Programme. https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/importance-of-foreign-aidprogramme/ UN. (n.d.). Humanitarian Assistance. https://www.un.org/ ruleoflaw/thematic-areas/international-law-courts-tribunals/ humanitarian-assistance/#:~:text=The%20Office%20for%20the%20 Coordination,responsible%20for%20providing%20emergency%20 relief.

World Bank. (2021). Macroeconomics. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/macroeconomics/overview#2

Reports University at Buffalo. (n.d.). What is Economics? https://arts-sciences.buffalo.edu/economics/about/what-is-economics. html#:~:text=Economics%20is%20the%20study%20of,of%20 vital%20concern%20to%20society.

Veiderpass, A and Andersson, P. (2007).

Foreign aid, economic growth and efficiency development. https://www.oecd.org/derec/sweden/foreignaid.pdf

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Should the natural habitat of species be protected from deforestation?

A M R I TA WA D H E R A Y E A R 10, 2 023

Introduction Deforestation is the clearing of forested land through natural causes, such as fire, or human activity, such as logging and agriculture, for either commercial or strategic reasons (National Geographic, n.d.). This can result in significant environmental, economic and social consequences which may be beneficial or negative for individuals as well as the broader environment, leading to varying perspectives on this topic. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, it is estimated that 7.3 million hectares of forested land are lost every year (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.). The issue of deforestation is particularly prevalent in tropical regions (National Geographic, n.d.), including Brazil, which lost 62.8 million hectares of tree cover from 2001 to 2021 (Global Forest Watch, 2022).

A major impact of deforestation is its effect on biodiversity and weakening ecosystems. According to the World Wildlife Fund, more than three quarters of the world’s documented land-based species inhabit forests (WWF, n.d.), which means that when the trees that provide food, water and shelter are cleared, thousands of species that coexist in these areas are unable to survive and eventually become extinct (The Royal Society, n.d.). Biodiversity and ecosystems are fundamental in sustaining all life on Earth as they provide ecological services such as clean air and water, food and pest control (Biodiversity Conservation Trust, n.d.). However, in countries with developing economies, immediate economic gains are prioritised over forest preservation due to commodity production and the conversion of land, which generates large sums of money (Action Aid Recycling, n.d.).

Causes of deforestation Forests are cleared for a range of reasons, and most are due to the growth of the human population, which has increased the need for raw materials. The main cause of deforestation is agriculture, which accounts for 85% of deforestation globally (Weeden, 2020).

This rising demand for food and other agricultural resources has led to increased incentives to convert forests to farm and ranch land, where livestock can be raised and crops can be grown (WWF, n.d.). Whilst these subsistence activities dominate deforestation driven by agriculture, tree clearing for commercial agriculture is becoming increasingly common. This includes large-scale cattle ranching and soybean production in Brazil, as well as palm tree plantations in Borneo and Sumatra (NASA Earth Observatory, 2007).

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Logging is another cause of deforestation. This is due to the rising demand for wood products around the world, as timber is a valuable resource for cooking, heating, furniture and paper products, and is used for fuel as charcoal or fuelwood (Conserve Energy Future, n.d.). Furthermore, the demand for minerals has necessitated the construction of mines, as well as roads for transport, which has amplified deforestation near the mines.

Land has also been deforested for other infrastructure due to urbanisation, as forests are cleared for the expansion of cities and settlements (Weeden, 2020).

Deforestation can also occur through natural means, such as climate change. This includes extreme weather events such as wildfires and droughts, and an increase in pests, diseases and invasive species (Weeden, 2020). Fire can be a beneficial element to forests and ecosystems, however, at high intensity and frequency, it can destroy millions of hectares of forests yearly (WWF, n.d.). This problem is exacerbated by climate change, as higher temperatures cause more frequent and severe fires. These causes of deforestation are often interconnected, for example, logging causes forests to become more susceptible to fire and forests can be degraded by accidental repeated fire from adjacent farms (NASA Earth Observatory, 2007).

Consequences of deforestation Deforestation directly damages biodiversity and weakens ecosystems through the loss of natural habitat. In order to thrive, species require suitable habitats to eat, sleep, breed and escape predators. However, when these areas are cleared, they do not have access to these essential resources and instead face new threats. The shrinking and division of forests means that the remaining land becomes unable to support large populations, leading to a loss of genetic biodiversity through increased competition and disease transmission, decreased ability to find mates, and increased likelihood of predation. The fragmentation of forests increases interaction between humans and wildlife, making it more likely for animals to wander onto roads and be hit by cars or to be hunted due to increased accessibility (Stand for Trees, 2021).

Moreover, deforestation has drastic consequences on climate change, and accounts for 10% of all global warming (WWF, n.d.). Forests play a critical role in regulating the global climate and upholding air quality. Trees filter carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen, while forests serve as carbon sinks and mitigate the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse

Global Outlook

gases. However, when they are cut down, burned or removed, they emit carbon into the atmosphere, instead of absorbing it. The emissions of these greenhouse gases directly contribute to climate change, leading to rising temperatures, changes in weather patterns, and an increased frequency of extreme weather events around the world. As climate change is a cause of deforestation, it perpetuates a cycle of forest loss (Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection, 2022).

There are several other negative consequences of deforestation.

Clearing trees prohibits transpiration, which is the process by which trees release water from the soil through their leaves. This disrupts the water cycle and leads to frequent and severe droughts.

Deforestation has caused a 25% decrease in precipitation in Texas (Earth Reminder, 2022). It also causes soil erosion, because trees anchor fertile soil, protecting it from being eroded and washed away. Further, 1.25 billion people, including 60 million Indigenous people, rely on forests for food, medicine and cultural resources. Deforestation disrupts the livelihoods of these people.

However, there can be positive effects of deforestation. As land is cleared for agriculture, this provides food and other materials needed to sustain the growing human population.

The construction of infrastructure, such as roads, leads to greater accessibility and allows for industrialisation. Further, deforestation provides rapid economic growth due to the resources obtained from clearing trees, as well as agricultural activity, the yields of which can be exported.

Global perspectives Globally, the detrimental effects of deforestation on biodiversity are recognised as a significant environmental concern. This is reflected by the United Nations, as their agencies, development institutions and other organisations, prevent and reverse the degradation of ecosystems caused by deforestation through several initiatives (UN Environment Programme, 2021). An example of this is the Sustainable Development Goal 15.2, which aims to promote afforestation and reforestation, and Goal 15.5, which involves taking action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats and prevent the loss of biodiversity (United Nations, n.d.). At the COP26 United Nations Climate Change Conference, over 100 world leaders made a pledge to cease and reverse deforestation by 2030 (UN Environment Programme, 2021).

National perspectives However, in Brazil, natural resources are exploited for economic growth at the expense of its rich biodiversity. The Amazon rainforest is home to over three million species, however, one million of these are at risk of extinction (Thomson, 2020). The main driver for this is the deforestation of land for cattle farming, which is one of Brazil’s largest industries and, in 2018, the country exported $6 billion worth of beef, which is more than any other nation in history (Sandy, n.d.). Other factors that contribute to deforestation in Brazil include a lack of sufficient governance and law enforcement to curb illegal mining and logging. This is demonstrated by Brazil’s former president, Jair Bolsonaro, who stripped enforcement measures, reduced funding for science and environmental agencies, dismissed environmental experts, and advocated for the weakening of Indigenous land rights to support the agribusiness industry. As a result, deforestation rates increased by 52% under President Bolsonaro ( Jones, 2022).

Courses of action A potential course of action that could be taken to protect species from deforestation would be to restrict agricultural expansion near forests. As previously stated, agriculture is the primary cause for the clearing of land, thus, addressing this would be an effective strategy to make a significant impact. One way to achieve this is through the use of zoned land, whereby the government designates certain areas to be protected from being cut down for farming or livestock or to be strictly regulated to ensure these activities are not affecting closed ecosystems. This course of action would be relatively easy to implement as governments have the power and ability to enforce such measures. However, people in the agriculture sector may not agree with the use of zoning, as it means there would be less farmland and jobs, and thus, less revenue generated.

Another course of action that could be taken to curb the impact of agricultural deforestation on biodiversity is to promote sustainable farming techniques. Governments could achieve this by offering financial incentives to farmers who use sustainable agricultural practices. For example, they could be encouraged to use agroforestry, which involves integrating trees and shrubs into farmland in a way that mimics natural forest ecosystems (Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research, 2021). These farming techniques could be further promoted by

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differentiating products made by sustainable means, for example, with a label. Many consumers would choose these products over non-sustainable counterparts, increasing motivation for farmers to adopt this approach. This strategy would be preferred over the previous course of action because it is more practical, as it protects forests and biodiversity whilst also providing economic benefits and resources for people.

Personal perspective and conclusion Before researching and writing this report, I believed that deforestation should be prohibited to protect species from harm and extinction. This perspective was impacted by my research on Brazil’s outlook on this issue, as I learnt that deforestation brings significant economic growth to many people through conversion to agricultural land and logging. This information gave me a greater understanding of the causes of deforestation and its positive aspects. However, this positive impact has short-term benefits, and there are many other negative consequences which outweigh these in the long run, including a significant loss of species, which are necessary to support all life on Earth, including humans. Deforestation also contributes to climate change, affects water and soil, and disrupts livelihoods. Ultimately, my research has led me to believe that the natural habitat of species should be protected from deforestation.

BIBLIOGR APHY Websites Action Aid Recycling. (n.d.). The Economic Effect of Deforestation. https://actionaidrecycling.org.uk/economic-effect-of-deforestation/ Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research. (2021).

Agroforestry Helps Farmers Make Greener Land and Better Life. https://www.aciar.gov.au/media-search/blogs/agroforestry-helpsfarmers-make-greener-land-and-better-life Biodiversity Conservation Trust. (n.d.). What is Biodiversity and why is it Important? https://www.bct.nsw.gov.au/what-biodiversity-and-why-itimportant Conserve Energy Future. (n.d.). Deforestation- Causes, Effects and Solutions to Clearing of Forests https://www.conserve-energy-future. com/causes-effects-solutions-of-deforestation.php Earth Reminder. (2022). How does Deforestation Affect the Water Cycle? https://www.earthreminder.com/how-does-deforestation-affect-thewater-cycle/ Global Forest Watch. (2022). Brazil. www.globalforestwatch.org NASA Earth Observatory. (2007). Causes of Deforestation: Direct Causes https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Deforestation

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National Geographic. (n.d.). Deforestation. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/deforestation/ Sandy, M. (n.d.). The Amazon Rain Forest is Nearly Gone. https://time.com/amazon-rainforest-disappearing/ Stand For Trees. (2021). Death in the Forest: Deforestation Effects on Animals and what you can do. https://standfortrees.org/blog/ deforestation-effects-on-animals/ The Royal Society. (n.d.). How does Deforestation Affect Biodiversity? https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/biodiversity/ deforestation-and-biodiversity/ Thomson, A. (2020). Biodiversity and the Amazon Rainforest. https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/biodiversity-and-the-amazonrainforest/ UN Environment Programme. (2021). Inside the Global Effort to Save the World’s Forests. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/insideglobal-effort-save-worlds-forests United Nations. (n.d.). 15 Life on Land. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/biodiversity Weeden, M. (2020). 5 Causes of Deforestation. https://onetreeplanted.org/blogs/stories/deforestation-causes World Wildlife Fund. (n.d.). Deforestation and Forest Degradation. https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/deforestation-and-forestdegradation

Journal Article Giam, X. (2017). Global Biodiversity Loss from Tropical Deforestation.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114 (23), 57755777. https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1706264114

Corporate Publication Blackwell, A. H. (2021). Deforestation in the Amazon. In Gale Environmental Studies Online Collection. Gale. https://link.gale.com/ apps/doc/EVAEVJ459402991/GRNR?u=61merid&sid=bookmarkGRNR&xid=ac009471

A study of the integration of two generations of Chinese immigrants into Western culture.

Global Outlook

ANNA LIU Y E A R 12 , 2 0 2 3

一、 一代和二代的区分与特点

This article was originally composed and submitted in written Chinese. For the purposes of this publication, the introduction has been translated into English and the rest of the paper is published in its original form.

The purpose of this study is to delve into the identity recognition of two generations of Chinese immigrants and their contributions to the fusion of Chinese and Western cultures. I will explore this topic from four aspects: the distinction between the two generations of immigrants, their respective identity recognition, the difficulties encountered in integrating into the new culture, and the contributions of both sides to Chinese and Western cultures. Australia will be the primary focus of research on the integration of Chinese immigrants into Western culture.

Since the 1990s, the number of Chinese immigrants to Australia has significantly increased. According to the 2016 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australians of Chinese descent account for 5.2% of the population, making them the largest Asian immigrant group in the country. Australia is known for its diversity and tolerance of Asian cultures, making it a popular destination for Chinese immigrants.

那些出生在中国境内，随后移民到国外的华人被统称为‘一代移 民’。其下一代生长在海外的华裔子女被统称为‘二代移民’。移民 政策研究所(MPI)以及其他移民研究中心对以上定义有统一的结 论。一代移民为半道改变国籍，而二代及以后的华人后裔移民自打 出生就拥有所谓‘外国’的国籍。 一代华人选择移民澳大利亚及其他西方国家的原因主要源于对 良好生活环境和教育的渴望。根据2023年的环境绩效指数，澳大 利亚被列为世界前十五最干净和和平的国家。此外，根据人类发 展指数(HDI)，澳大利亚在生活质量方面排名世界第二，相较之下， 中国排名第85位。这使得一代华人移民看重澳大利亚的高生活质 量。其中因素包括：较低的人口密度、安全和谐的环境、丰富的教育 资源与较少的社会进争。 一代移民即使更换的生活环境，也会保留自身的中文语言能力。 澳大利亚统计局的数据显示，一代移民在家中使用中文的百分比高 达97.4%。同时，一代移民出生在中国，对中国的文化传统、历史和 价值观有深厚的信赖，并在生活中对传统进行实践。这在许多跨文 化影视作品中得到丰富体现。比如，在电影《刮痧》中，一代父亲许 大同在大庭广众之下扇了儿子丹尼斯，让儿子为打了老板的儿子而 道歉，也为了强调自己的家教方式，找台阶下。这体现了华人爱面子 的特点，以及打压式教育的作风。旁边的妻子简宁选择默默看着， 更反映了中国男尊女卑的传统家庭观念。一代华人注重的文化传统 有很多，其中有利有弊，这个电影片段仅仅呈现了一小部分。 二代移民在澳洲接受的教育使他们以西方的视角看待世界，熟 练掌握英语。因此，英语往往成为了他们的母语。二代移民通常具 有双重文化身份，更加适应和青睐当地社会的价值观和生活方式。 在电影《别告诉她》中，主角比利，一位海外留学的女孩，再回家时 体现了对中国传统家庭意识的尊重，同时也合理地表达了她对西方 价值观的认识。 由于从小就接受了当地的教育和成长环境，二代移民在职业发 展上往往比一代移民有更丰富的就业选择、接触更多橄榄枝，从 而普遍具备更高的收入水平。在2016年，澳洲二代平均每周收入 为$1,031 澳元，而相同岁数的一代只有$809。 二、 两代华人在西方文化中的身份认同比较 身份认同的根源 两代移民最大的区别在于他们生长环境的差异，这直接影响了他 们对自身身份的认同。一代移民通常在中国度过了童年和青年时光， 为华人身份的意识创建了牢固的根基。相比之下，二代移民则在西

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方文化中生长，首先接触的是西方文化，对中国文化的接触很难超 过西方，这使得他们在文化认同上与父母——也就是一代——存 在较大差异。 一代移民在中国文化的熏陶下成长，而二代移民则在两种文化的 交错中形成双重文化意识。 生长环境对身份认同的影响 一代移民通常在中国度过关键的成长时期。即使移民到澳大利亚 后，他们仍然保持对中国文化的深厚感情。这在《初来乍到》中的 两位华一代：杰西卡和路维斯夫妇有着生动的展示，他们不管在家 还是工作中，都通过言行、饮食和生活习惯传承中国文化，展现出 对文化传统的强烈责任感。 二代移民则在西方文化和家庭的双重影响下成长，尤其在澳洲， 他们在多元文化的环境中接受教育。这使得他们对中国文化的认 知相对较抽象，缺乏一代移民对于自己文化背景的坚定认同。中西 之间不能避免有冲突之处。在文化相互摩擦中成长的二代移民，对 自身身份的理解较为模糊。许多二代移民在某时期面对自己的身份 时，会感到焦虑和无助。如白先勇写的短片作文《安乐乡的一日》中， 二代宝莉与母亲依萍的矛盾展现了这一点。宝利认为自己是美国 人，因为身边的老师同学都是美国祖籍。当听到同学因她的文化背 景而嘲笑她时，宝莉对中国产生了强烈的排斥。回到家，在抗拒了母 亲的文化教导后，也对自己独特身份的认知中出现了分歧。 语言能力对身份认同的影响 由于一代移民在中国度过关键时期，其英语能力可能有一定限 制。这在白先勇的作品中得到了生动地描绘，依萍因英语能力有限 而感到在美国社交中的不适应。她逐渐停止了与邻居的往来和参加 社交活动。语言障碍很可能激发一代移想华人群体的依恋，不仅不 主动接触当地的文化，反而急切寻找与自己熟悉的文化环境。 语言是文化保留的方式之一，依萍的坚硬态度反映了一代华人移 民对中国的深厚情感联系和文化认同。在积极传播中国文化的同 时，对家乡的思念也能够促进家庭和谐，并有助于维持在多元文化 社会的澳洲对身份认同保持坚定。然而，需要注意过度思念家乡可 能导致对外来西方文化的抗拒。因此，在保留情感联系的同时，建 立对新社会的接纳与适应至关重要。 相比之下，二代移民依靠母语英文而更容易融入主流社会。他们 可以轻松建立社交圈和人际关系，但也导致他们对中文文化的情 感相对较低。 《刮痧》中的丹尼斯、 《安乐乡的一日》中的宝莉，全 程以英文交流，体现了他们成长环境对语言选择的深刻影响。 两代华人移民在西方文化中的身份认同存在显著差异。这种差 异对他们的生活方式、价值观以及与家人之间的关系都产生了深远 的影响。在融入西方文化的过程中，了解和尊重这些身份认同的差 异对于促进跨文化交流和理解至关重要。

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三、融入西方文化的挑战与解决方案 第一代华人移民面临着双重思维的挑战。在白先勇的小说《安乐 乡的一日》中，母亲依萍作为一代移民不仅在外表上力图符合美国 印象中的华人形象，还在言行举止中始终保持中国传统的特征。 这导致她在邻里中被看作 ‘外来者’，难以被视为 ‘居民’。一代 移民哈利在一次ABC【直播澳洲】采访中表达了许多一代移民的困 扰；感觉自己像个被异化的 ‘稀客’。刚来到悉尼，在社区欢迎仪 式上一直被当地人围观和询问在中国的经历，让他感觉很不舒服。 文化差异也导致了一些误会和麻烦，比如电影《刮痧》中展示的‘刮 痧’行为引发的经典文化冲突案例。爷爷为丹尼斯刮痧，是为了缓解 孙子的高烧。中国人认为这是治疗方法，美国人认为这是虐待。尽 管父亲许大同和母亲简宁在法庭上献出中国历史医学的证据，也很 难税负法官、律师、和儿童保护局的人。影片最大的矛盾来源就是文 化的隔阂、冲突、和对外来文化历史缺乏了解。 为解决第一代移民融入的困难， 可以采取一些具体的方法。首 先，认识到文化冲突是不可避免的，需要保持积极的适应心态。通 过参加语言课程、文化交流活动、社区组织和职业培训，一代移民 可以更好地了解当地文化，提高融入感。此外，融入新的环境、接 受文化的差异不仅是单方面的输出，而是双面的了解和接纳。电影《 初来乍到》中，路易斯在逢年过节时在经营的饭店中挂灯笼、发红 包，并向客人分享中国的传统佳节故事和菜肴的烹饪方式。当地居 民对路易斯的餐馆颇有兴趣，而且对中国文化的好奇驱使他们成 为那里的常客。妻子杰西卡与邻居们处的和洽，甚至与住在旁边的 哈利成为无话不谈的闺蜜。 二代移民由于双重身份面临更为复杂的问题。电影《别告诉她》 生动展示了主人公比利作为既有中国身份又深受美国文化影响的二 代移民的内在挣扎。她在中国感到被询问“你感觉中国好为什么不 搬过来”的困扰，同时在美国被美国个人主义和自由精神所影响， 难以理解家庭中对老人病情的隐瞒和保守。文化冲突使得二代移民 可能在家庭和社会中感到迷茫。 《初来乍到》中的艾迪和《安乐乡 的一日》中的宝莉都因自己黑头发、黄皮肤的相貌而被同学孤立，乃 至嘲笑。 对于二代移民来说，建立自己的身份认同是关键。在面对归属感 缺失时， 可以通过寻找并参加与自己相同的跨文化圈子，建立积极、 可信赖的社交网络。与其他二、三、四代华裔分享经验和故事，认识 自己的双重身份并非个例，而是一个特殊的群体，是防止二代移民 陷入身份认同危机的途径。在生活中、校园里、工作中通过理解两 种文化的差异，二代移民可以更好地找到自己华裔身份的特点，乃 至为此而自豪。 《初来乍到》中，杰西卡鼓励儿子艾迪邀请朋友带家 中做客，分享中国的甜品，并交换玩具。当朋友们开始了解艾迪的家 庭后，对新鲜的书屋充满好奇和期盼，不仅接纳了他的容貌和带去 学校的中国菜，还主动找他玩。 无论是一代还是二代移民，他们都置身于不同文化与价值观碰 撞中。解决这些挑战的关键在于认识到文化冲突是不可避免的，并 采取积极的方法来融入当地社会。通过参与社区活动、接受教育和 建立积极的社交网络，达到双向的理解和包容，华人移民可以更好 地实现文化融合，增强对所在国的认同感和归属感。

Global Outlook

四、海外华人为中西文化带来的贡献

BIBLIOGR APHY

近几十年，移民在海外的华人在中澳文化交流中所做出的杰出贡 献数之不尽。以下，将着重强调通过参与科学领域的发展和电影制 造领域的成功，两位杰出的华人代表杨振宁和电影导演王子逸，是 如何为中澳文化的相互理解搭建了坚实的桥梁。

ABC. (2020). Second-generation Chinese-Australian immigrants: “Marginal people” navigating between two cultures? https://www.abc.net.au/ chinese/2020-10-22/next-generation-of-chinese-australians/12803736

在科学领域，一代美国移民杨振宁和同样移民的李政道共同提 出了“弱相互作用下的宇称不守恒理论”，这成为当时科学界的一 项重大突破，且在1957年双双赢得了诺贝尔物理学奖。这不仅为华 人科学家在全球化时代被认可，也为中国赢得了荣耀，更在中西两 界的科学领域树立了榜样。杨振宁的贡献不仅限于理论物理学，他 还积极参与科学教育和交流，成为中西科学界的重要桥梁。他在中 国清华大学的教职和在美国的科研工作，为两国之间的科学研究和 文化交流搭建了坚实的基础。杨振宁的成就激励着一批又一批年 轻移民和学者，促进了中西方的跨文化交流、理解、和合作。 影片《别告诉她》的导演王子逸将他的个人经历转化为影片，赢 得了14个奖项，成功传播了中国文化。该电影突出展现了家庭的团 结、语言的委婉运用，强调了传统家庭观念，如‘家和万事兴’、 ‘尊 老敬老’、 ‘舍己为人’等。影片在国际上受到认可，为加深世界对中 西文化共存现象的了解和接纳做出了贡献。在一篇《别告诉她》的 影评文章 “足以想象与身份认同” 中，导演王子逸表示： “与其被 自己的独特身份所困扰，不如把它转换成讲故事的动力。” 王子逸 成功地表达了在海外保留自己中国文化的重要性，同时也为宣传中 西文化拥有共存、互补的潜力而做出了卓越的贡献。

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). People in Australia who were born in China. https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/ quickstats/2016/6101_0 Elmer, J. (Director). (2009). Fresh Off The Boat. [Film]. 20th Century Fox Television.

Jie, L. (2021). Ethnic imagination and identity in the film “The Farewell”.

School of Literature, Xi’an University of Finance and Economics.

MPI. (2019). Explainer: Who is an immigrant?. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/content/explainer-who-immigrant Pai Hsien-yung. (1964). Pleasantville. Guangxi Normal University Press.

Wang, L. (Director). (2019). The Farewell. [Film]. Big Peach, Ray Production, Kindred Spirit.

这两位杰出代表的贡献不仅丰富了中澳文化，更为两代华人移民在 西方社会的融入提供了典范。他们的故事是一个强有力的证据，表 明通过在各自领域取得卓越成就，移民可以为中西方文化的交流与 融合献出花火，证实了华人移民可以以独特的双重视角和深厚的文 化底蕴，在完全不同的领域中发光发热。 他们的成功不仅为华人社群带来自豪，更为促进中西文化之间 的相互理解和尊重贡献了巨大的力量。在调查中，我们不应该再强 调一、二代华人的差异，而是意识到在当今时代，每个选择出国打 拼、或生长在海外的华裔后代，都扮演着独特的角色。杨振宁的话 唤起了我们为结合中西文化的责任感： “作为有着浓厚中国血统的 [美籍]华人，我有义务为中西方两国之间建起一座了解和友谊的桥 梁。” 作为二代华裔，拥有双语、双身份、双文化背景的我们，不禁 为自己的身份感到骄傲。在澳洲集体他国家游历、求学、创业、建立 家庭的华人，就是成功融入当地社会，达成中西文化共鸣的证据。 了解不同代的华人移民为我们打开跨文化视野，培养了在多元社 会中的包容力。在面对信息匮乏的挑战时，我们该通过全面、客观 的方式形成对身份的观点。这次研究更便于我与读者发现，理解差 异、积极参与跨文化交流是构建和谐社会的关键。

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Five Sectors: The Commerce Song

Verse 1

A L E X A N D R A K ATA N A S H O A N D F R E YA C L E A R Y

We livin’ in a world with economic flow,

Y E A R 10, 2 023

Start with households, where it all begins,

Five sectors deep, let the knowledge grow.

Consumption decisions, yeah, we’re setting trends.

Firms in the mix, they’re on the grind, Producing goods, services, all the time.

Hiring from households, paying that wage, Circular flow, economic stage.

Chorus Five sectors in the game, yeah, that’s the deal, Households, firms, government, it’s real.

Financial sector, keeping cash in line, Overseas sector, global vibes, so fine.

Verse 2 Government steps in, taxes in the pot, Spending on goods, services, hitting the spot.

Public goods, infrastructure, making it right, In the circular flow, balancing the sight.

Financial institutions, handling the cash, Banks and loans, keeping the economy flash.

Money flowing, investments on the rise, In the economic game, reaching for the skies.

Bridge Imports, exports, in the global mix, Money moving ‘round, no time to fix.

Circular flow, spinning like a wheel, Economic dance, got that mass appeal.

Chorus Five sectors in the game, yeah, that’s the deal, Households, firms, government, it’s real.

Financial institutions, keeping cash in line, International sector, global vibes, so fine.

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How does the socio-economic composition of a suburb impact the availability and affordability of fresh produce offered in its grocery stores?

Global Outlook

MIA ST GEORGE Y E A R 11, 2 0 2 3

Introductory Statement Supermarket variety reflects consumer preferences within a local community, with socioeconomic status (SES) being one of the most influential factors on consumer preferences. Socio-economic status refers to the social and economic position of a given individual within the larger society (NSW Department of Justice, 2022). The focus of this project is to determine how the socioeconomic composition of a suburb impacts the produce identified in Woolworths stores. This project identifies the differences in SES in two Sydney suburbs, Double Bay and Fairfield, and accounts for these differences, the most predominant influence being migration. Additionally, it explores the difference in produce and correlations between SES and produce variations.

Double Bay is located in Sydney’s Eastern suburbs, part of the Woollahra Local Government Area (LGA), while Fairfield is part of Fairfield City LGA, located in Western Sydney (Google Maps, 2021). This difference in geographical location makes them two distinctly different suburbs to investigate.

Aims and hypothesis Aim 1 – To identify suburbs with distinct socio-economic differences and provide reasons for the socio-economic differences.

Aim 2 – To compare the types of produce available in grocery stores in Fairfield and Double Bay. Aim 3 – To assess the impact the socio-economic composition of a suburb has on the availability of healthy, sustainable and alternative foods.

Hypothesis 1 – Factors such as migration, income and education will impact the socioeconomic status of residents in Fairfield and Double Bay. These factors will be more prevalent in Fairfield, thus accounting for its lower SES status.

Hypothesis 2 – It is to be expected that Double Bay will have a more costly selection of food items and a slightly greater variety of produce available. Since both the stores are Woolworths retailers, it is hypothesised that the lowest-priced items will be standardised across the stores.

Hypothesis 3 – A suburb’s higher SES will result in more expensive product varieties and, additionally, a higher SES suburb will have more sustainable practices in place due to the increased disposable income of residents, allowing them to spend more on goods.

Methodology Primary Data To examine how the socio-economic composition of a suburb impacts the availability and affordability of fresh produce in its grocery stores, there were many actions and processes that took place. The primary data that was investigated through my research included photos, tallies, price comparisons and qualitative observations, which included sustainability practices in place and general observations. These methods were chosen in order to allow me to either prove or disprove the prior aims.

The same primary research methods were conducted in both Double Bay and Fairfield to maintain a fair comparison. These two areas were chosen for comparison due to their disparity in socioeconomic status, with Double Bay having a high SES and Fairfield having a relatively low SES. A comparison of the fresh fruit and vegetable variety was conducted by taking a tally of the variety of produce offered.

This included packaged and organic options, variety of types and variety of brands. This tally was conducted on a range of fruit and vegetables including apples, tomatoes, oranges, strawberries, potatoes, lettuce, mandarins and cucumbers.

A cost comparison was performed, recording the highest and lowest cost option for a range of common household food products in both Fairfield and Double Bay. Information was recorded on culturally specific sections of the supermarket, indicating whether migration has impacted the product selection in each store.

Photographs were taken of both Woolworths stores. In Fairfield on 2 and 30 April 2023 and in Double Bay on 1 and 30 April 2023. These photographs provide visual evidence to directly prove or disprove Hypothesis 2, that is, that Double Bay, due to its high

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SES, will have higher-quality fresh produce. Additionally, the photographs will provide data as a basis for proving or disproving Hypothesis 3.

Research Findings

Secondary Data

AIM 2

The secondary data collected was found in a range of sources such as newspaper articles, research reports, books, websites and statistics. These sources were created by others and assisted in supporting the evidence collected in my primary research.

Many current newspaper articles with information on migration and the changes in ethnic composition of Double Bay and Fairfield have allowed me to answer my first hypothesis – providing a strong link between migration and socioeconomic status.

I have utilised many research reports exploring the correlation between socioeconomic status and the cost of healthy food, including the Food Basket Survey, conducted by the Cancer Council, Elisabeth Winkler’s Report for Health and Place, and the Crawford et al paper, “Socioeconomic differences in the cost, availability and quality of healthy food in Sydney”. These reports have provided the research basis on which to confirm or disprove Aim 3, supporting the primary data I collected from both supermarkets.

The Australian Bureau of statistics (ABS) offered numerous helpful data points which assisted in my research for Aim 1, providing an insight into the composition of the suburbs, in terms of income, education and migration. This research provided necessary data points to support my reasoning for differences in socioeconomic status between the suburbs.

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Primary

Global Outlook

Sustainability practices

Culturally specific sections

DOUBLE BAY

FAIRFIELD

DOUBLE BAY

FAIRFIELD

Urban Garden - ready-to-eat mint, coriander, basil and parsley on a herb wall, to maintain freshness and reduce packaging

The Odd Bunch – supermarkets work with local growers to sell imperfect produce that doesn’t meet typical fruit and veg standards

Moving to zero waste bread – turning unsold bakery bread loaves into frozen garlic bread at the end of each day

Plastic bags – charging for plastic bags to encourage consumers to bring reusable bags from home

Kosher – One and a half aisles with dedicated areas to meats and dairy, sweets, snacks, and typical Passover foods (data was observed one week before Passover). Kosher meats were significantly more expensive than standard meat products

Middle Eastern – Two middle eastern sections – one spanning an aisle and the other taking up a small area of the fridge section.

A variety of middle eastern sweets, biscuits and tinned products available, as well as bulk Middle Eastern yoghurts in the fridge section

Asian – Half an aisle with a variety of packet spice and curry mixes, rice, pre-packaged noodles

Asian – Large Asian section spanning three different areas.

An extensive range of sauces, pre-packaged noodles, spice mixes, curry mixes

Organic fruit and vegetables – large amount of locally-sourced organic fruit and vegetables from Green Camel Organic Produce, which reduces the use of resources through organic glasshouses and water-efficient systems Recycled trolleys and baskets – trolleys and baskets made from milk bottles and soft plastics Juice Bar – leftover seasonal fruit and vegetables are used at the Juice Bar The Odd Bunch – supermarkets work with local growers to sell imperfect produce that doesn’t meet typical fruit and veg standards Fresh bread in paper – fresh loaves made in the bakery each day packaged in paper, rather than plastic, bags Plastic bags – charging for plastic bags to encourage consumers to bring reusable bags from home Figure 3: Table comparing the sustainability practices in Woolworths Double Bay and Woolworths Fairfield

Halal – A halal meat section containing a variety of deli and fresh packaged meats Figure 4: Table comparing the culturally specific produce offered in Woolworths Double Bay and Woolworths Fairfield

General Notes DOUBLE BAY Organic – a large variety of organic produce across most food areas. The most notable were fruit and vegetables, organic coffee and organic meat products.

Sushi bar – design your own bento box, with fresh sushi made daily.

Fresh Bakery – making Sonoma sourdough bread and a range of other baked goods daily.

Seafood – a range of fresh seafood options of varying prices – all Australian and New Zealand sourced. Poster exclaiming “Fish Fridays” and “Perfect for Lent” in this section.

Cheese and deli meats – high-priced artisan cheeses and deli meats reflect the target market of this store. Some of the highestpriced deli meats were hand-cut packaged Iberian ham ($393/ kg) and prosciutto ($231/kg), as well as Barroso beef jerky ($90/kg) in the fresh deli meat section. All the high-end cheeses featured a carefully placed information card indicating the cheese’s country of origin, tasting notes and suggested food and wine pairings.

Many of the cheeses in this section appeared to be around $90/kg, however the most expensive was $135/kg.

Plant-based foods – large range of plant-based products throughout the store with sections of aisles dedicated to these products, the most notable being the large plant-based meat section.

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Alternative milks – range of alternative milks in line with current food trends with the addition of pistachio, fava bean and cashew milks.

Double Bay Images

Specialty coffee bar – a coffee bar featuring filtered coffee, sparkling and canned cold brew, and premium compostable coffee pods.

Organic coffee – specialty brand coffee with options for fair trade, 100% plant-based coffee capsules and organic options.

FAIRFIELD Bulk produce – large quantities of bulk produce across all areas of the store. Most notable were the bulk onion and potatoes, making these vegetables more affordable. Additionally, there were many bulk meat options that weren’t offered in the other store – these included 1.8kg beef mince, 24-pack sausages and 18-pack chicken burger patties.

Images 1 and 2: Double Bay urban garden promoting sustainable farming for herbs.

Savings and discounts – large emphasis on discounts and savings.

Upon entering, there was a wall with large posters indicating the store slogan, “Get your Woollies worth – more ways to help your money go further” and others highlighting “prices dropped”, “special” and “low price”. This emphasis on discounts was further evident by the bright yellow signs with “special” or “1/2 price” located on the front of every aisle.

Organic variety – a very small range of organic fresh produce, only one organic coffee option and no fair-trade options.

Cheese and deli meats – a small, standardised cheese and deli meat section. There was no deli cheese section, but instead a prepackaged cheese selection with the most expensive being a $64/ kg smoked cheddar. The deli meat section consisted more heavily of lower-end products such as cheaper hot dog sausages, simple hams etc. The most expensive deli meat was $94/kg for prosciutto, however, most of the other choices were significantly cheaper than this.

Image 3: Carefully curated display of tomato varieties in Double Bay Image 4: Carefully curated display of potato varieties in Double Bay

Seafood – limited seafood variety with only pre-packaged frozen options.

Health foods – Half an aisle dedicated to health foods with a limited range of plant-based and high-protein snack choices.

Image 5: Double Bay’s Cheese Corner Images 6 and 7: Double Bay’s cheese selection

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Image 8: Cheese label cards indicating country of origin, cheese and milk type, tasting notes, serving suggestions, wine pairings, and “did you know?” facts

Global Outlook

Image 9: Selection of pre-packaged deli meats in Double Bay Image 10: $90/kg Barossa beef jerky

Images 16 and 17: Kosher meat produce – significantly more expensive than standard meat products

Image 11: $393/kg hand-cut Iberian ham Image 12: $231/kg prosciutto

Image 18: Fresh seafood produce Image 19: Signs exclaiming, “Great value fish for lent”

Image 13: Sushi bar in Double Bay with an extensive menu, hand rolled daily Image 14: Specialty coffee bar at the entrance of Woolworths Double Bay

Images 20 and 21: Kosher produce indicative of the presence of a local Jewish community

Image 15: Bakery in Double Bay with fresh bread made daily

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Images 22, 23, and 24: Examples of organic and fair-trade coffee in Woolworths Double Bay

Image 28: Entrance to the Double Bay store, displaying fresh, eco-conscious goals Image 25: Plant-based milk including fava bean, pistachio and cashew Image 26: A variety of health foods, focusing on sports nutrition and perceived health benefits

Image 29: Fresh Picks herbs kept damp with water vapour to ensure maximum quality

Image 27: Refrigerated alternative plant-based meals.

Image 30: Frozen garlic bread reducing bakery waste

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Global Outlook

Fairfield Images

Image 31: The Odd Bunch – a standardized sustainability practice across all Woolworths stores Image 32: “Goodbye 15c plastic bags” – a standardized sustainability practice across all Woolworths stores

Image 35: Half price specials signage on every aisle

Image 33: Limited selection in the Fairfield bakery – all pre-packaged products

Images 36 and 37: Bulk soft drink boxes varying in size from 24-30-packs

Image 34: Advertisements for savings through “Get your Woollies worth!” campaign

Images 38 and 39: Bulk onion and potatoes making produce more affordable for consumers

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Images 40 and 41: Bulk processed meat products – 24-pack sausages, 18-pack chicken burger patties

Image 44: A portion of the Asian aisle in Fairfield

Image 42: Bulk 20kg rice on sale

Image 46: A portion of the Middle Eastern aisle in Fairfield

Image 43: Limited variety of fresh produce

Image 47: Advertisements for “Happy Easter”

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Image 45: The Halal refrigerated section in Fairfield

Global Outlook

Secondary AIM 1

Image 48: Fairfield’s small, pre-packaged cheese section. Fairfield does not contain a Deli cheese section, but rather a Woolworths standardised cheese aisle Image 49: Fairfield’s limited deli section containing a variety of lower-cost packaged meats

Image 50: Fairfield’s frozen seafood section. Fairfield does not contain a fresh seafood section, but rather, frozen bags of a variety of seafood products

FAIRFIELD

DOUBLE BAY

Median weekly household income

$1,390

$3,077

Level of highest educational attainment

Bachelor’s degree and above: 13.3%

Bachelor’s degree and above: 57.6%

Top ancestry responses

Vietnamese (19.5%), Chinese (13.1%), Australian (8.8%), Assyrian (8.2%), English (7.2%)

English (32.1%), Australian (24.4%), Irish (13.4%), Scottish (9.2%), Chinese (5.8%)

Country of birth top responses

Australia (38.6%), Vietnam (16.3%), Iraq (12%), Cambodia (3.6%), Syria (2.8%), China (1.8%)

Australia (60.6%), England (6%), South Africa (3.8%), New Zealand (2.8%), China (2%), United States (1.6%)

Country of birth of parents

Both parents born overseas: 79.2%

Both parents born overseas: 43.8%

Both parents born in Australia: 8.7%

Both parents born in Australia: 35%

Religious affiliations

Catholic (30.3%), Buddhism (19.9%), non-religious (14.6%), Islam (6.3%)

Non-religious (37.4%), Catholic (19.5%), Judaism (13.9%), Anglican (12.5%)

Households where a non-English language is used

79.4%

19.7%

Participation in the 40.8% labour force

66.3%

Figure 5: ABS Statistics – obtained from 2021 census data on Fairfield and Double Bay htps://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20 Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20F eatures~Socio-Economic%20Advantage%20 and%20Disadvantage~123

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Proportion of persons by index of relative socio-economic advantage and disadvantage quintiles(a) by country of birth(b) Quintile 1(c) %

Quintile 2 %

Quintile 3 %

Quintile 4 %

Quintile 5(d) %

Total %

19.0

20.1

20.4

20.2

20.2

100

Born Overseas 16.6 10 Most common overseas countries of birth

17.7

19.5

22.2

24.1

100

Born in Australia

England

14.4

17.4

19.6

21.9

26.8

100

New Zealand

17.8

20.7

21.4

20.5

19.6

100

China (excludes SARs and Taiwan)

7.1

11.5

19.5

29.4

32.5

100

India

13.9

18.7

22.9

24.2

20.3

100

Philippines

20.9

23.1

22.3

18.8

14.9

100

Vietnam

40.3

20.3

14.7

13.7

11.1

100

Italy

14.0

19.4

21.1

23.3

22.3

100

South Africa

5.9

11.7

17.5

25.3

39.6

100

Malaysia

7.6

11.3

17.8

29.2

34.1

100

Scotland

15.7

17.9

19.4

22.2

24.9

100

(a) SEIFA IRSAD quintile derived for all areas in Australia at SA1 level. (b) Excludes Other Territories and SA1 areas where a quintile was not assigned. (c) Quintile 1 are the most relatively disadvantaged areas. (d) Quintile 5 are the most relatively advantaged areas.

Source: ABS Census of Population and Housing, 2016

Figure 6: The Index of relative socio-economic advantage and disadvantage quintiles based upon country of birth

Discussion and conclusion AIM 1

To identify suburbs with distinct socio-economic differences and provide reasons for the socioeconomic differences.

The Index of Relative Socio-Economic Disadvantage (IRSAD) places Woollahra municipality in the 99th percentile and Fairfield City in the 6th percentile. The index calculates an area’s socioeconomic status (SES) based upon many disadvantage indicators, including but not limited to, unemployment, income, education levels and internet access (Western Sydney Uni, n.d.). According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), the median weekly household incomes of Fairfield and Double Bay are $1,390 and $3,077 respectively, further highlighting the difference of the SES of these suburbs (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021) (refer to Figure 5).

Whilst a person’s ancestry does not necessarily determine their SES, it can impact it on a macro level. Factors such as migration, educational attainment, language barriers, and labour force participation have all shown strong correlations to ancestry and SES, the most prevalent being migration – which has a direct influence on the other factors presented (Zhao, 2019).

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The Small Multiples ancestry map illustrates the link between income and ancestry in Sydney. In the low-income portion of the map, numerous hotspots of Asian and European migrants can be identified, including Fairfield. In contrast, Double Bay is a hotspot for British migrants earning a high income, further highlighting the ties between ancestry and SES. However, regardless of ancestry, high income-earning Sydneysiders tend to be concentrated towards coastal areas, contributing to Double Bay’s identification as a wealthy suburb. It is the desirability of suburbs in the eastern region, with access to upmarket shopping districts, water views, and proximity to the CBD, that draws in those from a wealthier background. This drives those of lower SES to reside in suburbs further west, in areas of more affordable housing, social housing and a range of employment opportunities (Barr, 2017). Based upon the Small Multiples map, we can draw the conclusion that those of British descent are generally more advantaged in Sydney because they face fewer barriers, and they also have longer family history in Australia, giving them the benefit of established or inter-generational wealth. In comparison, those of Vietnamese descent, being the most common ancestry in Fairfield, are among the poorest in Sydney, with 40.3% of the population being in the 1st quintile in the IRSAD (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021) further illustrating the low SES nature of this suburb (refer to Figure 6).

Double Bay has relatively low rates of migration, and those migrating predominantly come from England, South Africa and New Zealand (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021) (refer to Figure 5). Statistically, South African migrants have the highest median income of any migrant group in Sydney (refer

Global Outlook

to Figure 6). With the exception of St Ives, South African migrants predominantly reside in Sydney’s eastern suburbs, with Double Bay ranking equal 5th for this migrant group’s suburb of residence, and Rose Bay, Double Bay’s neighbouring suburb, ranking 3rd.

By contrast, in Fairfield, migration is high, with 79.2% of residents stating that both their parents were born overseas (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021). ABS census data indicates that migration from countries such as Vietnam is relatively recent, given that in 1976, only 0.01% of responders were born in Vietnam, whereas in 2021, Vietnam was the second highest response for place of birth (16.3%) (NSW Government, 1985 and Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021).

This trend is similar for those born in Iraq, with the response being 0.77% and 12% in 1976 and 2021 respectively. Online ABS census data for Double Bay only dates to 2001, with minimal differences in migrant composition noted between 2001 and 2021 census data (refer to Figure 5).

A research paper from 1985 indicated the issues faced by migrants in Fairfield were predominantly attributed to language barriers upon arrival, and lack of translation services to accommodate this (NSW Government, 1985). Macquarie University researchers identified that migrants who speak English at home have a significantly higher median income than those who speak an alternative language at home (Massey, 2012). 79.4% of Fairfield residents speak a language other than English at home, 49.9% above the national average, compared to Double Bay’s 19.7% of residents (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021) (refer to Figure 5).

A lower proficiency of English can prove difficult when seeking employment, contributing to the lower SES experienced by those in Fairfield (Massey, 2012). Fairfield has Sydney’s highest unemployment rate of 9.7% (double Sydney’s average) and only 40.8% participation in the labour force, well below the state average (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021).

Educational attainment strongly influences employment opportunities and income. ABS data indicates that only 13.3% of Fairfield residents have achieved a Bachelor’s degree, whilst in Double Bay, this number is 57.6% (refer to Figure 5).

12,000 humanitarian migrants have been resettled in Fairfield over the past five years, with minimal government support, three times more than any other NSW LGA. The large influx of low-skilled migrants arriving under impoverished economic circumstances has contributed to Fairfield’s status as a “refugee hub” and further compounds its low SES (Doherty, 2017).

A Fairfax media analysis revealed that the economic status in the top 10 poorest suburbs has declined over the past decade, with any minor increase in income being offset by the rising cost of living. Meanwhile, Sydney’s wealthiest suburbs have all enjoyed significant income gains, deepening the economic divide between the east/north and west/south. From 2003 to 2013, Double Bay saw a 37% growth in median income, whilst Fairfield had a growth of just 23% (Irvine, 2015).

I correctly hypothesised that migration, income, and education would impact the SES of residents in Fairfield and Double Bay, and additionally, that these factors adversely impact residents of Fairfield, accounting for its lower SES. AIM 2

To compare the types of produce available in groceries found in Fairfield and Double Bay. Significant differences in the variety of fresh fruit and vegetables were recorded between the two stores. Notable differences included a 154% greater variety of lettuce and salad mix, 127% greater variety of tomatoes, and 64% greater variety of apples when comparing Double Bay to Fairfield (refer to Figure 1).

Double Bay boasted a large fresh seafood section. Additionally, it offered a sushi bar, cheese corner, specialty coffee bar and an extensive fresh bakery – none of which can be found in a typical Woolworths store (Lucio, 2018).

The type of produce available in each store was strongly influenced by the cultural and religious characteristics of the population. Double Bay had two aisles dedicated to Kosher produce, which included meats, dairy, sweets and snacks. Notably, Kosher meats were significantly more expensive than standard meat products. Signs exclaiming “Happy Passover”, “Perfect for Lent” and “Fish Fridays”, further emphasise the influence of Jewish and Christian culture on Double Bay’s produce.

Meanwhile, Fairfield had advertisements for “Happy Easter”, and “Happy Ramadan”, indicative of the Christian and Muslim clientele in this area. Fairfield boasted three aisles of Asian produce, one aisle of Middle Eastern foods, and an additional two refrigerated sections for Middle Eastern and Halal foods (refer to Figure 4).

The Double Bay store was notable for its sustainability practices within the store, with eight different initiatives implemented (Blake, 2018), however, the Fairfield store only provided two sustainability practices, both of which are standardized across all Woolworths stores. Some of the initiatives observed in Double Bay included the Urban Garden (Ready-to-Grow herb wall, with the goal of reducing packaging), Juice Bar (leftover seasonal fruit and vegetables used), and the move to zero-waste bread (upscaling unsold bakery bread loaves daily into frozen garlic bread) (Solomon, 2022) (refer to Figure 3).

Among the highest-priced delicatessen meats in Double Bay were hand-cut packaged Iberian ham ($393/kg) and prosciutto ($231/ kg), as well as Barossa beef jerky ($90/kg) in the fresh deli meat section. All high-end cheeses were accompanied by a carefullyplaced card indicating the country of origin, tasting notes and suggested food and wine pairings. Many cheeses in this section were priced at around $90/kg, however the most expensive was $135/kg. The selection was vastly different in Fairfield, with no specialty delicatessen cheeses, but rather, a pre-packaged cheese section with the most expensive being a $64/kg smoked cheddar.

Fairfield’s delicatessen meat section consisted of lower-end

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products including sausages and simple hams. The most expensive deli meat was $94/kg for prosciutto, however, most other choices were significantly cheaper (refer to Figure 2).

When comparing items by cost (refer to Figure 2), Double Bay consistently showed more expensive produce varieties, apart from cow’s milk, which was similarly priced in the Fairfield store.

Fairfield displayed many less expensive options than Double Bay, with a greater emphasis on purchasing in bulk at a lower price and offering a range of bulk packaging for onion, beef, coffee and potatoes.

The two stores employed different marketing strategies at the entrance of their stores. Whilst Double Bay placed focus on health, ease and sustainability, Fairfield placed emphasis on “Getting your Woollies worth”.

Double Bay placed a greater emphasis on current “food trends”, with numerous aisles dedicated to health drinks, alternative milks, plant-based and organic produce and, while Fairfield offered all these options, the range was significantly smaller.

My hypothesis was correct in identifying that Double Bay would have a larger selection of more costly luxury food items and a greater variety of produce available.

AIM 3

To assess the impact the socio-economic composition of a suburb has on the availability and accessibility of healthy, sustainable, and alternative foods.

Ensuring fresh and healthy foods are affordable and accessible is crucial for public health. Numerous studies have shown that those who are less affluent, less educated, or employed in low-paid jobs, are less likely to consume diets that meet health guidelines, particularly in terms of the recommended daily fruit and vegetable intake (Winkler, 2006). Based on data from the most recent Healthy Food Basket Survey, conducted by the Cancer Council (2008), grocery expenditure is considered affordable if it amounts to less than 30% of a household’s total income. A family of four earning a median income is required to spend 22% of income on groceries to meet their nutritional needs. Whereas, for families in the lowest income quintile, expenditure is 56% of income (Crawford, 2017). This creates a range of challenges for families who mus choose between purchasing nutritious food and maintaining financial security. For many Fairfield residents with income in the lowest quintile, a compromise would need to be made on fresh, healthy produce. A subsequent lack of demand for a wide variety of fresh produce and luxury goods is reflected in Woolworths Fairfield.

Many migrants are drawn to Fairfield for its diverse makeup and community life, despite it being the second-lowest SES area according to SEIFA (Australian Parliament Joint Standing Committee on Migration, n.d. and Western Sydney Uni, n.d.).

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Numerous surveys of Fairfield’s population recount that residents rely on goods and services that remind them of their country of origin to feel a sense of belonging (Australian Parliament Joint Standing Committee on Migration, n.d). This is reflected in the wide range of culturally specific produce found in Woolworths Fairfield, which focused predominantly on Asian and Middle Eastern foods.

The large refugee community residing in this LGA (Doherty, 2017), as well as the recent influx of migrants, can be associated with lower incomes and higher unemployment rates. Thus, the community’s necessity to purchase food in bulk for greater savings. Advertisements for savings and discount deals in Fairfield further supports this, with those of lower SES having a stronger interest in cost saving strategies.

Foods promoted as sustainable and healthy are often more expensive, and thus, a smaller selection of these were present in Woolworths Fairfield. Those residing in Double Bay have a higher income (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021), and therefore have the means to spend money on current food trends. For some, a plant-based diet is followed for religious reasons, while others will follow this diet to remain in line with current sustainable food trends and perceived health benefits. A large selection of alternative milk products was observed in Double Bay and, while there are those who require alternative milks due to allergies and intolerances, others consume milks, such as oat milk, to follow current food trends. Both stores stocked the common almond, oat and soy milks, yet Double Bay offered a broader range, including cashew, pistachio and fava bean milks. The higher SES of Double Bay enables residents to spend more on goods perceived as luxuries, a point made particularly evident through the high-cost delicatessen products.

Fairtrade and organic produce are undoubtedly more sustainable, however, it is assumed that sustainability would not be considered a priority by Fairfield consumers due to the higher cost of these products. Thus, the range of sustainable, organic and fair-trade produce was observed to be minimal in Fairfield. Double Bay’s higher disposable income allows consumers to spend more to support ethical causes, and Woolworths catered to this inclination with an extensive variety of sustainable products. An individual’s ethical and social beliefs can result in outliers to this trend, however, those of higher SES are more likely to prioritise ethical produce, as reflected in the primary data collected from both stores.

As hypothesised, Double Bay’s higher disposable income enables people to have a more substantial grocery budget and increases choice when it comes to purchasing higher-cost goods in line with current food trends, including those with perceived health benefits, such as plant-based foods and sustainable produce. Food costs can be a barrier to low-income families making healthy food choices, yet in Fairfield this did not appear to adversely impact access to healthy produce, instead, it affected the variety and range of fresh produce and access to “luxury” goods.

Global Outlook

BIBLIOGR APHY Australia. Department of Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs. , and Western Sydney’s Regional Information and Research Service. (1991). South Asian Migration and Settlement in Western Sydney.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). Main Features – SocioEconomic Advantage and Disadvantage. Abs.gov.au; Australian Bureau of Statistics. https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/ Lookup/by%20Subject/2071.0~2016~Main%20Features~SocioEconomic%20Advantage%20and%20Disadvantage~123

Doherty, B. (2017, June 22). Australia’s refugee capital “shows what the country can do.” The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/ australianews/2017/jun/23/australias-refugee-capital-shows-whatthe-country-can-do Dorgan, N. (2022). Woolworths partners with startup InvertiGro to launch Australia’s first in-store vertical farm. Business News Australia. https://www.businessnewsaustralia.com/articles/woolworthspartners-with-start-upinvertigro-to-launch-australia-s-first-instore-vertical-farm.html

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021a). 2021 Double Bay, Census All persons QuickStats | Australian Bureau of Statistics. Www. abs.gov.au. https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/ quickstats/2021/SAL11283

Irala, J. de, Groth, M., and Johansson, L. (2000). A systematic review of socio-economic differences in food habits in Europe: Consumption of fruit and vegetables. https://www.researchgate. net/publication/289505499_A_systematic_review_of_socioeconomic_differences_in_food_habits_in_Europe_Consumption_ of_fruit_and_vegetables

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2021b). 2021 Fairfield, Census All persons QuickStats | Australian Bureau of Statistics. Www. abs.gov.au. https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/ quickstats/2021/LGA12850

Irvine, J. (2015, May 9). Sydney’s rich and poor: the rising crisis in our suburbs. The Sydney Morning Herald; The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/national/nsw/sydneys-rich-andpoor-the-rising-crisis-in-oursuburbs-20150508-ggwvh1.html

Australian Parliament Joint Standing Committee on Migration. (n.d.). The Economic, Social and Cultural Impacts of Migration in Australia. www.google.com

Law and Justice foundation of NSW. (2008). Law and Justice Foundation - NSW Legal Needs Survey: Fairfield, Justice issues paper 5.

Www.lawfoundation.net.au. http://www.lawfoundation.net.au/ljf/ site/articleIDs/F40357A9BE0D03E0CA2575BB001F0939/

Barr, E. (2017, August 15). Southwest Sydney suburbs among the most disadvantaged in NSW along with remote rural areas. Daily Telegraph. www.dailytelegraph.com.au Blake, D. (2018, December 13). Woolworths reveals organic supermarket concept in Double Bay. Inside Retail. https://insideretail. com.au/news/woolworths-reveals-organicsupermarket-concept-indouble-bay-201812 Cancer Council. (2008). NSW healthy food basket : cost, availability and quality survey Crawford, B., Byun, R., Mitchell, E., Thompson, S., Jalaludin, B., and Torvaldsen, S. (2017). Socioeconomic differences in the cost, availability and quality of healthy food in Sydney. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 41(6), 567–571. https://doi. org/10.1111/1753-6405.12694

Lucio, R. (2018, December 12). Woolworths opens new concept store in Double Bay. Inside FMCG. https://insidefmcg.com.au/2018/12/13/ woolworths-opens-new-concept-storein-double-bay/ Massey, S. J. L., and Parr, N. (2012). The socio-economic status of migrant populations in regional and rural Australia and its implications for future population policy. Journal of Population Research, 29(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12546-011-9079-9 Moffat, T., and Latham, J. (2007). Determinants of variation in food cost and availability in two socioeconomically contrasting neighbourhoods of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Research Gate. https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/7235697_Determinants_ of_variation_in_foo d_cost_and_availability_in_two_ socioeconomically_contrasting_neighbourhoods_of_Hamilton_ Ontario_Canada

Darmon, N., Lacroix, A., Muller, L., and Ruffieux, B. (2014).

Food price policies improve diet quality while increasing socioeconomic inequalities in nutrition. The International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity. https://link-galecom.ezproxy. sl.nsw.gov.au/apps/doc/A539664438/AONE?u=slnsw_ public&sid=book mark-AONE&xid=c8b631c8

Ngo, C. (2015). Supermarket giants Coles and Woolworths have role to play in obesity crisis: GP. https://www.dailytelegraph. com.au/newslocal/south-west/obesity-a-problem-inlowsocioeconomic-areas-such-as-canterbury-and-bankstown/newsstory/ d909a746c918e88a8eed6a03226df7d7

Dietician association of Australia. (2011). Can the poor in Australia afford healthy food? Login.ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au.

NSW Department of Justice. (2022, May 1). Low SocioEconomic Status. www.publicdefenders.nsw.gov.au. https://www. publicdefenders.nsw.gov.au/Pages/public_defenders_research/ barbook/low-ses.aspx

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NSW Government. (1985). Migrants in the Southwest Region of Sydney – comprising Fairfield, Campbelltown, and Liverpool Solomon, S. (2022, June 16). Woolworths supermarket repurposes unsold bread into delicious garlic bread at one Sydney store! Seniors Discount Club. https://seniorsdiscountclub.com.au/threads/ woolworths-supermarket-repurposesunsold-bread-into-deliciousgarlic-bread-at-one-sydney-store.6524/ The Cancer Council NSW. (n.d.). QUALITY SURVEY AVAILABILITY COST NSW HEALTHY FOOD BASKET COST, AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY SURVEY. https://www.cancercouncil.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/ Nutrition-FINALreport-on-Healthy-Food-Basket-Survey-Costand-availability-15-February-2008.pdf Waxman, P. (2001). The economic readjustment of recently arrived Bosnian, Afghan, and Iraqi refugees in Sydney.

International Migration Review. https://go-galecom. ezproxy.sl.nsw.gov.au/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=slnsw_ public&id=GALE%7CA77875791&v=2.1&it=r&aty=ip Western Sydney Uni. (n.d.). SEIFA by profile area | Western Sydney (LGA) | Community profile. Profile.id.com.au. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from https://profile.id.com.au/cws/seifa-disadvantage-smallarea?SeifaKey=40004 Winkler, E., Turrell, G., and Patterson, C. (2006). Does living in a disadvantaged area mean fewer opportunities to purchase fresh fruit and vegetables in the area? Findings from the Brisbane food study. Health and Place, 12(3), 306–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. healthplace.2004.08.013 Woolworths. (2019). Woolworths Group Sustainability Report. https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/content/dam/wwg/investors/ reports/2019/fullyear/2019%20Sustainability%20Report.pdf Woolworths Group. (2021). Woolworths Wetherill Park Socio-economic impact assessment. https://majorprojects.planningportal.nsw.gov. au/prweb/PRRestService/mp/01/getCont ent?AttachRef=SSD15221509%2120210810T061849.501%20GMT Woolworths Group. (2022a). 2022 Annual Report. https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/content/dam/wwg/investors/ reports/2022/fullyear/2022%20Annual%20Report.pdf Woolworths Group. (2022b). 2022 Sustainability Report. https://www.woolworthsgroup.com.au/content/dam/wwg/ investors/reports/2022/fullyear/Woolworths%20Group%20 Sustainability%20Report%202022.pdf Zhao, J. (2019, November). Where do Sydney’s rich and poor live, and who are they? Where Do Sydney’s Rich and Poor Live, and Who Are They? https://smallmultiples.com.au/articles/where-dosydneys-rich-and-poor-live-and-whoare-they/

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The Little Bird

Global Outlook

E L I S YA A R F I A N TO Y E A R 7, 2 0 2 3

a storybook by elisya a

the little bird

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Once upon a time there was a little white bird called Snowy.

One morning, Snowy woke up and decided to explore beyond the field of grass and trees, where she lived.

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She soared over the field of grass and kept flying away from her home until a bad smell hit her.

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Snowy flew down towards the ground when she saw an old radio cracked and broken in front of her. She wondered “Why someone would throw away a nice radio?”

She picked it up and wanted to take it to the nearest houses or building so that it wouldn’t be wasted however as she flew past a few trees, she saw...

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a huge pile of rubbish in the middle of a field!

Snowy gasped in horror as she saw piles and piles of waste. There were even trucks adding more waste to the pile! Snowy looked at the trucks and saw big bold letters that said “E-Waste Plant”.

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Suddenly she heard the faint cry of a bird somewhere.

Snowy’s eyes glanced around the field to look for where the noise was coming from until she saw a small red bird crying next to a small pile of dump

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“What’s wrong?” Snowy asked.

“My home got ruined because of the rubbish!” the little bird said. “There’s too much rubbish and humans had to make space for all the rubbish so they broke my home! I have nowhere to live!”

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“That’s ok,” Snowy said.

“You can live with me!”

So they flew off back to Snowy’s home while the little red bird introduced himself as Robin.

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Snowy and Robin spent their time investigating what all the mess was. The piles and piles of rubbish were all electronic devices!

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They spent their lives together trying to alert other animals of this danger and wanted to tell the humans to stop wasting so many electronic devices. They lived in happiness together.

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Global Outlook

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Are electric vehicles a sustainable solution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions?

ISABELL A WONG Y E A R 10, 2 023

Introduction

Electric vehicle sustainability (usage and production)

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are a significant global problem.

The main contributor to GHG emissions is transportation, accounting for 37% of all emissions (IEA, 2023). The use of fossil fuels in vehicles is a major source of carbon dioxide emission.

Electric vehicles (EVs) have emerged as a potential solution to this problem as they do not emit greenhouse gases, but the question remains, are EVs a sustainable solution to reduce greenhouse gases? Sustainability is defined as meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations, 2023).

EVs have the potential to reduce GHG emissions. EVs run on electric motors, rather than internal-combustion engines fuelled by gasoline or diesel (U.S. Department of Energy, 2023), with no tailpipe emissions, meaning that they do not emit the pollutants associated with gasoline or diesel engines (U.S. Department of Energy, 2023). In the short-term, this improves local air quality and reduces harmful vehicle pollutants. In the long-term, EVs can contribute to reducing global GHG emissions and mitigating climate change. A study found EVs emit 50% less CO2 than conventional cars (Hanley, 2022).

Causes and consequences of greenhouse gases

Another factor to consider is EV energy consumption. EVs are more energy-efficient than conventional vehicles, requiring less energy to travel the same distance (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2023). EVs convert over 77% of electrical energy into movement while conventional vehicles convert 12-30% of energy stored in gasoline (Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2023).

GHG emissions have risen dramatically since the industrial revolution. Globally, the primary sources of GHG are electricity production, agriculture, transportation, forestry, and manufacturing (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2021).

Elevated concentrations of GHG cause solar heat trapping, leading to increased atmospheric heat retention and higher temperatures, known as global warming (El-Fadel and Bou-Zeid, 1999). Consequences include the destruction of natural habitats and species; rising sea levels, which cause flooding in low-lying areas; the spread of disease in warmer climates; and disruption to national food supplies (Nunez, 2019). Many believe the most severe consequence of GHG emissions is climate change, defined as alterations to long-term weather patterns and atmospheric conditions, as it endangers human health, agriculture, water resources and ecosystems (Gale in Context, 2021).

Vehicles are a main contributor to GHG emissions, as burning gasoline and diesel creates harmful by-products (Department of Ecology State of Washington, 2023). Human health consequences include respiratory diseases and asthma exacerbations (Australian Associated Press, 2023). Vehicles are a major source of air pollutants, particularly in trafficdense areas (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2022). Globally, many believe the usage of EVs could assist in substantially reducing this pollution.

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Moreover, electricity sources must be considered. GHG emissions from EV usage can be low to zero in regions with renewable energy sources. Renewable sources continuously regenerate, securing energy production without impacting future generations.

For example, EVs have 80% fewer GHG emissions than conventional vehicles in New Zealand (Ministry of Transport, 2020) because the country’s electricity is mostly derived from renewable energy (IEA, 2023).

On the other hand, the production of EVs requires significant amounts of energy and resources, which generate GHG emissions (ICCT, 2018). The production of lithium-ion batteries, essential to EVs, heavily contributes to these emissions. The production involves mining and refining rare-earth metals like lithium, cobalt and manganese, releasing CO2 and other GHGs (Moseman, 2022). This process is an environmental strain and leads to pollution in the air, soil and water, which leaches into, poisons and harms nearby communities. The production of EVs can lead to 80% more emissions than a conventional vehicle due to intensive manufacturing (Moseman, 2022). However, studies found emissions could be paid back within two years of driving in a European electricity grid (ICCT, 2018). Despite this, manufacturers are exploring sustainable production processes like using renewable energy to power production facilities or developing more efficient battery production methods. In the long-term, many believe the production of EVs isn’t sustainable as many of the resources needed are finite.

Global Outlook

Global perspectives A common global perspective is that EVs are a sustainable solution to reducing GHG emissions. This is supported by the growing popularity of EVs in larger markets, with 60% of global EV sales in China and other emerging and developing economies, including India (IEA, 2023). It is predicted that sales will grow 35% in 2023, primarily due to environmental attractiveness for consumers (IEA, 2023).

There is increasing global commitment to preferencing EVs over traditional vehicles. For instance, the Electric Vehicle Initiative (EVI) is a multi-governmental policy forum dedicated to accelerating the adoption of EVs worldwide. This initiative is supported by major economies such as China, India, France, Japan, the USA and Canada (IEA, 2023). The EVI reflects a strong commitment among governments to move towards a goal of 100% zero emission vehicles in public procurement. This is due to the belief that EVs are a sustainable transport solution. Other policies include the EU’s Net Zero Industry and US Inflation Reduction Act (IEA, 2023).

However, an increased demand for EVs drives demand for lithium batteries and related critical minerals. This is a criticism of EVs as a sustainable solution. Reducing the need for critical materials in the EV manufacturing process is necessary to ensure supply chain sustainability, resilience and security on a global scale.

National perspectives On a national level, many people in India believe EVs can alleviate GHG emissions and air pollutants within polluted cities.

India has six out of 10 of the world’s most polluted cities due to conventional vehicles’ reliance on fossil fuels (Intellipaat, 2023).

As the Indian population grows, demand for vehicles increases, making non-renewable fuels impractical and unsustainable as energy sources in the long-term. Considering their zero tailpipe emissions, EVs create less vehicle pollutants, allowing easier breathing in cities (Intellipaat, 2023). However, drawbacks of EVs include the need to build charging infrastructure and a skilled workforce, limited available technology, higher production and sale costs, and the need to import components and materials, making EVs unattainable for a large portion of the population.

Nonetheless, Indian governments have implemented numerous laws and policies aimed at facilitating a smoother transition to EVs. For example, despite rapid EV growth in car industries, Indian sales are considerably slower than in other countries (IEA,

2022). To address this, the federal government issued the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of EV (FAME) policy in 2015 and FAME II policy in 2019, aimed at stimulating the adoption and manufacture of EVs (Khan, 2022). These policies included lowering upfront EV costs and imposing extra road fees, taxes and penalties on internal combustion vehicles. They also necessitated the proper infrastructure and technology for EVs, increasing sales (Khan, 2022). Other governmental actions include the extension of the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles scheme, and National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020, which promoted the manufacture of EVs and charging infrastructure (Khan, 2023). These policies show governmental support for EVs, for reducing reliance on fossil fuels and moving towards cleaner transportation, projecting a net zero carbon emission in India by 2070 (Khan, 2023).

Courses of action A possible course of action to reduce GHG emissions is the implementation of carbon pricing policies. Carbon pricing is a market-based policy tool that places a price on carbon emissions, encouraging businesses and consumers to reduce their carbon footprint (World Bank, 2023). To implement such policies, governments set a price on carbon emissions associated with the production and consumption of electricity used to power EVs. The price can be gradually increased over time to encourage the transition to renewable energy sources. Governments can monitor the reduction in GHG emissions associated with EVs, assessing the revenue generated through carbon pricing. Sweden has proven this method effective: it has the highest carbon price in the world but a significantly low rate of emissions with 79% of GHG emissions subject to a positive carbon rate (OECD, 2022).

This policy can be practical and impactful as it creates a financial incentive for consumers to switch to EVs and encourages the development of renewable energy sources.

Another possible course of action is to promote battery recycling.

Material production is responsible for approximately half the GHG emissions from EV batteries (ICCT, 2018). Recycling batteries would not only reduce emissions caused by battery production by up to 70%, but would reduce costs and allow for the recovery of valuable earth metals, preserving resources for future generations while fulfilling current needs (Walker, 2023). The CSIRO estimated that each tonne of lithium-ion battery waste could be worth $4,400 – $17,000 in materials (Hagon, 2021), thus, recycling would substantially lower costs and boost economies.

Improper disposal and recycling of batteries can also release

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toxic chemicals and heavy metals into the environment, causing significant ecosystem and human health harms (Csanyi, 2019); both these challenges are mitigated through proper recycling.

Governments can implement regulations requiring manufacturers to establish battery recycling programs and evaluate the impact of these programs through monitoring the volume of materials recovered and the reduction in GHG emissions associated with battery disposal. The promotion of battery recycling would reduce the waste and the environmental impact of battery production.

My preferred option would be the promotion of battery recycling.

This course is better suited to creating a sustainable future for EVs, prioritising the conservation of resources needed by future generations. It reduces costs and services sustainable economic growth and has numerous environmental benefits, including minimising production-induced GHG emissions, ecosystem destruction and pollution. Battery recycling is more achievable in developed and developing countries than carbon pricing, and fulfills the demands of EV manufacturing while ensuring economic, environmental and social balance.

Personal perspective I was initially interested in the reasons behind the growing popularity of EVs globally. I had previous misconceptions that EVs were simply no-emission, green, but expensive vehicles. After further research, my perspective shifted and I now understand that emissions are associated with EVs in the production process and can continue afterwards, depending on the renewability of electricity sources, with an emission payback of two to three years.

Globally, as countries move towards the electrification of road transportation, I found more governments have implemented policies supporting the increased use of EVs. Ultimately, my resolution is that EVs are a sustainable solution in reducing GHG emissions, in light of the UN’s definition of sustainability.

Conclusion Overall, the usage of EVs has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector in the long-term. However, it’s important to consider the full lifecycle of EVs, from production to disposal, to ensure that their environmental and social impacts are as positive as possible to maintain sustainability.

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Retrieved March 5, 2023 from https://www.c2es.org/content/ international-emissions/ Csanyi, C. (2019). Effective ways of recycling and reducing nonbiodegradable waste. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://sciencing. com/effective-ways-recycling-reducing-nonbiodegradablewaste-12336834.html Department of Ecology State of Washington. (2023). Reducing air pollution from cars. Retrieved March 5, 2023 from https://ecology. wa.gov/Issues-and-local-projects/Education-training/What-youcan-do/Reducing-car-pollution#:~:text=Vehicle%20pollutants%20 harm%20our%20health,common%20human%2Dcaused%20 greenhouse%20gas.

El-Fadel, M., and Bou-Zeid, E. (1999). Transportation GHG emissions in developing countries. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 4(4), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/ s1361-9209(99)00008-5 Gale in Context: Global Issues. (2021). Climate Change.

Retrieved April 20, 2023 from https://link.gale.com/apps/ doc/CP3208520156/GIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmarkGIC&xid=123da649 Hagon, T. (2021). Recycling old electric car batteries. Retrieved April 10, 2023 from https://rac.com.au/car-motoring/info/ev-batteryrecycling Hanley, S. (2022). UCS Study Shows Lifetime EV Emissions Are 50% Lower Than Conventional Vehicles. Retrieved March 20, 2023 from https://cleantechnica.com/2022/07/27/ucs-studyshows-lifetime-ev-emissions-are-50-lower-than-conventionalvehicles/#:~:text=The%20Union%20of%20Concerned%20 Scientists%2C%20known%20as%20UCS%2C%20on%20July,a%20 gasoline%20or%20diesel%20engine.

IEA. (2023). Global EV Outlook 2022 Executive Summary. Retrieved May 6, 2023 from https://www.iea.org/reports/global-evoutlook-2022/executive-summary

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Global Outlook

IEA. (2023). New Zealand can use its clean electricity strengths to decarbonise its energy system, says new IEA report. Retrieved April 20, 2023 from https://www.iea.org/news/new-zealand-can-use-itsclean-electricity-strengths-to-decarbonise-its-energy-system-saysnew-iea-report IEA. (2023). Transport Improving the Sustainability of Passenger and Freight Transport. Retrieved April 7, 2023 from https://www.iea. org/topics/transport Intellipaat. (2023). Future of Electric Vehicles in India. Retrieved May 13, 2023 from https://intellipaat.com/blog/future-of-electricvehicles-in-india/?US Khan, I. (2022). How Indian EV Policies will help win the EV Race.

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Student Contributors

Muse Committee Members

Elysia Arfianto

Nynia Nguyen

Lead Editors

Committee

Sabrina Cao

Chloe Nguyen

Lucinda Harricks

Courtney Au

Zara Chan

Phoebe van Niekerk

Kaitlyn Blair

Imogen Jones

Zoe Chan

Suhani Patel

Emily Chen

Angelyna Khoo

Amanda Chen

Merryn Quang

Maya David

Courtney Au

Lisa Chen

Mikayla Rodger

Celeste El-Khoury

Angelin Chen

Freya Cleary

Lael Sakalauskas

Crystal Fu Chen

Emily Chen

Anneke Dykgraaff

Cassandra Seeto

Danielle Gallico

Julia Chen

Claudia Fernandez

Miriam Shin

Gabrielle Germanos

Gabriella Correia

Annabelle Frederick

Keira Taganesia

Chelo Han

Maya David

Danielle Gallico

Amrita Wadhera

Elaine Huang

Crystal Fu Chen

Mia St George

Alicia Wang

Dominique Kaleel

Iris Gai

Leah Har

India Whip

Varnikaa Kannan

Kitty Gai

Lucinda Harricks

Isabella Wong

Natasha Laggas

Kaitlyn Hoang

Isabel Hong

Veronica Xie

Zoe Leeson

Imogen Jones

Anjali Kailasanathan

Meredith Xu

Alyssa Stamson

Angelyna Khoo

Varnikaa Kannan

Jasmine Yang

Alycia Wang

Olivia Kim

Alexandra Katanasho

Sophie Yi

Abby Xu

Sophie Lau

Sienna Kim

Talia Yin

Yiru Li

Olivia Kim

Mandi Yu

Alina Lin

Abigail Lee

Esther Yum

Brianna Ngo

Canice Lei

Qianqi Zhou

Maria Poulos

Grace Li

Siana Sachdev

Anna Liu

Anna Satchithananthan

Eva Moss

Shriya Sungala Vicky Wei Hannah Wong Annabel Yuen Sylvia Zhao Lena Zhu

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Acknowledgements This edition of Muse would not have been possible without the support of:

Mrs Lisa Brown Principal, for her support of this new endeavour.

Mrs Nicole Hearne Acting Head of Teaching and Learning Heads of Departments and members of the Senior School teaching staff for their mentorship and encouragement of the students whose work is contained herein.

Dr Ann Goeth Research Fellow Ms Anne-Maree Marczan Director of Marketing, for her invaluable oversight of the publication process.

Mrs Elizabeth Fenech for the many hours spent proofreading and editing the works in this journal, for her fine eye and attention to detail.

Melinda Holme Graphic Designer

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