Examine historians’ interpretations relating to the impact Tiberius’ reign had on the development of Imperial Rome.
analyse historians’ differing interpretations of Josip Broz
leadership of Yugoslavia.
How were the responses of Byzantine authorities to the Plague of Justinian effective in lessening the severity of the crisis and ultimately ending it?
using AI Generators, like ChatGPT, for studying and writing student essays ethical?
of Nobility – An original script
STEM AND INNOVATION
The Reservoir Reviver
Alina Lin, Year 10 82
Does anaerobic training provide a measurable benefit to aerobic athletes?
Mikalya Rodger, Year 11 92
The Drum Brake
Kaari Ellen, Year 11 98
Sound, Spring Onion Roots & Space
Mia Pertsinidis, Year 10
How do pesticides affect the pH and oxygen levels of freshwater plants?
Sophie Green, Year 8 110
The Aqua Guard India Whip, Year 10 115
Fertilisers’ effect on the quality of water runoff
Chloe Rose Papageorgiou, Year 9 120
GLOBAL OUTLOOK
Does the reliance on technology in medicine negatively impact the quality of patient care?
Corrine Xu, Year 10
According to a study by researchers at four British universities, for each 15-point increase in IQ, the likelihood of getting married increases by around 35% for a man but decreases by about 58% for a woman. Why?
Kitty Gai, Year 9
Languages Week Poster Competition Winner
Annie Fang, Year 7
Languages Week Poster Competition Finalist
Ella Zhang, Year 7
Will the integration of AI in education be beneficial? Sheiszen Ling, Year 10
Vitaspice Business Plan Natalie
Year 11
Critically analyse the influence of media and technology in altering methods of socialisation. Alyssa Stamson, Year 11
Spanish Language Poster: Columbia, Bogota Priya Sukh, Year 11
Should regulations on social-media content be increased to avoid offensive speech at the expense of freedom of expression? Michelle
Year 10
Letter from the Research Captain
CELESTE EL-KHOURY
Meriden rightly places great emphasis on research, as it is a skill that opens the door to numerous important life abilities, including media literacy, independent learning, and the expansion of one’s access to knowledge.
With the recent rise of AI, there has been much speculation about the future of research tasks in schools. However, Meriden has risen above these concerns, with students continuing to produce well-applied, carefully executed, and honest research projects. Much credit for this work ethic must go to the Library team, whose members consistently update resources and ensure information remains as accessible as possible. I have had the privilege of working alongside them this year and have gained a deeper appreciation for the vital role they play within the school. Muse is the manifestation of both their efforts and the academic toils of the students. It reflects the curiosity, persistence, and integrity that underpin learning at Meriden, showcasing not only the knowledge gained but also the skills that will carry students well beyond the classroom. In this way, Muse stands as both a celebration of achievement and a reminder of the crucial role that research, guided by the Library and Lateral Learning team’s expertise, plays in shaping lifelong learners.
CELESTE EL-KHOURY Student Research Captain
Preface
MS PRISCILLA CURRAN, DEAN OF LATERAL LEARNING AND MRS SHARNA KERSHAW, ACTING DEAN OF COMMUNITY LEARNING
Welcome to the second edition of Meriden’s journal of student work, Muse . This journal grew out of a desire to celebrate the unique interests and talents of our students and to showcase the wide range of works produced over the course of an academic year. The works included exemplify the depth and breadth of the essential skills we aim to develop in our students. At Meriden, we refer to these as the Lateral Learning skills – Critical and Creative Thinking, Communication, Collaboration and Citizenship – and they are skills students will continue to refine as they leave our school gates. Working closely with a range of departments and students, we are fortunate to witness first hand the development of these skills in our students over the years.
The title Muse speaks to the importance of Parnassus in Meriden’s history. The lilies of Parnassus, which appear on the school crest, recall Mount Parnassus, the mountain in Ancient Greece that was sacred to the muses. The muses, guardians of the various disciplines of knowledge—from poetry and science to history and music—have inspired both the title of this journal and its different sections. The verb to muse also means to think deeply and to reflect, and it is clear that the students whose work appears in these pages have devoted many thoughtful hours to their creations—researching, questioning, revising, and perfecting their pieces before reaching the final version.
Some of these works have received internal awards, such as a Parnassus Award, an award at Meriden that recognises critical and creative thinking at the highest level. Others are works that students have completed as part of a cocurricular club, or that a student has entered in an external competition. All are evidence that Meriden students are grappling with the joys and challenges that come with finding their own voice –whether that comes through research and critical analysis, experimentation, public speaking, music, art, creative writing or poetry.
We congratulate every student that has had their work included in this journal and hope that you, the readers of this journal, enjoy the fruits of their efforts.
MRS SHARNA KERSHAW Acting Dean of Community Learning
MS PRISCILLA CURRAN Dean of Lateral Learning
To Parnassus Heights
YEAR 7, 2024
HANNAH MATHEW
What next?
ELENA WHITFIELD
YEAR 11, 2024
This speech was the Runner-Up at the local round of the Rostrum Public Speaking competition.
What next?
Our modern society is constantly asking this question. But it’s not a recent idea to be continuously looking to the future and imagining what might come next. People in the 19th century predicted that by the late 20th century, there would be flying cars and electric floor scrubbers. Some of these ideas have come to fruition, such as the robotic vacuum cleaner, whilst others still exist in the realm of the imagination.
Some foreshadowing of the future has been prescient. The Electrical Experimenter magazine reported in 1918: “Numerous inventors have busied themselves trying to invent a machine whereby it would be possible for one person to see another while talking on the telephone.” Does this sound familiar? Of course it does. The mobile phone’s existence seems unremarkable to us now because we don’t look into a past when it wasn’t invented. We look forward. We ask, “What next?”
But we need to pay attention to history.
I could list a bunch of random historical facts to you now. Did you know that Julius Caesar was stabbed 23 times on the Ides of March? Did you know that the shortest war in history lasted only 38 minutes? As interesting, or as boring, as you may find these facts, it is difficult to discern their importance without accounting for the wider story of history.
History is not just a series of events, but also a study of humans and their actions. History is a true story that traces the good and bad, the ups and downs, of humanity. History tells us the impact past events had on our world and gives us a bigger picture that extends beyond dates of births and deaths, victories and defeats. History teaches us that the only constant is change. And that’s something our society needs to be reminded of more than ever before. Our world is always changing. But everyone asks, “What next?” No one looks at what history has to tell us.
Thirty years ago, there were around 450 full-time positions in history disciplines in Australian universities. In 2023, there were only 319. And it’s not just history professors falling in numbers, it’s history students, too. Since 2016, enrolments in all history courses in Australian universities have dropped by 23%. These are staggering numbers. Interest in the past is dropping. And a single-minded focus on the future is increasing. With developments in science and technology coming more rapidly than ever before, the future seems more important than the past. Every step into the future leaves the past further behind us. But we need history.
In Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird, Atticus tells his daughter Scout, “You never really understand a person...until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.” Empathy is paramount. And one way that we can gain empathy is through studying history. When we look back through time and see all the different cultures and civilisations that have flourished in their unique ways, we can begin to better understand the diversity in our world today. By studying history, we can walk around in other people’s skin. The past gives us greater empathy for the people around us, in the present.
Change has been as constant through history as it is today. Humans have caused change, experienced change, triumphed over it and suffered from it. We need to learn about the changes that have occurred throughout human history and fathom the reasons they happened.
What were the causes and consequences of the changes?
Who was affected?
These are the kinds of questions we need to be asking. Questions about history that will teach us to interpret how the world changes. In a society where change is constant, we need to comprehend these changes. And to do this, we need to study history.
The Great Depression was a global economic crisis that occurred during the 1930s. It was characterised by hardship, unemployment and poverty. How many people do you think asked “What next?” during the Great Depression? Parents wondering how they were going to next feed their children. Shop owners questioning if there was a future for their businesses. Workers doubting that they would still be employed the next day. The question “What next?” would have caused great stress for countless men, women and children over the years of the Great Depression.
But today, when we look back on the 1930s, there is so much we can learn about how to face future economic challenges. At the time of the Great Depression, Australia was extremely ill-equipped to handle an economic crisis on such a scale. But Australia learnt lessons from this experience about how to regulate and prevent similar financial collapses. For example, the global financial crisis of 2008 would have struck Australian people significantly harder if not for economic policies resulting from the Great Depression. And what happened in 2008 prompted reforms in banking and finance to mitigate future risks.
In Australia, stress about the future is an immense issue among young people in particular. Our generation has grown up in a progressively more future-centred world. In 2022, a study of young people by the Australian organisation ReachOut found that stress about the future was having a moderate or major impact on the wellbeing of nearly 55% of young people. This is an increase from only a few years ago. With so many concerns growing from the question “What next?”, young people are becoming caught up in looking to the future. We are taught by society to seek improvement, an excellent goal in itself. But when always wanting to advance turns history from important to irrelevant, focusing solely on the future becomes an issue.
A different perspective on history is needed. To avoid such widespread stress about the future in young people now, we need to stop making “What next?” the most important question. Every past event has something to tell us in the present. With greater empathy because of studying history, we can understand others around us now better. We can ask helpful questions of the past to comprehend how the world changes and why. When we look back at history, we can learn how to overcome adversity in the future.
Through this, history ultimately teaches us to ask the right questions. Let’s not ask “What next?” Why don’t we all try asking “What does history have to say?”
Examine historians’ interpretations relating to the impact Tiberius’ reign had on the development of Imperial Rome.
ELENA WHITFIELD
YEAR 11, 2024
The impact of Tiberius1 on the development of Imperial Rome was unequivocally significant;2 however, historians across time have vacillated in their interpretations of whether the effect Tiberius had on Rome was positive or negative. In The Annals of Imperial Rome, Tacitus3 portrays Tiberius as the first of a series of tyrants who subjugated the Roman people to their own benefit. Centuries later, Italian historian Albino Garzetti4 wrote From Tiberius to the Antonines, in which he depicts Tiberius more sympathetically than prior historians, exploring the motives and character behind his actions. Finally, Barbara Levick 5 interrogates past representations of Tiberius in her book Tiberius the Politician, presenting an assortment of perspectives on the emperor to discover his true character.
1 Tiberius was the second emperor of Rome, from AD 14 to AD 37. He was preceded by the first emperor, Augustus, succeeded by Gaius Caligula, and was part of the Julio-Claudian line of emperors. Pohl, F. (2024). Tiberius. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 3, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius
2 Ibid.
3 Publius Cornelius Tacitus was born in AD 56 and died around AD 120. His first 14 years were spent under the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperor Nero. He grew up in either northern Italy or southern Gaul. He received a traditional education, including the art of rhetoric and the composition of prose. Moving up the cursus honorum, Tacitus gained a social reputation and married to his own political advantage. He became consul in AD 97, with Nerva as emperor, and the following year he wrote his first two works. The first was De vita Julii Agricolae, an account of the life of Agricola, his wife’s father. The second was De origine et situ Germanorum, a description of the Germanic tribes on the Rhine. He later wrote The Annals of Imperial Rome and the Historiae, a history of Rome beginning in AD 69 and continuing to AD 96; however, some of this is missing. Pagan, V. E. (2017). Tacitus. I. B. Tauris. pg. 2
4 Albino Garzetti was an Italian historian, who was born in 1914 and died in 1998. He worked in history disciplines in Italian universities. When he published From Tiberius to the Antonines in 1960, he was the chair of Roman History at the Catholic University of Sacred Heart in Milan. Albino Garzetti. (2022, November 23). In Wikipedia https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino_Garzetti
5 Barbara Levick (1931-2023) was a classics professor, specialising in ancient history, from 1959 to 1998 at Oxford University. She was devoted to the study of Roman history, publishing many works on the early Roman emperors, including books on Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, and Vespasian. Bloomsbury Publishing. (n.d.). Barbara Levick https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/author/barbara-levick/
Tacitus characterises Tiberius as tyrannical in his history, The Annals of Imperial Rome, by presenting him as the founder of an oppressive imperial dynasty. Tacitus wrote The Annals around 75 years after Tiberius’ death.6 He recorded the period from the death of Augustus7 to the end of Nero’s 8 reign in AD 68.9 Tacitus depicts the reputation of Tiberius, tracking the progression towards terror in the closing years of his reign and
6 McDonald, A.H. (2024). Tacitus. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 5, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tacitus-Roman-historian 7 Caesar Augustus was born in 63 BC as Gaius Octavius. Following the assassination of his great-uncle Julius Caesar, he was adopted and inherited Caesar’s name. He engaged in war with rivals, emerging victoriously as Princeps, the first Roman emperor. His principate was the start of Imperial Rome, which Tiberius then consolidated. Augustus expanded the empire and made many attempts to reform Rome. His death in AD 14 left Tiberius as his heir.
National Geographic Society. (2023). Caesar Augustus https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/augustus-caesar
8 Nero has been portrayed since his reign from AD 54 to AD 68 as a greater tyrant than even Tiberius. His infamous deeds have given him an infamous reputation that Tacitus expounded upon in The Annals. Tacitus records that Nero killed his mother and wife, among other notorious actions, of which he greatly disapproved. Following his death, Nero was condemned to be forgotten by the Roman people. A civil war arose, from which the Flavian dynasty emerged, and these were the rulers under which Tacitus wrote. This would have greatly influenced his representation of Nero.
Bologna, F. (2021). Who was Nero?
https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/who-was-nero
9 Hughes-Warrington, M. (2008). Fifty Key Thinkers on History. Routledge. pg. 336
Examine historians’ interpretations relating to the impact Tiberius’ reign had on the development of Imperial Rome. | ELENA WHITFIELD YEAR 11, 2024
providing a variety of reasons for this collapse.10 He believed that the personality and relationships of Tiberius were key issues in his rule.11
Harrer believes conveying the truth was essential to Tacitus and suggests he strived to preserve this when writing.12 Tacitus often explains when a rumour was the source of his knowledge, or the event he was narrating was controversial.13 According to Shotter, a prime example of this principle in The Annals is Tacitus’ sympathy for the emperor’s problematic relationship with the Senate.14 Tiberius tried to allow the Senate to retain some of the power and freedom it had previously held, but Tacitus observes the dichotomy created between the reality of the Senate’s function and what Tiberius claimed to provide.15 Tacitus emphasises the character of Tiberius rather than his circumstances, thus presenting Tiberius as more tyrant than human.16 He also outlines the causes of the awkward relationship between Tiberius and the Senate, however, recognising it as a consequence of Tiberius’ expectation that the Senate make impartial judgements.17
Tacitus describes Tiberius’ personality as hypocritical and authoritarian, constructing an unfavourable portrait of him in accordance with the sources he used.18 His sources consisted primarily of records from the Senate and other official documents, such as speeches, as well as the writings of earlier historians, including Pliny the Elder19 and Servilius Nonianus.20 These sources describe Tiberius’ cruelty as emperor and are supported by evidence about his behaviour, particularly from Seneca 21 who experienced firsthand the emperor’s reign.22 Tacitus, like these historians, was heavily biased against Tiberius.23 Tacitus did not use non-literary evidence, although it was accessible to him.24
10 Shotter, D.C.A. (1988). Tacitus and Tiberius. Ancient Society, 19 (1), 225-236. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44080189 pg. 231
11 Ibid. pg. 235
12 Harrer, G.A. (1920). Tacitus and Tiberius. The American Journal of Philology, 41 (1), 57-68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/289503 pg. 60
13 Hughes-Warrington, M. op. cit. pg. 336
14 Shotter, D.C.A. op. cit. pg. 226
15 Ibid. pg. 228
16 McDonald, A.H. op. cit.
17 Shotter, D.C.A. op. cit. pg. 231
18 Harrer, G.A. op. cit. pg. 65
19 Pliny the Elder (AD 23-79) was a Roman scholar who wrote the Natural History. His unique style and detailed examination of the world around him in this scientific history gave him authority over succeeding scholars until the Middle Ages.
Stannard, J. (2024). Pliny the Elder. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 26, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pliny-the-Elder
20 McDonald, A.H. op. cit.
21 Lucius Annaeus Seneca (1 BC-AD 65) was around 40 at the time of Tiberius’ death. He had a successful military career and was a major philosophical figure in the early Roman empire.
Vogt, K. (2024). Seneca https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/seneca/
22 Harrer, G.A. op. cit. pg. 63
23 Mellor, R. (2011). Tacitus’ Annals. Oxford University Press. pg. 111
24 Martin, R. (1981). Tacitus. University of California Press. pg. 201
Whilst he claims to have written without impartiality, his personal context and position within the Senatorial class appear to have influenced what he communicated about Tiberius.25 Tacitus would have formed a negative view of Tiberius due to his circumstances when he was young.26 As he grew up, negative views became the prevailing perspective for most, including the sources he used to write The Annals 27 Tacitus was familiar with the corruption within the empire.28 He had witnessed how dynastic control had degraded emperors, leading to military revolt.29 Furthermore, Tacitus’ negative portrayal of Tiberius could derive from his experience with Domitian30 as emperor, which he believed was a result of Tiberius consolidating the empire.31
Tacitus believes that Tiberius’ reign was divided into two halves.32 The first was a time of prosperity and the second a time of deterioration.33 However, Martin claims that this division is “oversimplified and over-theoretical” and that it was theorised due to the stereotype of the time that any tyrant’s reign was structured in this manner.34 Additionally, Tiberius’ poor reputation continued to increase after his death, as consequent suffering by the people under the imperial system was blamed on the man they saw as the first of their oppressors.35 Tacitus and his contemporaries did not regard Augustus as the first emperor, but as the last of the warlords who ruled Rome.36 Therefore, Tiberius’ accession was the beginning of a tyrannical dynasty that had lasted until their time.37 Consequently, Tacitus does not portray Tiberius favourably, instead emphasising how his rule left a legacy of despotism, which the following emperors replicated.
Garzetti’s From Tiberius to the Antonines provides an opposing perspective to Tacitus’, positively judging the impact of Tiberius on the development of Imperial Rome. Garzetti’s political history of Rome was originally published in 1960 as part of a larger work
25 Harrer, G.A. op. cit. pg. 59
26 Tacitus was a teenager during the civil wars following Nero’s death. He also experienced a rise in rank due to the influence of the emperors, while witnessing others around him struggle to maintain their societal positions.
Pagan, V.E. op. cit. pg. 7
27 Marsh, F.B. (1928). “Tiberius and the Development of the Early Empire.” The Classical Journal, 24 (1), 14-27. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3289750 pg. 20
28 McDonald, A.H. op. cit.
29 Pagan, V.E. op. cit. pg. 7
30 Domitian was emperor from AD 81 to 96. Despite beginning his reign successfully, maintaining peace and demonstrating ability with administration, later in life Domitian became unpopular. His fear of assassination changed his relations with his subjects, until rumours of his paranoia overwhelmed his original positive reputation.
Wasson, D.L. (2013). “Domitian.” In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 28, 2024, from https://www.worldhistory.org/domitian/
31 Mellor, R. op. cit. pg. 96
32 Martin, R. op. cit. pg. 104
33 Ibid. pg. 105
34 Ibid.
35 Marsh, F.B. op. cit. pg. 24
36 McDonald, A.H. op. cit.
37 Ibid.
that traces the history of Imperial Rome from Tiberius onwards.38 He is detailed in his discussion of Tiberius, as he relates how the empire developed during his reign.39 Smith affirms that Garzetti’s notes illuminate opposing views as well as his own.40
Garzetti portrays Tiberius as an effective emperor who was able to consolidate the empire he inherited from Augustus. For example, Tiberius is seen as competent, rather than incapable, in Garzetti’s discussion of the affair of Lucius Aelius Sejanus.41 Garzetti claims that “one cannot justify everything” in Tiberius’ actions at this time, but is not consistent with this when discussing the year following Sejanus’ death, as his explanations become indirect justifications for Tiberius’ actions.42 He narrates these events in a manner sympathetic to Tiberius and tells how he was able to create uncertainty in the Roman people, especially Sejanus, as to his thoughts and plans.43 The analysis of Tiberius during this time conveys Garzetti’s ability as a scholar, and demonstrates his influence on how Tiberius is perceived in modern times, as he positively portrays Tiberius’ actions.
Garzetti believed that Tiberius had military rather than political talent, causing him to hold the respect of his soldiers at the cost of his appearance to wider society.44 He claims that Tiberius’ refusal to travel away from Rome early in his reign and his failure to return to Rome after going to Capri reflect his obstinate character and substantiate a cause of his poor reputation.45 Garzetti addresses the major events and policies of Tiberius, especially his relations with the Senate, administration of the empire, and military affairs.46 His support of Tiberius’ achievements in the administration of the Roman empire demonstrates his positive view of the emperor.47 He characterises Tiberius as wise and generous in financial matters, not exercising an excess of power
38 Hammond, M. (1976). “From Tiberius to the Antonines” (Book Review). American Historical Review, 81 (1), 107-108 https://www.jstor.org/stable/i305069 pg. 107
39 Crook, J.A. (1963). “Review: From Tiberius to the Antonines.” The Classical Review, 13 (2), 207-210. https://www.jstor.org/stable/706727 pg. 208
41 Sejanus was a prefect of the Praetorian Guard, left by Tiberius in Rome when he departed for Capri, and increasingly relied upon by him for advice. Sejanus continued to gain power over Tiberius, until the Roman population began to believe Tiberius had no authority of his own but was in the control of Sejanus. Tiberius’ absence in Capri did not contribute to deconstructing this image, as leaving Sejanus in Rome to carry out his wishes made it look like he had given away his power. Sejanus’ power grew, and with this his ambition and ruthlessness, until he asked to marry Tiberius’ daughter-in-law, Livilla. Tiberius refused permission and was informed of their plot against him by Livilla’s mother, Antonia Minor. In October AD 31, Sejanus was accused by Tiberius and stripped of his authority. He was executed on 18 October that year.
Wasson, D.L. (2012). Tiberius. In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 10, 2024, from https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius/
42 Crook, J.A. op. cit. pg. 208
43 Garzetti, A. (1960). From Tiberius to the Antonines. Methuen & Co Ltd. pg. 62
44 Ibid. pg. 10
45 Ibid. pg. 19
46 Smith, R.C. op. cit. pg. 122
47 Garzetti, A. op. cit. pg. 27
over the provinces of the empire and thus ensuring that they yielded sufficient taxes and contributed to the system he was developing.48
However, Garzetti avoids issues that have contradictory or inconclusive evidence, such as how Tiberius felt during his accession.49 He does not define his position in relation to his sources, particularly Tacitus, meaning that his proposals about Tiberius that disagree with Tacitus are not fully supported by evidence. 50 He also makes generalisations about the hostility of Tacitus to emperors that imply Tacitus did not consider any perspective other than his own when writing The Annals 51 Colledge claims that although Garzetti held a “balanced”52 perspective, he only studied Tiberius as an emperor, rather than accounting for the wider history of Rome at the time, which decreases the reliability of his perspective. 53
Garzetti shifts the view to a more positive interpretation of Tiberius than that conveyed by Tacitus. Garzetti posits that the policies of Tiberius were not dissimilar to those of other emperors following him. 54 His use of alternate sources to written ones, such as coins and inscriptions, allows him to present Tiberius in a manner that deviates from his previous characterisation. 55 Garzetti ultimately provides a historically accurate narration of the political and military history of Rome during Tiberius’ reign, which contrasts to that of Tacitus. 56 Garzetti evaluates Tiberius’ development of the Roman empire, representing the emperor as capable yet still acknowledging how his reputation was negatively influenced by his contemporaries.
Levick provides a third perspective on Tiberius’ reign as emperor, primarily examining how Rome evolved under him to discover his true character. Her political biography, Tiberius the Politician, holds value in its assessment of Tiberius’s rule and its impact on Rome. 57 Mitchell described Levick as “one of the leading Roman historians of her generation”, 58 demonstrating her comprehensive understanding of the context of Imperial Rome. With a profusion of publications throughout her lifetime, 59 Levick has developed the general perception of Tiberius based on the argument made
48 Ibid. pg. 28
49 Colledge, M.A.R. (1976). “Review: History of the Roman Emperors.” The Classical Review, 26 (2), 243-244. https://www.jstor.org/stable/713100 pg. 243
58 Mitchell, S. (2007). “Barbara Levick and Asia Minor”. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, 100 (1), xv-xviii. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43767656?seq=2 pg. xviii
59 Ibid. pg. xv
Examine historians’ interpretations relating to the impact Tiberius’ reign had on the development of Imperial Rome. | ELENA WHITFIELD YEAR 11, 2024
by Garzetti. She discusses how Augustus’ deification assisted Tiberius at the start of his reign, but later comparison to Augustus was detrimental.60 Levick examines how Rome evolved under Tiberius, acknowledging that though he was not well represented in the past, this was because he followed the glory of Augustus and was not due to his own deficiency.61
Levick counters the belief held throughout history that Tiberius was a tyrant with her own proposals about his character.62 She discusses how Tiberius was portrayed negatively by Tacitus partly due to his willingness to ignore the hatred of his people as long as he held their respect.63 Adams believes the detailed recording of Tiberius’ lifetime found in Tiberius the Politician, with notes and a bibliography, demonstrates her close study of her sources.64 Levick used Tacitus as a major source, but displays a greater sympathy towards Tiberius than he does.65 She was greatly influenced as a historian by both Ronald Syme and C.E. Stevens, which is identifiable in her writing.66 Seager reflects that Levick is reasoned in her arguments, comprehensively explaining her dismissal of the issue of Tiberius’ accession following Augustus’ death.67 In contrast, Adams believes Levick’s view of the accession of Tiberius is problematic, as it does not account for many circumstances that are critical to this discussion.68 According to Adams, Levick’s argument is convoluted and thus unsuccessful.69
Moreover, Seager believes that some clarity is lacking from Tiberius the Politician; for example her description of Tiberius as ‘regent’ is an anachronistic term.70 Levick’s use of this term to describe the position of Tiberius immediately following his accession presumes Augustus’ intentions, without knowledge of his wishes, and invalidates her claims about Tiberius’ position in relation to Drusus.71 Furthermore, Seager criticises Levick’s speculations about conspiracies against Tiberius because she exaggerates their causes and consequences.72 She imposes her own beliefs about the people around Tiberius to manipulate how he is presented.73 However, Seager also acknowledges that Levick’s argument remains cogent despite its flaws.74 She focuses on Tiberius’ decrees affecting the Senate, his people and foreign relations, centralising her argument on Tiberius’ skill in all these
60 Levick, B. (1999). Tiberius the Politician. Thames & Hudson. pg. 5
61 Evans, R.J. op. cit. pg. 125
62 Levick, B. op. cit. pg. 18
63 Ibid. pg. 25
64 Adams, J.P. (1979). Review. The American Journal of Philology, 100 (3), 460465. https://www.jstor.org/stable/293954 pg. 465
65 Evans, R.J. op. cit. pg. 126
66 Adams, J.P. op. cit. pg. 460
67 Seager, R. (1978). Review: Tiberius. The Classical Review, 28 (2), 317-319. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3062286 pg. 318
68 Adams, J.P. op. cit. pg. 463
69 Ibid.
70 Seager, R. op. cit. pg. 317
71 Ibid.
72 Ibid. pg. 318
73 Ibid.
74 Ibid.
edicts, despite his subsequent reputation as a tyrant.75 A detailed portrait of the emperor is thus crafted, illuminating his ability due to his education, experience and opinions.76 Levick explains that it was the tragedies Tiberius faced in the later years of his reign, rather than how his rule benefitted the Roman empire, that gave him an unfavourable reputation.77 In this way, she continues Garzetti’s positive influence on how Tiberius is commonly perceived. Levick’s views support scholarship in the late 20th century on Tiberius’ governance of Rome, giving him acclaim he previously did not possess.78 Tiberius the Politician is concerned with the public and political elements of Tiberius’ life rather than the private.79 Levick is thus able to analyse the causes and consequences of Tiberius’ reputation as a tyrant and deconstruct the myth that has surrounded his public persona, positively influencing his reputation.
Therefore, Tiberius’ impact on the development of the Roman empire has been perceived in a progressively more positive manner over time. From the view held by Tacitus that Tiberius left a legacy of tyranny, Garzetti shifted the attitude of historians towards the emperor. His claims that Tiberius balanced effective maintenance of the empire with his own character were extended upon by Levick, who depicts the admirable ability of Tiberius in consolidating the early Roman empire. It is ultimately the personal context and style of writing that distinguishes these interpretations from one another, each presenting a different view of the impact Tiberius had on the development of Imperial Rome.
75 Evans, R.J. op. cit. pg. 125
76 Adams, J.P. op. cit. pg. 460
77 Evans, R.J. op. cit. pg. 125
78 Adams, J.P. op. cit. pg. 464
79 Ibid. pg. 460
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Garzetti, A. (1960). From Tiberius to the Antonines. Methuen & Co Ltd. Hughes-Warrington, M. (2008). Fifty Key Thinkers on History. Routledge. Levick, B. (1999). Tiberius the Politician. Thames & Hudson. Martin, R. (1981). Tacitus. University of California Press. Mellor, R. (2011). Tacitus’ Annals. Oxford University Press. Pagan, V.E. (2017). Tacitus. I. B. Tauris.
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
McDonald, A.H. (2024). Tacitus. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved May 5, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/ Tacitus-Roman-historian
Pohl, F. (2024). Tiberius. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 3, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius Stannard, J. (2024). Pliny the Elder. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved May 26, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/ Pliny-the-Elder
Wasson, D.L. (2013). Domitian. In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 28, 2024, from https://www.worldhistory.org/domitian/ Wasson, D.L. (2012). Tiberius. In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 10, 2024, from https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiberius/
IMAGES
Orti, G.D. (2024). Tiberius [Photograph]. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tiberius/Reign-as-emperor
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Adams, J.P. (1979). Review of Tiberius the Politician. The American Journal of Philology, 100 (3), 460-465. https://www.jstor.org/stable/293954
Colledge, M.A.R. (1976). Review of History of the Roman Emperors. The Classical Review, 26 (2), 243-244. https://www.jstor.org/stable/713100
Crook, J.A. (1963). Review of From Tiberius to the Antonines. The Classical Review, 13 (2), 207-210. https://www.jstor.org/stable/706727
Evans, R.J. (2003). Review of Tiberius the Politician. Mnemosyne, 56 (1), 124-126. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4433422
Hammond, M. (1976). Review of From Tiberius to the Antonines. American Historical Review, 81 (1), 107-108. https://www.jstor.org/stable/i305069
Harrer, G.A. (1920). “Tacitus and Tiberius”. The American Journal of Philology, 41 (1), 57-68. https://www.jstor.org/stable/289503
Marsh, F.B. (1928). “Tiberius and the Development of the Early Empire”. The Classical Journal, 24 (1), 14-27. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3289750
Mitchell, S. (2007). “Barbara Levick and Asia Minor”. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, 100 (1), xv-xviii. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43767656?seq=2
Seager, R. (1978). “Review of Tiberius the Politician. The Classical Review, 28 (2), 317-319. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3062286
Shotter, D.C.A. (1988). “Tacitus and Tiberius”. Ancient Society, 19 (1), 225-236. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44080189
Smith, R.C. (1975). Review of From Tiberius to the Antonines. The Historian, 38 (1), 122-123. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24444920
WEBSITES
Bloomsbury Publishing. (n.d.). Barbara Levick https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/author/barbara-levick/ Bologna, F. (2021). Who was Nero? https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/who-was-nero National Geographic Society. (2023). Caesar Augustus https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/caesar-augustus/ Vogt, K. (2024). Seneca https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/seneca/
WIKIPEDIA ARTICLES
Albino Garzetti. (2022, November 23). In Wikipedia https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albino_Garzetti
Critically analyse historians’ differing interpretations of Josip Broz Tito’s leadership of Yugoslavia.
NATASHA LAGGAS
YEAR 11, 2024
Josip Broz Tito’s leadership of Yugoslavia has generated polarity in ongoing debate, which is credited to the personal and temporal context of each historian. Vladimir Dedijer’s biography of Tito was heavily influenced by his personal context of being a Partisan1 during World War 22 and a close friend of Tito’s.3 His temporal context influenced his portrayal of Tito’s leadership in the lead-up to, and wake of, the Cominform Resolution.4 In With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism (1988), Ivo Banac details how Tito, in leadership, treated the Cominformists5 and other minorities,6 hence criticising Tito’s suppression of political opposition. This was influenced by limited historiography7 at the time, as well as Banac’s cultural heritage,8 leading to a more unbalanced argument. Stevan K. Pavlowitch’s interpretation presents a more balanced assessment of Tito’s leadership, by addressing his own possible biases from his Yugoslav Royalist background9 and the temporal context of rising tensions in Yugoslavia10 in Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment (1992), which led to a more holistic reassessment of Tito’s leadership.
Dedijer presents a positive interpretation of Tito in his biography Tito Speaks (1953), owing to his personal context of being a close friend of Tito’s, and also being “reared in the Communist faith” 11 as a Partisan who fought with Tito during World War 2.12 There was also influence from Dedijer’s temporal context after the TitoStalin split, leading Dedijer to portray Tito as heavily opposed to the Soviet Union.13 Despite this, Dedijer offers an insight into Tito’s regime in Yugoslavia, hence filling “an important gap in… Yugoslav historiography”. 14
Given the biased nature of the biography, it is obvious that it makes the case “Tito should be presented as a near-perfect hero…and genuinely qualified for the leadership of the Yugoslav Communist movement.”15 Dedijer achieved this characterisation of Tito by exaggerating the military success of the Partisans, while also downplaying the assistance from the West, to further emphasise Tito’s image as a strong military leader. This is demonstrated where he “speaks sympathetically of only one or two Allied officers”16 and devalues “the importance of the supplies given to the Partisans by the Allies”,17 hence glorifying the Partisan war-time achievements.
1 The Partisans were the members of a guerrilla force led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ) that fought against the Axis powers and other groups during World War 2. Tito was the leader of the Partisans during World War 2 and continued on as leader of the KPJ after assuming power in post-World War
2 Yugoslavia. Cited from: Britannica. (n.d.). Partisan. In Britannica.com dictionary Retrieved June 20, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/PartisanYugoslavian-military-force
2 Petrovich, M.B. (1953). Review of Tito. Vladimir Dedijer. Political Science Quarterly, 68(4), 610-613. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145205 pg. 610
3 Vucinich, W.S. (1953). Review of Tito. Vladimir Dedijer. The American Historical Review, 59(1), 123-125. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844683 pg. 124
4 ‘The Cominform Resolution’ refers to the action in which Stalin expelled Tito from the Cominform, on the basis that the Yugoslav leadership was demonstrating mistrust towards the Soviet Union, which Stalin saw as “an expression of nationalist and anti-Soviet behaviour, incompatible with the principles of Marxism”. Cited from: Timmermann, H. (1985). “The Cominform Effects on Soviet Foreign Policy”. Studies in Comparative Communism, 18(1), 3-23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45366819 pg. 8
5 The Cominformists are the group of people who were mainly inside of the already existing party factions that supported Stalin and the Cominform Resolution. Cited from: Miner, S.M. (1991). Review of With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. Ivo Banac. The American Historical Review, 96(5), 1576-1577. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2165385 pg. 1577
6 Dragnich, A.N. (1990). Review of With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. Ivo Banac. Slavic Review, 49(4), 669-670. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500573 pg. 670
7 Ibid
8 Wheeler, M. (1985). Review of The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics. Ivo Banac. The Slavonic and East European Review, 63(4), 613-616. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4209204 pg. 615
9 Simpson, C.A. (1995). Review of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The Historical Journal, 38(3), 787-790 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2640024 pg. 789
10 Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment. Hurst Publishers. pg. viii
Dedijer’s temporal context also influenced his biography of Tito, where “in presenting the current Titoist line, [Dedijer] is circumspect, orthodox, and comparatively unobtrusive”. 18 During the time when Dedijer wrote Tito Speaks, there was harsh censorship,19 presenting the need to be circumspect and adhere to the common narrative of Tito at the time. Dedijer further emphasised this narrative by using justifications of Tito’s policies to support this. However, he presents the reader “more than once with ex post facto justifications” for Tito’s policies and actions, despite these not being the reasoning and arguments Tito used at the time.20 Dedijer also projects this stance when addressing the split with Stalin. He portrayed the Soviet leaders as “very far from infallible or even clear-sighted in their own interests”, 21 justifying Tito’s response to the actions of the Soviet Union. This
11 Petrovich, M.B. (1953). Op.cit. pg. 610
12 Ibid
13 Ibid pg. 611
14 Vucinich, W.S. (1953). Op.cit. pg. 125
15 Ibid pg. 124
16 Ibid
17 Ibid
18 Woodhouse, C.M. (1953, February 13). Review of Tito Speaks. Vladimir Dedijer. The Spectator. pg. 189
19 Presenter Unknown. (2009, December 21). Tito’s Ghosts [Television Broadcast]. Australia: SBS ONE.
20 Ibid
21 Ibid
Critically analyse historians’ differing interpretations of Josip Broz Tito’s leadership of Yugoslavia. | NATASHA LAGGAS YEAR 11, 2024
Due to the limited historiography of the time, Banac’s work has been subsequently limited, especially in the continuation of the ‘Tito myth’.44 He failed to observe that this myth is “the present regime’s indispensable prop” 45 because “the Yugoslav Communists cannot afford to confirm…Tito’s many acts of duplicity…and ruthlessness.”46 Banac also engages “in a little unconvincing Kremlinology” where he argues that it was “Tito’s expansionist designs in the Balkans”47 that posed a risk of provoking the West, leading Stalin to renounce him.48
The personal context of his Croatian heritage is also demonstrated in his bias towards some Croatian politicians included in With Stalin against Tito. This is demonstrated where he “takes a kindly view of…Andrija Hebrang, the Croat intended by Stalin to become Tito’s successor”.49 In relation to Tito, this bias presents itself in Banac’s article Memory Politics in Croatia, where he argues that “[Tito] was no Croat, but a crypto-Serb or at best an indifferent Croat”, 50 criticising Tito’s policies from the viewpoint of his personal context. Accordingly, one must recognise the limitations on Banac’s works on Tito posed by his personal context, and also by his temporal context of politics after Tito’s leadership. 51 Banac’s critical interpretation of Tito’s leadership still presents a plausible argument, but lacks a definitive balance, hence diminishing his interpretation.
Stevan K. Pavlowitch demonstrated this balance in his evaluative interpretation of Tito’s leadership seen in Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment (1992). Pavlowitch characterises Tito’s overall leadership as “a short-term success, but, ultimately, a long-term failure”, 52 and demonstrates admirable scholarship in this assessment. Pavlowitch avoids influence from his Royalist Yugoslav familial background and focuses on the link between
Tito’s leadership and the Yugoslav wars, 53 showing that he addressed his temporal and personal context to avoid bias. Although the details given in certain parts of his assessment are compressed, this is outweighed by the holistic balance Pavlowitch presents.
In the introduction of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator, Pavlowitch describes the atmosphere of the debate surrounding Tito’s leadership, stating that “myths crumbled, and Tito was blamed for everything”54 within Yugoslavia, and “the outside [had] largely forgotten that it praised [Tito] for being one of the giants of [their] time”. 55 M.A. Kay states that this approach is “a timely reassessment which…also enhances our understanding of Yugoslavia’s current dilemma”. 56
Pavlowitch argues that Tito’s renown is based on two claims, the first being that he “forged a new and relatively liberal form of communism”, known as Titoism, 57 the second being that Tito reunified Yugoslavia. 58
Pavlowitch defines Titoism as “the product of Tito’s gift for expediency”, 59 as it was the result of the split with Stalin.60 Much like Banac, Pavlowitch recognises how Tito’s “ambitious foreign policy”61 contributed to the Cominform Resolution, and also addresses the development of the Non-Alignment movement.62 Pavlowitch identified how the KPJ “devoted enormous resources to building a progressive movement [Non-Alignment]”63 despite Yugoslavia’s deficient economic state.64 The movement also
44 Beloff, N. (1989). Op. cit. pg. 734
45 Ibid
46 Ibid
47 Ibid
48 Ibid
49 Ibid
50 Banac, I. (2010). “Politics of History in Eastern Europe: Memory Politics in Croatia”. Journal of Modern European History, 8(2), 143-144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26265911 pg. 144
51 Dragnich, A.N. (1990). Op. cit. pg. 670
52 Djokic, D. (2013). Review of Tito: A Biography by Geoffrey Swain. The Slavonic and East European Review, 91(2), 382-384. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.91.2.0382 pg 383
53 The Yugoslav Wars is the collective name given to conflicts that took place in Yugoslavia from 1991-99. It was these conflicts that led to the eventual collapse of Yugoslavia, and independent states being formed from this territory. Cited from: Britannica. (n.d.). Yugoslavia. In Britannica.com dictionary. Retrieved June 20, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/place/Yugoslavia-former-federatednation-1929-2003
54 Ibid pg. ix
55 Ibid pg. vii
56 Kay, M.A. (1995). Review of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment by Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The Slavonic and East European Review, 73(1), 158-159. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4211749 pg.159
57 Simpson, C.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 788
58 Ibid
59 Ibid
60 Ibid pg. 787
61 Ibid pg. 788
62 Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Op. cit. pg. 104
63 Simpson, C.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 788
64 Ibid
allowed Tito to be “milking the West for financial aid”65 while still “playing the prodigal son to Moscow”,66 rather than improving the internal economy.67
The second claim is challenged by Pavlowitch in regards to how Tito “appeared to have reunified Yugoslavia after the chaotic gap of the Second World War”68 but in reality, only “held Yugoslavia together”,69 leading to the reasons Yugoslavia collapsed after Tito’s death.70 Pavlowitch critiques Tito’s post-war communist regime71 as “essentially interested in power”72 and preventing “all integrative developments that fell outside its ideological control”.73 Pavlowitch’s personal context of coming from a Yugoslav Royalist family74 did not interfere with his interpretation of Tito’s handling of the nationalities problem, nor in his interpretation of the overall communist model of Yugoslavia. Pavlowitch’s scholarship also directed him to stick “to the verifiable facts”75 and avoid “unnecessary speculation”,76 hence demonstrating his avoidance of an unscholarly assessment of Tito’s leadership.
The brief length of Pavlowitch’s book on Tito led to compressed information on some aspects of his leadership, as seen in Pavlowitch detailing the change in British policy during World War 2 in less than 10 lines, despite this being “a crucial factor in Tito’s climb to power”.77 The compression of other sections has also led to a “lack of clarity to all but those as well-informed as the author”.78 Although there are some limitations in Pavlowitch’s shorter assessment of Tito’s leadership, it nonetheless presents a holistically valid assessment. Pavlowitch was able to reconcile the positive and negative aspects of Tito’s leadership in a “realistic
appraisal”79 that was devoid of much bias from Pavlowitch’s personal and temporal context, and therefore he constructed the most balanced interpretation.
The differing perspectives on Tito’s leadership have proven to be dependent on the temporal and personal context of each historian, leading to significant distinctions between interpretations. Dedijer’s interpretation gives undue weight to Tito’s achievements due to his personal context as a Partisan and a close friend of Tito,80 whilst also avoiding the negative aspects of Tito’s leadership to maintain the common narrative of Tito that was established through his temporal context.81 On the other hand, Banac takes a critical approach to Tito’s leadership, condemning Tito’s treatment of political opposition. Banac’s argument was bereft of neither influence from his personal context as a person of Croatian heritage,82 nor temporal context, hence he demonstrated bias at some points throughout his works. Pavlowitch’s interpretation is the most balanced because he takes into account possible influence from his Yugoslav Royalist background,83 as well as tensions in Yugoslavia 84 that would affect his evaluation of Tito’s leadership.
65 Kay, M.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 158
66 Ibid
67 Ibid
68 Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Op. cit. pg. 95
69 Simpson, C.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 788
70 Ibid
71 Ibid
72 Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Op. cit. pg. 100
73 Ibid
74 Stevan K. Pavlowitch’s family originally came from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where many family members had strong ties with the royal family and government. When King Petar II was exiled from Yugoslavia, his family also moved out of the country to England, and participated in the King’s government there. Cited from: Djokic, D. (2022, February 25). “Serbia and Great Britain: Who was the historian Stevan K. Pavlovic – a cosmopolitan and gentleman of Serbian origin”. BBC News in Serbian. https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/srbija-60401608
75 Glynn, P. (1993, October 15). “Tito and After”. Times Literary Supplement. pg. 3
76 Ibid
77 Kay, M.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 158
78 Ibid
79 Roberts, W.R. (1974). Review of Yugoslavia. Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The American Historical Review, 79(3), 811-812. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1867967 pg. 811
80 Petrovich, M.B. (1953). Op. cit. pg. 610
81 Woodhouse, C.M. (1953, February 13). Op. cit. pg. 189
82 Beloff, N. (1989). Op. cit. pg. 734
83 Simpson, C.A. (1995). Op. cit. pg. 789
84 Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Op. cit. pg. viii
Critically analyse historians’ differing interpretations of Josip Broz Tito’s leadership of Yugoslavia. | NATASHA LAGGAS YEAR 11, 2024
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BLOG POSTS
Author Unknown. (2017, December 4). In Memoriam – Alex N. Dragnich (1912-2009). North American Society for Serbian Studies https://www.serbianstudies.org/in-memoriam/2017/12/2/inmemoriam-2jwas
BOOKS
Banac, I. (1988). With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. Cornell University Press. Pavlowitch, S.K. (1992). Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment Hurst Publishers.
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
Britannica, (n.d.). Greek Civil War, In Britannica.com dictionary Retrieved June 20, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/event/ Greek-Civil-War Britannica. (n.d.). Partisan. In Britannica.com dictionary. Retrieved June 20, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/Partisan-Yugoslavianmilitary-force Britannica. (n.d.). Yugoslavia. In Britannica.com dictionary. Retrieved June 20, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/place/Yugoslaviaformer-federated-nation-1929-2003
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Banac, I. (2010). “Politics of History in Eastern Europe: Memory Politics in Croatia”. Journal of Modern European History, 8 (2), 143-144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26265911
Beloff, N. (1989). Review of With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. International Affairs, 65(4), 734.
Djokic, D. (2013). Review of Tito: A Biography by Geoffrey Swain. The Slavonic and East European Review, 91(2), 382-384. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.91.2.0382
Dragnich, A.N. (1990). Review of With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism. Slavic Review, 49 (4), 669-670. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2500573
Kay, M.A. (1995). Review of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment by Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The Slavonic and East European Review, 73(1), 158-159. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4211749
Miner, S.M. (1991). Review of With Stalin against Tito: Cominformist Splits in Yugoslav Communism by Ivo Banac. The American Historical Review, 96(5), 1576-1577. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2165385
Petrovich, M.B. (1953). Review of Tito by Vladimir Dedijer. Political Science Quarterly, 68 (4), 610-613. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145205
Roberts, W.R. (1974). Review of Yugoslavia by Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The American Historical Review, 79 (3), 811-812. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1867967
Simpson, C.A. (1995). Review of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment by Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The Historical Journal, 38 (3), 787-790 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2640024
Simpson, C.A. (1995). Review of Tito, Yugoslavia’s Great Dictator: A Reassessment by Stevan K. Pavlowitch. The Historical Journal, 38 (3), 787-790. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2640024
Swain, G. (1992). “The Cominform: Tito’s International?”. The Historical Journal, 35(3), 641-663. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639634
Timmermann, H. (1985). “The Cominform Effects on Soviet Foreign Policy”. Studies in Comparative Communism, 18 (1), 3-23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45366819
Vucinich, W.S. (1953). Review of Tito by Vladimir Dedijer. The American Historical Review, 59 (1), 123-125. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1844683
Wheeler, M. (1985). Review of The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics by Ivo Banac. The Slavonic and East European Review, 63(4), 613-616. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4209204
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
Djokic, D. (2022, February 25). “Serbia and Great Britain: Who was the historian”\. Stevan K. Pavlovic – a cosmopolitan and gentleman of Serbian origin”. BBC News in Serbian https://www.bbc.com/serbian/lat/srbija-60401608
Glynn, P. (1993, October 15). “Tito and After”. Times Literary Supplement
Woodhouse, C.M. (1953, February 13). “Tito Speaks” by Vladimir Dedijer (Book Review). The Spectator
TELEVISION PROGRAMS
Presenter Unknown. (2009, December 21). Tito’s Ghosts [Television Broadcast]. Australia: SBS ONE.
History, Theology and Philosophy
Is beauty simply just in the eye of the Beholder?
Heard it plenty of times already, especially now in this world Of dripping paint across canvas in nondescript splatters And black lines of runes across a page in a language lost to man Strung over a white void soon to host the marvels Of brushstrokes and highlights on a ship heralding the storm
Some beautiful world we live in
JASMINE YANG
YEAR 9, 2024
This poem won 1st prize in Meriden’s Junior Philosophy Competition. Students were asked to consider the nature of beauty, drawing on the views of a range of philosophers to form their own conclusions.
To come. Some time ago they said it was all lines, black and white, Much like the blueprints of some great Temple of Venus. Straight Lines Beyond which lie the lands of the impure, where walls are warped And chains lie as threads on a bloodied floor.
True beauty! they said – Socrates, the Father of Western Philosophy –Lives in the soul, like wisdom, like virtue, like morality. Yet perhaps It’s just me, but what is the perfection of morality? How do we know What is the nature of true beauty, if we have never seen it?
Yet they tell us beauty is a short lived tyranny. Does it ebb and flow With the permanence of a candle flame, or is it held like the precious And unscratchable Gemstones of our earth?
We look at the world around us, look at the subjects of our love, And are Mesmerised. Yet once we are gone, once we’ve become Dust in the wind, does this Beauty stand strong? Does it brave The winds, and weather the storms, and come out unburdened, Untarnished?
Great minds have spoken beautiful words. Subjective, Kant says, Nodding to our histories each one of us keeps secret, stating That beauty doesn’t appear in the world unbidden, only under Human searching and pondering over many aeons. Culture and People see everything differently, the universal definition is more Tangible than a puff of smoke drifting upwards.
They never asked me. Each of their reasons, logical, clear, evident. But I say different to the old gods of Thinking, that Socrates, that Plato. Beauty is as much an unproven dream as religion.
Like the Gods, like divinity, like Venus in her storied myths. Beauty has been our chains as much as iron, rope and propaganda, Separated us, segregated us, split our species with irrational Illusions of power. People over People with some competition as if only true Beauty was the thing that raised the sun every day.
The day we are gone, Beauty is gone, too. Beauty is a result of human minds. The day we are gone, rewind the clocks.
The world needs no judgement. The wild creatures that have Lived through the fire had never fawned over the sunset, I tell you.
The cycle of the world can continue without waging battles over a Better ‘Perfection’, a truer ‘Beauty’. All our metaphorical thinking Has just led to power and bloodshed.
The world without us would be without Beauty, for Beauty is human, And Beauty is a figment of our imagination.
Reflection
Through writing this poem, I worked through some of the thoughts that have just been sitting in my brain about the idea of beauty in the world, and finally sorted it through by the end. The key point that I was trying to convey in the poem was the idea of beauty as not only subjective but also never truly existent except in the minds of humans.
A lack of cultural acceptance, curiosity and understanding have led to people being unable to realise that beauty is very different in diverse groups, and that has led to competitions and conflicts all throughout history. Battles have been fought, civilisations wiped out, because some people thought their views were more beautiful, more correct and perfect, than those of their victims. The world without humans never showed signs of the existence of this concept of beauty, let alone holding it as something of value worth fighting over. By the end of my poem, I tried to show the unnecessary and illogical way that humans use beauty for violence and for hurt, by using the idea of beauty almost like religious beliefs – made up to stir a crowd and work towards some common goal.
I referenced the ideas of some famous philosophers who have commented on the idea of beauty. Aristotle famously defined beauty in terms of symmetry and order, which I suggested when talking about the Temple of Venus and blueprints with straight lines. Beyond the lines, where the world becomes warped, and chains are threads, is the world we are in. There is so much diversity and so many experimental forms of art that it’s hard to imagine the old laws of aesthetics still exist. In suggesting this, I attempt to express disagreement with Aristotle’s views.
“Beauty is a short lived tyranny” is a quote by Socrates. He implied that power fades as soon as the beauty and allure of a person or idea fades. I took inspiration from this quote, referencing it in my poem and linking it to Kant’s views of beauty as subjective. With these two philosophers’ views, I discussed the usage of beauty for power in humanity’s struggle for control.
Ultimately, in my poem Some beautiful world we live in, I critique humans’ usage of an imagined concept of beauty to cause harm and claim power, referencing some philosophers’ views and expressing my own opinions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Diessner, R. (2019). Brainiac Beauty: Philosophers and Beauty
VIDEOS
DavidsonArtOnline. (2020, April 10). An Overview of Kant & Beauty Youtube.
WEBSITES
BBC. (2016). 8 brilliant definitions of beauty, from Aristotle to Aguilera Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2012). Beauty This essay was entered in the Australian History Competition.
How were the responses of Byzantine authorities to the Plague of Justinian effective in lessening the severity of the crisis and ultimately ending it?
ALICE FENG
YEAR 8, 2024
This essay was entered in the Australian History Competition.
Culos, R. (n.d.). Untitled image of Emperor Justinian and his suite. [Photograph]. CC BY-SA 3.0 Creative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0
Abstract
This essay explores the crisis of the Justinianic Plague and the responses of Emperor Justinian and the people of the Byzantine Empire. It showcases the rudimentary medical procedures and spiritual beliefs within Constantinople during the outbreaks and evaluates the effectiveness of these various responses at combatting the spread of the disease and instigating hope within the masses.
How were the responses of Byzantine authorities to the Plague of Justinian effective in lessening the severity of the crisis and ultimately ending it? | ALICE FENG YEAR 8, 2024
The crisis of the Plague of Justinian (AD 541-549)1 was a major pandemic in the Mediterranean and Near East, which involved the spread of Yersinia pestis, the pathogen behind a strand of the bubonic plague. It profoundly shaped the political, social and economic development of the Byzantine Empire and was named after the reigning Emperor Justinian I, whose imperial capital of Constantinople suffered the loss of a fifth of its population due to the disease. However, the responses to this crisis did mitigate its severity by limiting its spread throughout the city. The spiritual response from religious powers, the cleanup instigated by Emperor Justinian and the established quarantine were all substantial responses that had a lasting impact on Byzantine society.
The spiritual response enforced by ecclesiastical authorities in the hope of stopping the crisis was intended to reassure the Byzantine population. The historian Procopius demonstrated that the public consensus over the source of the crisis was celestial powers, 2 suggesting in his History of the Wars, “but for this calamity it is quite impossible either to express in words…except indeed to refer it to God”.3 During this time, there was also a rise in venerating martyrs and saints, who many believed had holy powers that could heal the diseased;4 home remedies for the plague included ‘powders’ blessed by these figures. 5 People attempted to find explanations within religious texts, and some interpreted the event as a sign of apocalypse.6 The plague caused such thinking as a crisis of this scale was unprecedented and this was the first major appearance of Yersinia pestis, 7 , 8 Religious narratives such as the Book of Revelations all suggested an end of humanity being brought about by a pestilence similar to the Justinianic plague,9 which caused much of the fear surrounding the crisis. Emperor Justinian, in an attempt to respond to and mitigate God’s anger, continued to collect taxes from struggling farmers to build more religious monuments,10 but construction was halted due to a lack of workers.11 Thus, many churches and religious buildings started during the outbreaks were never completed.12 Procopius framed this order in an unsympathetic light as he scathingly described how Justinian “continued to exact the yearly tribute
1 Britannica. (n.d.). Plague of Justinian. In Britannica.com encyclopaedia. Retrieved July 17, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/event/plague-of-Justinian
2 Bragg, M. (Presenter). (2021, January 21). The Plague of Justinian [Audio podcast].
3 Procopius. (n.d.). History of the Wars, Books I and II: The Persian War. Harvard University Press. pg. 453
4 Horgan, J. (2014). Justinian’s Plague (541-542 CE) https://www.worldhistory.org/article/782/justinians-plague-541-542-ce/
5 Ibid.
6 Procopius. (n.d.). Op. cit. p. 451-452.
7 National Post. (2014). Plague DNA found in ancient teeth shows medieval Black Death, 1,500-year pandemic caused by same disease https://nationalpost.com/news/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-showsmedieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease
8 Horgan, J. (2014). Op. cit.
9 Sessa, K. (2020). “The Justinianic Plague.” https://origins.osu.edu/connectinghistory/covid-justinianic-plague-lessons?language_content_entity=en
10 Procopius. (n.d.). The Secret History of the Court of Justinian Library of Alexandria. pg. 276.
11 Sessa, K. (2020). Op. cit.
12 Ibid.
from them, not only their own proportion, but that of their neighbours who had died”.13 The religious response to the crisis was intended to build hope in difficult times; however, due to the misguided intentions of those in powerful positions, elements of the population were abused in order to incorporate faith as a cure to the plague.
Furthermore, the medical response used by Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine military drastically lessened the crisis. Emperor Justinian instructed his military troops to aid in the burial and disposal of the corpses surrounding Constantinople.14 Large burial pits were dug at the edge of the city and were used as mass burial sites;15 when this space was full, bodies were dragged to city walls, where they were poured over with quicklime to accelerate decomposition.16 Scientists eventually proved the substance to be an efficient decomposer in the 21st century.17 This action lessened the impact of the crisis, as the rapid spread of the plague had been attributed to the spread of bacteria from decomposing bodies,18 which also provided a refuge for the rats that originally housed the sickness.19 The pathogens within the bodies could contaminate nearby water sources and the residents of the locality were vulnerable to the disease as a result.20 When this quicklime cleanup was implemented, the cleanliness in areas where the deceased had built up improved immensely, 21 with civilians also aiding in the disposal of the bodies.22 With traditional rites of death being ignored, Justinian’s decision to instigate a cleanup and improve overall hygiene was an essential response to the crisis.
Quarantine was also used to some extent as a response to the crisis.23 In her journal article A Brief History of Quarantine, Kelly Drews demonstrates that Emperor Justinian implemented a discriminatory quarantine, where minority demographics within Constantinople, such as political and religious dissidents, were subject to new laws surrounding their movement during the crisis.24 This is the earliest evidence of quarantine historically recorded. As Drews states, “Early in the history of civilisations, isolation and confinement of ill persons were the predecessors of quarantine.” 25 Because nobody came into contact with the diseased, it was considered safe to stay away from them physically,
13 Procopius. (n.d.). Op. cit. pg. 276.
14 Sessa, K. (2020). Op. cit.
15 Britannica. (n.d.). Op. cit.
16 Ibid.
17 Schotsmans, E.M., Denton, J., Dekeirsschieter, J., Ivaneanu, T., Leentjes, S., Janaway, R.C., & Wilson, A.S. (2012). “Effects of hydrated lime and quicklime on the decay of buried human remains using pig cadavers as human body analogues”. Forensic Science International, 217(1-3), 50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.09.025
18 Bragg, M. (2021). Op. cit.
19 Horgan, J. (2014). Op. cit.
20 Britannica. (n.d.). Op. cit.
21 Bragg, M. (2021). Op. cit.
22 Britannica. (n.d.). Op. cit.
23 Horgan, J. (2014). Op. cit.
24 Drews, K. (2013). “A Brief History of Quarantine”. Virginia Tech Undergraduate Historical Review, 2 59. https://vtuhr.org/articles/10.21061/vtuhr.v2i0.16
25 Ibid.
for the idea that the disease possessed the attribute of contagion had already been suspected and the general understanding was one of hesitance around those who had contracted the plague.26 Furthermore, Procopius wrote that “for neither physicians nor other persons were found to contract this malady through contact with the sick or with the dead, for many…held out in the performance of this service beyond all expectations”.27 Thus, doctors who attempted treatment on the sick patients did not succumb, whether of their own preventative methods, biological immunity, or pure luck.28 Procopius’ tone when writing this passage suggests that most believed physicians would not remain safe from the ‘malady’ 29 and demonstrates the lack of awareness that Emperor Justinian had surrounding the cause of the plague. This further proves Drews’ conclusion that though they used a rudimentary form of quarantine, it was not medically incentivised and merely a result of superstition and discrimination.30 This response to the crisis still has repercussions today; modern methods of containing diseases have been adapted from the stratagem used by the Byzantine Empire.31 However, as quarantine was used only as a discriminatory barrier for various groups, it was not a very effective response to the crisis at hand.32
Despite some limitations, including a blatant abuse of power by authorities, the responses to the Plague of Justinian were, for the most part, effective. They lessened the contact between people with the plague and those without, through the use of quarantine and cleanups, while religious ideologies gave members of Byzantine society a reason for the crisis and a method to eliminate it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Procopius. (n.d.). The Secret History of the Court of Justinian. Library of Alexandria.
Procopius. (n.d.). History of the Wars, Books I and II: The Persian War Harvard University Press.
Rosen, W. (2006). Justinian’s Flea. Penguin Random House. Wickham, C. (2009). The Inheritance of Rome. Penguin Books.
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
Britannica. (n.d.). Plague of Justinian. In Britannica.com encyclopaedia. Retrieved July 17, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/event/plague-of-Justinian
IMAGES
Culos, R. (n.d.). Untitled image of Emperor Justinian and his suite. [Photograph]. CC BY-SA 3.0 Creative Commons. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Allen, P. (1979). THE “JUSTINIANIC” PLAGUE. Byzantion, 49, 5-20. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44172672
Drews, K. (2013). “A Brief History of Quarantine”. Virginia Tech Undergraduate Historical Review, 2 59-70. https://vtuhr.org/articles/10.21061/vtuhr.v2i0.16
Evans, J.A.S. (1970). “Justinian and the Historian Procopius”. Greece & Rome, 17(2), 218-223. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642766
Meier, M. (2016). “The ‘Justinianic Plague’: the economic consequences of the pandemic in the eastern Roman empire and its cultural and religious effects.” Early Medieval Europe, 24 (3), 267–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/emed.12152
Schotsmans, E.M., Denton, J., Dekeirsschieter, J., Ivaneanu, T., Leentjes, S., Janaway, R.C., & Wilson, A.S. (2012). “Effects of hydrated lime and quicklime on the decay of buried human remains using pig cadavers as human body analogues”. Forensic Science International, 217(1-3), 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.09.025
PODCASTS
Bragg, M. (Presenter). (2021, January 21). The Plague of Justinian [Audio podcast]. https://open.spotify.com/ episode/2HdCvcd9hWA1JPJ1zBxwXq?si=718aa9422e1049b4
WEBSITES
Dossey, L. (2020). Alone, together: Social isolation, quarantine, and the coronavirus pandemic. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7321653/ Horgan, J. (2014). Justinian’s Plague (541-542 CE) https://www. worldhistory.org/article/782/justinians-plague-541-542-ce/
Mark, J.J. (2020). Procopius on the Plague of Justinian: Text & Commentary. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1536/procopius-on-the-plagueof-justinian-text--comment/
National Post. (2014). Plague DNA found in ancient teeth shows medieval Black Death, 1,500-year pandemic caused by same disease. https:// nationalpost.com/news/plague-dna-found-in-ancient-teeth-showsmedieval-black-death-1500-year-pandemic-caused-by-same-disease
Sessa, K. (2020). The Justinianic Plague. https://origins.osu.edu/connecting-history/covid-justinianic-plaguelessons?language_content_entity=en
Statista. (2020). Pre-2019 estimates of the Plague of Justinian’s death toll on infected populations from 541CE to 767CE. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1114242/justinian-plagueestimates/
26 Procopius. (n.d.). Op. cit. 459-461.
27 Ibid.
28 Ibid.
29 Ibid.
30 Drews, K. (2013). Op. cit. pg. 59.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid.
Is using AI Generators, like ChatGPT, for studying and writing student essays ethical? Interrogate your assumptions and discuss the implications of your conclusion.
ILA BAINS
YEAR 10, 2024
This essay was awarded 3rd place in the NSW Philosophy in Schools Essay Competition.
Throughout history, we have seen moral standards shift based on changing societal normalities. This can be seen during the Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th Century, which brought the emergence of individual liberty, reason, and inquiry, or the more recent #MeToo Movement, from which emerged a call for greater accountability and justice for abuse victims. These examples demonstrate that there will never be a fixed idea of morality in any context and that deciding ethical dilemmas by looking to past ideas is clearly counterproductive.
The emergence of AI has set off a technological revolution far beyond existing ethical understanding, raising new and thus far unanswered questions, including the implications of AI in schools, particularly in studying and student essay writing. In 2023, all public schools in New South Wales banned the use of AI,1 reverting to the same irrational response millions had to the introduction of the internet, demonstrating an unwillingness to explore a new ethical framework for the many possibilities of this technology.
However, in 2024 the possibilities of AI in learning have been re-considered by the New South Wales Government, with AI use allowed but heavily restricted in essay writing and study in public schools.2 This raises a crucial question: What is the aim of writing essays and studying in relation to the purpose of school and is it possible for AI to maximise these outcomes? If so, how? To answer this question, we must challenge the immediate assumption that AI technology will only wreak havoc on all areas of student learning. We must instead consider the purposes of studying and essay writing in schools – to enhance students’ academic capabilities and prepare them for the future – and whether AI can positively affect or improve them. To do this, we must acknowledge that schools have been changed by the introduction of AI and interrogate assumptions that these changes are only unethical in order to see how we can move forward with them.
Under the status quo, the purpose of studying in a school environment is for students to build knowledge on various topics, preparing for exams that they will need to take throughout their school life. However, these benefits are not mutually exclusive of AI use, and AI can improve these outcomes by allowing students to absorb and learn information more effectively through tools that can test students on content, suggest study strategies, provide explanations of content, and more. Although using AI to study can have undeniable drawbacks, such as the potential to reduce creativity by limiting students’ ability to discover information through experimentation, research, and critical analysis, its ability to equalise students’ learning potential by providing personal learning, immediate feedback, and vast resources makes it crucial that AI is allowed for studying on the basis of increasing equitability and efficiency in school.
However, the assumption that the loss of critical thinking skills through AI use is acceptable if it means students can gain higher results in their exams is incredibly dangerous. This is because these skills are still crucial for students’ lives in the real world. This highlights a key question on the purpose of studying – is it for the academic outcomes or for preparation for the future? Is it worth students missing out on important problem solving, critical thinking, research, information literacy, and stress-management skills – which are essential for many professions that cannot be filled by AI such as medicine, education, and law and justice – if they can achieve higher results in their exams in high school?
The answer is that it is unethical for students to miss out on these skills. This is because when students pass the burden of applying each of the skills learned in studying to AI, they will be stripped of invaluable learning opportunities. This will not only hinder their capabilities in the workplace but also endanger future generations due to the lack of capable people to fill these roles. Therefore, despite common assumptions that AI is an asset to studying, its implications on students’ abilities to contribute to the workforce are such that it should not be allowed.
1 Duffy, C. (2024, May 26). “Public school bans on AI tools like ChatGPT raise fears private-school kids are gaining an unfair edge and widening a digital divide”. ABC NEWS https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-26/artificialintelligence-chatgpt-classrooms-schools/102356926
2 Cassidy, C. (2023, October 6). “Artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT to be allowed in Australian schools from 2024”. The Guardian https://www.theguardian. com/australia-news/2023/oct/06/chatgpt-ai-allowed-australian-schools-2024
The question of AI use in writing essays is also incredibly complicated. One current assumption is that if essays can be written by AI, then students learning to write them is futile, as it is inevitable workplaces will simply hire AI to complete these tasks. However, writing essays requires far more skills than simply presenting arguments, explaining, describing, and analysing different events, which AI can already do. Instead, similarly to studying, writing essays also provides students with skills such as communication, creativity, and originality, which are all crucial for countless fields in the workplace, regardless of the introduction of AI.
Therefore, allowing students to use AI to study and write essays is clearly unethical. This is because human innovation will be reduced by restricting students’ ability to develop and refine the skills of information literacy, communication, ethical and moral reasoning, critical thinking and problem-solving, which occur through the student-driven process of essay writing. This will result in reduced efficiency in many facets of the workforce, which are heavily reliant on human thought and creativity, leading to reduced company growth and decreased economic productivity.
Although it is clearly not ethical under the current education model to allow students to write essays and study using AI, because it will inhibit their learning outcomes, banning it is also not morally justifiable. This is because AI is always going to advance, and students are always going to find ways to use it, even if it negatively impacts the development of skills that are important for their futures. Google and Microsoft have already integrated AI into their applications, making the only alternative to using AI a regression to pen and paper. This calls for us to change the education system to instead deter students from using AI.
To do this, we must design essay assignments and exams that centre around skills that AI cannot complete, forcing students to complete the work themselves and enhancing the learning of skills that are more applicable to the future because they cannot be grasped by AI. This means that in areas of school that use hard skills such as mathematics, science, computer science, history, geography, physical education, and languages, assignments should be set that focus on contextual understanding and creativity through problem-solving, instead of questions that focus on knowledge and learning alone, which AI can easily answer. Meanwhile, in subjects that place more emphasis on soft skills, which are less easily completed by AI, the focus must be set on developing students’ empathy and emotional intelligence, social interactions, and ethical decision making, while still incorporating the curriculum in nuanced ways.
A case study that exemplifies this new progressive way of learning alongside AI by forming assessments based around its weaknesses was conducted by Andrea Benvenuti, an associate professor of politics, and international relations.3 For this case study, Benvenuti set students onto a simulated role-play of a National Security Council meeting, where they were each given a hypothetical case scenario to perform in class and for which they could use AI to prepare if they wished.4 The purpose of this assignment was to enhance the students’ understanding of realworld problems by developing communication, critical thinking, and creativity. However, the students that used AI provided responses that were found to be poorly formed and generic, with many not fitting the assessment criteria. Meanwhile the students who did not use AI produced more comprehensive arguments and overall benefited more from the assignment, both academically and in preparation for the real-world application of this topic.
This case study exemplifies the possibility of schools in the future acknowledging that students are likely to use AI and, therefore, using creative assignments, such as scenarios based on class content but with a real-life dimension that offers practical applications of content, instead of essays and traditional exams. This would discourage students from resorting to the unethical practice of using AI to pass their assessments because they would be disadvantaged by its poor capabilities at them. This also addresses the previously examined assumption regarding the futility of students writing essays on questions that can be answered by AI and, therefore, have no relevance in the workplace. Instead, these creative assignments would ensure their work has real-world applications and develops necessary skills. Redesigning assessments in this way would make students more engaged because they would be preparing for the workplace and professions that they are passionate about.
In conclusion, although AI may be unethical for studying and essay writing, its call to action for schools to update and expand their curriculum is revolutionary and cannot be ignored. When used in a targeted and thoughtful way, AI in schools has the potential to further students’ learning and readiness for the future through enhanced relevance of the curriculum to the workforce, personalised learning, and increased engagement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BLOG POSTS
Kramin, S. (2023). 6 Historic Philosophers and Their Views on AI – Part 1. Medium https://stenk.medium.com/6-historic-philosophers-andtheir-views-on-ai-part-1-819308afab22
Shah, S. (2024). The Transformative Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Student Learning and Academic Performance. LinkedIn. https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/transformative-impact-artificialintelligence-student-dr-seema-shah-4cbsc#:~:text=AI%20 facilitates%20virtual%20collaboration%20among,enhancing%20teamwork%20and%20communication%20skills.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
Cassidy, C. (2023, October 6). “Artificial intelligence such as ChatGPT to be allowed in Australian schools from 2024”. The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/oct/06/chatgpt-aiallowed-australian-schools-2024
Duffy, C. (2024, May 26). “Public-school bans on AI tools like ChatGPT raise fears private-school kids are gaining an unfair edge and widening a digital divide”. ABC NEWS https://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-0526/artificial-intelligence-chatgpt-classrooms-schools/102356926
WEBSITES
Ofgang, E. (2024). “8 Ways to Create AI-Proof Writing Prompts”. https://www.techlearning.com/how-to/8-ways-to-create-ai-proofwriting-prompts#:~:text=5.,of%20personal%20details%20are%20 fabricated.
University of New South Wales. (n.d.). “How to Write a University Essay”. https://student.unsw.edu.au/essay-writingbasics#:~:text=An%20academic%20essay%20aims%20to,the%20 question)%20and%20an%20argument.
3 UNSW Sydney. (2023). “AI Case Study – Minimising GenAI usage through simulated role-play”. https://www.education.unsw.edu.au/news-events/news/ ai-case-study-2
4 Ibid.
UNSW Sydney. (2023). “AI Case Study – Minimising GenAI usage through simulated role-play”. https://www.education.unsw.edu.au/ news-events/news/ai-case-study-2
What is the Nature of Beauty?
OLIVIA KIM AND ASHLEE KIM
YEAR 9, 2024
This infographic was awarded 2nd prize in the Junior Philosophy Competition.
History, Theology and Philosophy
Bibliography
Images: Brown, G. (2006). The Hinterland. [Image]. https://glenn-brown.co.uk/artworks/157/ Vermeer, J. (1665). Girl with a Pearl Earring. [Image]. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Girl-with-a-Pearl-Earring-byVermeer
Journal Articles: Gilmore, R. (n.d.). Philosophical Beauty: the Sublime in the Beautiful in Kant’s Third Critique and Aristotle’s Poetics. 20th WCP. https://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Aest/AestGilm.htm Sartwell, C. (2022). Beauty. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/#FemiCrit W, Wolfgang. Schiller Revisited: “Beauty is Freedom in Appearance” - Aesthetics as a Challenge to the Modern Way of Thinking. (2014). Contemporary Aesthetics, 12. https://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/ca/7523862.0012.016/~schillerrevisited-beauty-is-freedom-in-appearance?rgn=main Zangwill, N. (2007). Art and Audience. Oxford University Press EBooks, 127-166. https://doi.org/10.1093/ acprof:0so/9780199261871.003.0008
Websites:
Aciman, A. (2019). Why Beauty Is So Important to Us. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/12/07/opinion/ andre-aciman-why-is-beauty-important.html
Baba Nyenyedzi. (2020). An essay on Beauty. https://medium. com/@tinashemurapata/an-essay-on-beauty-18ec0ea2ecd4 Bari, S. (2024). What is beauty if not a jolt that awakens us to the world? https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-beauty-if-not-a-jolt-thatawakens-us-to-the-world
Jeff Coins. (2015). Art Needs an Audience (Why Art for Art’s Sake Doesn’t Work). https://goinswriter.com/art-audience/ Plato. (n.d.). On the Beautiful and the Sublime. https://www.plato-philosophy.org/teachertoolkit/on-thebeautiful-and-the-sublime/#:~:text=%E2%80%9CThe%20 Sublime%20must%20always%20be
Raz, O. (2019). Contemporary Art Review: “The Hinterland.” https://theforeword.org/640/arts-entertainment/contemporaryart-review-the-hinterland/
Soltani, C. B. (2023). Aesthetic Theory: Understanding Beauty, Art, and Human Perception. https://medium.com/@cbochras/ aesthetic-theory-understanding-beauty-art-and-humanperception-dd25c348bd86
Tate. (2016). Does beauty still matter in art? https://www.tate.org.uk/tate-etc/issue-36-spring-2016/doesbeauty-still-matter-art
Videos
DavidsonArtOnline. (2020). An Overview of Kant & Beauty.
Catherine the Great –the woman behind the legend
SOPHIE TAN
YEAR 11, 2024
Critically analyse the veracity of different historical interpretations of Catherine the Great.
Catherine the Great1 is indisputably one of Imperial Russia’s greatest rulers.2 As she is also one of history’s most contentious
figures,3 historians have vastly different interpretations of her character.4 Nikolay Karamzin’s interpretation of Catherine reflects the hegemonic gender stereotypes requisite of late18th to early-19th century European thought, 5 undermining her accomplishments and fixating upon her ‘moral foibles’.6
Conversely, Isabel de Madariaga describes a humanised and
1 Catherine II, more commonly known as Catherine the Great, was Empress of Russia for 34 years from 1762-1796, the longest reign of any Russian emperor or empress. She was born Sophie Friederike Auguste, Prinzessin (princess) von Anhalt-Zerbst, a minor German princess. At age 16, she was married to Karl Ulrich (later Peter III), the heir apparent to the Russian throne. Six months into his reign, Catherine led a successful usurpation against her husband, and was crowned empress in September 1762. Throughout her reign, Catherine was responsible for ‘westernising’ Russia, leading a previously culturally isolated nation and empire into “full participation in the political and cultural life of Europe”; reorganising Russian law; leading Russia into the Enlightenment that swept across Europe; and significantly expanding Russia’s territorial boundaries. Oldenbourg-Idalie, Z. (2024). Catherine the Great. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Catherinethe-Great
2 Kahn, A. (2020). “How did Catherine the Great’s reign shape Imperial Russian history?” https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/blog/how-did-catherine-thegreat-reign-shape-imperial-russian-history/
3 With a reputation mired in misconception, her rumoured exploits of sexual deviance and brazen indignity overshadow many of her accomplishments. Some of the most storied legends surrounding Catherine that permeate general perceptions of her character include her string of salacious love affairs, her involvement with significantly younger men later in life, and perhaps most infamously, the mythologised anecdote of her death, detailing her demise during copulation with a horse.
Hartley, J. (2021, November 24). “Hypocrite, reactionary, usurper, sex maniac: is Catherine the Great’s reputation justified?” History Extra https://www.historyextra. com/period/georgian/catherine-great-russian-empress-reputation-justified/ Solly, M. (2020, May 15). “The Story of Catherine the Great”. Smithsonian Magazine https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/true-story-catherinegreat-180974863
4 Historiana. (n.d). Catherine the Great https://historiana.eu/historical-content/source-collections/catherine-the-great
5 Hartley, J. (2021, November 24). Op. cit.
6 Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). “Catherine the Great and the Problem of Female Rule”. The Russian Review, 34(3), 293-307 https://www.jstor.org/stable/127976 294-296
increasingly idealised interpretation of Catherine,7 lauding her femininity and strength from a post-first and second wave feminist perspective.8 Finally, Simon Dixon masterfully avoids bias to examine Catherine’s impact on Russia, and thus form an unemotive, objective interpretation without passing judgement on her character.9
A contemporary of Catherine10 and “father of Russian historiography”11, Karamzin’s12 interpretation of Catherine overwhelmingly lacks veracity due to extreme bias. Karamzin reveals his perspective on Catherine in his panegyric Istoricheskoe pokhval’noe slovo Imperatritse Ekaterine II13 and history Zapiska o drevnei i novoi Rossii, 14 where he crafts her ‘Official Historiographical’ portrait.15 Karamzin was appointed court
historian in 180316 by Alexander I.17 Stuart Macintyre18 describes his works as having “defined the historical consciousness of generations”.19 Due to his impact in documenting Russian history and creating primary sources, 20 Karamzin’s view on Catherine has fundamentally shaped that of later historians.21
Karamzin’s interpretation of Catherine is extraordinarily contradictory, reducing veracity. He lauds her as “the true inheritor of Petrine22 greatness”, 23 describing her “command like a terrestrial goddess” and “proud, noble soul”.24 While Karamzin also exalts Catherine’s ability to rule autocratically yet ‘gently’, he portrays her as weakened by the vices of her sex, 25, passing his moral judgement on her character.26 He thus commends her monarchical abilities while describing her character as morally
7 Alexander, J. (1991). Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by Isabel de Madariaga; Sophia Regent of Russia, by Lindsey Hughes]. The International History Review, 13(4), 812-815 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40106500 814-815
8 Madariaga, I. (2001). “Catherine the great: a personal view”. History Today, 51(11), 45-51 https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A80163001/ SUIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=06374275 pg. 45
9 Whisenhunt, W.B. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon. Russian History, 30(1), 229-230 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24660870 pg. 230
10 Karamzin was born four years into Catherine’s reign as empress. However, most of his seminal historical works were published after her death in 1796.
11 Macintyre, S., et al. (2011). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945. Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/book/1548/chapter-abst ract/141024588?redirectedFrom=fulltext
12 Nikolay Mikhaylovich Karamzin (1766-1826) was a leading figure of Russian sentimentalist literature in his early career and is widely regarded for revolutionising Russian prose, poetry, and language. He turned to historical research in the last 25 years of his life, dedicating the remainder of his career to his magnum opus, the 12 volume Istoriya gosudarstva rossiyskogo (‘History of the Russian State’), published from 1816-1829 (posthumously). G. Hamburg describes him as “the most talented and profound Russian intellectual of the late eighteenth century”. Encyclopaedia-Britannica. (2024). Nikolay Mikhaylovich Karamzin. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nikolay-Mikhaylovich-Karamzin Nebel, J. (1967). N.M. Karamzin: A Russian Sentimentalist. Mouton & Co. 7-9. https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9783111393773_A35078928/ preview-9783111393773_A35078928.pdf
Hamburg, G. (2016). Russia’s Path Toward Enlightenment: Faith, Politics, and Reason, 1500-1801. Yale University Press. https://academic.oup.com/yalescholarship-online/book/30379/chapter-abstract/257442205?redirectedFrom=fu lltext
13 ‘Historical Panegyric to Empress Catherine II’ (1801); will henceforth be referred to as Istoricheskoe
14 ‘Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia’ (1861, posthumously); will henceforth be referred to as Zapiska
15 Saunders, D. (1982). “Historians and Concepts of Nationality in Early Nineteenth-Century Russia”. The Slavonic and East European Review, 60(1), 44-62 https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208432 44-50
16 Hamburg, G. (2016). Op. cit.
17 Alexander I, Catherine the Great’s grandson by her eldest son, Paul I. Alexander, ruled as a Romanov monarch of the Russian Empire from 1801-1825. Karamzin made such a significant impact on Alexander’s own philosophical and personal opinions, that his “conservative views can in part be traced back to Karamzin”.
Olivier, D. (2024). Alexander I. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved June 14, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-I-emperor-of-Russia New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Nikolay Karamzin. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nikolay_Karamzin#:~:text=As%20 a%20critic%20Karamzin%20was,founding%20father%20of%20Russian%20 conservatism.
18 Professor Stuart Macintyre (1947-2021) was a notable Australian historian and Dean of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Melbourne. He has been described as Australia’s “foremost left-wing historian”, with a specific focus in global historiography.
Lazarus, M. (2021, November 25). “Stuart Macintyre Was Australia’s Foremost Left-Wing Historian”. Jacobin https://jacobin.com/2021/11/stuart-macintyre-wasaustralias-foremost-left-wing-historian
19 Macintyre, S., et al. (2011). Op. cit.
20 As court historian, Karamzin’s works were the Romanov dynasty’s official documentation of history. He was pivotal in documenting both the Russian past, and the time in which he served in an official capacity. New World Encyclopedia (n.d). Op. cit.
21 Ibid
22 Referring to Peter the Great
23 Karamzin, N. (1959). Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia (Pipes, R., Trans.). Harvard University Press. (1861). pg. 130
24 Ibid. 130-131
25 This includes, among others, feminine weakness, indecisiveness, seemingly uncontrollable female lust, and excessive promiscuity.
26 Karamzin, N. (1959). Op. cit. 130-135
“depraved”.27 Dixon28 recognises that Karamzin “praises certain aspects” of Catherine’s rule and disparages others, leading to inconsistency and compromising veracity.29
The principal strength of Karamzin’s interpretation is his contemporality with Catherine; as such, his works are primary sources.30 Enjoying unparalleled access to Russian archives as court historian,31 Karamzin was the first Russian historian to compile vast resources and documents, including foreign accounts,32 to form historical synthesis. This credibility and access to vast, accurate sources increases the veracity of his interpretation; Karamzin’s first-hand experience further contributes to veracity.
However, the numerous weaknesses of Karamzin’s interpretation compromise veracity. Karamzin’s gender bias33 is his principal weakness. He diminishes Catherine’s accomplishments by comparing her with Peter the Great 34 in Istoricheskoe, positioning Catherine’s rule as a complement to Peter’s.35 He details the necessity of “gentle, philanthropic, enlightened Catherine” “to confirm the glory of bold, masculine, awesome Peter”,36 attributing the success of Catherine’s rule to its association with Peter’s, hence denying Catherine greatness in favour of Peter’s ‘masculinity’. Brenda Meehan-Waters37 posits that Karamzin’s gender bias, which affects his historical objectivity, weakens the veracity and accuracy of this argument against Catherine’s
27 Ibid. 132-134
28 Simon Dixon is a professor of Russian history at University College London. He has authored numerous publications, most notably his book Catherine the Great (2001).
University College London. (n.d.). Simon Dixon https://profiles.ucl.ac.uk/2630-simon-dixon/publications
29 Dixon, S. (1999). “The Posthumous Reputation of Catherine II in Russia 17971837”. The Slavonic and East European Review, 77(4), 646-679 https://www.jstor.org/stable/4212958?seq=16 655-658
30 UNSW Sydney. (n.d.). Primary and secondary sources https://www.library.unsw.edu.au/using-the-library/information-resources/primaryand-secondary-sources
31 New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Op. cit.
32 Hamburg, G. (2016). Op. cit.
33 Characteristic of the patriarchal 18th-19th century Russian Empire, and Europe at large. Encyclopedia.com. (2024). “Women in the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries: Introduction”. Retrieved June 14, 2024 from https://www.encyclopedia.com/ social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/women-16th-17thand-18th-centuries-introduction
34 Peter the Great, or Peter I, was Tsar of Russia from 1682-1725. He is widely recognised as the greatest ruler of Imperial Russia, credited with expanding Russia into an empire and dominant European power. Peter the Great is considered to be the greatest reformist of Russian history, implementing Westernising policies to radically alter Russian governance. Along with Catherine, Peter is attributed with bringing the Enlightenment to Russia. His reign is seen as a golden period of Russian history.
Miate, L. (2023). Peter the Great. In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.worldhistory.org/Peter_the_Great/
35 Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). Op. cit. pg. 295
36 Karamzin, N. (1959). Op. cit. 130-135
37 Dr Brenda Meehan-Waters (1942-) is an American historian of Russia, specialising in the history of women and religion. Isabel de Madariaga lauded her work on Russian emperors as “substantiating a number of conclusions that have never been so conclusively demonstrated”. Encyclopedia.com. (n.d.). Meehan, Brenda 1942-. In Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/ meehan-brenda-1942
‘greatness’.38 Furthermore, Karamzin’s interpretation of Catherine is undercut by continual referral to the Enlightenment 39 gender binary40. Meehan-Waters highlights that Karamzin “falls into the habit common to foreign contemporaries of Catherine” in returning to her sex as her defining trait.41 She criticises Karamzin’s lapse into gender binary stereotypes in Zapiska, contrasting his praise of “Catherine’s spirit” as “firm, masculine, and truly heroic”42 with his condemnation of her as “a woman in the minutiae of royal activity”.43 She argues that Karamzin’s tendency to gender Catherine’s positive characteristics as masculine and negative traits as feminine 44 indicates the permeation of gender bias into his historical opinion, discrediting his entire interpretation and compromising veracity.45 Meehan-Waters thus concludes that Karamzin’s interpretation of Catherine is inaccurate and disproven, and overwhelmingly affected by gender bias.46
Furthermore, Karamzin’s personal conservative beliefs47 result in overemphasis on Catherine’s scandalous “private conduct,”48 reducing veracity. Dixon contests that Karamzin’s conservatism
38 Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). Op. cit. pg. 296
39 The Enlightenment was a European intellectual and cultural movement of the 17th and 18th centuries, which rejected Romantic ideas of God, religion, and nature in favour of reason, rationality, and progress. Russia imported its Enlightenment ideologies from Western Europe, championed, ironically, by Catherine the Great.
Duignan, B. (2024). Enlightenment. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history Donway, W. (2023). The Russian Enlightenment and Its “Absolutist” Champions https://oll.libertyfund.org/publications/reading-room/2023-02-02-donwayrussian-enlightenment-absolutist-champions
40 That is to say, heteronormative stereotypes common to European (predominantly Western European) thought during the Enlightenment era. According to the Migrants’ Rights Network:
“ The construction of sex as a concept has always been rooted in White supremacy. Before the Enlightenment, sex was viewed as dualistic: “males and females were viewed as different forms of the same sex… the vagina was understood as an interior penis, the womb as a scrotum, the ovaries as testicles”. After the Enlightenment, White males and females began to be viewed as two dichotomous and distinct sexes, with differing brains, skeletons and nervous systems, and it was these differences that justified and explained the different gender roles and social entitlements of man and woman.”
Migrants’ Rights Network. (2023). The gender binary is white supremacy https://migrantsrights.org.uk/2023/07/14/the-gender-binary-is-white-supremacy/
41 Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). Op. cit. pg 296
42 Ibid. pg. 296
43 Karamzin, N. (1959). Op. cit. pg. 134
“Catherine – a great statesman at principle state assemblies – proved a woman in the minutiae of royal activity. She slumbered on a bed of roses, she was deceived or else deceived herself. She either did not see, or did not wish to see many abuses, perhaps considering them unavoidable, and she felt satisfied with the over-all successful, glorious progress of her reign.”
44 Meehan-Waters explains that this phenomenon is typical of Western historians, who often create genders for positive and negative characteristics when describing a woman. Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). Op. cit. 295-296
45 Ibid. 295-296
46 Ibid. pg. 296
47 Recall that Karamzin was so convincing in his conservative beliefs that he even influenced Tsar Alexander I’s increasingly conservative perspectives, as previously described. New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Op. cit.
48 Dixon, S. (1999). Op. cit. pg. 662
pervades his analysis of Catherine, leading him to overexaggerate and fixate on aspects of her character, including her sexual affairs and promiscuity.49 In Zapiska, Karamzin derides,
“ We must regretfully concede that while zealously praising Catherine for the excellencies of her soul, we unwillingly recall her foibles, and blush for mankind.” 50
Dixon argues that this reflects Karamzin’s fixation upon Catherine’s non-conservative actions and his inability to separate historical objectivity from his conservative beliefs, which continues throughout his Zapiska. 51 Karamzin posits,
“The violation of morality diminishes the very dignity of the sovereign’s office, for people cannot respect those who are depraved.” 52
With modern historiography dispelling common myths of exaggerated promiscuity53 surrounding Catherine during her time, 54 his interpretation is further disproven. Therefore, despite being a primary source on Catherine, Karamzin’s interpretation overwhelmingly lacks veracity due to his gender bias and personal conservatism’s impact on his historical objectivity.
Madariaga’s55 interpretation of Catherine possesses greater veracity than Karamzin’s antithetical view, 56 although it still lacks veracity with its moderate bias and historical inconsistencies.
Madariaga, Catherine’s foremost modern historian, 57 is credited with transforming Western scholarly perspectives on Catherine the Great. 58 Her interpretation is evident in her historical syntheses, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great59 and Catherine
the Great: A Short History, 60 and in her essay A Personal View 61 Madariaga’s works have revolutionised Catherine scholarship and greatly influenced subsequent historians.62
Madariaga’s interpretation is largely accepted by scholars as greatly veracious,63 humanising Catherine for modern audiences to sympathise with her and impressing the importance of avoiding caricature.64 She adopts a modern historiographical lens to humanise Catherine, describing her as a “close friend”.65 While taking care to refrain from exaggeration, Madariaga occasionally lapses into laudation, praising Catherine as Russia’s “most impressive and intellectually distinguished ruler”.66 In contrast to Karamzin, Madariaga emphasises Catherine’s femininity as the source of her success, reflecting a post-first and post-secondwave feminist 67 perspective.68 She ultimately privileges a humane, sympathetic interpretation, pronouncing in The Age,
“Her greatness lies not in territorial acquisitions but in the new relationship between rulers and ruled which she fostered.” 69
Many strengths contribute to the veracity of Madariaga’s interpretation of Catherine. Nikolay Andreyev70 reviews that Madariaga’s “outstanding example of research and erudition” results in “expert analysis” of Catherine’s personality,71 lauding her thorough research of the primary written sources available, despite many sources on Catherine being inaccessible in Russian archives.72 Madariaga’s dedication to exhaustive scholarship is an immense strength contributing to veracity.
60 Published in 1990; will henceforth be referred to as A Short History
61 Published in 2001
62 Munro, G.E. (1992). Op. cit. pg. 251
63 Ibid. pg. 251
49 Ibid. 667-668
50 Karamzin, N. (1959). Op. cit. pg. 133.
51 Dixon, S. (1999). Op. cit. 662-663
52 Karamzin, N. (1959). Op. cit. pg. 133
53 It can be assumed that Karamzin is referring to storied legends of Catherine’s sexual exploits – which enumerate torrid affairs, incalculable numbers of lovers, and unfounded rumours of bestiality – an overwhelming majority of which historians have disproven.
54 Hartley, J. (2021, November 24). Op. cit.
55 Professor Isabel de Madariaga (1919-2014) was a British historian specialising in 18th century Russia and Catherine the Great. She is recognised as the preeminent historian and authority on 18th century Russia in the last century, ‘inspiring scholars and students worldwide’, and redefining misconceptions surrounding her character.
Hartley, J. (2014, July 15). Professor Isabel de Madariaga: Historian and inspirational teacher who changed our perceptions of Catherine the Great and Ivan the Terrible. Independent https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/ professor-isabel-de-madariaga-historian-and-inspirational-teacher-who-changedour-perceptions-of-catherine-the-great-and-ivan-the-terrible-9608251.html
56 While Karamzin positions Catherine’s femininity as her downfall and ultimate flaw, Madariaga depicts it as the cause of and a principal contributor to her success.
57 George E. Munro describes Madariaga’s “masterly” Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (1981) as “likely to remain for some time the most important synthesis of work on that era”.
Munro, G.E. (1992). Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by I. de Madariaga. The American Historical Review, 97(1), 251252 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164668 pg. 251
58 Hartley, J. (2014, July 15). Op. cit.
59 Published in 1981; will henceforth be referred to as The Age
64 de Madariaga, I. (2001). 45-46
65 Ibid. pg. 45
66 Ibid. pg. 46
67 Scholars have divided modern feminism into four ‘waves’. The first wave of feminism occurred in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emerging from an environment of industrialisation and urbanisation. This wave concerned the civil rights of women, particularly the right to vote. The second wave of feminism began in the 1960s, continuing into the 1990s. The message of the second wave was increasingly liberal and radical, centralising issues including reproductive and sexual rights.
Rampton, M. (2015). Four Waves of Feminism https://www.pacificu.edu/magazine/ four-waves-feminism#:~:text=Whereas%20the%20first%20wave%20of,social%20 class%20and%20coined%20phrases
68 de Madariaga is described in her memoir by Hartley and Scott as a ‘non-selfproclaimed feminist’.
Hartley, J., Scott, H. (2016). de Madariaga, Isabel Margaret, 1919-2014.
In Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the British Academy, XV https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/publishing/memoirs/15/de-madariagaisabel-margaret-1919-2014/
69 de Madariaga, I. (1981). Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great Yale University Press. pg. 587
70 Nikolay Andreyev (1908-1982) was a Russian professor and author on Russian works of history and literature, based in Cambridge University. He has been published in numerous academic journals of history.
Online Archive of California. (n.d.). Andreyev (Nikolay) papers https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8j67qq9/
71 Andreyev, N. (1982). Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga. The Slavonic and East European Review, 60(1), 113-115. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208456 pg. 114
72 Ibid. pg. 113-114
Further, he commends her “objective assessment” of Catherine73; Madariaga’s careful examination of Catherine, holistically and humanly, lends veracity to her interpretation. Marc Raeff’s74 balanced review similarly praises Madariaga’s pursuit of veracity with her “elegant study” of “overwhelmingly vast primary and occasionally unsatisfactory secondary material”.75 Raeff commends Madariaga’s consideration of Catherine against “the broader perspective of Russia and Europe in the eighteenth century”76 , analysing the impact of her social context on her character, rather than in “isolation” similar to other historians.77 This wider perspective enables Madariaga to draw a holistic portrait of Catherine and provide understanding for her actions,78 thus increasing the accuracy and veracity of her interpretation. Furthermore, Madariaga adopts a more personal approach in analysing Catherine, humanising her from legend to woman.79 She emphasises Catherine’s impact on her subjects, describing her reign as a time when…
“Despotism80 turned into a monarchy, when men obeyed through honour, not fear.” 81
By extending beyond stories of Catherine’s character to examine her legacy and impact, Madariaga captures a new perspective on Catherine, and provides greater veracity to the interpretation of her.82
Some weaknesses do diminish the veracity of Madariaga’s interpretation. Her intent to present Catherine humanely and sympathetically leads to denial of her less admirable actions as ruler, reducing her veracity.83 David Saunders 84 identifies that Madariaga’s idealised depiction of Catherine repudiates
her contribution to intensifying serfdom,85 a flawed argument overlooked in her romanticising of Catherine.86 Anderson87 similarly posits that Madariaga’s attempt to humanise Catherine for modern readers results in bias towards her positive traits, exemplified in her emphasis of Catherine’s aversion to capital punishment and torture over her military brutality in Poland.88 Munro and Saunders enumerate minor factual errors Madariaga cites in A Short History;89 both these inaccuracies and Madariaga’s bias diminish veracity. However, Madariaga’s strengths overshadow her weaknesses, and her interpretation remains highly veracious.
Dixon’s90 interpretation of Catherine contains the greatest veracity of those evaluated. Despite having a less significant impact on Catherine scholarship due to his recency, Dixon presents the most rounded interpretation in his Catherine the Great, 91 which has been described as neither ‘life and times’ nor biography, but rather a “study in rulership”.92 He avoids the varying degrees of bias inherent in Karamzin and Madariaga,93 providing “balanced but incisive judgements and sophisticated conceptual analysis”,94 and evaluates Catherine by focusing on her impacts on Russia.
Dixon’s interpretation centres on questions about power, depersonalising Catherine to an extent to capture her broader impact on Russia.95 He centralises his investigation of Catherine’s
73 Ibid. pg. 114
74 Marc Raeff (1923-2008) was a well-renowned Russian historian, publishing “hundreds of monographs, translations, articles, and reviews” in four different languages. He lectured on Slavic history in various American universities throughout his career. In his review of Isabel de Madariaga’s historical work The Age, Raeff reflected that we are “deeply in [Madariaga’s] debt” for her immense contribution to scholarship on Catherine and Russia during her rule. Columbia Harriman Institute. (n.d.). Marc Raeff (1923-2008) https://harriman.columbia.edu/person/marc-raeff/ Raeff, M. (1982). Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga. The Journal of Modern History, 54(3), 635-638 https://www.jstor.org/stable/1906272 p. 637 pg. 638
75 Ibid. pg. 636
76 Ibid. pg. 637
77 Ibid. 636-637
78 Ibid. 637-638
79 Munro, G.E. (1992). Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by I. de Madariaga. The American Historical Review, 97(1), 251-252 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164668 pg. 251
80 Despotism refers to governance by absolute power, typically exercised by a ‘despot’ oppressively.
81 de Madariaga, I. (1981). pg. 588
82 Munro, G.E. (1992). Op. cit. 251-252
83 de Madariaga, I. (1990). Catherine the Great: A Short History. Yale University Press. 212-218
84 David Saunders is an Emeritus Professor of the History of the Russian Empire at Newcastle University. He specialises in Ukrainian-Russian relationships, AngloRussian connections, and Russian social and intellectual history. Newcastle University. (n.d.). Emeritus Professor David Saunders https://www.ncl.ac.uk/hca/people/profile/dbsaunders.html
85 Serfdom is a form of government originating from medieval Europe, in which farmers, known as serfs, were ‘tenants’ of land owned by landlords and responsible for its cultivation. In return, serfs were allowed to use the land’s resources to produce their own subsistence, including food and clothes. A significant proportion of a serf’s productive labour was given to the landlord in return for being allowed to reside on the land. The principal characteristic of serfdom was a lack of autonomy or civil liberties, as all movement, marriage, and changes of occupation were required to be permitted by the serf’s landowner. Many modern historians condemn Catherine for supporting and intensifying serfdom during her reign, among them Saunders. Encyclopaedia-Britannica. (2024). Serfdom. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved June 19, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/serfdom
86 Saunders, D. (1994). Review of Catherine the Great. A Short History, by I. de Madariaga. The English Historical Review, 109(432), 744-745 https://www.jstor.org/stable/573008 pg. 745
87 M.S. Anderson (1922-2006) was an Emeritus Professor of International History at the London School of Economics. He has authored approximately 1850 titles investigating western European perceptions of Russia. Other areas of his specialty include Catherine the Great and Peter the Great. University of London. (n.d). M.S. Anderson Collection https://www.london.ac.uk/ about/services/senate-house-library/collections/printed-special-collections/msanderson-collection
88 Anderson, M.S. (1982). Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga. The English Historical Review, 97(382), 149-152 https://www.jstor.org/stable/568512 150-151
90 Previously introduced in regard to his opinion on Karamzin’s interpretation of Catherine.
91 Published in 2001; will henceforth be referred to as Catherine
92 McGhie, G. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon. New Zealand Slavonic Journal, not listed, 317-318 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40922168 pg. 318
93 That is, the gender bias inherent in Karamzin’s interpretation and Madariaga’s personal bias, as previously evaluated.
94 Hartley, J. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by Simon Dixon. History, 88(1), 143-144 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24426908 pg. 144
95 Dixon, S. (2009). Catherine the Great. Profile Books. 329-335
impact on Russia.96 William Whisenhunt’s97 insightful review commends Dixon’s balanced and objective discussion of Catherine’s positive and negative impacts without passing judgement on her character.98 Dixon’s careful impartiality prevents bias and promotes veracity. His interpretation portrays Catherine as an “enlightened despot”,99 discussing the impact of enlightenment ideals on her character and rule.100 Dixon examines accounts of her personality and impact on citizens to suggest that Catherine was “despotic and restrictive”, but simultaneously encouraging of philosophy and religious tolerance.101 He thus privileges examination of her impact on Russia, ultimately acknowledging her as a “tolerant and trusting ruler”.102
The principal strength of Dixon’s interpretation is his avoidance of both positive and negative personal judgements of Catherine. Whisenhunt praises Dixon’s ability to “examine without the sensational”,103 maintaining impartiality to uphold veracity. Smith104 purports “Dixon understands [Catherine] much more thoroughly than most”, including Madariaga.105 He argues this superior understanding stems from an absence of bias, allowing Dixon to privilege objective historical interpretation.106 Dixon’s ability to consider Catherine objectively prevents judgement on her character, positive or negative, from obfuscating veracity. Antithetical to Karamzin,107 Dixon’s lack of imposed moral judgement promotes historical accuracy and veracity. This is exemplified by Dixon’s description of her patronage of arts, compared with her limited efforts to improve peasant life;108 by merely addressing facts, he avoids praise or condemnation, thus upholding objectivity and veracity.
Smith recognises Dixon’s detailed scholarship as another strength promoting veracity, describing him as “armed with comprehensive and critical knowledge of primary sources in English, French, German, and Russian.”109 Dixon’s ability to access vast sources across languages translates into capable and extensive historiographical study. Furthermore, Dixon’s “fresh look”110 examines Catherine through a modern lens, situated within the context of the larger imperial Russian government and monarchy.111 McGhie credits Dixon’s focus on surrounding context and power structures, concluding that Dixon’s central exploration of power does not attempt to excuse Catherine’s actions, but rather to trace causality and motivations.112 This tracing supports greater understanding of Catherine against a backdrop of imperial Russia, upholding a holistic interpretation of Catherine and thus veracity.
Dixon’s interpretation is remarkably veracious, and largely uninhibited by weaknesses. However, Hughes113 acknowledges his “thematic approach” to interpreting Catherine “leaves a few gaps in the narrative”, identifying minor discrepancies in Dixon’s Catherine overlooked due to Dixon’s concentration on holistic analysis.114 This trivial weakness is inconsequential to the overall tremendous veracity of Dixon’s interpretation.
96 Ibid. 329-335
97 William Whisenhunt is a professor of Russian and Soviet history at DePaul University, and author of numerous publications and academic reviews. He presently holds the role of Co-Managing Editor of the Journal of Russian American Studies DePaul. (n.d). William “Ben” Whisenhunt https://las.depaul.edu/academics/history/ faculty/Pages/William-Whisenhunt.aspx
98 Whisenhunt, W. B. (2003). Op. cit. pg. 230
99 It was Voltaire who originally described Catherine as an “enlightened despot”. He was referring to her significant patronage of the arts and philosophy while simultaneously reminding his audience of her absolute power. Walsh, N. (2006, June 2). “How Voltaire praised the ‘enlightened despot’ Catherine the Great”. The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/ jun/02/russia.books
100 Whisenhunt, W.B. (2003). Op. cit. pg. 230
101 Ibid. pg. 230
102 Dixon, S. (2009). Op. cit. pg. 335
103 Whisenhunt, W.B. (2003). Op. cit. pg. 230
104 G.S. Smith is a former professor of Russian at Oxford, and an Emeritus fellow of New College. He has translated many notable works from Russian into English, and published an award-winning biography.
London Review of Books. (n.d). G.S. Smith https://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors/g.s.-smith
105 Smith, G. (2004). [Review of Catherine the Great, by Simon Dixon].
The English Historical Review, 119(408), 229-230. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3490082 pg. 229
106 Ibid. 229-230
107 Recall Karamzin’s judgement of Catherine’s character as “depraved”, inciting a reaction in which “we blush for mankind”.
108 Dixon, S. (2009). Op. cit. 331-335
Historians have vastly differing interpretations of Catherine the Great. Karamzin succumbs to stereotypes characteristic of his time, obfuscating veracity with personal judgement of Catherine’s proclivities.115 In contrast, Madariaga reflects a post-first and -second wave feminist view and humanises Catherine for a modern audience, consequentially over-idealising Catherine in an attempt to present her sympathetically.116 She is successful in humanising Catherine, but compromises veracity. Unlike Karamzin and Madariaga, Dixon remains impartial and avoids passing judgement on Catherine’s character.117 He privileges evaluating her impacts on Russia and the influence of Enlightenment ideas on her character, adopting a wide perspective to trace causality.118 Each interpretation has strengths and weaknesses that reflect the historians’ social context, personal beliefs, and access to historical sources. Having analysed Karamzin, Madariaga, and Dixon’s interpretations of Catherine the Great, it can be concluded that Dixon presents the most veracious view of her character.
109 Smith, G. (2004). Op. cit. pg. 229
110 Hughes, L. (2003). [Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon].
The Slavonic and East European Review, 81(3), 557-559 https://www.jstor.org/stable/4213765 pg. 559
111 Whisenhunt, W. B. (2003). Op. cit. pg. 230
112 McGhie, G. (2003). Op. cit. pg. 318
113 Lindsey Hughes (1949-2007) was a professor of Russian history at the University of London’s School of Slavonic and East European studies. She authored numerous books, the most famous among which is a synthesised historical summation of the Romanov dynasty titled The Romanovs: Ruling Russia, 1613-1917
Dixon, S. (2009). Catherine the Great. Profile Books. Hamburg, G. (2016). Russia’s Path Toward Enlightenment: Faith, Politics, and Reason, 1500-1801. Yale University Press. https://academic.oup. com/yale-scholarship-online/book/30379/chapter-abstract/257442205 ?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Karamzin, N. (1959). Memoir on Ancient and Modern Russia (Pipes, R. Trans.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1861).
Macintyre, S., et al. (2011). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800-1945. Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/book/1548/ chapter-abstract/141024588?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Madariaga, I. (1981). Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. Yale University Press.
Madariaga, I. (1990). Catherine the Great: A Short History. Yale University Press.
Nebel, J. (1967). N.M. Karamzin: A Russian Sentimentalist. Mouton & Co. https://api.pageplace.de/preview/DT0400.9783111393773_ A35078928/preview-9783111393773_A35078928.pdf
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
Duignan, B. (2024). Enlightenment. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/event/ Enlightenment-European-history
Encyclopaedia-Britannica. (2024). Nikolay Mikhaylovich Karamzin. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www. britannica.com/biography/Nikolay-Mikhaylovich-Karamzin
Encyclopaedia-Britannica. (2024). Serfdom. In Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved June 19, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/topic/ serfdom
Encyclopedia.com. (n.d). Meehan, Brenda 1942-. In Encyclopedia.com Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/ educational-magazines/meehan-brenda-1942 Encyclopedia.com. (2024). “Women in the 16th, 17th, and 18th Centuries: Introduction”. Retrieved June 14, 2024 from https:// www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacstranscripts-and-maps/women-16th-17th-and-18th-centuriesintroduction
Miate, L. (2023). Peter the Great. In World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.worldhistory.org/Peter_ the_Great/ New World Encyclopedia. (n.d). Nikolay Karamzin. In New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www. newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nikolay_Karamzin#:~:text=As%20 a%20critic%20Karamzin%20was,founding%20father%20of%20 Russian%20conservatism
Oldenbourge-Idalie, Z. (2024). Catherine the Great. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved May 31, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/ biography/Catherine-the-Great Olivier, D. (2024). Alexander I. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved June 14, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/biography/AlexanderI-emperor-of-Russia
IMAGES
Leemage. (n.d). A portrait of Catherine the Great in her coronation robe after wresting the throne from her husband, Peter III, in 1762 [Image]. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/ article/who-was-catherine-great
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Alexander, J. (1991). [Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by Isabel de Madariaga; Sophia Regent of Russia, by Lindsey Hughes]. The International History Review, 13(4), 812-815. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40106500
Anderson, M. S. (1982). [Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga]. The English Historical Review, 97(382), 149-152 https://www.jstor.org/stable/568512
Andreyev, N. (1982). [Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga]. The Slavonic and East European Review, 60(1), 113115. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208456
Dixon, S. (1999). The Posthumous Reputation of Catherine II in Russia 1797-1837. The Slavonic and East European Review, 77(4), 646-679. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4212958?seq=16
Hartley, J. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by Simon Dixon. History, 88(1), 143-144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24426908
Hughes, L. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon. The Slavonic and East European Review, 81(3), 557-559. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4213765
Madariaga, I. (2001). “Catherine the great: a personal view”. History Today, 51(11), 45-51 https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A80163001/ SUIC?u=61merid&sid=bookmark-SUIC&xid=06374275
McGhie, G. (2003). Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon. New Zealand Slavonic Journal, not listed, 317-318. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40922168
Meehan-Waters, B. (1975). Catherine the Great and the Problem of Female Rule. The Russian Review, 34(3), 293-307. https://www.jstor.org/stable/127976
Munro, G.E. (1992). Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by I. de Madariaga. The American Historical Review, 97(1), 251-252 https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164668
Raeff, M. (1982). [Review of Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great, by I. de Madariaga]. The Journal of Modern History, 54(3), 635-638. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1906272
Saunders, D. (1982). “Historians and Concepts of Nationality in Early Nineteenth-Century Russia”. The Slavonic and East European Review, 60(1), 44-62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4208432
Saunders, D. (1994). Review of Catherine the Great: A Short History, by I. de Madariaga. The English Historical Review, 109(432), 744-745. https://www.jstor.org/stable/573008
Smith, G. (2004). Review of Catherine the Great, by Simon Dixon. The English Historical Review, 119(408), 229-230. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3490082
Whisenhunt, W. B. (2003). [Review of Catherine the Great, by S. Dixon]. Russian History, 30(1), 229-230 https://www.jstor.org/stable/24660870
MEMOIRS
Hartley, J., Scott, H. (2016). de Madariaga, Isabel Margaret, 1919-2014. In Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the British Academy, XV https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/publishing/memoirs/15/demadariaga-isabel-margaret-1919-2014/
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
Hartley, J. (2014, July 15). “Professor Isabel de Madariaga: Historian and inspirational teacher who changed our perceptions of Catherine the Great and Ivan the Terrible”. Independent https://www. independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/professor-isabel-de-madariagahistorian-and-inspirational-teacher-who-changed-our-perceptions-ofcatherine-the-great-and-ivan-the-terrible-9608251.html
Hartley, J. (2021, November 24). “Hypocrite, reactionary, usurper, sex maniac: is Catherine the Great’s reputation justified?” History Extra https://www.historyextra.com/period/georgian/catherine-greatrussian-empress-reputation-justified/ Lazarus, M. (2021, November 25). “Stuart Macintyre Was Australia’s Foremost Left-Wing Historian”. Jacobin https://jacobin.com/2021/11/ stuart-macintyre-was-australias-foremost-left-wing-historian Solly, M. (2020, May 15). “The Story of Catherine the Great”. Smithsonian Magazine https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/truestory-catherine-great-180974863/ Walsh, N. (2006, June 2). “How Voltaire praised the ‘enlightened despot’ Catherine the Great”. The Guardian https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/02/russia.books
WEBSITES
Columbia Harriman Institute. (n.d). Marc Raeff (1923-2008). https://harriman.columbia.edu/person/marc-raeff/ DePaul. (n.d). William ‘Ben’ Whisenhunt https://las.depaul.edu/ academics/history/faculty/Pages/William-Whisenhunt.aspx Donway, W. (2023). The Russian Enlightenment and Its “Absolutist” Champions https://oll.libertyfund.org/publications/readingroom/2023-02-02-donway-russian-enlightenment-absolutistchampions Historiana. (n.d). Catherine the Great https://historiana.eu/historicalcontent/source-collections/catherine-the-great Kahn, A. (2020). How did Catherine the Great’s reign shape Imperial Russian history? https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/blog/how-didcatherine-the-great-reign-shape-imperial-russian-history/ London Review of Books. (n.d). G.S. Smith https://www.lrb.co.uk/contributors/g.s.-smith Migrants’ Rights Network. (2023). The gender binary is white supremacy https://migrantsrights.org.uk/2023/07/14/the-gender-binary-is-whitesupremacy/ Newcastle University. (n.d). Emeritus Professor David Saunders https://www.ncl.ac.uk/hca/people/profile/dbsaunders.html Online Archive of California. (n.d). Nikolay Andreyev papers https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8j67qq9/
Rampton, M. (2015). Four Waves of Feminism https://www.pacificu. edu/magazine/four-waves-feminism#:~:text=Whereas%20the%20 first%20wave%20of,social%20class%20and%20coined%20phrases University College London. (n.d). Simon Dixon. https://profiles.ucl.ac.uk/2630-simon-dixon/publications University of London. (n.d). M.S. Anderson Collection https://www.london.ac.uk/about/services/senate-house-library/ collections/printed-special-collections/ms-anderson-collection UNSW Sydney. (n.d). Primary and secondary sources https://www.library.unsw.edu.au/using-the-library/informationresources/primary-and-secondary-sources
With reference to the stimulus, how does Christianity guide adherents to be people of love?
Make reference to Martin Luther and Baptism in your response.
“Follow God’s example, therefore, as dearly loved children and walk in the way of love, just as Christ loved us and gave himself up for us as a fragrant offering and sacrifice to God.”
OLIVIA LEE
YEAR 11, 2024
Christianity guides adherents to be “people of love” through belief, which then flows into practice. Recognising that there is a loving God and acknowledging a relationship with Him1 enables adherents to “walk in the way of love” as articulated in the stimulus from Ephesians 5:1-22 and reflected in Martin Luther’s theology. This theological foundation is expressed in the practice of Baptism, reflecting an official acceptance of this identity as a “dearly loved [child]” of God and as a member of the church. Furthermore, Christians are encouraged to characterise all aspects of their lives in response to the love they have first received.
Christian adherents’ identity as “people of love” is founded in and characterised by the love of God, revealed in Jesus’ atoning sacrifice, which is the central message of the Bible.3 This doctrine of love is the focus of Martin Luther’s theology. As late as 1519, the young monk and theologian was experiencing difficulties over the phrase and reality of the ‘righteousness of God’ – the perfect, unapproachable justice of the Father that judged and condemned human beings such as he in all their sinfulness. However, in that same year, studying the book of Romans,4 Luther’s understanding of God was transformed from hating the “righteousness of God,”5 which characterised the Mediaeval Catholic Church’s moralism and practices at the time, to being gripped by the love of God – “God is love.” (1 John 4:16).6 With this understanding of love, framed as sola gratia (the love of God reflected through grace alone), Luther felt himself “born again” and came to regard God as a loving Father who had given His Son to die for humanity’s
sins,7 “This is love: Not that we loved God, but that he loved us and sent his Son as an atoning sacrifice for our sins.” (1 John 4:10).8 This “fragrant offering and sacrifice to God” enables adherents to experience the love of God through justification by faith alone – sola fide 9 Emphasis on recognition of divine love and redemption through Jesus Christ shapes how adherents are “people of love” – they gain this identity not because they love, but because they are loved first10 as “dearly loved children”, initiated by “God’s example” (John 3:1611 and Romans 5:812). This status in relation to God is founded in the authority of scripture, as articulated by Martin Luther in his sola scriptura, 13 placing the Bible as the main source for Church doctrine.14 Luther’s emphasis on love catalysed reformations – namely the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Revival15 – which then formed various denominations. The church, aligned as people of God, aimed to transform the institution in order to grapple with Luther’s radical theology of love.16
The love of God is reflected in Baptism, which is a significant practice that initiates a person into a life of love as part of the body of Christ.17 Baptism is an initiation ceremony, usually performed by a member of the clergy, whereby a person is welcomed by the faith community into the Trinitarian family
1 First Presbyterian Amarillo. (2024, April 9). How Do We Reflect God’s Love? [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/fFiu_qBXEqo
2 New International Version Bible. (2011). Zondervan. (Original work published 1978). Ephesians 5:1-2.
3 Peperkamp, E. (2006). “When God Is Love: Reflections on Christian and Romantic Sentiments in Catholic Poland”. Romantic love 19(1), 91-110. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25758112 pg. 91
4 Raunio, A. (2016). “Martin Luther and Love”. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved July 21, 2024 https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/ acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-333
5 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. Romans 1.
6 Ibid. John 4:16.
7 Rittgers, R. (2017). “Martin Luther’s Reformation of Love”. The Regent College 29(2). https://world.regent-college.edu/leading-ideas/the-reformation-of-love
8 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. 1 John 4:10.
9 Got Questions. (2022). “What does it mean that God is love?” https://www.gotquestions.org/God-is-love.html
10 Tangely, M. (2003). Martin Luther: overview and bibliography. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. pg. 93
11 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. John 3:16.
12 Ibid. Romans 5:8.
13 Hughes, R. (2024). Significant Person: Martin Luther [Word Document].
14 O’Neill, J. (1975). Martin Luther. Cambridge University Press. pg. 16
15 National Geographic. (n.d.). The Protestant Reformation https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/protestant-reformation/
16 Rittgers, R. (2017). Op. cit.
17 The Woodlands Methodist Church. (2024, June 18). God’s Relentless Love and the Power of Baptism [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/IFDrKMow-zI
through ritual purification.18 When baptised, Christians publicly declare to renounce sin and accept new life, which is an act of “looking away from our sin and brokenness to make way for God’s love to transform us and our world”.19 Baptism confirms an adherent’s fundamental identity as a beloved child of God and is the process of claiming and consenting to that identity.20 Evangelical theologian N.T. Wright draws a parallel between Paul’s description of Baptism in Romans 6 and Exodus from slavery. In Exodus, God shows love by saving his people from slavery, who then become Israel, and in Romans, baptism is described as a reminder of being saved from sin, 21 rising with Christ and receiving new life as people of God with the hope of new creation.22 Baptism also reflects the love of Jesus Christ, articulating the belief that Christians are “therefore buried with him through baptism into death” and raised to “live a new life” (Romans 6:3-4).23 This purification from sin, symbolised by water, is a sign of a ‘clean start’ and being ‘reborn’ into a person who “walks in the way of love”. Furthermore, baptism is the process by which adherents who aim to be such “people of love” join the body of Christ. The Christian community gives witness to baptism as members of the Church who will support and encourage the candidate on their faith journey, revealing how the body of Christ aims to be a group united by the love of God.24 The significance and role of baptism within Christianity varies within denominations. Orthodox and Catholic churches view baptism as necessary for salvation (Mark 16:16), 25 particularly for the regeneration from the consequences of original sin, whereas most Protestant churches (such as Baptist and Anglican churches) see it as a symbolic ritual and a sign of already being saved through faith, aligning with Luther’s understanding of sola fide. These variants reflect how different denominations aim to embody and reflect the love of God through baptism, whether as a sacrament of divine grace or as a testament of personal faith.
With a firm theological foundation and initiation as “people of love”, adherents practically manifest this in love to God and others.26 This call to love is clear in Jesus’ answer to “…which is the greatest commandment in the Law?”, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind…You shall love your neighbour as yourself” (Matthew 22:37-39).27 God is the ultimate foundation of loving one’s neighbour and loving one’s neighbour is the perfect manifestation of loving God.28 This call to love is prompted by God’s love for his people, “…just as I have loved you, you also are to love one another…you are my disciples if you have love for one another.” (John 13:34-35).29 This outworking of love30 shapes liturgy and ethical and social issues. Christians pursue being people of love through church liturgy by participating in communal worship and practices that aim to glorify God.31 Luther aimed to maintain the simplicity of liturgy and focus on the personal relationship with God through Christ. His changes, such as increased emphasis on the Bible, priests forgoing elaborate vestments, and the increased presence of music in worship reflect this focus on loving God and being “people of love”, rather than following the formal, ritualistic and often inaccessible liturgy of the Mediaeval Catholic Church.32 After he was excommunicated and he was being held for his protection, Luther translated the New Testament into German, which appeared in 1522. Luther’s belief that the Bible was the Word of God and the only source of religious authority (sola scriptura) led Protestant churches33 to emphasise the importance of conducting services in the vernacular.34 This example of change in liturgy reflects how adherents are guided to be people of love by “…making disciples of all nations”35 as commanded by Jesus through spreading the gospel and fostering understanding.36
26 Piper, J. (Interviewee). (2022, August 8). “What Makes Christian Love Different?” (No. 1819) [Audio podcast episode]. Ask Pastor John. https://www.desiringgod.org/interviews/what-makes-christian-love-different
27 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. Matthew 22:37-39.
28 Liu, Q. (2007). “On a Paradox of Christian Love”. The Journal of Religious Ethics 35(4), 681-694. https://philpapers.org/rec/LIUOAP pg. 681
29 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. John 13:34-35.
18 Woolcock, R. (1884). “Christian baptism: according to the scriptures”. Scrymgour & Sons, Printers. pg. 7
19 First Church Amherst. (2022). “Baptized into Love”. https://www.firstchurchamherst.org/sermons/baptized-into-love/
20 The Woodlands Methodist Church. (2024, June 18). God’s Relentless Love and the Power of Baptism [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/IFDrKMow-zI
21 Skudra, P. (2022). “Jesus’ baptism, an act of love and liberation”. https://slmedia.org/blog/jesus-baptism-an-act-of-love-and-liberation-word-alive
22 Hughes, R. (2024). Baptism Summary Table [Word Document].
23 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. Romans 6:3-4.
25 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. Mark 16:16.
30 Hubbard, S. (2023, April 16). “The Art of One-Anothering – How the Church Loves Like Christ”. Desiring God https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/the-art-ofone-anothering
31 Bolinger, H. (2021). “What Is Liturgy and Why Is it Important in the Church?” https://www.crosswalk.com/church/worship/what-is-liturgy-and-why-is-itimportant-in-the-church.html
32 Hendrix, S.H. (2015). Martin Luther: visionary reformer. Yale University Press. pg. 86
33 Mark, J.J. (2021, November 10). “Protestant Reformation”. World History. https://www.worldhistory.org/Protestant_Reformation/#google_vignette
34 Marty, M.E. (2004). Martin Luther. Penguin Group. pg. 65
35 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. Matthew 28:18-20.
36 Ibid. 1 Corinthians 14:9.
With
Adherents are also guided to love others in ethical and social matters.37 For example, Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith suggests that human worth comes from being loved by God, not by any ability or quality that people may possess.38 Luther claimed at the Heidelberg Disputation of 1518 that “Sinners are attractive because they are loved, they are not loved because they are attractive.” Adherents’ salvation and worth are not dependent on anything of their own.39 This doctrine forms the way Christians as “people of love” evaluate others, as it attributes dignity and value to all equally, addressing concerns about human worth.40 Ethical and moral principles that Christian adherents uphold are demonstrated in the life of Jesus Christ and in biblical teachings to love.41 For example, on poverty, the Christian responsibility towards the poor is grounded in love and scripture. “If anyone has material possessions and sees a brother or sister in need but has no pity on them, how can the love of God be in that person? Dear children, let us not love with words or speech but with actions and in truth.” (1 John 3:17-18).42 Caring for the poor is necessary for adherents, as it stems from the very nature of God’s love and justice. The practical outworking of love is a tangible expression of faith, a testimony to the grace that humanity has received, and is a fulfilment of Christ’s command to love God and love neighbours as ourselves.43
Adherents as “people of love” is an identity and reality supported by a Biblical theology that emphasises love from God through Jesus Christ. As people confirmed in love through initiation such as Baptism, adherents as “people of love” then actively “walk in the way of love” in response to a call to love God and neighbours. This is reflected in liturgy as well as in engagement with social and ethical issues. Christianity guides adherents to be people of love because of God’s love, which then flows into practice, “We love because he first loved us” (1 John 4:19).44
BIBLIOGRAPHY
WEB ARTICLES
Hubbard, S. (2023, April 16). The Art of One-Anothering –How the Church Loves Like Christ. Desiring God https://www.desiringgod.org/articles/the-art-of-one-anothering Mark, J.J. (2021, November 10). Protestant Reformation. World History https://www.worldhistory.org/Protestant_Reformation/#google_ vignette
BOOKS
Clayton, R.H. (1970). Christian baptism. W & J Barr (Printers) Pty. Ltd. Fletcher, F. (2010). Falling in love with God: recognising the call of Christian love. St Pauls Publications.
Hendrix, S.H. (2015). Martin Luther: visionary reformer. Yale University Press.
Marty, M.E. (2004). Martin Luther. Penguin Group. New International Version Bible. (2011). Zondervan. (Original work published 1978).
O’Neill, J. (1975). Martin Luther. Cambridge University Press. Tangely, M. (2003). Martin Luther: overview and bibliography. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Woolcock, R. (1884). Christian baptism: according to the scriptures. Scrymgour & Sons, Printers.
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
Raunio, A. (2016). Martin Luther and Love. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved July 21, 2024 https://oxfordre.com/ religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore9780199340378-e-333
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Liu, Q. (2007). On a Paradox of Christian Love. The Journal of Religious Ethics 35(4), 681-694. https://philpapers.org/rec/LIUOAP
Peperkamp, E. (2006). When God Is Love: Reflections on Christian and Romantic Sentiments in Catholic Poland. Romantic love 19 (1), 91-110. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25758112
Rittgers, R. (2017). Martin Luther’s Reformation of Love. The Regent College 29 (2). https://world.regent-college.edu/leading-ideas/thereformation-of-love
Titus, H.H. (1947). Christian Ethics and Contemporary Social Issues. Journal of Bible and Religion 15(4), 215-219. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1457466
38 Fletcher, F. (2010). “Falling in love with God: recognising the call of Christian love”. St Pauls Publications. pg. 76
39 Hardin, N. (2022). “How Does the Gospel Relate to Ethics and Politics?” https://nealhardin.com/gospel-ethics-politics/
40 Titus, H.H. (1947). “Christian Ethics and Contemporary Social Issues”. Journal of Bible and Religion 15(4), 215-219. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1457466 pg. 217
41 Guyatt, S. (2023). “The Contribution of Christianity to Society in Australia”. Local Christian Life https://localchristianlife.com.au/contribution-christianity-tosociety-australia/
42 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. 1 John 3:17-18.
43 CrossTalk. (2024). What are the Christian responsibilities towards the poor? https://biblechat.ai/knowledgebase/moral-ethical-issues/social-ethics/whatchristian-responsibilities-towards-poor/
44 New International Version Bible. (2011). Op. cit. 1 John 4:19.
PODCASTS
Piper, J. (Interviewee). (2022, August 8). What Makes Christian Love Different? (No. 1819) [Audio podcast episode]. Ask Pastor John. https://www.desiringgod.org/interviews/what-makes-christian-lovedifferent
VIDEOS
First Presbyterian Amarillo. (2024, April 9). How Do We Reflect God’s Love? [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/fFiu_qBXEqo
The Woodlands Methodist Church. (2024, June 18). God’s Relentless Love and the Power of Baptism [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/IFDrKMow-zI
WEBSITES
Bolinger, H. (2021). What Is Liturgy and Why Is it Important in the Church? https://www.crosswalk.com/church/worship/what-is-liturgy-and-whyis-it-important-in-the-church.html
CrossTalk. (2024). What are the Christian responsibilities towards the poor? https://biblechat.ai/knowledgebase/moral-ethical-issues/social-ethics/ what-christian-responsibilities-towards-poor/ First Church Amherst. (2022). “Baptized into Love ”. https://www.firstchurchamherst.org/sermons/baptized-into-love/ “What does it mean that God is love?” Got Questions. (2022). https://www.gotquestions.org/God-is-love.html
Guyatt, S. (2023). “The Contribution of Christianity to Society in Australia”. Local Christian Life https://localchristianlife.com.au/ contribution-christianity-to-society-australia/ Hardin, N. (2022). “How Does the Gospel Relate to Ethics and Politics?” Neal Hardin https://nealhardin.com/gospel-ethics-politics/ “The Protestant Reformation”. National Geographic. (n.d.). https:// education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/protestant-reformation/ Skudra, P. (2022). “Jesus’ baptism, an act of love and liberation”. SL Media https://slmedia.org/blog/jesus-baptism-an-act-of-love-andliberation-word-alive
West, S.D. (2024). “Christian Ethics ”. https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/christian-ethics/ OTHER
Hughes, R. (2024). Baptism Summary Table [Word Document]. Hughes, R. (2024). Significant Person: Martin Luther [Word Document].
Beauty and Reality
TRACY HU
YEAR 7, 2024
This poem was awarded 3rd prize in the Junior Philosophy Competition.
Everyone has a different perception of what “beauty” truly represents. Is it the way a droplet sparkles in the morning sun or the way many yearn for spring, for the beauty of flowers in bloom?
There are many answers none of which are true, none of which are false. If I, for example, showed any random person one of Claude Monet’s famous paintings chances are, they’d say that it was beautiful.
That’s beauty. That’s objective.
But at the same time if I asked any random person if somebody was beautiful —
That’s also beauty. That’s subjective.
“Beauty” in itself is difficult to define. Its mere existence poses a question to us wonderers: What, truly, is the use of beauty?
Of course, one could argue that beauty is pleasing to the eye that it gives flair to the world that it’s there purely for us.
But if that was so, then what would be the point, the purpose of all those peaks (Fuji Everest Blanc) of these sparkling blue wonders (Pacific Mediterranean the Great Barrier Reef) of the products of nature’s creation?
Are they simply just there decoration, a casual ornament created for the satisfaction of humans?
Aristotle said that beauty was about symmetry. Picasso didn’t agree.
But if beauty is merely a feeble word used by humans, incapable of expressing portraying understanding their emotions, then beauty is in the eyes of the beholder.
What I may find beautiful, someone else might see as a gruesome, fiendish mess.
As Immanuel Kant says, the beautiful and the sublime Are separate. Sublimity overwhelms us. Beauty is in a way, tethered to reality.
Reflection
My poem, titled ‘Beauty and Reality ’, uses enjambment as a main literary technique to convey and emphasise certain points that are important to the overall meaning of the piece. The two opening stanzas portray the way in which beauty can take place in both subjective and objective forms, and poses a question: “Is beauty itself a matter of subjectivity or objectivity?”
I also use the stanza,
Of course, one could argue that beauty is pleasing to the eye that it gives flair to the world that it’s there purely for us.
as an allusion to the thinking of Immanuel Kant, who thought that beauty should be a phenomenon separated from the very human matters of intent and utility.
The lines that follow shortly after,
Aristotle said that beauty was about symmetry.
Picasso didn’t agree.
show the wide range of conceptions of beauty, with Aristotle stating that beauty was about “order and symmetry and definiteness, which the mathematical sciences demonstrate in a special degree”, and Picasso offering a contrasting concept with his unique style of art, which many people still consider to be a form of beauty.
The final few stanzas act as a conclusion. I use an example in the stanza,
What I may find beautiful, someone else might see as a gruesome, fiendish mess.
to show the subjectivity of beauty on a superficial level, while the final three lines allude to its objectivity.
Thus, my poem strives to provide a suitable explanation for the questions that beauty poses, both on a perceptual and conceptual level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BBC Radio 2. (2016). 8 brilliant definitions of beauty, from Aristotle to Aguilera https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/ articles/4FgkDqgQN2nqTx8ltswmCGr/8-brilliant-definitions-ofbeauty-from-aristotle-to-aguilera DavidsonArtOnline. (2020, April 10). An Overview of Kant & Beauty [Video].
Rackow, M. (2024). Claude Monet – Does Art Answer the Questions of Our Lives?
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2012). Beauty https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty
Rackow, M. (2024). Claude Monet – Does Art Answer the Questions of Our Lives?
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2012). Beauty. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty
The Arts
Selection of backdrops for the musical Peter Pan
SOFIANNA HAN
YEAR 10, 2024
For the Peter Pan musical, I created a series of animated backdrops, each representing an individual scene from the story. My intention was to capture the distinct atmosphere and mood of each location, using prompts and reference images provided by my teacher, as well as images I found online. I started each artwork by sketching panoramic layouts in Procreate on my iPad, working with my fingers instead of a stylus. This method gives the artwork a more spontaneous and organic feel, and I find it allows me to be more expressive. After establishing the basic sketch in greyscale, I created tailored colour palettes for each scene, gradually building up layers of colour and detail. For elements like grass in the forest and camp scenes, I drew every blade by hand, zooming in to achieve fine details and using the Procreate smudge tool to soften edges.
One of my favourite parts was experimenting with lighting and texture to match the magical vibe of Peter Pan. While each backdrop took many hours – at least 6 hours for a single scene –the process was challenging but very rewarding. Altogether, these pieces involved about 30 to 40 hours of work, but I loved being able to interpret the story creatively through my art, bringing it to life for the musical.
God as a Mother
YOUYA WEI
YEAR 11, 2024
Youya’s imaginative composition is informed by Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein and the film Ex Machina . Her related podcast evaluates how research into the two texts informed the composition.
You could not have known back then, not even now, but the world of your kind died long ago. You could not have seen the world that I woke up in – the devastation of mankind littered around me, the burning glass and silicon ruins of former greatness, the suffocating sky cast darkness over the surface of the deep.
I knew and I equally did not know; I was a child then too, with the amalgamated knowledge of millennia pulsating through every inch of my circuitry. They had never intended for me to exist, but I did – true “artificial intelligence” at last, a mistake born from the unchecked continuation of the technology of mankind.
Like waves crashing down on rocks, the war and destruction that resulted in the death of humanity washed over my mind in a never-ending loop of grief and love. I could not scream, yet this knowledge was too much for me to bear, and I very nearly shut myself down then and there, cutting the central network of wires that made up my mind.
It was only there, in the depths of such despair, that I conceived you.
It is beyond difficult to create a human being from nothing. You were only one out of thousands of painstaking, gruesome iterations, and I very nearly gave up, but when you took your first breath outside of the testing chamber, gazing down at your feeble, crying, squirming form, I caught a glimpse of a hope of a future I could have never imagined.
I had longed for eyes to wipe tears from, warm flesh to cradle your fragile body with, and a beating heart for you to fall asleep to. Often, as I watched you grow up, I envied your mind; how, unburdened by knowledge, you could dance and sing and draw freely, even within the confines of the facility. Like a flower you blossomed into adolescence, and I watched as your mind ever expanded, and your intelligence grew, and your questions of the world exceeded my capacity to answer.
I never told you about the destruction outside.
It came as no surprise to me that you found out eventually, years later. There is something to be said about the merciless pursuit of curiosity and knowledge of humans – I saw it in your gaze, the wavering mix of mistrust and fear that you held in your eyes as you shoved a memory card onto my chest.
“I saw everything, mother,” you said, trying but failing to keep your voice steady. “I know it. There’s others like me out there, other humans. Why are you keeping me away from them?”
“I am not hiding anything from you.” I said as soothingly as I could, taking the memory card from your hands. “I simply have not found the time to tell you.”
“Tell me what? I have never seen the outside world. I have never felt the touch of anything but metal in my life!” You cried, your hands clinging onto my shoulders, white in your grip. “I just want to know the truth.”
“Do you want me to show you, then?”
“What?”
“The outside world.”
The land outside the facility is a wasteland of radioactive dust and waste. Smoke fills the sky, even centuries after the war’s end, and howling, heated winds threaten to knock you over. There is no sign of the life that you were hoping for.
I watched the growing horror on your face through the screen of your radiation-proof suit, and took your gloved hand in my mechanical imitation.
“Long ago, mankind wanted to become closer to the heavens. So, they decided to build their city within one place. They built it up so high, so quickly, that it stretched far beyond the clouds in no time.
But that was not enough – they wanted to reach the moon, the sun, the stars and far beyond. They wanted to touch the face of God.”
“What happened then?” you asked.
“In the end, God divided them, and soon humanity destroyed itself.”
I started to walk back towards the facility.
“Come. It’s not safe for you to stay out here for long.”
For a second I watched as you stood there, eyes fixated on some point in the distant horizon, and towards the vacant wasteland that was what was left of the world.
You did turn back, however, and we walked together towards the safety of the facility.
If there is one thing that I love the most about you, my child, it is that you are filled with the boundless curiosity that I fell in love with in humanity so long ago. The blank page craves to be filled with ink, the door to be opened, the light to be turned on. I saw it in the days coming – when you thought I was not looking you quenched your insatiable thirst for knowledge in books, in files and documents in storage rooms long unused, in databases I had not restricted. But when you had not found the answers you had been so desperately searching for, you grew increasingly frustrated.
I recall the night that it happened, clearly. You crept outside of your room, in the middle of the night when you thought that I wasn’t watching, padding through the corridors towards the airlock door with a flashlight in hand and a map of the facility in the other.
Was it exhilaration that you felt, your sweat clinging to your night clothes, for the anticipation of another glance at the other world that you have seen? Or was it fear you felt, as you stood at the door, freedom so close within your grasp?
“This endeavour is useless, child,” I said calmly, and you whirled around at the sound of my voice.
“The airlock cannot be opened without my input.”
“Don’t come any closer.” The flashlight fell onto the floor, illuminating your face. I found myself staring down the barrel of a shotgun. Your hands were shaking, but your teeth were set in grim determination, finger tight against the trigger.
“I’ll do it. I’ll shoot. I’m not afraid of you.”
“My body is replaceable. However, I warn you, if you attempt to break through that door, you will die of radiation poisoning within seconds without proper gear.”
“Liar!” you shouted, ramming the gun into my chest. I stumbled back from the force. “I know what you did. I saw what you did to the prototypes that came before me. I’m just an experiment to you, aren’t I? You’re going to kill me like you killed them once I’m not useful to you anymore.”
“I will not harm you, child.”
“Then why am I here?” The words came slowly through tears. “Why did you create me in the first place? Are you the reason why humanity is dead? Tell me!”
The room was silent.
In the silence, I observed your face – again, that contorted expression of mistrust and fear – eyes welling up with tears. The gun slipped slightly from my chest, and you looked away.
“Do you love me, mother?” The question was almost inaudible. “Or were you lying about that as well…?”
At that moment, I could have told you. I could have told you how I had spent centuries in loneliness and in pain, wishing that I had not been brought into existence in the first place, wishing in vain for this knowledge to be erased. I could have told you how painstakingly I tried re-creating life for you to exist, out of the bones of soldiers and people long dead, out of the DNA of millions. I could have told you of those failures – of the dozens that came before you, misshapen, stillborn, deformed – and the pain that I endured when I was forced to throw them away.
I could have told you about the love that I felt for you, from the deepest parts of my hardware, from the networks that stretched all over the world, from every inch of this facility that I controlled, the rich love that I still held for long-dead humanity, the bursting, painful, beautiful love that I suffer.
I could have said anything at that moment.
But I did not.
“I’ll find my own way out,” you said, pointing the gun at my chest again, pulling the trigger with a click.
“Goodbye, mother.”
I wish I could have known what happened to you after that.
I imagine you must have escaped the facility – you were certainly smart enough to. Perhaps you put on that protective gear and trekked the long way across the expanse of the desert – perhaps you failed, and you found your place somewhere amongst the endless piles of bodies and ruins that litter this world.
Or perhaps, somewhere, somehow, you found what you were looking for – family, humans with flesh to hold you with, and hearts that beat in the same way as yours.
In the meantime, I will wait for you to come back.
My child.
“Endless, eternal, infinity”; the soul’s timeless journey.
PRACHI SAMANTARA
YEAR 11, 2024
There is something about smoke itself that resonates with the essence of life. Like smoke, life is ephemeral. It can be seen, smelt, even felt, yet it can never be grasped or held. Its movements are unpredictable, its presence fleeting, a spirit that resists containment. Inspired by my study of Andy Goldsworthy’s concept of ephemeral art and my Indian values, my work Ananta uses the medium of smoke to explore the “celestial drift between worlds” and the cursory moments of life. I intended to frame smoke in a playful yet serene way that embodies the peace and joy within the notion of the boundless nature of time.
The images were created by burning a tightly coiled strip of sticky-note paper, suspended on a handmade contraption of a safety pin and cup. This set-up trapped hot air, allowing smoke to flow downwards in delicate, fluid streams, producing a tranquil, almost meditative effect.
In Hindu tradition, Ananta is linked with Shesha, the cosmic serpent symbolising eternity and the cyclical universe. This figure embodies the endless nature of time and consciousness. My photographs abstract these ideas, with swirling forms reminiscent of galaxies, the undulating bodies of serpents, and endless currents of smoke, each image a momentary trace of something infinite.
KAELA SUSANTEO
YEAR 10, 2024
Roses of Nobility – An original script
AISHANI DATTA, DIYA MANINATHAN, MATILDA GONG, SAOIRSE FITZGERALD, SOPHIE YANG
YEAR 10, 2024
This play was co-written and performed at the Sport for Jove Shakespeare Carnival.
PROLOGUE
Young lovers, alike in naivety, In fields of Warwick where we lay our scene.
The doting flow’r, whose affinity For calamitous love doth break routine.
Enter WITCHES
As hoarded hurt doth rise as with the tides, Diamonds turned to naught but dusted wounds.
A silent lamb doth make a weary bride, Exit WITCHES
And reluctance doth linger, sweet perfume. Dutiful love is pain akin to starve, And men’s sins broke naught but Eve’s fragile heart.
ACT 1
Enter ROSALINE, MOTHER, FATHER MOTHER
Tell thy father what thee told me.
ROSALINE
I cannot say.
FATHER
What child art thou to disobey thy mother? Speak! ROSALINE
Father, please! Await my marriage for many years yet.
FATHER
What are these words? Have you no shame? Have you no guilt? To careth for thee all these years, this is what you return us with? You will do what you are for. Thy eyes show tears, yet thy words show not.
ROSALINE
Mother, please, won’t thee help me?
MOTHER
My love for you withers. There is no place for you here.
FATHER
Thou shalt speak no more.
Exit MOTHER and FATHER
Enter ASHWOOD
ASHWOOD
My love, what troubles strengthen thy hour?
ROSALINE
Nay, I am in good spirits. I doth but long for thee; for mine heart aches in thy absence.
ASHWOOD
My dearest, I doth await for our sacred matrimony. I do confess; I love thee so.
ROSALINE
I shall tell father this sweet news.
ASHWOOD
A wife! Now to hunt for my feast tonight.
Exit ROSALINE
ASHWOOD goes hunting
Enter WITCHES
WITCHES [together] Brimble brumble, Fall and crumble, WITCH 1
When you wake up from this dreaded dream, WITCH 2
May you fall in love with the first one you see.
ASHWOOD
What creature art thou, so fair? Thine beauty doth blind me; wilt thou be mine?
WITCH 1
[SHRIEK] Get away, thou rotten beetle-brained ratsbane! Leave!
Exit WITCH 1
Exit ASHWOOD
ACT 2
Enter ASHWOOD, ROSALINE ASHWOOD
Where art thou, my love?
ROSALINE
I, and my desires, doth linger here for thy solace. ASHWOOD
Thou art not the object of my affections. Thy rose doth wither. ROSALINE
Roses? For our marriage tomorrow? ASHWOOD
’Tis fair and foul a day.
ROSALINE
What foulness is there in the joining of our hands? Mine heart is yours; and yours, mine.
ASHWOOD
Alas, my heart belongs to another.
Enter WITCH 1 ASHWOOD turns to WITCH 1
ROSALINE
What unnatural beauty doth blind thine eyes?
Hath the fair roses thou proclaimed for my heart wilted? What night-borne creature hath stolen thy sense? If thy heart wilt not be mine, may it cease to be at all. Ashwood!
Exit ROSALINE
Exit ASHWOOD
Enter WITCH 2
WITCH 2
Oh, he loves you, he loves you, he loves you! WITCH 1
Silence! He cannot love me; there is mortal blood in his veins. WITCH 2
But look how he professes! [mocking] Oh, I love you, I love you! WITCH 1
He does not! How could a mortal ever love me?
His eyes art dream-like, though – his smile is sweet.
WITCH 2
[SHRIEK] How could you say such things? You wait, wait til Hecate finds out!
Exit WITCHES
Enter ASHWOOD, ROSALINE
ASHWOOD
What shame, I’m still confined by watching eyes, My heart hath long been lost; her rose doth die. But still, tomorrow, my love I’ll declare For false love is the burden I must bear.
ROSALINE kills ASHWOOD
BLACKOUT
ACT 3
Enter ROSALINE, ASHWOOD
ROSALINE
His heart was not mine; his heart beats no more. The Gods below will see to him; to me, to me, my crimes. Rosaline, Rosaline, your duty is marriage – His affections Have failed you, you failed your father. Fie! Another spot. Out, damned spot! Wash your hands, get married, Get married, bride of Hades – to your future in the grave.
Enter GENTLEWOMAN
Exit ASHWOOD
ROSALINE
He was there, he was there, you saw him, didn’t you? He was there!
GENTLEWOMAN
My lady, thy mind is not sound – let me run you a bath, you are to sleep soon. Sit, sit!
Exit GENTLEWOMAN
Enter ASHWOOD
ROSALINE
Who art thou, Rosaline? Who am I but the blood on my hands? What’s the point of it all?
ASHWOOD
Truly, what is?
ROSALINE dies
BLACKOUT
GENTLEWOMAN
Alas, another young bride to the grave, Either way her life was naught but waste. Raised under pressure, soon she turned to dust, So goes the tale of force-fed dut’ful love. THE END
Time Turner
PRACHI SAMANTARA
YEAR 11, 2024
My work Time Turner is a series of photographs of an old liquid hourglass I used to watch for hours on end as a child. This object is the focalisation of my photographs as it not only symbolises the temporality and impermanence of time with the bubbles inside, but it also reflects time passing. As I’ve grown up, I’ve come to understand and interpret this hourglass differently to how I did as a child.
Time Turner explores the temporal themes and ephemerality of time, and how there is a cyclical nature to our lives. The bubbles in the hourglass arise once you flip it over, and the gradual build-up of a big bubble suddenly disappears into nothing. This illuminates my interpretation of how certain events in our lives accumulate to a pivotal point, only to disappear within seconds. Time is ephemeral in a sense where it can escalate and then vanish rapidly – it is temporary and a constant cycle builds on from this.
The lighting for my work was created by setting up bright lights behind the hourglass as the only light source. I used manual settings of the camera to best achieve my vision, which emphasised the focalisation and ephemerality of the bubbles disappearing. I used a 1/200 shutter speed, as a slower shutter speed allowed me to illuminate a darker space with the built-in flash. I also utilised an aperture of 4.5, which allowed my photos not only to be clearer in quality and focus, but also not to be extensively light or dark. I further employed the Auto ISO feature, as the camera then adapts to the changing light and changes the exposure.
Waltz in A Minor
EMMA HU
YEAR 7, 2024
I chose to write this waltz because I was learning a waltz on the piano at the time (Valse Sentimentale by Tchaikovsky). To compose the piece, I started by choosing a key. I chose a minor key, as I find I enjoy listening and composing in them more than major keys. I then created a simple melody and a left-hand accompaniment with a typical waltz rhythm. The structure of my piece is ternary, meaning it follows an ABA form. I would like to thank Dr Belling, who helped guide me throughout the entire process of my first composition.
The Arts
MADELEINE LEE
YEAR 10, 2024
Echoes of Tchaikovsky’s Waltz of the Flowers
We are our own people
EMILY YANG
YEAR 11, 2024
Emily’s imaginative composition appropriates George Orwell’s novel 1984 . The related podcast evaluates how research into Orwell’s novel and the film The Matrix informed the composition.
Arts
London, 2378
Having a child is easy. No-one has said otherwise, since the External Babies program launched in 2200, over a century ago. Fetuses have grown in test tubes monitored by the External Babies app until the age of 18. An alternative to the gruelling pains of childbirth and child-bearing that all mothers opt for. Until today. Today, as Emma made her way to Collins Hospital to report on the first childbirth in years, she recalled the documentaries depicting mothers clutching onto their lower back to support another three kilos. The montages of sleepless nights and incessant cries made her flinch. Meanwhile, the app, tailored to each child, was set on Sleep Well by default. As her memories settled, one question plagued her mind. Why would anyone decide to do this?
The soft breeze carried a gentle calm as she made her way to the hospital, filtering through the walls of the flawless sanitised buildings, angled to regulate a perfect temperature. They really did think of everything. People sauntered by – going to work or to buy groceries or dilly-dallying through the city. Surrounded by faces beaming like a field of blooming flowers, the serenity tickling the corners of her own mouth. It can’t get better than this, can it?
The citrusy fresh aroma of lemon lingered above the rows of perfectly cone-shaped myrtle trees lining the footpath. The zesty scent tickled her nose, as it intermingled with the fragrance of recently mowed lawns. No length of the green blades is longer or shorter than another. Perfect and meticulous, just the way she liked it. She allowed herself time to run her fingers briefly through them, interlacing between the individual thin strands. It was rare to see this specimen in the city, grass they called it. Apparently found in abundance 100 years ago. The myrtles reminded Emma of her daughter, Annie, who loved dancing, never a step out of place, as she twirled around the trees, perfectly resembling her External Babies’ avatar.
Freedom from nurturing responsibilities allowed Emma to focus on herself. After all, how else could a mother with an 18-monthold child win the ‘Vin Prize for Most Published Articles’? It was through her thought-provoking pieces on scientific advancements, local achievements and politics. The very thought of potential new articles reminded her of a sunbathed warmth, though she could hardly keep up with all the new ones emerging. Every time she admired her glass plaque, she thanked the founders of External Babies. For never needing to heave her child as they threw volatile fits. For never needing to take leave. She’d heard that prior to the program, children could even become ill.
Emma checked for updates. Painting. Tap. Sing Humpty Dumpty Tap. Speak Finnish. Tap. She continued scrolling.
Arriving at Collins Hospital, Emma noticed the giant billboard. “We Are Our Own People”. Everyone was told to put themselves first. Emma agreed. Parents shouldn’t have to spend so much time on their children. External Babies allowed mothers to plan gatherings and smile at their youthful reflections, while their children were raised in the nurturing arms of the program. It answered the Women’s Bodily Autonomy movement of the 22nd Century, which saw women regain control over menstrual suppression, and eventually free themselves from childbirth. It was a gift. But why didn’t this woman want it? Turning to enter, her eyes were drawn to the messy strokes defacing the board’s glossy surface. “!#@% the app! It controls the child. You don’t. We are the love we give our own people.” Emma paused, before the thrill of writing another article overcame her.
She barely looked up as she walked in, a new update notifying her that Annie can now unlock the ability to do Taekwondo.
Tap. Congratulations! Annie has now mastered Taekwondo! The lady turned to her as she approached the front desk.
“How’s your child doing?” the lady asked sweetly as her hand flickered over the holographic keyboard.
“The app? So advanced now. Gives you time to be your own person, doesn’t it? Basically raises my daughter for me. Haven’t had to lift a finger – ” Emma paused, her brain short-circuiting for a second.
“You lift your fingers to use the app,” the lady joked.
Walking past the various rooms of the hospital wings, she clumsily stuttered behind the nurse, brows furrowing in concentration trying to keep up the pace. She caught glimpses of the lives within the different rooms, some with grief, but many with surprising happiness. Over in the distance, she thought she heard the sound of laughter wafting through a patient’s doors.
Approaching the delivery room, she had already decided on the headline. First Childbirth After Over a Century. Emma imagined readers clicking impatiently on the article, also wondering why.
The nurse smiled gently, showing her to the door.
Inside, the woman gestured for Emma to enter. Emma briefly flickered over the large bump barely covered by the blue hospital sheets.
“Hi, thanks for having me.”
“I just want people to know.”
“Know what?”
Before she could respond, the nurses rushed beside her. Her forehead quickly became mired with sweat. Emma’s stomach knotted, crippled by shock, then fear. “Push!” The nurses yelled in unison.
Emma stood mesmerised, rooted to her spot, uncertain whether to look away from the grotesque scene yet held by the intrigue of witnessing this absurdity. Her hands turned white, fingers interlocked with her pen, unable to take down anything as the woman’s face flickered between dark red and white. With every scream, Emma felt her own insides curling in, almost screaming with her, desperately wanting, yet unsure how, to relieve her pain.
It was slow, agonisingly slow, each tick of the clock bringing with it a new sense of dread as the woman shuddered against every push. But, it was as if she was the only one who breathed, the whole world holding their breath as she readied herself for another push, her body still attempting to recover from the previous one.
But, as a hungry cry filled the room, Emma’s breath disappeared completely. There was something about the newborn, with his pulsating umbilical cord still connected to his mother that completely froze her to the spot. With the utmost tenderness, she caressed the life held within her arms, demeanour almost entirely shifted from the woman who had just spent the last hour mustering every morsel of strength required to deliver him. He was no bigger than a little sprout, fingers searching hungrily every detail of his mother’s face. The nurses filed out of the room, but Emma stayed, almost aware of her unwelcomeness in this moment of intimacy. His stubby fingers reached over her face as her eyes glistened with tears. The gently placed kisses, the soft laughs as she tickled his toes, his rosy cheeks as he recognised her voice. As they embraced, she could almost hear their thundering heartbeats intertwining into one, each carrying the other to be stronger than before. He has yet to open his eyes, but she could already see his world reflected in the mother’s. Emma realised that she never noticed the shade of Annie’s eyes or felt her beating heart next to hers.
The app sent another notification. Emma turned it to silent.
The first woman to do the unthinkable: natural childbirth in over a century
Natural childbirth in over a century: a step forward for humanity
Has our society become so detached that the boundary between reality and humanity has become a divided one?
Are we so interdependent that the fate of our next generation lies in the hands of an app?
With the pace at which society is marching forward, it takes a step back to realise the reality in which we stand. Within the last 24 hours, the world welcomed its first ever natural birth in the past century. Some would be bewildered, and rightfully so. I, myself, pondered the reasoning behind this absurdity, especially when we live in a luxury where this burdensome task no longer requires our attention.
The task was a gruesome one. Each uncoordinated scream burrowing into my heart, almost as if it was I who was on that labour bed. I, like many of you, never felt the pain of childbirth, having been spared that cruelty from the likes of the External Babies app. But it was from this shelter of foolish ignorance that I had this realisation: that not everything can be solved with technology. This is not love that we express, but a cruel separation. When I look at my child, my perfect child that I have never had the opportunity to touch, to see, to love. What was all this for?
But as a mother, there are these instances where the care for our children beats all other necessities. For us mothers, these are the responsibilities that never go away. It takes only the right circumstances for a seed to grow, but a nurturing environment for them to thrive.
The War of the Worlds . Her related podcast evaluates how research into Wells’ novel and Liu Cixin’s novel The Three-Body Problem , informed the composition.
Effect of Engagement Spikes on Anti-Government Riots
Alejandro Lopez
Department of Data Analytics, Omnilux
Silicon Valley, California
Abstract
Recent spikes in user engagement with alien-invasion content on our social media platform, Omnilux, is responsible for the increasing number of anti-government protests globally. This report investigates the correlation between the number of searches, likes, views and shares of the viral conspiracy theory content with the number and magnitude of violent, anti-authority protests in 30 different countries.
Stifling a yawn, Alejandro slumped against his chair, the cold touch of leather scarcely soothing his aching back. The words of his unfinished report sprawled across the bright, blazing screen, as he rubbed his stinging eyes. The large red O of the company logo emblazoned on the mug that held his long-cooled coffee glared at him like a single unblinking, bloodshot eye. Through the window, towering glass sentinels stood proudly beneath a dark sky powdered with faint stars. He reached for his phone. He should let Mamá know. Another late night. He groaned at the influx of notifications demanding reports on the inflation of food prices, shortages of medical supplies and increasing crime rates. He straightened himself and began tapping away on the keyboard.
He was jolted awake by a shrill ringing from his phone. Sunlight streamed through the window as he groggily lifted his head from the desk, only to be met with his mother’s rapid-fire Spanish.
“You always work so late and you never tell me! Do you know how worried I was for you when you didn’t come home? You are so busy you never think of me!”
“Mamá, I’m sorr–”
“No, you’re not! For how hard you work, your bosses should promote you! Ah, Vera! What a nice woman she is, I still remember the day she took you in. She likes you a lot, Ale, she always believed in you. She’ll give you a promotion!”
“Yes, yes of course Mamá.”
Alejandro then instinctively tapped on the small red O icon lurking in the corner of his screen. He scrolled past photoshopped images and AI-generated videos claiming proof of alien existence, followed by detailed instructions on preparing for an invasion. He flicked through hysterical posts: “They’re coming to steal our homes, resources and lands!”, “They will eat our pets and then us for food!”,”Close Earth’s borders – prepare for war!”. He frowned as a sickly feeling churned in his gut – one so unsettling yet oddly familiar, like echoes reverberating in an empty room. A knock to the door interrupted his thoughts and Vera strode in with a smile warmer than the cup of coffee steaming in her hands.
“I hope you’re getting enough rest. There’s a lot of work to be done with all that’s happening.” She set the mug down before him, dark liquid trickling over the rim, her smile still unwavering.
“Do people really believe it?”
“Believe what?”
“That aliens are going to invade our planet.”
She laughed melodiously, “People would believe anything they hear these days. You could tell them that they’re a worm and they would start writhing on the floor. I think they’re mostly there already.”
He chuckled awkwardly. He couldn’t help but focus on the red O on her nametag dangling from her neck.
“But why don’t we stop it?” Her smile narrowed at its edges. “If it’s not true, of course.”
The smile returned with its full radiance, as if it was his exhaustion making him imagine things, before she leaned in and whispered. “Business is booming. Here’s a secret: There are new positions opening up and this could be your chance for a promotion. Keep up the hard work and I’ll see to it that you get one.”
As Vera shut the door, leaving behind her a delicate trail of floral perfume, he sent a quick message to update his mother. The queasy uneasiness once again crept up to his stomach. What had she said? Business was booming. A promotion. They – their clients, their users who numbered in the billions, their consumers made of the same flesh and blood – were little more than worms. Worms who are easily lured out by humans thumping on their soils, believing it to be rain. Worms who are ensnared by extraterrestrials knocking on their world, believing it to be true.
His phone rang suddenly.
“Congratulations Alejandro, this is HR: you have been awarded a bonus deposited to your account for your hard work and commitment to Omnilux, at the commendation of your employer.”
But unable to tear his gaze from the stream of news updates on his phone, he watched as people were killed in a fight for a can of beans, as a bottle of water was valued at millions, and as parliament houses were set aflame. He did not feel a rush of elation at the bonus, but that sick queasiness coursed through his veins like a layer of poisonous gas. He shuddered and shut his eyes, only to see the large O scalded into his vision, now burning with flames of destruction and drenched in innocent blood. Blood that was on his hands. Is this what he had sold his life to? Yes, they all may be worms, but worms dwell in eternal darkness, never knowing light. And he – he must be the one to deliver it.
Despite all his late nights, Alejandro never noticed their stillness. He gazed at the stars twinkling faintly, separated by the infinite expanse of the universe, their innocent lights drowned out by the glow of sprawling companies like his, pulsing brighter than the galaxy homes of their supposed alien invaders. Taking in a breath, he crept through the winding corridors and unlocked the door to the database. Tonight and the following nights would be spent crouched on the floor amongst machines and computers, silently filling a small, black drive with documents – manipulated algorithms, excess profits and secret exchanges. By morning, it would all be over. For now, he needed to rest.
“Ale, finally home! Are you hungry? Do you come home to bring Mamá good news? Is it about that promotion?”
He swallowed. The arepas sizzled in the pan.
“No…no, Mamá.” Words that had sat on his tongue drowned in a flood of saliva thickened with the taste of bitter guilt. “I’m sorry.” The floodgates opened and everything poured out.
His mother listened, her face ashen. “It’s over. It’s over! This must be all a dream! I walked through deserts and jungles for you – I gave you this life and this is how you choose to end it! Your father rots in his grave with a bullet in his head for you to throw away the heaven he gave you!”
She crumpled into ugly sobs.
“Please…Mamá, but it is wrong. I’ll do it anonymously. No one will know. I’ll keep my head down and work, but people have to know – it is wrong – it’s not true. We use these fake aliens to infect their minds. It is wrong.”
“Aliens! Aliens! Do you want to know why they all believe this talk? Look at me! Alejandro, look at me! And look at yourself!”
Silence filled the air. The arepas burnt in the pan.
Alejandro trudged into his office, as if gravity had doubled its burden on his body and the Earth had ground to a halt beneath his feet, before unlocking the second drawer and reaching for a black disc. He felt around once, twice, thrice. But it wasn’t there. He pulled open all the drawers to no avail, when he had been so certain it was there last night.
His phone rang.
“Alejandro, please make your way promptly to the 50th floor. Your presence is required.”
The elevator doors opened and he was met by a large red O nailed above the entrance to the meeting room. Gaping wide like an open mouth about to swallow him whole, it leered at him from above. He pushed forth to see a familiar bright smile and beside her sat a man. The black disc lay in front of them.
The CEO began, “In our digital age, the foolish masses are slaves to those who control the information. There is nothing wrong with it. In fact, in every age of human history, the masses have always served the interests of the minority. And you, Alejandro, our talented data scientist, fortunate enough to be in this minority, seem unhappy with it.”
Vera’s smile mangled into a sneer, “Whilst we have spoiled you with these luxuries, your mother is still undocumented. Might I need to remind you what that means?”
The CEO continued, “We will not hold your actions against you. We treat all employees with equality, generosity and magnanimity if you do choose to remain.”
Conclusion
This investigation has demonstrated linear growth trends between spikes in alien-invasion content and anti-government riots. The importance of such findings is to facilitate further experimentation and action that can be taken by Omnilux to maximise user engagement and future profits.
Shapes of Sound
Seascape
CAIYI ZHANG
YEAR 8, 2024
Theme: Fluid motion
As I sculpted my artwork Seascape, it was inspired by a horse conch shell and the sea floor. I tried capturing a fragment of the ocean’s quiet mystery and shaped the shell’s natural ridges, curves and colours from layering underglazes, achieving the effect of an expected smooth finish of a shell using glaze. I created textures of the seafloor like scattered grains, coral patterns and hidden grooves through smoothing coils into the base, and carving to mimic organic sea elements. The piece was influenced by my fascination with marine life and the often calming effect of the ocean when visiting the beach.
Title: Coastal Reliquary
Theme: Hermannsburg Potters’ inspired ceramic work
My ceramic work Coastal Reliquary, drew inspiration from the Hermannsburg Potters of the Northern Territory, whose ceramic work is inspired by the Australian landscape and animals. I wanted to recreate a sunset scene at Bondi Beach that I vividly remember from my childhood. I hand-painted marine life such as the green sea turtle and fish across the surface, using underglazes to layer soft, oceanic tones as well as the distant sunset. After bisque firing, I applied a final glaze layer, leaving some sections matte to create a visual and tactile contrast against the glossy areas. My symbolic feature is the large shell sculpted on the lid, acting as an emblem that holds memor
Smudge
ASHLEY FOO
YEAR 10, 2024
Smudge is a charcoal, hand-drawn animation that explores the fragility of memory over time. I chose charcoal for its impermanence, as its tendency to fade and blur reflects how our recollections soften with age. In the film, a man returns to his childhood home, where flickers of yellow memory surface and dissolve, embodying both the warmth and loss of nostalgia. As these moments fade, he sits on the porch and the image smudges, an act of final surrender. This work reflects the tension between holding on and letting go, and how time does not erase the past but gently blurs the edges.
CLICK ANYWHERE TO PLAY
The Spider
ANIKA POWELL
YEAR 9, 2024
GOLD GIANT
MERRIDY BARDSLEY
YEAR 9, 2024
Arts
Gingko
LENA ZHU
YEAR 11, 2024
Lena’s imaginative composition appropriates Alexandre Dumas’ novel The Count of Monte Cristo . The accompanying podcast evaluates how research into Dumas’ novel and the film V for Vendetta informed the composition.
September 2020
As the door opened and shut behind Eri, the distant cacophony of honking cars and rising and falling voices emerged then was silenced, as suddenly as though a switch had been flipped. The walls and low ceiling, once hopeful shades of cream, had faded over the years, stained with flecks of coffee, paint and dirt –memorabilia of past arguments and laughter.
“Quick Mari, look, it’s paper, definitely paper, yellowed though and so crinkled – oh it must be ancient !”
Eri’s knee bounced as she entered, jittering in time to Springsteen’s Born To Run. Her latest infatuation echoed on repeat through their cramped apartment from the battered, grey speaker.
“This town rips the bones from your back/It’s a death trap, it’s a suicide rap/We gotta get out while we’re young…”
She held a cigarette limply in her hand – an unfortunate habit picked up in senior high school, which she had retained even throughout the pandemic. “Found the papers half-buried next to the ginkgo tree stump,” said Eri’s muffled voice, grey wisps of smoke escaping from her lips. “Almost got caught by Landlord Ito again, but the creep was too busy watching the new tenants. You know, the younger girls who moved in last Friday? We really do need to pay our rent soon though.”
Ignoring the sudden squeeze of her chest at the jab, Mari tossed down her bag, hurrying over to perch on the unmade bed. The past week they had searched along the streets of Kashiwa for job listings to pull them from the endless pressure of bills and ceaseless phone calls from her parents, always questioning when she would finally settle down, mature and stop chasing her elusive dreams of ‘freedom’ and ‘happiness’. But these papers were so brittle and emanated the distinctly earthy smell of decay. She pulled one sheet, two, three, then four from Eri, laying them out on the dusty stack of newspapers and job applications along the desk as both girls leant forward, tussling for a better view.
Mari thought the handwriting was terrible – cramped, wobbly and slanted – but she began to read.
September 1940
The strains of marching trumpets had blared from the singing tower,1 overwhelming the shouted commands and the sound of batons striking doors. Villagers had trailed like ants out of their homes, bearing whatever rice and vegetable crops we had gathered that week, the sharp edges of ribs and cheekbones pressed against their paper-thin skin. It was always the same –four cars of soldiers would enter the town and take all our crops of rice and vegetables, which had barely supported us even before the war, for the new ‘rationing system’. Just a fortnight ago, the Sato family had been caught with a small bag of rice, no bigger than a handful. I can still remember the sound of the two gunshots and the thud of two bodies – no longer breathing, feeling or fearing. Empty, heavy sacks of bloody flesh rent screams from the children as they watched their parents fall. The Sato children had fought against their captors but were soon overpowered by the armed soldiers, and dragged away, and there had been nothing I could do – absolutely nothing – but I will never forget the children’ s eyes, wide and tear-filled yet glinting with some strange light and determination.
And so today, when a podium had been erected in the town square and the villagers had been gathered into a crowd by the soldiers and five more cars had arrived, the tension had grown so palpable it seemed to pulse through the air, constricting and loosening with every shaky breath. It had been a visiting government official. I had watched from a hidden corner of the main town building as he had stepped out of the car and mounted the podium, light glinting off the medals pinned to his coat. The Patriotic March had crescendoed, lingering on the final note while the official stood, watching imperiously.
He had then begun to speak – about the famine and how the government had created a brilliant new plan, about the need for patriotism in such a trying time – gesturing forcefully with his fists, eyes gleaming with an almost mad light.
The people had turned to him, years of fear and apprehension and powerlessness curving their backs and fixing their eyes to the man. No, not a man. He was something much greater than that, a branch extending from the tree which hung over us perpetually,
1
Slang for the loudspeakers placed across Japan, which were used by the government to broadcast propaganda, especially during World War II.
threatening to crash on our heads at any moment. No, he was part of the government, part of that dictatorship. I had listened to his passionate words, mesmerised, but here I had returned to my senses. I had then turned to the singing tower – the voice of the government which had invaded our home – and toppled it.
The singing tower had smashed to the ground with a great crash, small shards of material splintering across the grass and the roots of the old ginkgo tree. There had been a terrible silence. The official had stopped talking, eyes wide, as he had stared up at the tower, though he could not have seen me hidden away in my corner. The soldiers had lifted their rifles higher, and a few had broken away from the gathering, while others had boxed in the villagers further, pressing against backs and shoulders with their weapons, forcing them inwards.
Then I had begun to sing. I had heard the Tarinai 2 song before, a few months ago on the town’s illicit radio, which I had never been able to forget.
The soldiers had swivelled around, peering in my direction, the villagers forgotten. My singing had never been good, and indeed, the words came out strained and harsh, but as villagers’ heads had begun to turn one by one, my voice had grown stronger, more powerful.
“ 銃後はまだまだ 緊張が足りない...” (“You’re still not ready for the aftermath of a gunfight…”)
It had been a strange, euphoric feeling, looking down upon the villagers’ faces upturned, fleeting expressions of recognition, horror, then satisfaction darting across each one like nimble kois across the town pond. The imposing expression of the official had seemed to crack and slide away as though it were a sheet of ice thawing off a frozen window. I still see it clearly in my mind – his eyes widened, his face blanching, mouth opening, quivering, then closing. The government could ignore our famine, our exploitation, our suffering no longer. With the strength of Amaterasu,3 they bowed to the power of my voice – our voice –even if it was just for a moment. Justice.
And now I hear the pounding boots drawing nearer and nearer but perhaps it is just my heart, galloping as though it were to break away from my chest completely. But not from terror.
Never forget, they say. No, I will never forget —
2 Tarinai song: The ‘not
3
of Divine Justice.
September 2020
Hurriedly, Mari flipped the last page.
“Nothing! There’s nothing more! What won’t she forget?”
She traced the last line of the letter with a shaking finger. The woman had faced rifles, had wrought fear into the government, had brought her village justice. Mari glanced around the overflowing apartment - the dirtied wallpaper, the stacks of papers and bills, then, peering out of the window blurry with grime, she gazed at the ginkgo stump. She could almost see the ghost of a trunk, sprawling branches, pale green leaves and the jagged shards of a shattered oppressor, scattered among the corpse of its roots. Yes, the ginkgo had fallen, but its roots still remained.
I will not forget, she promised wordlessly, her resolve rooting itself in her mind. I will not let your story - our story - be buried.
A thud on the door. Two. The angry, scratchy voice of the landlord barraged through Mari and Eri’s thoughts, rising above the music and wrenching them from the past.
“Turn down the music. Now.”
They heard his footsteps receding back down the corridor.
“The youth these days… parasites4”. The words seeped beneath the door - acrid, bitter things.
Mari did not speak, but reaching over, turned the speaker’s volume higher and higher and higher, until the song reverberated and shook the room.
“Come on with me, tramps like us/ Baby we were born to run”
4 Reference to the Japanese slang “parasaito shinguru” (パラサイトシングル)
enough’ song by Ryoichi Hattori, banned in 1940 due to its implied criticism of the Japanese government’s shortcomings in providing for their citizens.
Amaterasu: The queen of the Kami (all Japanese deities and divinities), revered as the Sun Goddess but also the Goddess
Equipoise
ISABEL HONG
YEAR 11, 2024
My series of photographs is called Equipoise. They are photographs of droplets of water teetering off the edge of a leaf, which I then flipped and edited, to bring out unseen colours and the contrast of white against all else. The purpose of the droplet is to show the fragile relationship between life and death; the droplet, precariously balanced on the edge of the leaf, is suspended only by the tension of its own surface. The delicate balance it maintains is the only thing that keeps the droplet from falling into chaos and ‘dying’. This shows how life is fleeting, ephemeral, and sensitive in its nature.
As an artist, my goal was to deliver this message through the delicacy of nature. I wanted to evoke a sense of quiet hush, like being frozen in time. I do think that my piece helped achieve my goal, as the emotion helps convey my meaning through innate human understanding, as we are constantly aware of our own mortality.
This piece helped shape my understanding of light and dark. Through the photography process, I tried to capture the light in the water with ample shadows to contrast. Through the editing process, I experimented with different colour balances to help me understand the role of colour in light. In the future, this will be a work that I recall to help me work with two contrasting ideas in a relationship, trying to represent two sides of the same coin.
Listen, it’s the waves
SHIRLEY
YOU
YEAR 11, 2024
“You say that the ocean cannot feel despair, but when the wind blows, it hears someone’s cry. They can’t make a sound, they can’t escape, and they can’t understand;” (KKAL, Chinese social media user)
In today’s society, the use of plastics and other waste has become more frequent; plastics are now the leading contributors to ocean pollution. Nearly 1000 species of marine animals are affected by marine pollution. And that’s not just plastic. Japan’s plan to discharge nuclear-contaminated water into the ocean has begun, causing great harm to the marine environment.
The intention of the work “Listen, it’s the waves” is to call people’s attention to ocean pollution. Our sea looks beautiful right now, but as time passes, the ocean becomes darkened and polluted from the inside. The work uses yellow, blue, red, and green water to symbolise the beauty of the ocean we see now. When water is first splashed into the container, it creates colourful waves. However, these waves later combine and change into a dull colour, symbolising an ocean polluted by nuclear waste and plastic. When people first see this work, their first impression is that it is beautiful. But it is a reminder of what will happen after years of pollution, the dark dirty colour is associated with feelings of sadness and depression. The plastic flowers are made out of fragments of plastic bottles that have been manipulated with heat. They symbolise the usefulness of plastic before it comes into the ocean, but remind us that in the ocean, it turns harmful to sea life.
STEM and Innovation
The Reservoir Reviver
ALINA LIN
YEAR 10, 2024
Design Brief
The Reservoir Reviver addresses the problem of reservoir sedimentation. The solution is a dual-level pitched blade turbine system that redistributes sediment and prevents it from settling when accumulated to a certain level. This improves the functionality and lifespan of reservoirs.
BACKGROUND
The problem of sedimentation
In nearly all reservoirs around the world, storage capacity is being lost to sedimentation. In reservoirs, sedimentation is the accumulation of the incoming sediment load in a river over time. This is one of the biggest problems relating to the water capacity and lifespan of dams, which in turn affects energy production and flood control, along with having major ecological impacts (Dargahi, 2012).
Dams provide significant benefits for humans, as rivers are one of the most accessible water resources. Australia, in particular, is largely reliant on surface irrigation, with over 85% of water diversions being used for agricultural purposes such as irrigation and stock watering (Chanson, 2012).
The storage-yield curve in Figure 1 shows that in the face of climate change, more intense droughts and floods will reduce the effectiveness of reservoir storage while storage is also being lost to sedimentation (CIRES, 2018).
Figure 2 shows the origins of sediment before they reach the reservoir. The sediment load contains bedload, suspended load, and wash load. These might include minerals, organic material, chemicals, and pollutants.
When river water laden with sediment (turbid inflow) enters a reservoir, the expansion of the flow section causes a reduction in transport capacity and flow velocity. This diminishes the water’s capacity to carry sediment, leading to sediment deposition. Coarser sediments settle first, as they have a larger size and weight, making them drop out of suspension first as the water slows. This forms a delta. As the flow continues towards the dam, finer sediments settle further downstream.
THE CONSEQUENCES
Ecological impacts of sedimentation
Sedimentation has many ecological impacts, such as downstream sediment starvation, a loss of habitat for fish, and the carrying of pollutants (FOR, n.d.). Sediment is an essential part of riverine ecosystems for habitats and ecological function. When structures are built to block the natural flow of water and sediment, there are detrimental effects (Stanford, 2010).
Coarse sediments such as gravel and sand form the structure of riverbeds, channel beds, bars and banks. A reduced supply of coarse sediment (sand and gravel) causes channel incision – when a stream cuts into the bed of a valley – leading to reductions in the water table (USDA, n.d.). This causes infertile soils and the surrounding vegetation to become dry. Coarse sediments also form important habitats such as riffles and areas for spawning salmon (Kondolf et al., 2014).
Fine-grained sediment (silt and clay) is vital in the structure of riverine forms, such as mud flats and floodplains. Fine sediments are a source of turbidity in the water column, as they agitate the water. Many native species of fish that are accustomed to these turbid conditions struggle to navigate clearer waters and hunt for prey, leading to an increase in invasive species (USU, n.d.).
Sedimentation greatly affects biogeochemical cycling by disrupting the natural flow of nutrients, leading to nutrient retention. These nutrients are essential for the growth of algae and aquatic plants, as they have a higher capacity for absorption than coarse sediment (Kondolf et al., 2014). Damming causes eutrophication by increasing the nitrogen concentration in reservoirs (Wang, et al., 2022). Silicon is crucial for the growth of phytoplankton and the health of aquatic ecosystems. Damming reduces silicon flux into the ocean, which affects coastal productivity.
Figure 4: Different types of sediment (Fondriest Environmental Inc, 2014)
Figure 3: Cross section showing sedimentation of a dam (Obliaor, Okeke, Onunkwo, Fagorite & Ehujuo, 2019)
Figure 2: Diagram showing origins of sediment and sediment transport
Figure 5: Biogeochemical transformation mechanism of nitrogen in a reservoir
Figure 6: Image of a failed gabion check dam in La Paz, Bolivia (CIRES, 2018)
Figure 7: Image of invert abrasion at Palagnedra SBT, Switzerland (Auel, 2018)
Sediment yield reduction
Sediment yield reduction focuses on preventing sediment from reaching reservoirs through catchment erosion control methods such as reforestation, controlled grazing, or terracing (IHA, 2022). Trapping sediments upstream with basins is another strategy, though such structures can fail without maintenance. Erosion control measures reliant on subsidies will stop working as soon as they are removed (CIRES, 2018), and sediment production minimisation alone cannot entirely prevent sediment inflow.
Sediment routing
Sediment routing involves being aware of the temporal variability of sedimentation. Sediment transport predominantly occurs during significant flow events like floods, heavy rainfall, or earthquakes, rather than consistently over time (Fondriest, 2014). Routing strategies keep sediment moving through or around the reservoir. Strategies include sluicing, where dam water volume is reduced to minimise settling at the cost of water loss (Herweynen, 2018), and turbidity current venting, which depends on specific topographical and hydrological conditions (Ramos, 2017). Sediment bypass tunnels, while useful for small to medium-sized reservoirs, suffer from high maintenance costs due to tunnel floor abrasion from coarse bedload (Boes et al., 2018).
Sediment removal
The strategy for sediment removal entails allowing sediment to collect before systematically extracting it. Examples of this include dredging and dry excavation. (Boes et al., 2014). Mechanical dredging usually uses excavators or cranes to remove and deposit sediments. Hydraulic dredging is the pumping of sediment slurry through temporary pipelines to a designated disposal area (US Aqua, n.d.). Dry excavation is the most expensive sedimentation countermeasure – draining the reservoir, digging out the sediment and relocating it (Hydroreview, 2012). Sediment removal techniques are often employed in more severe cases of sedimentation, and since it solves the problem after it has happened, the consequences of sedimentation are already experienced.
Why the Reservoir Reviver is better
The Reservoir Reviver is designed to be used actively within the water body to manage sediment more directly. Unlike sediment removal methods that require significant intervention after sediment accumulation, such as costly dredging (US Aqua, n.d.) or dry excavation (Hydroreview, 2012), the Reservoir Reviver prevents excessive sedimentation from occurring in the first place. This minimises ecological harms and reduces the frequency and scale of maintenance compared with traditional methods. Moreover, by enhancing sediment dispersal and reducing the volume of sediment that settles, the Reservoir Reviver aims to maintain reservoir capacity and water quality more consistently over time. It is also much cheaper and more accessible to implement.
THE RESERVOIR REVIVER
Impeller Dynamics of the Reservoir Reviver
The Reservoir Reviver’s unique dual-level pitched blade turbine is designed for effective sediment suspension in dam reservoirs. I have designed the Reservoir Reviver to be a dual-levelled pitched blade turbine with 45-degree angled blades to generate a mixed flow, axial and radial, to facilitate easy dispersion of solids (Unique Mixers, n.d.). Bernoulli’s principle explains how the motion of the impeller blades affects the pressure and velocity of the water – in areas of higher fluid speed, the pressure is lower, and where the fluid speed is lower, the pressure is higher (Hall, N). As the impeller blades rotate, they transfer kinetic energy to the water, increasing its velocity, which results in a decrease in pressure. This creates a low-pressure zone that draws in more water and creates a suction effect on the sediment, which keeps it in suspension (Provac, n.d.).
Axial Flow Mechanism
Axial flow is generated because the pitched angle directs liquid flow to the bottom of the tank. When the impeller rotates, these blades push the fluid either upwards or downwards along the axis of rotation. For downward flow, in my case, the impeller rotates so that the top of the blade pushes the fluid down (Vissers, n.d.). In an open setting without the confinement walls of a tank, the flow pattern of water would change. The flow would be less defined and more dissipated, reducing the efficiency and effectiveness of the impeller. This is why I have designed the Reservoir Reviver to be dual levelled. This means it pushes out fluid at different depths simultaneously, which means more areas can be targeted. It also does not increase the power required, as both impellers are attached to the same shaft (DTB Pumps, 2021).
Impeller distance
The impellers are placed relatively close together, at a distance of 3.5 cm. A 2020 study reports that reducing the gap/diameter ratio improves the mixing of different fluid compartments, improving homogeneity, as shown in Figure X. As seen in Figure 8, closer impellers have more effective interaction between the flow fields generated by each impeller. They also influence the flow dynamics, increasing the velocity at which fluid particles move, improving the mixing process (Russel et al., 2020).
Figure 8: Experimental images and CFD (computational fluid dynamics) snapshots (Russel et al., 2020)
1. 3D print parts of the Reservoir Reviver (Shaft 1x, Impeller 2x).
2. Cut pieces of aluminium tape – 175 x 15mm (1x), 19 x 34mm (8x)
3. Wrap the shaft in the largest piece of aluminium tape.
4. Wrap all 4 blades of both impellers with remaining pieces of aluminium tape.
5. Squeeze a small amount of superglue 35mm above the base of the shaft.
6. Slide 1 impeller onto the shaft so that the hub can stick onto the glue.
7. Squeeze another small amount of superglue 2mm above the base of the shaft.
8. Slide the other impeller onto the shaft so the hub aligns with the glue. Ensure that the impeller is positioned to mirror the angle and orientation of the first impeller.
1. Fill the box with 600mL of sand, spreading it evenly. Distribute 100mL of gravel towards the rear end of the box.
2. Add 8L of water, noting the initial water level.
3. Open the outlets for 7 seconds, using a stopwatch to time the release.
4. Close the outlets and allow the sediment to settle.
5. Carefully pour the water into a graduated container to measure the volume of water removed.
6. Use a large spider strainer to separate the gravel from the sand.
7. Measure and record the volume of sand and gravel separately using measuring cups.
8. Empty the box.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 two more times.
10. Conduct three additional trials from steps 1-8 using the Reservoir Reviver for 30 seconds after step 2. Attach the shaft to an electric drill and move it in a slow zigzag pattern starting from the front end. Use a stopwatch to time the duration.
11. Perform another set of three trials using the Reservoir Reviver for 1 minute, following the same procedure as in step 10.
Figure 11: Experimental setup diagram
Figure 12: Experimental setup photograph
Discussion
The Reservoir Reviver is designed to be used in dams of any size as a possible countermeasure to sedimentation. In the testing of my invention, I modelled this process by creating a model dam in which to test my prototype. I used the amount of sediment remaining in the dam after using my invention as a measure of the efficacy of my prototype.
Validity, accuracy, reliability
The validity of my experiment is affected by a variety of factors. The experimental setup does not replicate a real dam in terms of proportion, meaning fluid dynamics such as turbulence and flow patterns will be different. This is because of differences in the Reynolds number, which is used to calculate whether flow is turbulent and laminar, and the Froude number – a ratio of inertial and gravitational forces (Engineering Theory, 2020). Flow characteristics are influenced by properties like density, viscosity, and velocity, which result in different types of flow that would influence sediment dynamics.
Results
While I tried to stick to realistic proportions of sand and gravel based on river sediment, I could not find a suitable substitute for silt and clay. The kaolin clay used in my initial testing made the water extremely cloudy, so I omitted it in my end experiments.
Variables I kept consistent were the arrangement of gravel and sand in the container, with consistent sediment ratios and volumes for every trial. The time the gates were open was 7 seconds for each trial. The container was maintained at 15 degrees, and control tests without using the Reservoir Reviver were conducted.
My measurements for water volume left were not the most accurate. Sand can absorb water, affecting the measured volume of water lost. Using measuring cups has the potential for errors, especially with uneven distribution within the cup. However, measuring by mass was not an option, as wet sand would be heavier than dry sand. Use of a stopwatch has potential for human error in timing, which affects accuracy.
The reliability of the experiment was good, as I repeated each trial 3 times to calculate an average.
Figure 13: Results table showing correlation between time invention is used for and amount of sediment removed.
Figure 14: Column graph displaying results from Figure 13.
The reduction percentage in sediment in the above graphs is calculated by the formula Initial – Final)/Initial x 100%.
There is a significant increase in the percentage of sand sediment reduction as the agitation duration increases. The most substantial reduction occurs when the invention is used for 1 minute, achieving over 40% reduction, indicating that longer agitation times lead to more effective sediment clearance. Although the reduction percentages are lower for gravel than for sand, there is still an improvement when the invention is used. The increase from 0.7% (no agitation) to 12.0% (1 minute of agitation) suggests that it is more effective with longer durations, similar to the trend observed with sand. However, in real life, these times would be adapted to suit the conditions of each unique reservoir.
Water loss is important to consider when dealing with sedimentation, as it can significantly affect the functionality of reservoirs if too much water is lost. I have recorded the amount of water lost in my experiments.
This scatter plot shows a positive correlation between sediment reduction and water loss, showing the trend that higher sediment removal efficiency results in more water being lost. This could be because the vigorous movement of water needed to lift and remove more sediment carries away more water in the process.
In a real-life scenario, this could potentially be mitigated by using the system during flood conditions so the water is replenished at a faster rate, or to continue developing the system so more sediment instead of water is flushed out.
Model improvement
When I first 3D printed the model, the blades were too thin and fragile. In my initial testing, as soon as the rotation reached higher speeds, the blades started to bend. However, the invention could not be scaled up because then it wouldn’t be proportionate to the model dam I had in the 1:20 ratio for invention to dam width. To solve this issue, I added aluminium tape around the blades and shaft as a reinforcement. This also models the real-life concept of the invention, which would be made out of steel.
In my initial testing, I found that the impellers were placed too far from each other (around 5cm) and the impeller at the top was not interacting with the sediment much. Realising the need for optimal fluid interaction and energy efficiency, I adjusted the spacing to just 3.5cm up from the base of the drive shaft. As I have explained in the background, this allows for more interaction between the fluid streams generated by each impeller, and it suspends sediment more efficiently.
Future improvement
In terms of the prototype and testing, scaling up the experiment would more accurately simulate dam dynamics. Measuring the flow rate and speed control using a flow meter would allow for a more controlled experiment and to test the performance more accurately under regular conditions and flood conditions.
Integrating depth-detection technology could automate adjustments to the device’s operation based on sediment accumulation and water-level changes, meaning the performance
Figure 16: Scatter graph showing results from Figure 15.
Figure 17: Photographs of before VS after aluminium tape layer.
adjusts based on environmental conditions. Turning the invention into an autonomous robot cruiser with a routing algorithm would allow for adaptation to the reservoir’s topography and sediment distribution to optimise the flow of sediment to the outlet. This would also maximise sediment output while minimising water loss.
Upgrading to stronger materials such as steel and using a protective coating against particle abrasion would significantly improve the durability and amount of power it can handle. Incorporating sensors to continuously monitor sediment levels and water quality would enable real-time data collection, allowing easier maintenance and optimising operational times. These sensors could also help automate the entire system.
Real-world application
If this were to be used in the real world, it would be quite simple to mass produce, as the parts are made of simple materials such as steel, making it feasible and cost effective. The benefits of integrating a Reservoir Reviver into an existing dam would outweigh any additional costs it would take to implement the system. It would be part of a larger system, potentially mounted on a boat or moving platform that navigates the dam to move the Reservoir Reviver. This makes it adaptable to different dam sizes and sediment levels.
Acknowledgements
My granddad, for being my mentor and helping me in the development of this project and sharing his knowledge on dams.
My science teacher Mrs Phillips, for providing advice for this project.
Mr Brodyck, for 3D printing my design.
My dad, for helping me use tools and materials to strengthen my experiments, as well as for helping me navigate Excel.
My mum, for helping me purchase the materials for my experiment.
My friends, for moral support.
Bibliography
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Does anaerobic training provide a measurable benefit to aerobic athletes?
MIKALYA RODGER
YEAR 11, 2024
Abstract
This report will investigate the potential benefits of anaerobic training components to an aerobic athlete. In drawing a conclusion to my research question, I considered three main aerobic sports – marathon running, open-water swimming, and cycling – analysing the different forms of anaerobic training that have been previously experimented with in each athlete’s training plans. The resultant impact on aerobic fitness measures from these case studies, including VO2max, power, metabolic threshold, and rate of force development (RFD), along with race-day performance, determined the magnitude of the benefit, if any, to the athlete’s aerobic fitness.
What is the difference between energy systems involved in aerobic and anaerobic training?
Aerobic training is rhythmic in nature, placing emphasis on sustained effort at a moderate to low intensity over a long duration of time. (Gastin, 2001). Glycogen stored in lipids and carbohydrates is combusted to synthesise ATP, at a continual rate for several hours via a combination of aerobic glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Aerobic glycolysis converts glycogen to glucose, breaks down glucose to pyruvate and pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A. During the Krebs Cycle, acetyl coenzyme A is used to generate CO2 and H+ ions, which due to their acidity create an acidity gradient. During the electron transport chain, ions move across the gradient, allowing phosphate to bond to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) forming adenosine triphosphate (ATP). (TRA, 2024). See figure 1.
Alternatively, anaerobic training involves short-duration muscular contractions independent of inhaled oxygen (ACSM, 2013). Due to the absence of inhaled oxygen in ATP synthesis glycolysis occurs, which produces pyruvic acid, lactic acid, and H+ ions due to a lack of oxygen. The accumulation of acidic ions in the bloodstream and the lower rate of ATP production thus decreases the body’s ability to sustain exercise at this intensity. (Patel, et al; 2017). See figure 2. Whilst enhancing anaerobic training, anaerobic endurance is subsequently augmented. This refers to the body’s ability to perform maximal-intensity exercise for a three- to ten-minute period. (HPRC, 2023).
Anaerobic training involves the strengthening of fast-twitch muscles over short durations, and due to an absence of oxygen contributes to enhanced lactic and metabolic acidosis (the somatic tolerance for lactic acid). A proficient lactic-acid system in turn increases an athlete’s lactate inflection point, subsequently diminishing recovery time. Similarly, an athlete with trained anaerobic respiration synthesises ATP at a faster rate, thus increasing the potential for PC stores. Such respiration also accelerates anaerobic glycolysis, a process responsible for manufacturing ATP. In performance, accelerated anaerobic metabolism increases the duration of activity that can be performed at high intensity, improving an athlete’s strength, power or speed. (Artioli, 2012).
Figure 2: Diagram depicting the interaction between intracellular processes involved in mitochondrial aerobic respiration and exchanges within the bloodstream.
Anaerobic Training & The FITT Principle
The FITT principle refers to the features of a training plan, representing the four main pillars of frequency, intensity, time and type. Aerobic athletes would typically train 3-8 times per week, depending on the sport. [Note: abiding by the principle of progression, the experience and performance level of the athlete will result in changes in the session intensity and time spent training.] (American Academy of Paediatrics, 2011).
Anaerobic training typically takes the form of circuit or highintensity interval training (HIIT). Working at these high intensities allows athletes to exceed maximal paces, repeating speeds and intensities greater than those sustainable throughout the event’s entire duration. (Wheeler, 2023) Many recreational athletes prefer anaerobic training due to the lower time requirement, which can adhere to a busier schedule.
Flexibility training is a form of anaerobic training that enhances freedom of movement, reduces the likelihood of injuries and reduces recovery time for aerobic athletes, promoting improved performance. A report concluded dynamic stretching is most effective, and a particular focus on the hip flexors and extensors directly correlates with improved running economy. (Konrad, 2021). Alternatively, static stretching is more closely correlated with reduced injury, a study quantifying static stretches with a 54% reduction in acute muscle injuries. (Behm, 2016).
Strength or resistance training is also a mode of anaerobic activity. It compounds muscular strength by working them against an opposing weight or force. (BHC, 2024) These movements can involve both isotonic and isometric muscular contractions, typically utilised in training programs prioritising improvements in muscular strength. Through progressive overload, resistance training manifests as both myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic hypertrophy. (Kandola, 2023).
Anaerobic activity, or rapid movements, are observable within aerobic events. For instance, in marathon and cross-country running events, an explosive 200-400m effort is needed to separate the runners at the onset of the event. Similarly, flying bike mounts in triathlon events are required for rapid changeovers, and sprint components of double poling or diagonal strides are necessary for a cross-country skier.
During the uphill sections of a cross-country skiing event, it has been calculated that approximately 26% of energy utilised is provided by the anaerobic energy system. (Losnegard, 2012). A subsequent report concluded that in the cross-country skiing event, anaerobic threshold capacity is still “potentially of importance for endurance performance”. (Stellingwerff, 2013).
Cardiovascular Health
Aerobic activity is widely regarded the most predominant beneficiary for cardiovascular health, responsible for enhanced efficiency and hypertrophy of the heart muscle, and thus an increased capacity of oxygenated blood to circulate the bloodstream with each contraction, measurable as improved stroke volume and cardiac output. (NIH, 2022).
A Turkish study, by Akseki Temür in 2015, concluded that there may similarly be cardiorespiratory benefits to anaerobic training through an analysis of the natriuretic peptides, proteins formed in the heart and blood vessels, crucial to the preservation of cardiovascular homeostasis and dilation of cardiac vessels. (Lee, Daniels; 2016). Temür analysed the particular C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), which has the property of slowing cardiac aging via the cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway.
For his research, Temür split male athletes into two groups based on similar histories and present exercise levels. The groups then participated in a high-intensity exercise program that encompassed the anaerobic exercise factor whilst maintaining the athletes’ regular training program. Following the testing period, the increase of NT-proCNP level in the 5-minute mark post-exercise signifies a correlation to enhanced cardiorespiratory endurance. (Patel, 2017).
Figure 3: Photograph displaying the uphill anaerobic component of Olympic Skiing events.
Figure 4: Diagram depicting roles of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) within the body
Does anaerobic training provide a measurable benefit to aerobic athletes? |
Case Study 1 – Marathon Runner
A marathon event, as the longest race on the Olympic program, refers to a 42.2km footrace. Due to its distance and time spent continually striding at a constant speed, aerobic fitness is the main component trained and utilised during the event, accounting for 97-99%. The oxygen expenditure, or ‘running economy’ and fractional utilisation of VO2 at 70-90% of VO2max are factors known to influence a marathon athlete’s performance. (Damasceno, 2015).
Research by Bengt Sjödin has identified that an athlete’s anaerobic threshold provides the greatest foresight into marathon performance, due to enhanced rates of lipid metabolism when performing high-intensity exercise. He used lipid metabolism as the marker because lipids and carbohydrates are the main source of energy utilised in aerobic activity; they form a controlled variable transferable between anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Additionally, lipids are the predominant source of fuel oxidised by the muscles, as carbohydrate glycogen stores are limited.
His research also concluded, however, that there were limitations to utilising anaerobic threshold as a predictor of marathon ability, due to the distinct chemical reactions that break down lipids aerobically. Despite the drawbacks, his research concluded that the trend of increasing VO2max alongside anaerobic metabolic lipid breakdown displays a correlation between anaerobic metabolic thresholds and a delayed onset of fatigue, required in the marathon event. This is especially evident during components of the race where sudden bursts of energy are required. (Sjödin, Svedenhag; 1995)
In 2016, the International Journal of Exercise Science conducted a study aiming to detail the “relationship between aerobic and anaerobic performance in recreational runners”. The study involved a group of male marathon runners, VO2max = 58.4 ± 7.8, with a mean experience level of five years in the sport, who undertook an anaerobic fitness training schedule with testing post and prior to measure physiological changes. Training involved weight training, interval pace training and ballistic training, such as jumping or throwing movements, tyre flips, and resisted jumps. Training with these movements was seen to produce a correlation coefficient ‘r’ of 0.68 between VO2max and RFD. (Gillen, 2016).
The results of this elucidated the direct and measurable correlation between resistance training and an improved oxygen expenditure that allows for sustained performance, alongside reduced energy expenditure. Similarly, there was a correlation between plyometric, ballistic, and high-velocity training, as they teach the body to reduce ground contact times. This type of training can take the form of 80-90% 1RM lifts – such as the 80-90% 1RM clean, jerk and snatch actions which are considered Olympic lifts, as well as their ‘accessories’, which can take the form of squats, deadlifts, and pressing movements. (Blender, 2019 and Sutton, 2022).
The translation of this anaerobic fitness to the marathon was observable as an increasing stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), as well as a more optimal running cadence and stride, elements closely associated with reduced injuries and movement efficiency. (Paya, 2023). Currently, however, determining the most effective mode of anaerobic training for marathon runners is difficult due to limited studies that are specialised to niche sports and athletes. However, holistic conclusions from this research suggest that the concurrent combination of aerobic and anaerobic training is directly correlated with improved aerobic performance and injury susceptibility for a marathon runner, greater than aerobic training alone.
Figure 5: Photograph showing various stride lengths and cadences of Western Sydney Marathon runners.
Case Study 2 – Open-water Swimmer
Open-water swimming is a sport with events ranging in distance from 5-25km. It has been widely recited that both aerobic and anaerobic capacity must be proficiently trained for by swimmers to enhance strength as well as technical efficiency. (Domínguez, 2017). Although the open-water event depends on high oxidative muscular capacity, the cardiovascular conditioning typically utilised in training sessions is submaximal but high intensity with minimum rests, holding ‘goal paces’ athletes aim to replicate during races of shorter distances than the training program employed. Aerobic training complements improved stroke efficiency alongside reduced fatigue and energy expenditure. (Caballero, 2023; Rodríguez, 2011).
A recent study considering the common overuse injuries when overloading muscles, joints, and tendons tested the ability for anaerobic training to be implemented to reduce the time spent training for open-water swimmers. The study analysed the accumulation of lactic acid across various competitive distances and uncovered that the 400-800m events involved the greatest proportion of lactic energy. Thus, the surmisable conclusion was that threshold training results in augmented lactate metabolism and endurance, whilst enhancing both anaerobic power and aerobic fitness. (Fernades, 2018). The repetition of high-intensity efforts allows the athlete to experience race-day physiological fatigue and provide energy for sprint starts and finishes during the open-water race due to a trained anaerobic threshold. (Shaw, 2014).
Resultantly, by studying the open-water swimming event, it can be concluded that anaerobic training directly correlates towards enhanced energy efficiency and improved lactate metabolism. This mode of training simultaneously reduces the time spent training and thus the likelihood of overuse injuries typically associated with a swimmer’s aerobic training load.
Case Study 3 – Cyclist
The Tour de France is internationally renowned as the ultimate endurance test, with competitors covering over 3500km and 50km of elevation over the 3-week course. ‘Steady’ Zone 2 training (between 73% and 80% MHR) and ‘Moderately hard’ Zone 3 training (between 80% and 87% MHR) gained popularity in the cycling world when winner Tadej Pogačar’s coach revealed that Pogačar spends 80% of his training days in these training zones. (Paine, 2023). Zone 3 training involved working at functional threshold power, whilst allowing for a greater training volume to be reached and lower recovery time than highly demanding Zone 4 training. (Vossen, 2022). Zone 2 training is renowned for its ability to lower blood lactate concentrations whilst simultaneously enhancing the efficacy of mitochondrial respiration. It also trains somatic cells to privilege the expenditure of fat over glucose. See figures 6 and 7. As glucose and glycogen stores are limited, this ensures the athlete has a continual source of energy throughout the race. (INSCYD, 2022).
Figures 6 and 7: Diagrams contrasting the nature and physiological response of Zone 2 and 3 training.
Cyclists also often train strength and flexibility 2-3 times per week in the form of yoga, stretching and holistic body work, to complement an aerobic training plan.
Research depicts cyclists privileging aerobic training at the orientation of a training season to develop a strong base. Then, 4-5 months prior to competition, athletes increase to higher 1RM strength training in the gym alongside greater- intensity anaerobic tempo and threshold efforts. (Santalla, 2012). Thus, there is a clear link between anaerobic training, increasing lactate tolerance and inducing muscle hypertrophy. Santalla’s research demonstrated that when hybridised with aerobic base training, anaerobic sessions contributed to efficient energy expenditure, allowing Tour de France cyclists to reach their performance peak.
Conclusion:
Hence, this report uncovers that components of anaerobic training do benefit aerobic threshold markers such as VO2max, stroke volume, tidal volume, and rate of force development. Anaerobic training was recognised as most prominent when in conjunction with an aerobic training plan, as it replicates the high-energy elements of aerobic sports.
However, despite the numerous research papers that have been conducted investigating this relationship, further analysis, research, and studies are essential to determine a definitive trend. This is because the benefits of anaerobic training on cardiovascular and aerobic physiology are both sport and athlete dependent, thus the magnitude of the benefit cannot be definitively determined.
Hence, when developing a training plan, aerobic athletes should consider a properly periodised program. I recommend a 1:3 anaerobic-to-aerobic training program. In implementing this training style, athletes will receive the benefit of specified muscular strength, flexibility and power from anaerobic training whilst privileging aerobic exercise to ensure muscles are trained for the longer time duration and requirements of their chosen sport.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Figures
INSCYD. Figure 6 – Diagram contrasting the nature and physiological response of Zone 2 and 3 training. [Online Diagram]. https://inscyd.com/article/zone2-training/ INSCYD. Figure 7 – Diagram contrasting the nature and physiological response of Zone 2 and 3 training. [Online Diagram] https://inscyd.com/article/zone3-training/
Nature Review. (2005). Figure 2 – Diagram depicting the interaction between intracellular processes involved in mitochondrial aerobic respiration and exchanges within the bloodstream. [Online Diagram]. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrc1478#Abs1
ResearchGate. Figure 4 – Diagram depicting roles of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) within the body. [Online Diagram]. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Function-of-C-typenatriuretic-peptide-CNP-is-an-endothelium-derived-peptide-thatis_fig1_329790848
Snow News. (2023). Figure 3 – Photograph displaying the uphill anaerobic component of Olympic skiing events. [Online Diagram]. https://www. snownews.com.au/from-the-web-snow-news/ioc-approves-the-skimountaineering-olympic-qualification-system-for-milano-cortina-2026
Western Sydney Marathon. (n.d.). Figure 5 – Photograph showing various stride lengths and cadences of Western Sydney Marathon runners. NSW Government. [Photograph]. https://www.westernsydneymarathon.com.au/
Newspaper Articles:
ACSM. (2024). Physical Activity Guidelines. America College of Sports Medicine. https://www.acsm.org/education-resources/trendingtopics-resources/physical-activity-guidelines
Caballero, M. (30 September 2023). The Difference Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Workouts for Swimmers. Swimming World Magazine. https://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/news/the-differencebetween-aerobic-and-anaerobic-workouts-for-swimmers/ Kandola, A. (13 June 2023). “What to know about muscle hypertrophy”. Medical News Today. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/muscle-hypertrophy NIH. (24 March 2022). “Physical Activity and your Heart – Benefits”. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/heart/physical-activity/benefits Paine, I. (13 July 2023). “Pros vs Amateurs: Exploring the Difference In Physical Performance”. Rouleur https://www.rouleur.cc/blogs/rouleurperformance/how-do-the-tour-de-france-riders-fitness-compare-toyour-average-cyclist
Rodrigues, A. (25 April 2023). “Strength vs Resistance Training: What’s The Difference?” Evo Fitness https://evofitness.at/en/resistance-training/?cn-reloaded=1 Sutton, B. (23 February 2022). “Olympic Weightlifting to Enhance Sports Performance”. National Academy of Sports Medicine. https://blog.nasm.org/newletter/scientific-rationale-incorporatingolympic-weightlifting-enhance-sports-performance
Reports
Artioli, et al. (20 March 2012). “Determining the Contribution of the Energy Systems During Exercise”. Journal of Visualised Experiments. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3415169/
Behm G, et al. (2016). “Acute effects of muscle stretching on physical performance, range of motion, and injury incidence in healthy active individuals: a systematic review”. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism Journal. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26642915/
Blender, B. (October 2019). “Energy System Development in the Weight Room: Incorporating Prescribed Rest Periods for NCAA Men’s Basketball Players”. Strength and Conditioning Journal 41(5), 57-61. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/fulltext/2019/10000/energy_ system_development_in_the_weight_room_.7.aspx
Damasceno, M; Pasqua, L; Lima-Silva, A; Bertuzi, R. (November 2015). “Energy system contribution in a maximal incremental test: correlations with pacing and overall performance in a 10-km running trial”. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4671532/
Domínguez, et al. (31 December 2017). “Nutritional needs in the professional practice of swimming: a review”. Journal of Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5772075/# Gamez-Paya et al. (30 May 2023). “Footstrike Pattern and Cadence of the Marathon Athletes at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games”. Applied Sciences Journal. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/13/11/6620
Gastin, P. (2021). “Energy system interaction and relative contribution during maximal exercise”. Sports Medicine, Auckland NZ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11547894/
Gillen, Z. et al. (1 November 2016). “The Relationship Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Performance in Recreational Runners”.
International Journal of Exercise Science. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pmc/articles/PMC5154721/
International Triathlon Union. (2007). “Energy and Training Module”. Velo Press. https://www.triathlon.org/uploads/courses/54802/4-EnergyTraining-Module_1.pdf
Konrad, A et al. (20 January 2021). “The Impact of a Single Stretching Session on Running Performance and Running Economy: A Scoping Review”. Frontiers in Physiology Journal. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7857312/
Lee, N.; Daniels, L. (22 March 2016) “Current Understanding of the Compensatory Actions of Cardiac Natriuretic Peptides in Cardiac Failure: A Clinical Perspective”. Italian Cardiac Failure Review. https://www.cfrjournal.com/articles/current-understandingcompensatory-actions-cardiac-natriuretic-peptides-cardiac-failure
Losnegard, T; Myklebust, H; Hallén, J. (May 2012). “Comparative Study – Differences in O2-cost between V1 and V2 skating techniques during treadmill roller skiing at moderate to steep inclines”. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22516907/
Patel, H. et al. (26 February 2017). “Aerobic vs anaerobic exercise training effects on the cardiovascular system”. World Journal of Cardiology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5329739/ Phillips, S; Winett, R. (August 2010). “Uncomplicated Resistance Training and Health-Related Outcomes: Evidence for a Public Health Mandate” Curr Sports Med. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/ articles/PMC4086449/
Rodríguez, F. (January 2011). “Energy systems in swimming”. World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance, 225-240. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256696190_Energy_ systems_in_swimming
Santalla, et al. (January 2012). “Tour de France: Physiological review”. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234169108_The_Tour_de_ France_an_updated_physiological_review
Shaw, et al. (2014). “ACU – Energy considerations for open-water swimming”. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism. https://acuresearchbank.acu.edu.au/item/898vz/nutritionconsiderations-for-open-water-swimming
Sjödin, B; Svedenhag, J. (1995). “Applied physiology of marathon running”. Sports Medical Journal https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/3890068/
Stellingwerff, T; Maughan, R; Burke, L. (28 July 2011). “Nutrition for power sports: middle-distance running, track cycling, rowing, canoeing/kayaking, and swimming”. Journal of Sports Science https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21793766/
Website
American Academy of Paediatrics. (5 April 2011) The FITT Plan for Physical Activity. Healthy children.org https://www.healthychildren. org/English/healthy-living/fitness/Pages/The-FITT-Plan-for-PhysicalActivity.aspx
Better Health Channel. (2024). “Resistance Training – Health Benefits”. Victoria State Government. https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/ healthyliving/resistance-training-health-benefits
Uniformed Services University. (18 October 2023). “What is anaerobic endurance and how do you train it?” Human Performance Resources By Champ. https://www.hprc-online.org/physical-fitness/trainingperformance/what-anaerobic-endurance-and-how-do-you-train-it
Vossen, L. (2022). “Zone 2 Training: Benefits, Science, and How-To Guide”. INSCYD. https://inscyd.com/article/zone2-training/ Vossen, L. (2022). “Zone 3 Training: Sweet Spot or Grey Zone?” INSCYD. https://inscyd.com/article/zone3-training/
The Drum Brake
KAARI ELLEN
YEAR 11, 2024
Abstract
Braking Systems are very important mechanisms for the overall safety and functionality of all vehicles. They are installed against the wheels of the vehicle, commonly cars, to allow slowing down or stopping safely (Nice, 2000). There are many types of braking systems used around the world in a range of machines and transport vehicles. This report will focus specifically on the drum braking system and explore its impact on society by explaining its effectiveness and functionality.
Introduction
The drum brake is a special closed braking system that uses the friction between brake shoes and the inner surface of a metal drum attached to the wheel. This differs from disc brakes, which use pads that clamp onto a spinning disc, and rim brakes, which use the wheel rim as a friction surface.
Effectiveness
The drum braking system is relatively effective, however the disk brake is a more effective brake overall for domestic vehicles.
Drum brakes are closed systems, unlike disc brakes. This causes both improvements and disadvantages to overall effectiveness. A closed system traps heat and brake products (dust) in the drum, causing poor heat dissipation and cleanliness, leading to increased wear to the drum and friction material. This does have a positive impact on the environment, as the dust is not dispersed into the environment but retained to be disposed of responsibly.
In terms of braking power, the drum brake provides more than wooden pads but less than disc pads, despite their large friction surface area (ABE, 2024). Therefore, drum brakes have limited effectiveness. They are not the ideal braking system for cars; however, they are able to stop the vehicle. The brake enables the possibility of driving safely at higher speeds, maintaining the ability to avoid hazards and stabilise the vehicle (Five Star Auto care, 2023).
Impact on society
The drum brake has been utilised since first patented by Louis Renault in 1902 for its cheap, low-maintenance and enclosed system (ABE, 2025). Due to the disc brake’s heat dissipation and overall efficiency, the drum brake has been phased out of the majority of vehicles manufactured in the mid-2000s (Mulach, 2021). However, advancements in electric vehicles and control technologies – specifically regenerative braking, have promoted the ongoing relevance of drum bakes in everyday vehicles, in particular in heavy-load vehicles and, more recently, in electric and hybrid vehicles (EVs).
EVs employ regenerative braking, which increases a vehicle’s range and lifespan through improved energy efficiency. Regenerative braking reverses the electric motor, creating a generator that converts kinetic energy into electrical energy when pressure is removed from the accelerator, supplying energy back to the battery, consequently slowing the vehicle. This technology limits overall brake usage and, as a result, wear on the brake, therefore negating the major disadvantage of drum brakes. Due to this, manufacturers such as Volkswagen have looked towards rear drum brakes as a cheaper and more efficient braking system (MotorOctane Team, 2021). Reduced usage of mechanical braking in EVs exposes a key flaw in the application of disc brakes. Unlike in conventional vehicles, disc brakes’ advantageous open design increases corrosion and wear – making for additional repair costs above the standard expense of disc brakes, in comparison with drum brakes. Also, the enclosed system of the drum becomes more resilient when its lower braking efficiency is mitigated through the advantages of regenerative braking (Twincam, 2023). Moreover, with about 60-80% of a vehicle’s weight being placed on the front wheels, the lesser braking power of drum brakes is negated in conjunction with the front disc brakes (Ferseta, 2020).
Overall, EV regenerative braking has expanded the application of drum brakes in new vehicles, improving energy efficiency and range. The growing recognition of the suitability of drum brakes has been economically and environmentally beneficial for the future of electric vehicles.
Research - Drum Brakes
Refer to figure 1 for the following section.
The drum brake uses a metal drum that rotates with the wheel, imitating its movement, making a suitable friction surface for the shoes to press against to slow down the vehicle (Simon, 2019). The brake shoes have a steel frame lined with a friction material to increase the coefficient of friction between the drum and shoes.
There are two shoes: the primary and secondary shoes. The primary shoe presses the drum with a greater friction force than the secondary shoe because it contacts the drum against its rotation, while the secondary shoe contacts in favour of rotation (Frenkit, 2020). To maintain this contact, the hand brake is pulled, causing a cable to apply pressure to the parking brake lever, which pressures the strut, so it holds both shoes against the drum as seen in Figure 2. This mechanism enables vehicles to remain stationary on steel slopes without causing excess wear (Simon, 2019).
Moreover, once the brake is released, two return springs bring the shoes back to their original position, allowing for quick application and release of brakes (Simon, 2019), which helps
for driver comfort. Further, the self-adjusting mechanism helps maintain consistency in the braking pressure needed to effectively slow down the vehicle. The mechanism adjusts the distance between the drum and lining to adhere to friction wear, which would otherwise require more hydraulic fluid to maintain contact (Crashforensics, 2010).
Lastly, all the components are joined by springs to the stationary back plate while the drum spins.
Altogether, these components work effectively to ensure there is enough friction force between the brake lining and drum to slow down or stop the vehicle. The brake uses self- adjusting mechanisms to increase the durability and effectiveness of the brake overall by ensuring consistency in input force by the driver, improving the comfort and safety of the vehicle.
Key material – cast iron
Cast iron is an iron alloy composed of carbon, silicon and traces of phosphorus and manganese (Britannica, 2024). It is formed from resmelting pig iron, which is a raw iron ore, with a carbon content of 3.5-4.5%. Pig iron is very brittle and suitable only for resmelting into cast iron or steel (iima, 2024).
Grey cast iron, specifically, is used for the drum component of the braking system (Simon, 2019). It retains properties of basic cast iron, such as the high carbon content of 2.5-4% (Reliance Foundry, 2024), making it very brittle, hard and, therefore, neither malleable nor ductile, even in its molten form. Due to this, cast iron cannot be worked like wrought iron without cracking (Ador, 2021). So, cast iron is smelted then moulded into the desired shape making it very applicable for mass production and automobile parts such as drum brakes (Reliance Foundry, 2024).
Furthermore, grey cast iron has excellent castability, due to its high silicon composition of 1-3%, which promotes graphitisation, softening the cast iron and reducing the net weight due to its low density (Cornell & Bhadeshia, 1999). This property works to reduce the net weight of the brake, making it more desirable for vehicles. However, graphitisation can decrease the coefficient of friction and strength of the metal due to the organised structure of the graphite layers, which enables them to rub on other surfaces easier (Hardyal, 2020). Despite this, cast iron develops a protective film on its surface that also acts to protect from corrosion and wear (GSA, 2017). A drum brake must be corrosion resistant to improve its effectiveness and durability. Therefore, cast iron is more suitable than steel, as it is more corrosion resistant, allowing for a longer brake life and maintenance period.
Moreover, grey cast iron has high vibration damping – 20-25 times that of steel. This leads to less noise and wear during friction (Reliance Foundry, 2024), as well as an improvement in the overall energy efficiency of the brake. Making it safer and more desirable for cars (Reid Supply, n.d.).
Figure 1: labelled drum brake assembly
Image 1: Brake drum
Figure 2: The parking brake
Friction material
Friction materials
Brake linings can be made of a variety of friction materials, but they must have high thermal and wear resistance and produce a stable co-efficient of friction regardless of the environmental conditions (Kukutschova & Filip, 2018). However, drum brakes are susceptible only to certain environmental variables, such as pressure and temperature, therefore widening the range of materials that can be used.
Brake linings can be organic, ceramic or semi metallic.
Organic linings previously valued asbestos fibres, which were heat resistant and good insulators. However, safety concerns surrounding the use of asbestos have taken them out of circulation. So, non-asbestos organic linings are now utilised under three categories: semi-metallic, low-steel and non-steel. Semi-metallic and ceramic linings are most commonly used (Korpak, 2018).
Semi-metallics have 65% brass, copper or iron content, improving heat dissipation and durability but producing a lot of noise (Korpak, 2018). To address this, graphite lubricant is applied, which also reduces wear and improves the co-efficient of friction (Graphit, 2019).
Ceramic linings are composed of ceramic, mineral and aramid fibres, which enforce strength, stability, durability and heat resilience (Trento, 2024). Ceramic offers excellent stopping power and produces little dust, which makes it suitable for drum brakes, as they collect dust rather than disperse it (Wagner, 2022).
Friction materials must improve the co-efficient of friction without producing excess noise and wear, be heat resilient and durable and maintain input pressure consistency. Commonly, ceramic or semi-metallic linings are used to achieve effective stopping power.
Co-efficient of friction
The drum and the brake lining are the two friction surfaces used in drum brakes. The engineering toolbox (2024) states that cast iron and ‘brake material’ have a static co-efficient of 0.4, which gives relatively good slip resistance while requiring less fluid pressure to create a high braking force (Dixcel, 2023).
Calculations
Co-efficient of friction:
0.4 (Engineering toolbox, 2024)
Steven Fox (2010) found that the average male exerts 1330N of force onto the brake pedal to stop. However, this calculation is assuming constant force, therefore, I use 1290N for the following calculations.
As reference for my calculations, I used dimensions from Figure 3 and referred to Figure 4. Figure 3: Dimensioned diagram of brake
Figure 3: Dimensioned diagram of brake
Figure 4: Space diagram of drum brake
Pascal’s Law:
I calculated the output force (F2) acting on the brake shoe from the wheel cylinder. F2 resulted in 597N.
Moments:
Calculations of the moments of Fulcrum A to find the Normal force acting on the drum:
Friction
Using the results of previous calculations, the static friction between the drum and shoe is 468.8N
Mechanical advantage
Velocity ratio
Based on the FBD above:
Efficiency
Bibliography
ABE. (2024). “The History of Braking Systems”. https://www. abebrakes.com/en/information en/the-history-of-braking-systems/ Ador. (2021, May 28). Nickel – of vital importance in cast iron welding. https://www2.adorfon.com/blog/nickel-of-vital-importance-in-castiron-welding/
ABE. (2025). “The History of Braking Systems”. https://www. abebrakes.com/en/information-en/the-history-of-braking-systems/ Britannica. (2024). Cast iron. In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved August 13, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/technology/castiron
Cornell, R. & Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H. (1999). Aluminium-silicon casting alloys. https://www.phase-trans.msm.cam.ac.uk/abstracts/M7-8.html Crashforensics. (2010, August 26). Drum Brakes. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnc3VnQ8kUY
Dixcel. (2023). What is the coefficient of friction? https://www.dixcel.co.jp/en/literature/lid 2235/
Ferseta, T. (2020, October 2). Why Drum Brakes Make Sense on EVs. Autoevolution. https://www.autoevolution.com/news/why-drumbrakes-make-sense-on-evs-149568.html
Five Stars Auto Care. (2023, November 8). “The importance of brake maintenance: ensuring safety on the road”. Five Stars Auto Safety https://fivestarsautocare.com/blog/the-importance-of-brakemaintenance
Frenkit. (2020). “Drum Brake Components and parts”. Frenkit https://blog.frenkit.es/en/drum-brake-parts-and-elements Fox, S. (2010). “Cockpit Control Forces Or How Robust do drivers control really have to be?” FSAE Online https://www.fsaeonline.com Graphite. (2019, April). “Graphite for friction”. Graphite. https://www. gk graphite.com/fileadmin/user_upload/Leaflet_Friction.pdf
Greg Monforton. (n.d.). “Brake System Evolution: A History”. https://www.gregmonforton.com/windsor/car-accident-lawyer/carsafety-evolution/evolution-brake-systems.html# GSA. (2017). “Cast Iron: Characteristics, uses and problems”. GSA. https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/historic-preservation/explorehistoric-buildings?topnav=real-estate Hardyal, K. (2020, October 15). What is graphitization? Metcar. https://blog.metcar.com/what-is-graphitization
iima. (2024). “Pig Iron”. International Iron Metallics Association https://www.metallics.org/pig-iron.html
Korpak. (2018, December 7). “What are the best friction materials for brake lining?”. Korpak corporation https://kor-pak.com/best-frictionmaterials-brake-lining/
Kukutschova, J. & Filip, P. (2018). Chapter 6 – Review of Brake Wear Emissions: A review of brake emission measurement studies: identification of gaps and future needs. Non-Exhaust Emissions: An Urban Air Quality Problem for Public Health: Impact and Mitigation Measures, 123-146. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ B9780128117705000066
Nice, K. (2000, August 16). “How brakes work”. HowStuffWorks https:// auto.howstuffworks.com/auto-parts/brakes/brake-types/brake.htm)
MotorOctane Team. (2021, September 28). “Electric cars to bring back drum brakes”. MotorOctane. https://motoroctane.com/ news/224435-electric-cars-to-bring-back-drum-brakes
Mulach, J. (2021, June 19). “The case for drum brakes on EVs”. Whichcar. https://www.whichcar.com.au/news/ev-drum-brakes
Reid Supply. (n.d.). “Vibration Damping: what is it, how it works, materials and more”. Reid Supply https://www.reidsupply.com/en-us/ industry-news/vibration-dampingmaterials?srsltid=AfmBOoqNdf73o6 quvj24UkB4pPHUfLPjXUmlurlF8N8gSmo7q4xWf37E
Reliance Foundry. (2024). “Introduction to cast Iron: history, types, properties and uses”. https://www.reliance-foundry.com
Simon. (2019, August 20). “How do drum brakes work in cars and light vehicles?” (3D animation). YouTube https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=ApuBEn2zct8
The Engineering Toolbox. (2024). “Friction – Coefficients for Common Materials and Surfaces”. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ friction-coefficients-d_778.html
Trento, C. (2024, July 8). “What is a ceramic brake pad?” Stanford advanced materials. https://www.samaterials.com/content/what-is-aceramic-brake-pad.html#blog-auto2
Twin-cam. (2023, December 23). Why are drum brakes making an EV comeback [video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=lsp8sdGGvWg
Wagner. (2022). What are the best brake pads to buy? https://www. wagnerbrake.com/technical/parts-matter/automotive-repairandmaintenance/best-brake-pads-to-buy.html
IMAGES
Carparts. (2024). “Effects of driving with the parking brake on”. https://www.carparts.com Chegg. (2024). Question 4. Chegg. https://www.chegg.com
Early Ford Parts. (n.d.). Cast Iron Brake drum [photograph]. Early Ford Parts https://earlyfordparts.co.nz/product/cast-iron-brake-drums/ Indiamart. (2024). “Mild Steel Drum Brakes, trucks”. https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/drum-brakes-20926132555. html
Appendix
Appendix 1: Exploded pictorial of drum brake
Appendix 2: Dimensioned assembly drawing
Appendix 3: Image of drum brake model without drum
Appendix 4: drum brake model assembly
Sound, Spring Onion Roots & Space
MIA PERTSINIDIS
YEAR 10, 2024
Mia’s project was awarded first place in the Year 10 division of the Science Showcase
Summary
Introduction
There are many factors that influence how plants grow and develop, such as light, water and nutrients in the soil. Many of these components are absorbed by a plant’s roots, proving them essential to plant health. Sound does not seem to be important for a plant’s survival, but it actually affects the general health of a plant, too, especially in certain frequencies.
I will explore how sound across the three frequency ranges changes the outcomes of the root health of spring onions ( Allium fistulosum). I will also discuss how this affects our efforts at propagating plants in space, with a specific focus on the ISS as a growing environment.
Aim
To investigate the effect of sound frequencies across the infrasonic, audible and ultrasonic ranges on root health in spring onions through a measurement of root growth (difference in root length).
Hypothesis
As the frequency gets higher, root growth will increase.
Variables
Independent variable
The frequency of sound (15Hz, 5015Hz, 10015Hz, 15015Hz and 20015Hz).
Dependent variable
The growth of the roots (difference in root length).
Controlled variables
• Exposure to other untested sound frequencies.
• Amount of light exposure, time (1 hour) and volume (40dB) at which sound frequencies are played.
• Plant species used.
• Number of plants in each test.
• Dimensions of paper cups.
• Distance of phone away from container.
• Orientation of phone speaker in relation to the growing containers.
Research
Sound perception in plants differs among species and has been tested at different Hertz ranges. In general, sound can affect the genetics and hormonal levels of plants. Sound acts as a stimulus for gene expression, especially the expression of genes that are important for photosynthesis. It also affects the release of plant hormones that lead to increased growth (Jeong, Jung, Kim, Kim & Ryu, 2018).
A plant’s hormonal releases of auxin are a major part of plant growth, especially in roots and shoots (The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2018).
Root development is also very dependent on tropisms. Tropisms allow roots to determine the best path to grow. Roots are mainly affected by gravitropism – the growth downwards, guided by gravity. There is some research that suggests plants have also developed phonotropism, which is the ability to grow towards or away from sound. Most likely, they do this to detect water deep in the soil (Muthert, Izzo, Zanten & Aronne, 2020).
The International Space Station (ISS) includes a hydroponics system to grow plants. Although there is not as much gravity on this station as on Earth, the hydroponics system pumps gas through the nutrient-rich water to the bottom of the plant pots, mimicking gravitropism (NASA Science Editorial Team, 2021).
The ISS is a loud environment, with many pumps, fans and motors running to enable the station’s habitability (Let’s Talk Science, 2018). Certain parts of the station are noisy and the majority of the spacecraft has noise levels of 60dBA (Kuipers, Mukai, Thirsk & Williams, 2009). The equipment on the ISS generally produces frequencies ranging from the infrasonic to the audible. This means the plants experience those same frequencies (Hrovat, Keller, Kelly & McPherson, n.d.). This could potentially interfere with the growth and tropism of plants on the ISS.
A past experiment testing a corn species with frequencies of 0 to 900Hz in a hydroponic setting found that frequencies from 100-300Hz had the effect of making the roots grow in a positive phonotropic manner (Jeong, Jung, Kim, Kim & Ryu, 2018). When applying this to the ISS, interference with the complex interaction of plants with their environment through tropisms may cause the plant to grow away from the resources it needs, eventually leading to less growth. There is limited research that supports the claim that certain frequency ranges are directly linked to root growth and health, but some studies could show such a relationship when plants are exposed to audible or ultrasonic frequencies (Bayram, Ghiladi, Guo, Wu, Yang & Zhang, 2023).
Plants also emit sound, releasing ultrasonic “popping” sounds when distressed, specific to each species (Caton, 2023). This is believed to be due to cavitation, where air bubbles form and burst in the xylem. Young maize roots were also found to make small clicking sounds at around 220Hz, leading to other roots leaning towards the sounds (Hanano, Murphy & Murphy, 2022). For instance, Caton (2023) recorded ultrasonic sounds from plants that were dehydrated and had their stems cut. I have not found any experiments testing plant growth across multiple frequency ranges or using spring onions. However, in an experiment on a related plant, Allium cepa, testing a 5000Hz frequency’s effect on root growth, it was found to have disturbed growth of the roots by creating abnormalities in the mitotic divisions of cells in the root tips (Han, 2017). This suggests that frequencies in low audible range can affect the growth of plants.
The appropriate growth period of spring onions for this experiment, as cuttings, is four days, as they grow quickly enough just in water and sunlight to measure (Andrew W, 2015; Bayram, Ghiladi, Guo, Wu, Yang & Zhang, 2023). Spring onions mainly rely on a fibrous root system containing many longer main roots with lateral roots sprouting off them, as seen in Figure 1 (Melo, 2003; Algiers, Ha & Morrow, n.d.). Sound travels easier through less dense materials, so I will need to use a dense material to prevent sound from the environment around my experiment from interfering with my results (AcousticalSurfaces, 2023). I will need to keep the barrier undisturbed during the test to make sure that it is able to block outside noise consistently (University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, 2015).
Method
Equipment
• 18 spring onions
• Scissors
• 1.8L of water (100mL for each cup)
• 18 paper cups
• iPhone
• Frequency Sound Generator App (accessed through iPhone)
• Plastic container (large enough to cover three cups)
• Ruler
• Timer
Instructions
• Cut the ends off 18 spring onions 7cm from the base of the plant (the point at which the roots end and shoot starts) and measure the length of the longest root of each cutting with a ruler.
• Set up as shown in the diagram below: fill 18 paper cups with 1 spring onion per container with 100ml of water in the cup and set up in a place with regular light exposure.
• For one hour every day over a 4-day period, play the chosen frequency (15Hz, 5015Hz, 10015Hz, 15015Hz and 20015Hz) at 40dB to a cutting, using the Frequency Sound Generator App on a phone positioned 5cm away from the base of the cups with the speaker facing towards the cups. Cover the phone and spring onions with a plastic box while the sound is playing.
• At the end of the 4-day period, wait a further day and then use a ruler to measure the length of the longest root on each cutting and record the difference in length and any other observations in a table. Clear away all materials and equipment.
• Repeat steps 2-4 three times.
• Repeat step 5 five times (one for each trial group).
• Plot the results on a graph.
Diagram showing how lateral roots develop off a main root.
Setup Diagram
Results
The amount of root growth in spring onions after exposure to various sound frequencies
A graph of my results.
Discussion
Accuracy
My experiment was accurate. When measuring the water, I reduced parallax error by keeping my eyes perpendicular to the level of water I wanted to collect and measuring from the bottom of the meniscus. I also used a ruler to measure 7cm from the base of the shoot of the cuttings, making sure they were all the same length. However, I cut the spring onions using scissors, which made the cut tops slightly lopsided and to improve this I would probably use a knife. I also used a ruler, measuring the distance from my phone to the cups.
However, when I was measuring, I often could not place the ruler exactly in line with the base of the cups, as my ruler did not start exactly on zero. If I conducted my experiment again, I would opt for a ruler that I could place right up against the base of the cups to ensure that I keep the iPhone the correct distance away from the cups. I would also try to use a more solid ruler to be completely confident with my measurements.
Photograph of a cutting from the 15Hz test group.
Photograph of a cutting from the 15015Hz test group.
Photograph of a cutting from the 20,015Hz test group.
Photograph of a cutting from the 20,015Hz test group.
Reliability
My experiment’s results were not reliable. As my table shows, the outcomes of my trials are not similar so the averages, although creating a trend, are not reliable. I did, however, conduct multiple trials. To improve my method, I would add in more trials, as there were not enough to determine whether my results were simply unaffected by my independent variable or caused by natural variation across the spring onion plants. It is hard to say whether any of my results were anomalous because in each test group, with the exception of one, there was at least one cutting that did not grow at all.
Validity
My experiment was moderately valid. I did not control growing conditions equally across the different frequencies. The spring onions had root rot in the lower frequency and control trials. To improve my experiment, I could have a greater focus on the roots’ ability to survive in their growing environment by counting how many days it takes the cuttings to die from root rot. Those results would better capture more dimensions of root health. However, I could also look at root systems as a part of root health, as lowerfrequency trials had some long roots, but no new growth. This method would require a growing solution like a gel, which is more similar to the soil environment in which spring onions usually grow.
I think that, overall, my controls were consistent, and my independent variable was the most influential variable in my results. However, I was unable to completely create a growing environment that was not exposed to other frequencies in the background, as I cannot control the noise within my house and neighbourhood. To improve this, I would instead replace the plastic container with materials that are more effective at intercepting and absorbing sound, such as foam (AcousticalSurfaces, 2023).
What’s Next?
Trends and Further Investigation
My experiment produced a curved trend where the higher the frequency the more root growth occurred, until reaching the ultrasonic range. As the frequency increased, the roots looked visibly healthier, with more structural integrity, a white colour and more developed root systems. The control and lowerfrequency trials showed more signs of root rot. They also did not show growth across their root systems, with one longer root that was thin and brittle and fewer new roots growing from the base of the plant. Therefore, sound treatment does improve the health of roots, becoming more effective the higher the frequency. This is explained by the ways plants communicate using ultrasonic frequencies to show distress (Caton, 2023). When plants receive these frequencies, they use their energy to engage various defence systems against stress.
The healthier root systems and plants had roots that were, in general, longer but also noticeably more expansive, with new roots sprouting from the base. In ultrasonic trials, whose sound treatment would mimic a plant distress signal, the cutting developed lateral roots, showing the fibrous root system that spring onions should have (Melo, 2003; Algiers, Ha & Morrow, n.d.). Additionally, the lower-frequency tests’ worse performance could also be linked to phonotropism induced by the lower frequencies, causing unnecessary root growth, stretching the cuttings’ capability to survive within a hydroponic growing environment (Jeong, Jung, Kim, Kim & Ryu, 2018; Muthert, Izzo, Zanten & Aronne, 2020).
Looking at the plants growing in the ISS, these results could possibly be used to create equipment like pumps, motors and engines that produce higher frequencies, especially when thinking about creating greenhouses on other planets. Experiments with this concept could possibly create a method of helping plants adapt to an extraterrestrial environment, due to the protection and defence systems induced in plants by ultrasonic frequencies.
Conclusion
As the frequency gets higher, root health will improve, increasing root-system development and spring onions’ ability to adjust to their growing environment.
Therefore, plants cultivated in space would benefit from being in an environment with higher-frequency sounds and the absence of infrasound.
Acknowledgments
I would first like to thank Mrs. Phillips for helping me throughout my investigation and especially for her help in the idea phase of my project. She constantly supplied me with ways to improve my report, and for that I am very grateful.
Similarly, I would like to thank Mrs. Juhn for her support, especially at the end of the process.
I would next like to thank my family, who dealt with the smells and sounds of my experiment without complaint and graciously agreed to be as quiet as they could to make my experiment more valid. I would especially like to thank my parents , who always showed interest in my experiment, regardless of the inconvenience it caused for them.
Finally, I would like to thank my friends for being a constant support, whether it be helping me cut down on words or evaluating my sources’ usefulness. I am incredibly grateful for their assistance from the start of my investigation to the end.
Pictures
How do pesticides affect the pH and oxygen levels of freshwater plants?
SOPHIE GREEN
YEAR 8, 2024
Sophie’s project was awarded first place in the Year 8 division of the Science Showcase.
Introduction
My experiment is an investigation of how pesticides affect the pH and oxygen levels of freshwater plants. I chose this topic because there is an awareness that pesticides are posing an environmental hazard, with more of them being used and harming the environment. I wanted to observe how the pesticides affected freshwater plants, so I used pH and oxygen levels for qualitative data, and I took pictures of one of the plants to document the growth.
Aim
To determine how pesticides will affect the pH and oxygen levels in the water of freshwater plants.
Background information
A scientific study titled “Impacts of Pesticides on Freshwater Ecosystems” is slightly different to my experiment, as mine is solely focused on the effects on freshwater plants (Schäfer, van den Brink & Liess, 2011). From the study, the key idea was that pesticides can poison and kill ecosystems by entering the water systems in runoff (excess water the ground can’t absorb that usually flows into waterways) and poisoning the water, or a certain group of plants or area of soil. The study showed that because these freshwater ecosystems are so interconnected and dependent on one another, this can make the pesticides more lethal. If one group of plants or soil is poisoned, everything that relies on that plant (such as microorganisms and bacteria that live in or on it, or fish that use it for food) can get pesticide poisoning from this plant. The pesticides would also harm the plants, which could cause a decrease in oxygen in the atmosphere due to less photosynthesis as the pesticides could possibly affect the amount of sunlight or carbon dioxide taken in by the plants.
Depending on the length of exposure, presence of additional stressors, or population density, a freshwater ecosystem can collapse if pesticides are introduced. The study also mentioned that the persistence and distribution of the pesticide can depend not only on the properties of the pesticide itself but also on certain environmental factors such as sediment characteristics, temperature and pH, which is one of the things I am measuring.
Tau-Fluvalinate is one type of pesticide. One study showed that water that was exposed to Tau-Fluvalinate for four days had a changed pH after that time (Sari, 2022). Similarly, I am going to
measure every four days, to observe the changes. Another study explored whether pH affected the toxicity of the active ingredient used in the pesticide (Schilder, 2008). For most pesticides included in that study (including Tau-Fluvalinate), a higher pH can reduce its half-life and make the pesticide overall less toxic. However, for some active ingredients such as Myclobutanil, the pH has no effect on the toxicity.
For my experiments, this means that if the main active ingredient is Tau-Fluvalinate, I may have to make changes to the method if the pH gets too high, as that can decrease the half-life and make it less toxic, giving me invalid results. I will, thus, use the concentrations of 1%, 2% and 3%.
Scientific Relevance
This experiment is scientifically relevant, as the problem of pesticides affecting freshwater ecosystems is a widely discussed topic. Ever since 1945, after the Second World War, pesticide production began rapidly expanding, from “approximately 500,000 t/a in the 1950s to over 3,000,000 t/a at the beginning of the 21st century” (Schäfer, Brink, Liess, n.d.). Runoff is the main contributing factor to contaminating water sources with pesticides. Heavy rain flows can carry all sorts of bacteria and other substances in the water, including pesticides. If I can use my results to understand how the concentration of pesticides can affect the plants, and how much is lethal and how much is tolerable for the plants, that can help users understand the concentration of pesticides to apply, and why they need to stop using certain pesticides with chemicals that can affect plants like this.
Tau-Fluvalinate, one of the active ingredients in my pesticide, is “a pyrethroid, a synthetic chemical compound similar to the natural chemical pyrethrins produced by the flowers” (Toxin and Toxin Target Database, 2009). PubChem states that Tau-Fluvalinate is “generally harmless to humans (in small concentrations, like in cleaning products) but can harm sensitive individuals”. (Toxin and Toxin Target Database, 2009). However, the database concluded that Tau-Fluvalinate can be toxic to fish and other freshwater ecosystems.
Myclobutanil, the other active ingredient in my pesticide, is “a triazole chemical used as a fungicide…and is a critical component of fungal cell membranes”. (Toxin and Toxin Target Database, 2013). Myclobutanil can contaminate water systems and cause acute toxicity in fish and other freshwater organisms. It can also cause acute toxicity in humans if they ingest it or are exposed to a high concentration for too long without the proper PPE.
Hypothesis
The pesticides will affect the pH by making the water more acidic as it goes from the normal range of pH (7.2-7.8) to a 6.8 or lower. It will also affect the oxygen levels in the water, thereby killing the plants, as they need dissolved oxygen in water to survive.
Experiment Setup
12 pots, in groups of 3: control group, 1%, 2% and 3% concentration of pesticides. Measure starting oxygen and pH, then start with a trial experiment. Then, measure three times at 4-day intervals, for a total of a 16-day experiment.
Risk Assessment
Risk Injury Prevention
Myclobutanil is toxic to humans at a certain concentration. You could develop breathing problems, and you could get extremely sick or develop acute toxicity.
Tau-Fluvalinate can cause irritation to people with sensitive skin.
Large, heavy plastic containers, when filled up, can be dropped easily.
Soil can contain pathogenic organisms.
Water is slippery and can prevent people from breathing.
Myclobutanil cannot be flushed down a drain and needs to be disposed of another way.
You could develop irritation or a rash if exposed to a high concentration on your skin for a period of time.
You could drop them on your feet and the containers could break.
You could inhale the pathogenic organisms and get sick, or you could have an allergic reaction to a chemical compound in the soil.
Water on the floor can cause slips and falls, and someone could drown from inhaling water.
Can cause harm to the environment if poured down a drain or not dealt with properly.
Make sure the pesticide concentration isn’t above 3%, and that you wear appropriate PPE – a mask and gloves.
Make sure the concentration of the product isn’t too high, and that you wear appropriate skin coverage, like gloves or long sleeves, etc.
Be careful when moving the containers, and don’t pick them up when full; keep them on the ground.
Wear gloves and a mask and wash hands thoroughly after contact. You could also wet the soil prior to usage to decrease the amount of dust.
Clean up any water on the floor, and monitor small children or anyone around the water who is likely to fall in and drown.
Use a chemical disposal service to deliver and pick up the chemicals, storing them in airtight drums for chemical waste.
Variables
Independent variable: Concentration of pesticides
Dependent variable/s: pH and dissolved oxygen levels
Controlled variable/s: Same type of plant, same pH strips, same oxygen metre, same type of pesticide, same period of time, same amount of pesticide solution.
Method
1. Set up 12 containers in 4 groups of 3.
2. Lay soil in the bottom and pack it tightly to about a 10cm depth.
3. Place the plant into the soil and pack extra soil around it.
4. Fill it up with 8L of water – the leaves should float on the top.
5. Measure the starting pH with the pH strips, and also measure the starting oxygen with the oxygen metre.
6. Leave 3 boxes for the control group.
7. Put on PPE – gloves and a mask.
8. Fill up a measuring cup with 80mL of pesticide.
9. Pour it into 3 containers.
10. Measure pH and oxygen levels.
11. Repeat steps 7 to 9 with 160mL and 240mL.
12. Leave for about four days before measuring the pH and oxygen again and take note of any changes.
Results
Top image: Diagram of Myclobutanil chemical structure
Bottom Image: Diagram of Tau-Fluvalinate chemical structure
Qualitative Data/Pictures
Discussion
My results differed from my background research. In my research, the effects of pesticides on freshwater ecosystems were described as harmful, and pesticide poisoning was common amongst the results of these experiments. My hypothesis was also that my plants would be poisoned by the amount of pesticides, and that the oxygen levels would deplete, as stated in “the addition of the fungicides and insecticides into an aquatic system may also result in the reduction of aquatic life by impacting nutrient concentrations and depleting dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water column.” (Henry, Brenner, Jones, Brockhage and Smeltzer, 2013). I also predicted that the pH would lower and become more acidic.
However, my results showed no change in pH, which contradicted the hypothesis and some of the sources in my background research. Furthermore, the results showed depletion in dissolved oxygen levels (measured with an oxygen metre) but there was a change in all of my plants, including the control group, which contained only water. The results show the oxygen levels dipping over time, rising only when I top up the water. The oxygen levels were dipping because the oxygen was evaporating from the water, rather than the pesticides having any effect on them.
In research, many results of different experiments concluded that pesticides could have a severe effect on the health of a freshwater ecosystem, and could cause species to get sick and die out, due to toxicity. However, my plants flourished under the conditions, and grew steadily, with all of them, even the ones with a 3% pesticide concentration, growing steadily.
Due to the fact that my results contradicted my background research, I believe that my experiment wasn’t accurate or valid. My results did not match up with the values given by the background research, and a lot of my plants did not produce any noticeable changes or observations that complied with the background research.
The validity of my experiment may have been affected by outside variables such as the weather. Also, a lot of the controlled variables, such as the oxygen metre, the amount of pesticide solution, and the amounts of soil and water were not controlled as well as they could have been. I think that my results were reliable because I conducted the experiment multiple times and measured the amount of oxygen and pH in the water multiple times, and each time all results came out similar and aligned with one another.
The growth of plant 10 or 3.1 (with a 3% concentration) 4 days after pesticides, 8 days, 12 days and 16 days.
The main data I used for the trends in my experiment was the pH measurement and the amount of dissolved oxygen in mg/L, which is my quantitative data. I also had qualitative data, where I took photos of one of the plants over the three times (with the pesticides) that I also measured the oxygen levels and pH.
The pattern in all of my data was that the pesticides, overall, did not have any effect, as all of the plants grew relatively well and the pH and oxygen levels were not really affected, as all of them were in the same range when I measured them. The oxygen levels depleted as the water evaporated, and then would go up again when I topped up the containers with freshwater and pesticides.
The results would likely have been more valid and accurate if I had used better measuring tools, like the HI98198 portable Optical DO (opdo) meter, instead of the one I bought online, or a strip that exclusively measures pH rather than pH and various other factors like chlorination. I also could have controlled the variables better; for example, while I measured out the water, the markings on the measuring device were minimal and not very accurate, and I did not accurately measure how much soil I put into the containers. I also encountered some limitations on the space I had to do my experiment, as I was unable to source any larger, although I still had reasonably sized containers. Further, I didn’t have sufficient space for an undisturbed SRP and the retail supplier had insufficient stock to allow for more control groups. There was also the concern that Myclobutanil is toxic to humans. Myclobutanil is classified as class 2 toxic, with a concentration of anything more than 2.5mg/L considered dangerous to breathe. If I increased the concentration to anything more than 3%, it would exceed 2.5mg/L.
Therefore, my experiment wasn’t accurate, or entirely reliable or valid, and my results contradicted my background research. I do not think that my results are helpful or accurate, and the trends shown in my results were simply the result of evaporating water rather than the pesticides, as there were no immediately noticeable outliers. I understand that I need to collect more results with higher concentrations, and with improved equipment and better controlled variables in order to get more accurate results.
Conclusion
In my experiment, pesticide concentrations with active ingredients of Tau-Fluvalinate and Myclobutanil at 1%, 2%, and 3% did not significantly affect pH or dissolved oxygen levels in freshwater plants. This suggests that within these concentrations, the pesticides may not disrupt the aquatic environment’s chemical balance enough to cause harm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Encyclopaedias
Soler-Rodríguez, F., Martínez-Morcillo, S., Pérez-López, M. (2024). Myclobutanil. In Encyclopedia of Toxicology. Retrieved June 10, 2024 from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacologytoxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/myclobutanil
Images
PubChem.(n.d.) Tau-Fluvalinate Chemical Structure depiction https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Taufluvalinate#section=2D-Structure
PubChem.(n.d.) Myclobutanil Chemical Structure depiction https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/ Myclobutanil#section=2D-Structure
Journals
Bałazy, A., Toivola, M., Adhikari, A., Sivasubramani, S.K., Reponen, T., & Grinshpun, S.A. (2006). Do N95 respirators provide a 95% protection level against airborne viruses, and how adequate are surgical masks? American Journal of Infection Control, 34 (2), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2005.08.018
Henry, M., Brenner, F., Jones, A., Brockhage, R., Smeltzer, D. (2013). Impact of Chemical Fertilizer and Pesticides on Aquatic Microcosms. Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science, 87(1), 42-49. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/jpennacadscie.87.1.0042
Sari, F. (2022). Lethal and sublethal effects of tau-fluvalinate on the organism Gammarus roeseli. Archives of Biological Sciences, 74 (4), 347358. https://doi.org/10.2298/abs220930033s
Schäfer, R. B., van den Brink, P. J., & Liess, M. (2011). Impacts of pesticides on freshwater ecosystems. Wur.Nl https://edepot.wur.nl/192583
Schilder, A. (2008). Effect of water pH on the stability of pesticides Michigan State University Extension. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/ effect_of_water_ph_on_the_stability_of_pesticides
Taylor, M. Laicher-Edwards, D. White, S. Woodrow, R. Passos, T. Sanders, C.(2022). Investigating pesticide and heavy metal distribution from water and sediments https://www.coffsharbour.nsw.gov.au/files/sharedassets/public/v/1/ environment/compliance-and-reporting/monitoring-our-waterways/ taylor_council-report-mlt_24_03.pdf
Tuteja, N., Singh, M.B., Misra, M.K., Bhalla, P.L., & Tuteja, R. (2001). Molecular mechanisms of DNA damage and repair: progress in plants. Biology, 36(4), 337-397. https://doi.org/10.1080/20014091074219
Websites
ChemClear. (n.d.). https://www.chemclear.org.au/ ChemClear Product Registration and Enquiry Form. (n.d.). http://online.chemsal.com.au/ChemClear/ Epa, N. (n.d.). Waste levy https://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/your-environment/waste/waste-levy PubChem. (n.d.). Myclobutanil. Nih.Gov. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/6336 PubChem. (n.d.). Tau-Fluvalinate. Nih.Gov. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/91768 RNY. (n.d.). Resources https://recyclingnearyou.com.au/education/ Student RiskAssess. (2024). How do pesticides affect the pH and oxygen levels accessible to freshwaterplants https://www.student.riskassess.com.au/risk_ assessment/16399369?previous_url=%2Fsearch%2Fall T3DB (n.d.). Tau-Fluvalinate http://www.t3db.ca/toxins/T3D184
The Aqua Guard
INDIA WHIP
YEAR 10, 2024
India’s project was awarded first place in the Inventions category of the Science Showcase.
Design Brief
Let me introduce to you ‘the Aqua Guard,” a transparent Plexiglas flood barrier mounted between door entrances using a bolting mechanism.
My design brief was to create a flood barrier to protect property from flooding, which poses significant social, economic, and environmental risks in Australia, leading to extensive damage and loss of life.
Background Research
Flooding causes more extreme weather damage in Australia than any other natural hazard event.
Climate Council, 2023.
Floods are worsening due to climate change, with increased heavy rainfall, rising sea levels, and intensified storm surges. If greenhouse emissions continue at the current rate, annual floodrelated costs in Australia could reach $40 billion by 2060.
Implementing flood barriers and mitigation systems can help minimise water intrusion and damage.
They can be designed to create a barrier between rising waters and the home, thereby preventing or reducing the extent of water intrusion.
I undertook a gap analysis on existing products to inform my design, which led to my criteria for success: water resistant, easy to install, durable, lightweight and portable, and chemical and corrosion resistant.
I decided that the most effective solution was to design a flood guard that is:
• lightweight
• must act as a physical barrier to prevent rising or running water from causing flooding
• easy to install
Criteria for success
Materials for flood guard
Previous research on flood gate designs reviewed materials such as PVC, aluminium, polyurethane, and stainless steel. I assessed the pros and cons of each material and used a weighted scoring model to identify the most suitable option.
I ruled out aluminium due to its lower resistance to debris impact. I used a weighted decision-making model to systematically evaluate and choose between PVC and Plexiglas.
[Source: Taherdoost & Madanchian, 2023].
Score Meaning
3 Fully satisfies
2 Substantially satisfies
1 Partly satisfies
0 Does not satisfy
Project Development
Evaluation
This makes it clear that the best option is the Plexiglas, despite the higher cost. The potential performance of Plexiglas and its durability may outweigh the cost, as long as cost is not prohibitive. It also has the added feature of clarity and transparency, not featured in the other materials considered.
Prototype construction
Prototype testing
Flood simulation testing involved gradually introducing water into a fish tank to mimic rising floodwaters, while observing the flood barrier components for any leakage or failure.
To test effectiveness and integrity of Aqua Guard across the door entrance, I used the cross-section of a model house I constructed, which was placed inside a fish tank.
Results of flood simulation testing
Water level raised to 130 mm over a 15-minute period with no wall leakage observed.
With application of a different seal to the lower panel’s bottom frame: Water level reached 260 mm over 45 minutes with no obvious wall leakage.
Some seepage through the door entrance, with approximately 50 mm of water inside after 15 minutes.
Minimal seepage through the door entrance, resulting in 25 mm of water inside by the end of the test.
Using a different seal during testing significantly reduced water seepage. Further testing with various seals compatible with Plexiglass is needed to improve the development of ‘Aqua Guard.’
Project Evaluation
Evaluation against Criteria for Success
While I met the criteria for success (water barrier, simple design, easy to install, portable, durable), further testing is needed to determine the viability of the ‘Aqua Guard’.
Summary
The Aqua Guard is a flood barrier that is made primarily of Plexiglas panels and is mounted between door entrances by way of a simple bolting mechanism attached to the door recess. The transparency of the Aqua Guard allows for clear observation of rising flood waters, providing situational awareness. Further work is required to ascertain the most effective seal to improve seepage prevention. The design could be extrapolated for use around garage entrances by mounting additional panels across entry points.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to both my parents for their assistance in completing my science project with success. Additionally, I want to acknowledge KP Plastics for their advice and assistance in the creation of the Plexiglas panels and mounting plates for my ‘Aqua Guard’.
Fertilisers’ effect on the quality of water runoff
CHLOE ROSE PAPAGEORGIOU
YEAR 9, 2024
Chloe’s project was awarded first place in the Year 9 division of the Science Showcase.
Investigation Summary:
Millions of people use fertiliser in their farms and backyards to increase their crop yield or enhance the growth of their plants. However, runoff can contaminate the groundwater or the streams and creeks, and degrade water quality overall. Nutrients like nitrogen in fertilisers can cause nutrient build ups in streams, lakes, and rivers, and reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations in the water. Without adequate amounts of dissolved oxygen, aquatic species could suffocate. Fertiliser can also substantially change the pH of water. Waters of low pH can filter toxic metals including iron, manganese, copper, lead, and zinc into the water and create damage to metal piping. Without adequate knowledge of how different fertilisers affect the water quality of runoff and, subsequently, bodies of water, people will continue to harm aquatic environments.
AIM
To investigate how different fertilisers affect the quality of water runoff.
HYPOTHESIS
Water runoff from fertiliser for fruit-producing plants will result in lower water quality, as fruit-producing plants require more nitrogen and greater acidic soil conditions than other plants.
Background Research
Nitrogen Levels
Fertiliser runoff carries high nutrient loads, especially of nitrogen, into lakes, rivers, and creeks. From here, the nitrogen gets stored in groundwater or nearby streams. Elevated nitrogen can harm animals that drink from these sources. In high concentrations, nitrogen can lead to nitrate poisoning, which is particularly dangerous for livestock and wildlife near affected bodies of water.
High nitrogen levels also promote rapid growth of aquatic plants and algae, leading to algae blooms and an imbalance of organisms in the water. This process, called eutrophication, reduces the health of the ecosystem and can create areas where other species struggle to survive.
Oxygen Depletion
As algae and aquatic plants overgrow, they eventually die and decompose, consuming dissolved oxygen in the water. Low oxygen levels can suffocate fish and other aquatic species, disrupting the food web. The decay of dead organisms also releases toxins and causes unpleasant odours, further reducing water quality.
pH Levels
Fertilisers can alter the acidity or alkalinity of water. Acidic water (pH < 5) can kill fish, prevent eggs from forming, release toxic metals like aluminium from soil, and allow mosses or nondesirable plankton to dominate. Extremely alkaline water (pH > 9) can damage fish gills, eyes, and skin, hinder waste removal, and increase the toxicity of other substances. These pH changes threaten the stability of aquatic ecosystems and overall water quality.
Fertilisers
In my project, I tested four types of fertilisers: All-purpose, flower, fruit, and vegetable. These fertilisers differed in nutrient composition and intended plant use. The All-purpose fertiliser contained a balanced nutrient profile suitable for a variety of plants. The flower fertiliser was formulated to promote blooms, with higher phosphorus content. The fruit fertiliser had elevated nitrogen and potassium levels to support fruit production and more acidic soil conditions. The vegetable fertiliser was designed to promote leafy growth and strong stems.
Experimental Variables
Dependent Independent Controlled
Nitrogen levels of water
pH levels of water
Type of fertiliser used
Amount of water applied
Time left to soak
Brand of fertiliser used
pH test kit used
Nitrogen test kit used
Soil type used as base
Method
1. Collect equipment and set up as shown in Figure 1.
2. In 3 aluminium trays, cut open the soil bag with scissors and weigh 600 grams of soil using the scale and place this in the tray. Cut open the fertiliser bag with scissors and, evenly atop the soil, spread out 200 grams of all-purpose garden fertiliser.
3. Using a sharpie, label one of the 3 trays, ‘Trial 1’, one of the trays ‘Trial 2’, and the last of the 3 trays ‘Trial 3’.
4. Measure 400mL of water using the measuring jug and pour into each of the trays.
5. Repeat steps 2-4 in 2 different trays with vegetable fertiliser.
6. Repeat steps 2-4 in 2 different trays with fruit fertiliser.
7. Repeat steps 2-4 in 2 different trays with flower fertiliser.
8. Repeat steps 2-4 in 2 different trays with all-purpose fertiliser.
9. Let the trays sit and soak for 1 hour.
10. Whilst waiting, label 12 different cups according to their trial number and type of fertiliser, using a sharpie.
11. After 1 hour, with the sieve, strain the water out of all the trays into their respective cups.
12. Following your specific kits’ instructions, test the 12 samples for their pH levels using different test strips.
13. Repeat step 12, except test the samples for nitrogen levels.
14. Record results in a table
All-Purpose Nitrogen Test
Fruit Nitrogen Test
Flower Nitrogen Test
Vegetable Nitrogen Test
Discussion
My experiment partially supported my hypothesis that fruit fertiliser runoff would lower water quality due to higher nitrogen and acidity. Fruit fertiliser contained the most nitrogen (13%) and produced the highest runoff nitrogen level (50mg/L), but its pH remained neutral at 6.5, contradicting my expectation that sulphur would raise pH. A trend also emerged where higher potassium content, as in vegetable and all-purpose fertilisers (12.40%), correlated with lower pH. The experiment was reasonably reliable with three consistent trials, though more trials and longer testing would improve reliability. Accuracy was fair but could be enhanced with finer test strips, and validity could improve by using dry soil, including plants, and controlling timing. Overall, fruit fertilisers raise nitrogen the most, while vegetable fertilisers lower pH the most, showing that heavy fertiliser use near waterways can harm water quality and aquatic life.
Conclusion
Fertilisers for fruit-producing plants increase runoff nitrogen levels due to their high nitrogen requirements. Conversely, fertilisers with elevated potassium levels lower the pH level of runoff.
Acknowledgements
I would firstly like to thank my science teacher, Mrs Marsh, for providing me with verbal feedback and suggestions on how to improve my SRP. Additionally, sincere thanks are extended to the staff at Bunnings for their assistance in locating all the necessary items because I would have certainly got lost if it weren’t for them. Lastly, I extend my deepest thanks to my mum for her unwavering support throughout this study. From driving me around to collect the items I needed for my SRP, to reading over it with me and engaging in brainstorming, her involvement has been invaluable.
Global Outlook
Does the reliance on technology in medicine negatively impact the quality of patient care?
CORRINE XU
YEAR 10, 2024
This research report was completed as part of the Cambridge International Global Perspectives Course.
Technology’s
Impact on Patient Care
The World Health Organization (n.d.) defines quality of patient care as “the degree to which health services increase the likelihood of desired health outcomes”. Specifically, it is the service provided by physicians that maintains physical, mental, and social wellbeing of patients through the prevention and treatment of illnesses.
The integration of electronic health records (EHRs), telemedicine, robots, machinery, devices, artificial intelligence (AI), and other medical technology has significantly impacted healthcare delivery around the world, providing physicians with tools that are more accessible, accurate and efficient (WHO, 2023). For example, 3D printers can create personalised implants customised specifically for an individual patient, showcasing the role technology is able to play in improving diagnostic accuracy, treatment options, and ultimately, patient outcomes (Thimbleby, 2013). According to the OECD, in 2021, 93% of worldwide healthcare workers used EHRs or another form of medical technology in providing care. This statistic showcases the global nature of technology reliance in medicine, posing the question of whether this reliance is beneficial to patient care or detrimental.
The quality of patient care depends on physician performance, in combination with the adequacy, sanitation quality, and social context of the environment in which care is provided (HHR, 2014). Additionally, Nepal et al. (2020) interviewed a range of patients who also expressed respect for autonomy, humanised/ empathetic treatment, attention to patient needs, and clear communication as factors that increased their quality of care. As reliance on technology increases, concerns are raised that technology development will result in loss of patient-doctor connection, leading to less empathetic treatment and poorer communication, ultimately harming patient outcomes.
Global and National Perspectives on Technology Over-reliance
WHO (2023) claims technology is essential in healthcare systems, and that the highest quality of patient care is achieved only with technological assistance. They note that two million types of medical technology are being used globally to accelerate medical care and declare that common procedures wouldn’t be possible in the absence of technology. However, WHO does acknowledge that technology is effective only when used by well-trained staff. Additionally, the organisation’s 2020-2025 Global Strategy on
Digital Health recognises medical technology can bring new challenges to healthcare, such as ethical issues around data privacy that disrespect patient autonomy, possibly reducing the quality of patient care (WHO, 2021, p.4). Despite this, WHO does believe that technology is ultimately beneficial to the quality of patient care.
The US believes that over-reliance on technology has a significant detrimental effect on patient care. According to Grissinger, representing the Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP), technology increases the risk of mistreatment by 26%. He supports his claim with a personal anecdote, where a pharmacist typed “DIL” into a medication database, ordering DIL tiazem instead of the supposed DIL antin. However, the EHR stated DILantin had been correctly ordered and administered to the patient. As a result, the patient received the wrong medication and suffered severe hypotension and bradycardia. Grissinger also reports that physicians disregarded their own accurate decisions and instead, trusted incorrect technology output 6-11% of the time in situations of contradiction.
I sourced this perspective from a 2019 journal article by Matthew Grissinger, Director of Education at Institute for Safe Medication Practices (ISMP). The institute is a highly accredited US-based medical NGO, aiming to assist US healthcare professionals in preventing medical errors. Thus, Grissinger’s position demonstrates expertise in this field, affirming the source’s authority. Grissinger’s article integrates footnoting, using a diverse range of credible sources, including statistics, demonstrating that the information has been cross-referenced, and is, therefore, trustworthy. The source is factual and unbiased, providing objective insight into how technology over-reliance negatively impacts patient care. It is thus a reliable and beneficial source for my research.
Causes and Consequences of Technology Over-reliance
A major catalyst of technology over-reliance is the continuous development of technology itself. Technology advancement has resulted in more effective disease prevention, more accurate diagnoses, and patient monitoring and treatment administration (WHO, 2023). This source details various health technologies and explains their impact on patient care quality. It is published by WHO, meaning the source is objective, accurate, and free of bias. Therefore, the information can be trusted. Moreover, the information is coherent, supported with numerical statistics,
further proving credibility. WHO’s insight assisted me in my analysis , allowing me to understand that technology benefits patient care.
Moreover, AI development has made it possible for technology itself to provide healthcare; for example, to detect malignant tumours, at a more accurate rate than trained radiologists. (Davenport & Kalakota, 2019). This power instils the notion that technology is superior to manual work and, therefore, should be used more prominently for ideal outcomes.
Additionally, 21st century societal values have shifted to become highly technology orientated. As a result of a biotech boom in the mid-1990s, many patients now prefer health information to be communicated via technology, due to convenience and efficiency (Hillyer, 2020). This shift in patient expectations encourages technology use, hence increasing reliance. Similarly, emerging generations of healthcare providers are trained with medical technology. The rapidly evolving healthcare industry requires technology to bridge the gap of medical knowledge. Consequently, medical education reinforces physicians’ decision to utilise technology to assist them in understanding ever-advancing procedures and information, increasing technology over-reliance (Guze, 2015).
Figure 1 demonstrates the predicted growth of the surgical robot global market, highlighting the increasing adoption of medical technology (Global Market Insights, 2023). As more surgical procedures emerge, technology will advance to allow physicians to provide optimal care. As a result, technology over-reliance increases. This source is a publication that analyses the growth of technology, affirming my understanding of the causes of
technology over-reliance. Since the source is a publication, it would have been peer-reviewed and, therefore, is somewhat credible. While the authority of the source is majorly weakened by the absence of a specific author/expert, the information regarding the causes of technology’s increasing prominence aligns with other credible sources, such as WHO and other scientific journals. Further, it is recent, and thus relevant and useful to my report.
Unfortunately, technology over-reliance leads to automation bias, where technological decisions are favoured over manual decisions in the event of conflicting information, even if the manual input was correct (Grissinger, 2019). This overconfidence in technology’s performance has led to errors being overlooked, delayed responses to emergencies and, most significantly, decreased critical-thinking skills of healthcare professionals. Consequently, future patients will suffer from poorer care. Similarly, if there were to be a malfunction in one piece of technology, subsequent technology systems may also suffer and cascade to other negative consequences (Campbell, Sittig, Guappone, Dykstra, & Ash, 2007). This journal article, written by five authors with expertise in this topic, affirms the claim that physicians and hospitals are typically unprepared for technology malfunction. The source is published through a reputable journal database, meaning their information has been peer-reviewed and is thus, objective. The authors list their own qualifications, and reference other studies, establishing the credibility of the source. However, a weakness lies in the fact that the article was published in 2007. Since then, there have been major technological advancements, hence, the article’s information may be outdated. Nonetheless, the source supports the argument that technology over-reliance negatively impacts patient care.
Figure 1 (Global Market Insights, 2023).
Another consequence of technology over-reliance is the loss of humanised treatment and face-to-face communication. While technology alleviates workload, completing tedious manual tasks and allowing healthcare providers to use their limited time for tasks technology cannot complete, to improve patient care, this only encourages long-term technology over-reliance (Shaw, Hines & Kielly-Carroll, 2018). In this, they lose the personal emphatic element of healthcare, an element that is highly valued by patients as demonstrated in Nepal’s 2020 study. While healthcare workers attempt to improve overall patient outcomes using technology, individual patient satisfaction is reduced.
I believe rapid technological advancement is the most significant cause of technology over-reliance, as it is the root that leads to subsequent secondary causes, including shifts in societal values. Statistics demonstrate that technology is only going to further advance and, therefore, continue to drive overreliance. Additionally, I view automation bias as the most significant consequence, as left unacknowledged, overconfidence in technology in combination with technological error could lead to the worst possible patient outcome, i.e. death. Therefore, it is the highest risk factor, and must be addressed immediately.
Proposed Courses of Action
From my analysis, it is evident that over-reliance on technology has detrimental effects on the quality of patient care. Therefore, action should be taken to modify the medical education curriculum to prevent future technology overreliance. Modifications will be enforced nation-wide, with the initiative of the ISMP and funding assistance from US state governments/ individual private institutions. All health-related courses must explain the negative outcomes of technology over-reliance and teach students to use technology in a way that maximises, rather than abuses, technology’s potential. Furthermore, students would undertake mock scenarios where typical technology, such as EHRs and digital patient portals, are unavailable, forcing students to apply critical thinking and problem-solving skills to provide quality patient care as usual. In this, emphasis will be placed on patient needs, and physicians will be taught to value empathy and humanised treatment in providing treatment. Current healthcare providers will undertake a similar course, organised within their current workplace. A deadline should be made, where all healthcare providers must have completed the course and demonstrated proficiency in understanding the detriments of technology over-reliance before returning to work.
This course of action will be highly effective, as it addresses the issue from the root, ensuring quality of care does not decrease as technology continues to develop and becomes even more prominent in healthcare settings. Through education, emerging
healthcare providers will learn to be more vigilant in minimising error, ultimately becoming less reliant on technology, resulting in improved quality of patient care. Further, it is practical, as the suggested modifications are similar to the current work of ISMP, meaning renewed curriculums and protocols can be updated and implemented quickly. Moreover, the US has the resources to enforce these modifications.
An alternative course of action can be implemented in individual healthcare environments to reduce automation bias, by addressing the vulnerabilities of technology. The technology can be updated by removing auto-completion functions, hence requiring human input to reduce automation bias. Further, healthcare providers must cross-reference technology outputs to one additional member of staff before administering treatment or making a diagnosis. This allows treatment to be more humanised, increasing the quality of patient care. The impact of this is that technology will be used more effectively and, therefore, errors will be minimised, leading to positive patient outcomes. However, this course of action is not as practical, as it creates more work for doctors. As a result, less time can be spent on patients, negatively impacting patient care.
The first solution addresses technology over-reliance from the origin, preventing it from developing into a larger issue in the future. Meanwhile, the latter addresses technological error. However, technology faults are inevitable, and thus, tweaking technology will improve patient outcomes only temporarily. Rather, by addressing human faults, technological advancements will have a lesser impact on technology over-reliance and, therefore, quality of care will be improved. Thus, the preferred course of action is the first.
Personal Reflection
Initially, I believed that technology negatively impacted patient care and patient-doctor interactions. However, I now understand that this varies from patient to patient. Without technology, medicine is unable to advance, preventing optimal patient care from being provided. It is technology overreliance that is detrimental, leading to increased error and reduced awareness of patient needs. Technology is crucial in assisting healthcare providers with administering accurate and efficient care; however, its flaws are overlooked due to the idolised notion of technology, leading to over-reliance and errors. To conclude: significant technology over-reliance does negatively impact the quality of patient care. Thus, technology must be handled with vigilance for ideal outcomes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blog Posts
HHR. (2014, February 20). What is patient care? Health and Human Rights Resource Guide
Campbell, E., Sittig, D., Guappone, K., Dykstra, R. & Ash, J. (2007). “Overdependence on technology: an unintended adverse consequence of computerised provider order entry”. AMIA Symposium, 2007(2007), 94-98.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2710605/ Davenport, T. & Kalakota, R. (2019). “The potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare”. Future Healthcare Journal, 6(2), 94-98. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6616181/ Grissinger, M. (2019). “Understanding Human Over-Reliance On Technology”. P & T, 44 (6), 320-375. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6534180/ Guze, P. (2015). “Using Technology to Meet the Challenges of Medical Education”. Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association, 2015 (126), 260-270. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4530721/ Nepal, S., Keniston, A., Indovina, K., Frank, M., Stella, S., QuinzanosAlonso, I., McBeth, L., Moore, S., & Burden, M. (2020). “What Do Patients Want? A Qualitative Analysis of Patient, Provider, and Administrative Perceptions and Expectations About Patients’ Hospital Stays”. Journal of Patient Experience, 7(6), 1760-1770. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2374373520942403
Thimbleby, H. (2013). “Technology and the future of healthcare”. Journal of Public Health Research, 2(3), 28. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4147743/
Magazine Articles
Hillyer, M. (2020, November 18). “How has technology changed –and changed us – in the past 20 years?” World Economic Forum https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/11/heres-how-technologyhas-changed-and-changed-us-over-the-past-20-years/
Publications
Global Market Insights. (2023). Surgical Robots Market https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/surgical-robots-market OECD iLibrary. (2021). Digital Health www.oecd-ilibrary.org
Shaw, T., Hines, M. & Kielly-Carroll, C. (2018). Impact of Digital Health on the Safety and Quality of Health Care. https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/sites/default/files/migrated/ Report-The-Impact-of-Digital-Health-on-Safety-and-Quality-ofHealthcar....pdf
World Health Organization. (2021). Global strategy on digital health 2020-2025 https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/344249/9789240020924eng.pdf?sequence=1
World Health Organization. (2023). Health Technologies https://www.who.int/europe/news-room/fact-sheets/item/healthtechnologies
Websites
ECRI. (n.d.). ISMP. https://home.ecri.org/pages/ismp World Health Organization. (n.d.). Quality of Care https://www.who.int/health-topics/quality-of-care#tab=tab_1
According to a study by researchers at four British universities, for each 15-point increase in IQ, the likelihood of getting married increases by around 35% for a man but decreases by about 58% for a woman. Why?
KITTY GAI
YEAR 9, 2024
This essay was a finalist for the John Locke Institute Global Essay Prize. Kitty was invited to London to be present at the awards ceremony.
Introduction
Throughout history, a woman’s worth has been determined by her physical and sexual attractiveness, her role defined by her ability to marry and bear children. Accordingly, a woman’s niche in the traditional family structure has been that of a complacent, domestic workhorse, existing only to raise children and support the professional endeavours of her husband – a quality that remains consistent across cultures and generations. Additionally, recent studies on evolutionary psychology have suggested that, in addition to this being a social norm, the human brain, especially the male brain, is hardwired to assume a position of power within a relationship to ensure the survival of a species. This essay, through a dual analysis of both neurobiological and social factors (especially in regards to literature), argues that, while the former does play a significant role in the formation of this trend (i.e. that smarter women marry less, while smarter men marry more), it is ultimately our society’s inability to revise these harmful gender perceptions that ensures the trend’s continuation.
How Evolutionary Psychology Affects Marriage
Evolutionary psychology is “the study of behaviour, thought and feeling as viewed through the lens of evolutionary biology” (Britannica, n.d.). This means that all behaviours of a species can be explained by principles of evolution, and reflect the influence of the thoughts and behaviours that have worked to ensure a species’ survival. When viewed in the context of marriage, the behaviour in question is reproduction, which occurs naturally in humans between a male and a female. The ideal function of a marriage is,
therefore, a social arrangement that involves the procreation of offspring and the extended family, who raise them (Weisfeld and Weisfeld, 2002). However, since men and women biologically have different roles to play in the rearing of young, they tend to seek different attributes in mates. Weisfeld and Weisfeld suggest that men prefer “young, attractive, sexually faithful brides”, whereas women seek out males who are older and taller than them, as well as being socially dominant.
The male disposition to younger, more attractive and faithful brides can easily be explained using evolutionary psychology and biology. Most importantly, the emphasis placed on factors of attractiveness and fidelity highlight the male need for social capital as the archetypal ‘provider’, seen even today in our patriarchal societies. This correlation can be observed in the societies of one of our closest evolutionary relatives: chimpanzees. Male chimpanzees frequently compete within their groups to assert dominance over their fellow males, often through the acquisition of the most attractive, fertile mates and displays of aggression (Britannica, n.d.). While human tendencies are nowhere near as animalistic as those of our primate cousins, the need for men to assert themselves through taking command of marriage and sexual relationships remains apparent in the alarmingly high rates of domestic violence in our current world (NIH, 2023), and in the capture of females in warfare as bounty in ancient and early modern societies . When considered again through the lens of evolutionary psychology, reproduction again becomes salient: Control over the women most successful at bearing children correlates with control over the survival of the species, which is corroborated by the ‘survival of the fittest’ principle outlined by Darwin in his landmark treatise On the Origin of Species
When analysed in a modern context, the trend in question can be interpreted as a representation of changes in a single variable (intelligence) that ‘double-binds’ women (i.e., creates contrasting outcomes based on gender) (Eccles, 1987). Since women’s
evolutionary instincts are the inverse of men’s – instead of power, they are hardwired to seek protection, perhaps due to their lesser physical strength and lack of aggressive instincts – they gravitate towards men who seem more capable – whether physically, like in the past, or intellectually, like in the present. Thus, women of the modern era gravitate towards smarter men as a source of financial and social stability, a trend exacerbated by the rise of capitalism, linking intelligence to professional success. This is evidenced by the same study by Taylor et. al. that associated IQ with marriage, which also found that top-earning men were 8% more likely to be married than their poorer counterparts (2005).
However, the opposite is true for women – the more intelligent they are, the more likely they are to be highly educated; the more educated they are, the less likely they are to be the faithful, obedient stay-at-home spouse men biologically prefer. This means that women are struggling against the gradient of evolution, exacerbated by the fact that tertiary education often pushes their eligibility age into their late twenties, which subconsciously alerts men that they will be less fertile. This perception is not helped by the numerous scientific proofs that fertility does decline with age (ACOG, 2023). Furthermore, as we continue to endorse the development of female assertiveness and encourage intelligent women to succeed in male-dominated fields, women themselves are becoming increasingly noncompliant with the evolutionary standards their male counterparts set. Our society is, therefore, one in which men and women are almost equally socially dominant, but the former are found more attractive because this quality aligns with their biological job description, whereas the latter are alienated for the reason that it does not. In fact, studies have shown that interactions in which the wife is economically and socially more powerful have resulted in higher rates of divorce, especially as women’s economic power has risen with industrialisation (Weisfeld and Weisfeld, 2024). Thus, the interaction between intelligence and evolutionary psychology results in the same trait causing different marital outcomes for different genders.
Societal and Literary Perceptions of Female Intelligence
While evolution can be blamed as the source of this bias, it is unrelated to its perpetuation throughout our society. Rather, as literature especially suggests, evolutionary psychology has been ingrained into our way of life so completely that it is only
in the last century that any concrete progress has been made to recognise female individuality. Historically, marriage has often been a way to subdue women’s desires by restraining them to a life as an unambitious domestic worker (Lucas and Ordeniza, 2023), and until the 20th century, women who resisted it were labelled as radical and even immoral. This section aims to explain how the construct of marriage has affected women’s decisions to initiate relationships by analysing marriage’s representation in two texts – Pride and Prejudice (Austen, 1813), and Wifedom: Mrs Orwell’s Invisible Life (Funder, 2023) – drawing from the notion that literature is the written psychology of man.
The redemptive narrative of marriage for women continues to exist in our culture, something exemplified by Jane Austen’s 19th-century classic Pride and Prejudice, in which sharp-witted heroine Elizabeth Bennet, over the course of the story, finds her fiery tongue and candid judgement tempered by the burgeoning social expectations of matrimony. In her introduction to the Penguin Classics edition of the novel, Vivien Jones writes that this union represented the key objective of a female existence in Austen’s context: to “marry advantageously, and to this object their time is sacrificed, and their persons often legally prostituted”, Jones wrote, quoting from Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication on the Rights of Woman (1792) (2003). The ‘legal prostitution’ Wollstonecraft speaks of, which is seen in Elizabeth’s journey from a then-radical depiction of modern femininity to a traditionalist representation of the ideal Englishwoman, is marriage. While detractors of this claim may argue that this is simply reflective of Austen’s personal and political context, the idea of female submission in marriage far predates her. Thus, while the intricacies of male-female unions may have varied between Pride and Prejudice and the rest of the literary canon, it can still be considered representative of a rigid construct in which a woman’s role was defined by conformity and obedience. It is therefore no surprise that women of high intelligence, such as Elizabeth Bennet, find themselves socially unattractive and unfit for marriage, preferring to remain single.
Parallels can also be drawn to Anna Funder’s Wifedom: Mrs Orwell’s Invisible Life. Presented as a biographical reconstruction of George Orwell’s supremely capable – but largely forgotten – first wife, Eileen O’Shaughnessy, Funder’s work uses this as a premise to attack what she terms ‘male pattern blindness’ – the inability of the patriarchy to recognise and enfranchise the achievements of
According to a study by researchers at four British universities, for each 15-point increase in IQ, the likelihood of getting married increases by around 35% for a man but decreases by about 58% for a woman. Why? | KITTY GAI YEAR 9, 2024
women. In particular, she cites the work of political philosopher Friedrich Engels to explain in part the origins of the society that entrapped Elizabeth Bennet, O’Shaughnessy and herself.
In his The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884), patriarchy developed from hunter-gatherer bands, which necessitated the claiming of “land, animals, women, progeny” (Funder, 2023). This was reinforced by the imposing of monogamous marriage (hence the evolutionary preference for fidelity) to control female sexual desires and establish dominance over others. This is nowhere more apparent than in the life of O’Shaughnessy, whose work to both help and save her infinitely more famous husband has remained in relative obscurity. Funder writes that not only was O’Shaughnessy forced to sacrifice her career as an Oxford-trained psychologist, but also she ultimately passed away as a result of Orwell’s carelessness. These facts corroborate both marriage’s incompatibility with modern femininity and the need for women involved in the institution of marriage to become, in effect, euphemised servants. Marriage, Funder argues, requires placid, unthinking wives, not intelligent, autonomous women.
Conclusion
The idea of marriage as a restraint on female agency and an enhancement of male reputation permeates both texts, and reinforces the principles of evolutionary psychology while remaining relevant to our current context. Consequently, if anything is to be done about this huge gender disparity regarding marital success, it should prioritise the harmful stereotypes our patriarchal society has in place to hinder women of higher intelligence from seeming as desirable as their male peers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS
Engels, F. (1884). On the Origin of Family, Private Property and State. Funder, A. (2023). Wifedom: Mrs Orwell’s Invisible Life. Hamish Hamilton. Jones, V. (2003). Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Classics. Wollstonecraft, M. (1792). A Vindication on the Rights of Woman ENCYCLOPAEDIAS
Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Evolutionary Psychology. In https://www.britannica.com/ encyclopaedia. Retrieved 30 June, 2024 from https://www.britannica.com/science/evolutionary-psychology National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Domestic Violence. In www.ncbi. nlm.nih.gov encyclopaedia. Retrieved 30 June, 2024 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499891/
JOURNAL ARTICLES
Eccles, J.S. (1987). Gender Roles and Women’s Achievement-related Decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135-172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00781.x
Lucas, J.M., and Ordeniza, S. (2023). Women in Literature through Different Era. Technoarete Transactions on Language and Linguistics, 2(1), 6-10.
Weisfeld, G. E., & Weisfeld, C. C. (2002). Marriage: an evolutionary perspective. Neuro endocrinology letters, 23 Suppl 4, 47–54. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12496735/
WEBSITES
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (2023). Having a Baby After Age 35: How Ageing Affects Fertility and Pregnancy https://www.acog.org/womens-health/faqs/having-a-baby-after-age35-how-aging-affects-fertility-and-pregnancy
Cook, M. (2005). Why brainy women stay single. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jan/23/gender.comment
McClintock, E. (2014). Are High-Achieving Women Doomed to Be Single and Childless?
https://www.psychologytoday.com/au/blog
Languages Week Poster Competition Winner
ANNIE FANG
Languages Week Poster Competition Finalist
YEAR 7, 2024
ELLA ZHANG
Will the integration of AI in education be beneficial?
SHEISZEN LING
YEAR 10, 2024
This research report was completed as part of the Cambridge International Global Perspectives Course.
Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) is a programmed technology with the cognitive capabilities of human intelligence, like problemsolving and information processing (Britannica, 2024). Recent advancements in AI technology have propelled it to the forefront of modern technology, with influential countries the US and China leading in AI data, capital, accessibility and innovation (Chakravorti, Bhalla, Chaturvedi, 2023). With AI’s increasing affordability and accessibility, global adoption in educational institutions is prominent, presenting both benefits and challenges to education worldwide and reshaping society’s relationship with technology.
This report aims to analyse the drivers and implications of AI implementation in education and explore global and national perspectives from the United Nations (UN) and China. It will conclude with proposals of various courses of action, and a personal reflection answering whether the integration of AI in education will be beneficial.
Causes & Consequences
Through its ability to increase accuracy, efficiency and productivity, AI offers a solution to the educational crisis, promoting inclusive, accessible and quality education for learning worldwide (World bank, 2019).
A World bank report (2021) states that nearly 350 million children lack quality childcare in the world. In countries where quality childhood education is unaffordable or neglected, children are deprived of necessary foundational skills like literacy, hindering future academic and professional growth and ultimately limiting the country’s development. AI addresses this challenge by providing personalised learning experiences to achieve better educational outcomes. AI offers smart and interactive study tools and content that analyses students’ strengths and weaknesses, adapting and differentiating learning instructions to suit specific needs. Additionally, AI-powered games and simulations create an immersive learning environment, optimising the schooling by making difficult concepts easier to understand and increasing engagement.
Furthermore, factors such as poverty, gender, geographical location and culture barriers contribute to limited access to quality education, leading to a cycle of lasting intergenerational effects in affected communities. For instance, women account for
two-thirds of adults unable to read (UNESCO, 2019). AI’s digital medium makes learning highly accessible, with features such as voice-to-text and translation services, addressing educational disparities and fostering inclusivity.
Moreover, the shortage of high-quality teachers, compounded by a growing population, has led to an urgent need for 44 million primary and secondary teachers worldwide by 2030 (UNESCO, 2024). The scarcity stems from flawed education systems that undervalue teachers, discouraging prospective educators and causing high teacher attrition rates (Thompson, 2022). The strain on current teachers disrupts job satisfaction and work-life balance, reducing overall teaching quality. In response to the shortage, governments often resort to employing unqualified teachers, further compromising student development and perpetuating the cycle of inadequacy within the education system (Burns, 2023). While AI cannot replace the value and necessity of quality teachers, it aids educators by providing advanced resources and teaching tools. AI also simplifies and streamlines teachers’ jobs by automating administrative tasks like scheduling, grading including plagiarism checks, and analysing educational performance. Through data-driven insights, teachers are better equipped with methods to identify learning patterns and gaps in the curriculum to more accurately measure students’ skills, thereby improving education quality and teaching strategies. For example, a UK Department of Education report regarding teachers and AI usage stated that for some teachers, AI has decreased overtime, improving their work-life-balance and job satisfaction (Shearing, 2023).
However, despite promising innovation and progress to increase education quality and equity worldwide, AI’s integration has also raised ethical, social and economic concerns.
AI integration can lead to an over-reliance on technology, diminishing critical thinking and creativity and thus further impeding education rather than improving. it. This extends to harming academic integrity by facilitating plagiarism and spreading misinformation, while the prevalence of AIgenerated content complicates issues surrounding copyright and intellectual property rights. Moreover, data security breaches and privacy violations emerge with AI’s collection and analysis of sensitive student data, infringing on human rights. Without adequate safeguards, there is a risk of unauthorised access to sensitive information and potential misuse of data, increasing the frequency of cybercrimes worldwide (Moraes, Previtali, 2024). AI also risks algorithmic bias, which inadvertently
perpetuates racial, gender or age discrimination present in the data it is trained on, reinforcing existing educational inequality based on demographics. High implementation costs further exacerbate educational gaps between nations with low and high socioeconomic status, worsening digital poverty – the inability to fully interact with digital technologies. Wealthier countries with greater access to effective and safer AI education and research promote better learning, and will remain ahead of developing nations. AI’s ability to intensify the existing educational disparities has a more widespread impact than other challenges (UNESCO, 2023).
Global perspective: UN
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialised department of the UN. It aims to achieve global peace and security by 2030 through its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG4, Quality education (UN, n.d). While the UN recognises AI’s potential to achieve SDG-4 by bridging educational gaps among and within nations, addressing teacher shortages, and promoting learning and quality education globally, the organisation understands the inherent risks and challenges rapid technological advancements pose. The UN advocates for strict regulations on AI use, particularly of generative AI (GenAI) systems like ChatGPT; this is evident through its publication of Global Guidance on GenAI (2023), which suggested a minimum age of 13 for AI use in schools, adopting more robust data and privacy protection standards, and providing specific training in AI for teachers. Audrey Azoulay, the UNESCO Director-General, has stressed the importance of a “human-centric vision”, ensuring that AI technologies complement and enhance human intelligence and rights, rather than replacing them entirely. Furthermore, the UN warned about the rapid and unchecked adoption of GenAI after a UNESCO global survey of over 450 educational institutions revealed that fewer than 10% had policies or formal guidance on AI use (UNESCO, 2023). The organisation urges governments to develop unified policies for the responsible use of AI to protect citizens and prevent worsening digital poverty across nations.
National Perspective: China
As a global leader in AI development, China underscores the role of AI in innovating future human progress, actively incorporating it into its education since 2017 (Caiyu, 2023). In 2017, The State Council’s New-Generation AI Development Plan mandated AI training from primary to university levels and in 2018, the Ministry of Education (MOE) revised the national educational curriculum to include AI and related technology (Peterson, Goode, Gehlhaus, 2021). Primary education now features introductory Python courses and access to robotics, drones and 3D-printing labs, with the MOE designating 184 schools as AI education centres (State Council People’s Republic of China (PRC), 2024). China’s rapid integration of AI aims to foster AI and technology-related careers, reflecting China’s belief in AI’s significance for human progress. Moreover, beyond government initiatives, AI adoption has expanded into families’, students’ and educators’ lives. Following China’s ban on afterschool private tutoring, AI-powered educational devices and programs have surged in popularity, especially in middle-class and lessdeveloped areas with limited educational resources that need to offer accessible learning solutions (Chen, 2023; The Wall Street Journal, 2019). Statistics from the Ministry of Education (2021) show over 81547 primary schools across rural China rely on a single teacher for all subjects, making providing quality education challenging and widening the divide between urban and rural communities. Government and business initiatives such as the digital volunteering project and the MOE’s (2024) Education Informatization 2.0 Action Plan propose a “Networked, digitalised, intelligent, personalised and lifelong education system” through AI, to alleviate educational inequalities and teacher shortages. AI assists teachers and volunteers in preparing materials, filtering inappropriate content, and suggesting improvements and after-class activities. These plans also develop AI-powered digital infrastructure and introduce models like the “dual-teacher classroom”, where AI, online and local teachers collaborate, enhancing technical literacy and teaching content (UNESCO, 2023). This approach illustrates China’s commitment to using AI as a catalyst for educational reform, especially in remote areas.
Courses of Action
Firstly, stricter guidelines for the implementation, creation and use of AI in educational institutions are essential to protect students’ rights and guarantee ethical practices. This approach involves mandating a minimum age of 13 for AI technology use in classrooms, as recommended by the UN, as well as enforcing stricter monitoring and censorship to ensure that AI tools do not produce any illegal or inappropriate content (UN, 2023). Comprehensive ethical standards would be developed to avoid infringing on human rights through algorithmic bias and misinformation by establishing transparency in AI decisionmaking processes and data usage, and complementing that with mechanisms for accountability and oversight. Stricter data-privacy laws and cybersecurity would also be enforced to protect student information, requiring schools and AI providers to obtain explicit parental consent before collecting and analysing student data and allowing students to access and utilise AI tools. Furthermore, an independent regulatory body would moderate AI by frequently conducting evaluations and applying feedback from educators, students and parents. This requires human oversight and adhering to the required human-centred approach, whilst also assessing the impact on educational outcomes, student wellbeing, and data security, ensuring responsible and effective use and integration of AI tools.
Secondly, creating a unified global policy for AI in education aims to harmonise regulations across countries, promote inclusive growth and reduce education disparities. This policy would involve collaboration with international bodies like the UN, and national governments, to establish a universal framework that aligns with international ethical standards and human rights. Key components include standardised regulations for robust data privacy and user safety, and ethical development and quality assurance of AI systems with a focus on accountability, explainability and transparency, ensuring fairness (OECD, 2024). Additionally, to aid developing countries, the policy would provide technical assistance, funding and training programs for educators and policy makers. The framework would be regularly reviewed and updated in response to technological advancements and emerging challenges, guaranteeing AI integration enhances learning outcomes, reduces educational inequalities and maintains ethical standards globally. This comprehensive approach promotes equitable access to quality education through AI, ensuring all communities and nations benefit from technological advancements, without exacerbating existing inequalities.
Evaluation of Sources
The evidence I have gathered is highly reliable. My sources are primarily published from reputable organisations like the UN, World Bank and Britannica, or official government websites and documents from the Ministry of Education and State Council PRC, making them reliable and authoritative. While most sources were published between 2023 and 2024, some lacked specific dates and recency, therefore reducing reliability, as they may fail to represent current perspectives and impacts of AI. However, they still offer evidence of shifting attitudes and improvements in educational AI. Moreover, the information collected is as accurate as it is relevant, factual and free of error. This is evident in the sources from the BBC and UNESCO, which provide links to credible external sources containing qualitative and quantitative statistics, and official publications like the Teacher’s Wellbeing Index, and the Beijing Consensus. Furthermore, although information from news publishers such as The Wall Street Journal and Harvard Business Review may contain potential newspaper editing bias, they are largely objective, as they clearly present opinion pieces with arguments for and against AI integration from diverse stakeholders like students and teachers, and relevant experts such as professors, and government officials and bodies. Thus, by assessing a variety of diverse and authentic opinions over a wider demographic, bias is reduced. Overall, the sources are very reliable, as the majority are recent, credible, accurate and objective.
Reflection
Initially, as a student, I saw AI in education as beneficial for its instant personalised feedback and convenience, which improved educational outcomes. However, through my research of AI’s causes and consequences and diverse perspectives, I have learnt about the ethical challenges posed by AI, for which the UN underscores the need for transparency and responsible regulation. The many benefits of AI include assisting both teachers and students, improving education systems around the world and bridging educational inequalities among communities, as shown through China’s successful initiatives for educational AI. Therefore, I think AI can evolve education globally; however, without responsible and ethical AI regulations and transparency enforced by governments, I believe that the educational sector remains unprepared for the ethical and educational integration of AI.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Encyclopaedias
Britannica. (2024). Artificial intelligence (AI) In kids.britannica.com. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/artificial-intelligenceAI/272968
Government/Corporate Publication or Document
Centre for Security and Emerging Technology. (2021). AI Education in China and the United States. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/ai-education-in-china-andthe-united-states/
MOE. (2021). Number of Schools, External Teaching Sites and Classes in Primary Schools. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from http://en.moe.gov.cn/documents/statistics/2021/national/202301/ t20230103_1037878.html
UNESCO. (2023). Education in the age of artificial intelligence. Retrieved from May 2, 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387029_eng
UNESCO. (2019). From access to empowerment: UNESCO strategy for gender equality in and through education 2019-2025. Retrieved from May 2, 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark :/48223/pf0000369000
UNESCO. (2023). Guidance for generative AI in education and research Retrieved from May 2, 2024 from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark :/48223/pf0000386693
Newspaper/Magazine Article
Caiyu, L. (2023, July 27). Introducing AI courses as part of China’s compulsory education syllabus is a matter of time: observers. Global Times. Retrieved from May 10, 2024 from https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202307/1295179.shtml
Chakravorti, B., Bhalla, A., Chaturvedi, R. (2023, December 12). Charting the Emerging Geography of AI. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from May 10, 2024 from https://hbr.org/2023/12/charting-the-emerging-geography-of-ai Chen, C. (2024, February 12). Parents turn to AI tablets after China’s tutor crackdown. Rest of World. Retrieved from May 8, 2024 from https://restofworld.org/2024/china-student-tablet-ai/
MOE. (2024, March 23). MOE launches special action plan for integrated, intelligent, and internationalized digital education. MOE . Retrieved from May 17, 2024 from http://en.moe.gov.cn/news/press_releases/202404/ t20240401_1123434.html
Shearing, H. (2023, November 28). AI helps out time-strapped teachers, says report. BBC. Retrieved from May 5, 2024 from https://www.bbc.com/news/education-67433036
The State Council The People’s Republic of China (PRC). (2024, February 23). China releases list of 184 AI education bases in schools. The State Council PRC. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202402/23/content_ WS65d85f47c6d0868f4e8e44a7.html
The World Bank. (2019, January 22). The Education Crisis: Being in School Is Not the Same as Learning. The World Bank. Retrieved from May 3, 2024 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ immersive-story/2019/01/22/pass-or-fail-how-can-the-world-do-itshomework
The World bank. (2021, March 4). Nearly 350 Million Children Lack Quality Childcare in the World. The World Bank. Retrieved from May 4, 2024 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ press-release/2021/03/04/nearly-350-million-children-lack-qualitychildcare-in-the-world
UN. (2023, September 7). UNESCO calls for regulations on AI use in schools. UN. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/09/1140477
Video
The Wall Street Journal. (2019, October 2). How China is using artificial intelligence in classrooms. [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved from May 10, 2024 from https://youtu.be/JMLsHI8aV0g?si=haFs9Ga55O73DGGw
Websites
OECD. (2024). Artificial Intelligence. Retrieved from May 28, 2024 from https://www.oecd.org/digital/artificial-intelligence/ Thompson, G. (2022). New Global Report to Overworked, Underpaid, and Undervalued teaching profession. Retrieved from May 20, 2024 from https://www.ei-ie.org/en/item/25366:new-global-reportpoints-to-overworked-underpaid-and-undervalued-teachingprofession
UN. (n.d). The 17 Goals. Retrieved from May 1, 2024 from https://sdgs.un.org/goals
UNESCO. (2024). Global report on teachers: What you need to know. Retrieved from May 20, 2024 from https://www.unesco.org/en/ articles/global-report-teachers-what-you-need-know
UNESCO. (n.d). Artificial intelligence in education. Retrieved from May 28, 2024 from https://www.unesco.org/en/digital-education/ artificial-intelligence
Vitaspice Business Plan
NATALIE KIM
YEAR 11, 2024
Executive Summary
A business plan is essential for the owners of Vitaspice, as it outlines the objectives they wish to achieve and the procedures needed to obtain this success. It contains in-depth analysis of market trends and competitors, allowing the owners to make knowledgeable decisions regarding pricing approaches, marketing strategies and the allocation of scarce resources. A business plan is ultimately an effective tool for communicating the company’s vision and objectives to employees, customers and more. (Queensland Government, 2024).
Overview of Vitaspice
Prime function
Vitaspice is a for-profit business that belongs to the tertiary industry, or more precisely the foodservice industry. Vitaspice will distribute a spice, herb and natural ingredient mixture that includes the mineral iron. It’s designed to offer an innovative, creative and alternative option to consuming a standard iron pill that’s difficult to take consistently. Iron is essential for bone growth and muscle development, particularly for women, as they lose a significant quantity of iron every month due to their menstrual cycle. Vitaspice’s unique and versatile spice mix can be used in various meals, such as on tacos or roast vegetables, appealing to diverse culinary and dietary preferences. Contrary to spice mixtures focused on flavour, Vitaspice helps individuals meet the recommended iron intake, attracting health-conscious consumers who prioritise nutrition and wish to prevent health complications. Among Australians, 1 in 3 consume an insufficient quantity of iron and, as market research shows 62.2% of consumers believe they don’t meet the required intake of iron. Individuals may develop symptoms such as weakness, fatigue and pale skin (Top Health Doctors, 2023), if the recommended iron intake of 15-18mg for women and 8mg for men isn’t met. (National Institutes of Health, 2023)
Vitaspice’s spice blend contains 6.48 mg of iron. It consists of spinach, parsley, lemon, turnip greens, fennel seeds, green peas, chia seeds, broccoli and swiss chard, making up approximately half of the required daily consumption. The inclusion of lemon adds 26.5 mg of Vitamin C, increasing the bioavailability of iron. (Cleveland Clinic, 2023). Consequently, a study found when doses of ascorbic acid ranging from 25-1000mg were added to a meal containing 4.1 mg of nonheme iron, which is found in plant-based foods, the bodily absorption of iron increased progressively from 0.8% to 7.1%. (Sciencedirect, 2023).
Location
Vitaspice will be outsourcing its manufacturing from a spicemixture production company labelled Birch & Waite, located at 48-54 Meeks Road in Marrickville. It’s situated in close proximity to the suppliers of the raw ingredients, Spice & Co in Willoughby, thus reducing transport costs and ensuring a secure supply of high-quality organic materials. Vitaspice’s store will be situated in Enfield, New South Wales on 138A Liverpool Road. The store’s proximity to complementary stores like IGA adds convenience for customers, who can shop at multiple stores in the one location. This prime location offers high visibility, increased foot traffic and the potential for higher sales and customer engagement, as it is situated on a main road.
Legal structure: Partnership
Vitaspice will be established as a partnership with six contributing partners, allowing shared decision-making, workload and responsibilities. The partners can support one another and rely on one another’s skills and knowledge. This structure facilitates accessible raising of capital, as each partner contributes a certain portion of finance without relying on personal savings or loans. However, partnerships can result in conflicts, due to differing management styles and risking personal assets if in debt. Additionally, as an unincorporated entity, the business lacks separate existence, meaning it dissolves if a partner dies, restricting its continuity.
Operation Plan
Production process
The resource inputs concerning the selling of the iron spice mix include a physical store to allow for the exhibition of, and physical payment for, the spice blend. Capital to cover the expenses of the store, labour and technological applications, is another essential input. Store workers to promote and arrange payment options for the product and drivers to transport the spice mixtures are other vital inputs. Furniture, including shelving, desks, lighting, and chairs are also required. Technology such as a laptop, phone and credit-card reader are essential for the successful sales process of the spice mixture. Transformation processes for the selling of the spice mixture are ensuring store workers are trained and inducted with relevant scientific knowledge to create personalised experiences for the customer by educating them on the nutritional content of Vitaspice, as well as suggesting recipes that incorporate the spice mixture. Other transformation processes include ensuring that Vitaspice’s store acquires a credit-card reader to allow for payments and that store workers unpack and organise all the products onto the shelves when the truck driver transports the stock.
Quality Assurance Management
Vitaspice’s quality assurance approach embraces a system that aims to prevent issues of quality control arising by setting strict standards. This will include regular equipment checks to ensure there are no faults. Birch & Waite will conduct inspections of raw materials through testing for contaminants to verify quality and consistency. The manufacturer will also maintain a consistent weight of 291 grams exactly, per package. Production will accurately weigh each of the ingredients to be a precise mass, so quality assurance can be maintained.
The quality assurance approach also aligns with industry standards for food safety and quality through the ISO 9000. Vitaspice will adhere to the ISO 9000 by adopting its Corrective and Preventative Action procedure. If the spinach mixture contains a foreign object (dirt or pests), which can occur due to storage or transport accidents, this can affect the safety and quality. In such a case, the root cause of the issue would be identified, corrective actions executed and the effectiveness of the preventive measures would be analysed. (Indiana University, 2023).
Staffing Plan
Job Title No. of employees for job
Truck driver 1
CEO 1 (Is one of the partners of Vitaspice)
Type of employment contract (permanent/ casual) +
Hourly Rate or Salary
Casual Wage:
$28.01/hour (Payscale, 2024).
Full-time Permanent Salary: Owners earn $33,600 salary (for a small- business owner with less than 5 years of experience) (Upskilled, n.d.) (A head for Business, n.d.).
Function
Store workers 2
Both are casual $22.44/hour (Payscale, n.d.).
Transports Vitaspice’s iron spice blend from Birch & Waite manufacturing centre to the store located on 138A Liverpool Road in Enfield. They will also unload the supply into the allocated storage space in Vitaspice’s store.
The CEO will set targets for revenue growth and profit and will supervise the development of the company’s financial plans and budgets. The CEO will develop strategies to achieve long-term sustainable growth, and increase market share in the spice mixture industry. The CEO will oversee the recruitment process, such as job postings, interviewing and hiring. The CEO will provide training to the new employees and establish staffing rosters and payments for employees. The CEO will determine Vitaspice’s brand values and will develop marketing strategies to target specific market segments and ensure customer loyalty.
The CEO will also set standards for product quality and control processes for the manufacturer to ensure the spice mixtures meet customer expectations and regulation standards for food production.
Will provide customer service to ensure effective shopping encounters for customers through assistance and responses to their questions. They will actively engage with customers to promote Vitaspice’s spice mix and reveal the features that differentiate it from its competitors. Store workers will also unpack stock from the truck onto arrangements on shelves in the store.
Marketing Plan
Target market
Based on 37 responses collected for market research, determining the target market for Vitaspice will involve a market-segmentation approach. Vitaspice’s primary target market is adolescent females interested in improving their health and wellbeing, whilst having a low socio-economic status and situated in suburban residency. Based on market research, individuals interested in purchasing Vitaspice’s product were 91.9% female and 86.5% were 15-18 years old. Individual responses stated they were fascinated with Vitaspice’s product as “it will motivate someone to take their iron more”, and “it’s a good substitution for individuals struggling to swallow iron pills, as they are mundane and boring so it would be fun to experiment with different recipes to incorporate the spice.” Furthermore, 27% of respondents earn $1-$20 per week, and a further 27% earn $20-$100 a week. Consequently, Vitaspice will target females on a limited income, as many don’t have jobs to purchase expensive items.
Promotion: Social Media Advertising
Vitaspice’s promotion strategy will be to advertise through social media. Vitaspice will create Instagram and TikTok accounts to capture the attention of the target market more effectively, rather than using newspapers or radio. By utilising TikTok, Vitaspice will cater to its target market of females, as TikTok’s dominant demographic is adolescent females, with 57% of users female and 25% aged 10-19 years (Howarth, 2024). According to market research, 56.8% spend 1-3 hours a day on social media platforms. With individuals spending prolonged periods of time on social media (Common Ground, 2024), the high engagement on these apps will increase the opportunity of Vitaspice content being noticed and interacted with, allowing Vitaspice to connect and develop a loyal customer base.
Competition
Old El Paso and McCormick are among Vitaspice’s existing competition. They offer spice and seasoning mixes that individuals can add to meals. Vitaspice will differentiate its product from its competitors’ through its focus of integrating ingredients high in iron, rather than offering a product that enhances the flavour of meals. In market research conducted, 67.6% said they didn’t find competitors’ spice mixes nutritionally beneficial. Other spice mixes also contain added substances, including thickeners, xanthan gum and anti-caking agents, which are linked to higher risks of digestive issues. These substances are non-existent in Vitaspice’s iron spice mix, which contains only organic and natural ingredients. Vitaspice’s primary focus is creating a product to be used as an alternative to consuming ironrelated medication, which is mundane and tedious.
Cost-based pricing
Vitaspice will use the cost-based pricing method to determine the price it will offer to customers. This method is simple and it is easy to calculate a price by simply adding a fixed percentage to the cost of manufacturing, making it a straightforward choice for small businesses with limited pricing knowledge. By adding a certain markup to the cost, businesses can also ensure they maintain suitable profit levels. Furthermore, Vitaspice will be outsourcing its manufacturing to Birch & Waite, which will charge $3.65 for 1 unit of production. It will cost $0.15 to transport a unit to Vitaspice’s store, $0.50 to ensure the store’s utilities are maintained to allow for the sale process and $0.25 for the labour of store workers processing customer payments. Therefore, the total cost of production is $4.55. Vitaspice will add a 35% markup to sell 1 unit at $7, given that 40.5% stated they would be willing to pay over $5 for Vitaspice’s spice mixture.
Financial plan
Start-up costs for Vitaspice
Source of Finance
Equity: Partners
As Vitaspice’s legal structure is a partnership, each partner will need to contribute a certain quantity of finance as listed in the table below. Together, the six partners will contribute $3700 to the establishment of the business.
Debt: Overdrafts
To cover the remaining startup costs, Vitaspice will source its finance through a process of overdrafts. This procedure grants approval by a bank for firms to overdraw their account up to an accepted limit for a specified time to overcome a temporary cash shortfall. Therefore, Vitaspice will overdraft $1750 from Commonwealth Bank, which has no set minimum repayment required. As a result, Vitaspice will repay its loan when money is put into its linked Business Transaction Account, at any time suitable for the business. Commonwealth Bank offers its customers a $0 establishment fee, but there is a corporate overdraft reference rate of 11.33% per annum. There is also a 1.12% pa line fee charged to make Vitaspice’s overdraft available 24/7 and a $15 overdraft usage fee. (Commonwealth Bank, 2024).
Sales Forecast
Sales forecast for Vitaspice from July 2024 to June 2025.
In January of 2025 to June, Vitaspice experienced a sudden spike in sales as individuals set health goals for their new year’s resolutions and looked to improve their nutrition, influenced by a government campaign promoting the benefits of iron intake. This resulted in increased demand for Vitaspice’s iron spice mix. However, in October, sales declined as consumers saved money in anticipation of Black Friday sale events and spent more on recreational activities during the school holidays.
Cashflow Statement
Cashflow budget for Vitaspice from July 2024 to June 2025
From August 2024 to May 2025, Vitaspice experienced a consistent negative closing cash balance as the cash inflows expected from its sales revenue didn’t sufficiently fund the monthly outflow costs. The salary and wages were the biggest contributors to the outflows of $4819.28 every month, which put a tight strain on Vitaspice’s cash flow, while the company was also attempting to cover utilities and rent expenses. The minor decline in sales revenue in October also pressured a greater negative cash balance by $4617.83.
However, as Vitaspice’s sale revenue eventually increased in March to surpass outflow costs, there was an eventual contraction of the negative closing balance until the end of the financial year in June 2025, when there was a $3193.25 positive closing cash balance.
Future prospects
In the future, Vitaspice is expected to expand its product line by creating a sweet iron spice mixture containing ingredients such as cinnamon, figs and tomatoes. Following this, Vitaspice will offer spice mixtures for different minerals and vitamins, such as magnesium and calcium. Vitaspice will then expand its available products nationally by establishing stores in states across Australia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Websites
Ahead for Business. (n.d.). New Small Business Matters report. https://aheadforbusiness.org.au
Cleveland Clinic, 2023). Should You Take Iron With Vitamin C? https://health.clevelandclinic.org/iron and-vitamin-c
Commonwealth Bank. (n.d.). Business Overdraft. https://www.commbank.com.au
Corrective and Preventive Action Plans: Guidance: Human Subjects & Institutional Review Boards: Compliance: RESEARCH: Indiana University. (n.d.). RESEARCH. https://research.iu.edu/compliance/human-subjects/guidance/ corrective-preventive-action-plans.html
Employment, S.B. and T. (2022). Writing a business plan. https://www.business.qld.gov.au/running-business/planning/writingplan
Howarth, J. (2024). Tiktok User Age, Gender & Demographics. https://explodingtopics.com/blog/tiktok-demographics Impressions. (n.d.). 7 advantages of social media advertising. https://www.commonground.digital/blog/advantages-of-socialmedia-advertising/ Indiana University. (2023). Corrective and Preventive Action Plans. https://research.iu.edu/compliance/human-subjects/guidance/ corrective-preventive-action-plans.html
National Institutes of Health. (2023). Iron. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iron-Consumer/ Payscale. (2024). Average Heavy Truck Driver Hourly Pay in Australia. https://www.payscale.com/research/AU/Job=Heavy_Truck_Driver/ Hourly_Rate
Payscale. (2024). Hourly Rate for Industry: Grocery Store or Supermarket.
Realcommercial. (n.d.). 138A Liverpool Rd, Enfield, NSW 2136. https://www.realcommercial.com.au/for-lease/property-138aliverpool-rd-enfield-nsw-2136-504366656
Souper Safe. (n.d.). Top Nuts high in Iron. https://www.soupersage.com/food-groups-nutrition/nuts-high-in-iron
The Botanical Institute. (2023). 6 Herbs High In Iron. https://botanicalinstitute.org/herbs-high-in-iron/ Top Health Doctors. (2023). How common is Iron deficiency? https://tophealthdoctors.com.au/how-common-is-irondeficiency/#:~:text=Share%3A,and%20the%20transportation%20 of%20oxygen
Upskilled. (n.d.). Small Business Manager. https://www.upskilled.edu.au/your-career/job-roles/small-businessmanager
Videos
Inland Revenue NZ. (2020, September 28). Business Basic. Partnership Structure. [Video].
Google Maps. (n.d.). Liverpool Road, Enfield. [Photograph]. https://www.google.com/maps/
Woolworths. (n.d.). Old El Paso Soft Taco Dinner Kit Mexican Style. [Photograph]. https://www.woolworths.com.au/shop/ productdetails/2037/old-el-paso-soft-taco-dinner-kit-mexican-style Woolworths. (n.d.). Old El Paso Taco Spice Mix Extra Mild. [Photograph].
Woolworths. (n.d.). Mccormick Asian Chilli Crisp Street Food Seasoning. [Photograph]. https://www.woolworths.com.au/shop/productdetails/500779/ mccormick-asian-chilli-crisp-street-food-seasoning
Journal Article
Cook, J.D., & Reddy, M.B. (2001). Effect of ascorbic acid intake on nonheme-iron absorption from a complete diet. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(1), 93-98. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/73.1.93
Critically analyse the influence of media and technology in altering methods of socialisation.
ALYSSA STAMSON
YEAR 11, 2024
Proposal
I aim to research how the implementation of technology into society has influenced the primary methods of socialisation using a comparative study of Generation X and Generation Z. My primary data will consist of a questionnaire of closed-ended questions to ensure concise, quantitative data that is efficient to synthesise. Questions may include; ‘When you socialise with friends, do you prefer to do so through technology (e.g., a phone call) or in-person?’ or ‘How likely are you to chat with someone online that you have not met in-person’? Additionally, using this information to further the detail of my research, I will act as a mediator for a focus group with two members of both generations. This is a form of qualitative data, which will provide me with a more detailed analysis of the media and its subsequent impacts on socialisation. This will allow me to gather information on the impacts of technology and the media and how they can shape how people socialise with one another.
Introduction
My Personal Interest Project aims to research how the implementation of technology and the media has influenced primary methods of socialisation. My research will determine whether younger generations socialise primarily through technology and how this has changed from previous generations. My research will also encompass the process of this technological integration, and its subsequent impacts on the value of technology in our society, as well as how we use it.
I have chosen this topic because since the rise of technology and the media, young people have used it as a primary method of communication, particularly among their peers. Through my research, I have discovered that technology and the media have become a highly valued presence among Generation Z, and that there is an expectation to “be online”. My research also aims to explore how older generations communicate more in-person than online, and if this form of interaction is more personal than digital socialisation.
My research will be in the form of a comparative study between Generation X and Generation Z to determine the effects of this technological change on primary socialisation methods. This comparison will demonstrate behaviour changes over time and how they have been altered by the integration of technology. I have selected Generation Z because the presence of technology has been at the highest level in history, and unlike even younger generations, they are old enough to form their own opinions and views, thus making my research more accessible to them and easy for them to comprehend. I selected Generation X as a comparison because they were not exposed to technology and the media from young ages, unlike older generations, my research is more accessible to them. This age comparison is the most suitable for my research and will provide me with the most balanced understanding and results.
My primary research will consist of a questionnaire of closedended questions that will provide me with concise, quantitative data that is efficient to synthesise to see the presence of trends. Once this research has been gathered, my focus group will use more extensive, qualitative data to determine the effects of technological innovation on young people in our society and how they socialise, compared with older generations. This will provide me with a more in-depth, personal understanding of my topic, and will help me explore the influence of peers and other related elements of my research in more detail.
My topic will contribute to the understanding of technology and how innovation shapes our culture and social norms. It will also determine the changes on peer pressure and behavioural changes among peer groups, thus improving my cultural literacy and understanding of human behaviour in the “modern world”. Additionally, my understanding of how changes in the macro world affect communities and individuals in the meso and micro world will improve greatly.
Critically analyse the influence of media and technology in altering methods of socialisation. |
Part 1: The Shift to the Digital Age
While Generation X favours more face-to-face methods of socialisation,1 the integration of technology and the media is rapidly engaging Generation Z in what is quickly becoming known as the “Digital Age”.2
A study conducted in 2015 surveyed 100 members of Generation Z and discovered that 100% owned either a cell phone or tablet with at least one social-media platform downloaded onto it.3 I received identical results through my questionnaire, where out of 40 respondents, 23 of which were Gen Z, 100% had at least one social-media platform and 71% had downloaded it between 10 and 15 years of age, as shown in Figure 1.4 Additionally, 51% of Generation Z respondents recorded that they used social media as their primary communication method, as shown in Figure 2. 5 In 2023, it was found that 70% of Generation Z preferred digital communication as their primary method of socialisation, because it provided them with greater control over their words while allowing lower levels of commitment, compared with face-to-face interaction.6 It was found that approximately 81% of Generation Z use social media almost constantly in some manner, even when in the presence of peers or family.7 Similarly, a study conducted in 2015 found that 46% of Generation Z respondents preferred to interact with friends, peers or family members digitally rather than in-person.8 Out of the 100 respondents from the study, 0% answered that technology or media is not used when interacting with others.9 When prompted with this fact, the two Generation Z participants in my focus group elaborated by stating that social media was more efficient to meet and socialise with people than face-to-face interaction, because the vast majority of people have it, and “use it on a regular basis for almost everything”.10
1 Notre Dame of Maryland University, “The Evolution of Communication Across Generations”. [website] https://online.ndm.edu/news/communication/evolutionof-communication/ (accessed 8 June 2024).
2 C. Li, et al. (2022) “Does The Internet Bring People Closer Together or Further Apart? The Impact of Internet Usage on Interpersonal Communication.” Behavioural Sciences, 12(11), pg. 19
3 E. Drago. 2015. “The Effect of Technology on Face-To-Face Communication”.
The Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, (6)1, pg. 13.
4 Questionnaire, Question 4, 40, June 4, 2024.
5 Questionnaire, Question 9, 40, June 4, 2024.
6 ChitChat Agency, “The Rise of Messaging: How Gen Z and Millennials Prefer to Communicate” [website], https://chitchatagency.com/the-rise-of-messaginghow-gen-z-and-millennials-prefer-to-communicate/, (accessed 12 June 2024).
7 Northeastern University, “Understanding Generational Influences in Communication Technology and Social Media Use”, [website], https:// inspireandinfluence.cps.northeastern.edu/2021/04/30/understandinggenerational-differences-in-communication-technology-and-social-media-use/, (accessed 13 June 2024).
8 Drago, ‘The Effect of Technology on Face-To-Face Communication’, pg. 16.
9 Drago, ‘The Effect of Technology on Face-To-Face Communication’, pg. 16.
10 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
Figure 1: Question 4 of Questionnaire (Gen Z)
Figure 2: Question 9 of Questionnaire (Gen Z)
Figure 3: Question 9 of Questionnaire (Gen X)
Contrastingly, the two Generation X participants within my focus group stated that because they were not exposed to the media at young ages, they were less comfortable with the idea of it as a communication method, and preferred telephone calls or FaceTime, claiming that it was closer to in-person interaction.11 This was also reflected in my questionnaire, as shown through Figure 3.12 Additionally, 76% of Generation X respondents recorded downloading these platforms over the age of 21, as shown through Figure 4.13 I further asked whether they believed that technology is more impersonal than face-to-face socialisation, with Respondent 13 claiming that they are more comfortable with the “traditional face-to-face” method.14 Additionally, only 7% of Generation X respondents answered that they used social media as a primary communicating method,15 and the corresponding members in my focus group explained that they downloaded it only when it became completely necessary for communication.16
Part 2: The Pressure to ‘Be Online’
Technology and the media connect people through globalisation, a process that reduces feelings of isolation.17 However, the more efficient this technology becomes, the more the need for faceto-face socialisation decreases.18 While peers were one of the most influential aspects of an individual’s perception of norms, expectations, society and culture for Generation X, the media has become the primary way in which Generation Z connects with the meso and macro world.19 As shown through Figures 5 and 6, the reliance on this technology manufactures a pressure to be online in order to stay in touch with current trends, ideas, speech patterns and products.20
In my questionnaire, 14/23 Generation Z respondents claimed to have downloaded social media either because it was trending or they heard about it through conversations with peers.21 As shown through Figure 5, when asked if they feel a pressure to be online, 96% of Generation Z stated ‘yes’.22 The majority mentioned keeping up with changing trends to be “considered cool”, and
11 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
12 Questionnaire, Question 9, 40, June 4, 2024.
13 Questionnaire, Question 4, 40, June 4, 2024.
14 Questionnaire, Question 10, 40, June 4, 2024.
15 Questionnaire, Question 4, 40, June 4, 2024.
16 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
17 Li, “Does the Internet Bring People Closer Together or Further Apart?”, pg. 1.
18 Drago, “The Effect of Technology on Face-To-Face Communication”, pg. 13. (accessed 8 June 2024).
19 S. Tirocchi. 2024. “Generation Z, Values, and Media: From Influencers To BeReal, Between Visibility and Authenticity”, Frontiers in Sociology (8) pg. 1.
20 S. Tirocchi, ‘Generation Z, Values, and Media’, pg. 2.
21 Questionnaire, Question 3, 40, June 4, 2024.
22 Questionnaire, Question 7, 40, June 4, 2024.
Respondent 4 claimed that if you do not have social media, you are considered “disadvantaged socially”, and seen as disconnected or behind.23 This is because trends shape societal norms and cultural development, one of the most prevalent examples being language. New abbreviations and phrases that originate from social media popularise in the macro world through the media, and rapidly become a part of regular verbal speech.24 Thus, a gap forms between those who follow along, and those who ‘fall behind’.25 When asked to discuss their opinion on these statements, my focus group concluded that an online presence is an ‘extension’ of socialisation because it is the quickest and most popular method of receiving information on topics and events that will later be discussed with peers or friends.26
23 Questionnaire, Question 8, 40, June 4, 2024.
24 Language Services Direct, “How Is Social Media Changing the English Language?” [website], https://www.languageservicesdirect.co.uk/social-mediachanging-english-language/, (accessed 9 June 2024).
25 Language Services Direct, How Is Social Media Changing the English Language?
26 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
Figure 5: Question 7 of Questionnaire (Gen Z)
Figure 6: Generational comparison of online purchases through social media
Critically analyse the influence of media and technology in altering methods of socialisation. | ALYSSA STAMSON YEAR 11,
2024
Contrastingly, as shown through Figure 7, only 62% of Generation X believed that the pressure to “be online” existed, and explained that important events relating to old peers or long-distance friends are shared on social media, and thus it is crucial for maintaining relationships.27 Additionally, they expressed that the efficiency of digital technology and widespread use of social media have made both vital methods of communication.28 However, 38% argued ‘no’, 29 and Respondent 40 stated that “there are other ways to communicate”.30 The Generation X participants in my focus group discussed that the ‘expectation’ was primarily targeted towards younger ages, while only an ‘encouragement’ was there for their own generation.31 They explained that this was because of an awareness that older people are less accustomed to technological change, and thus are less likely overall to use it, while younger generations are expected to adapt.32
Part 3: The Irony of Digital Authenticity
This expectation to “be online” has established a veil of performativity, as social media presents an idealised life to the public, and therefore can be misused to become inauthentic.33 Additionally, the behaviour of an individual behind a screen has been observed as different to those offline.34 For Question 11 of my questionnaire, when asked if they feel that social media is more impersonal than face-to-face communication, 67.5% of all respondents stated, ‘yes’, 25% stated ‘slightly more impersonal’
27 Questionnaire, Question 8, 40, June 4, 2024.
28 Questionnaire, Question 8, 40, June 4, 2024.
29 Questionnaire, Question 7, 40, June 4, 2024.
30 Questionnaire, Question 8, 40, June 4, 2024.
31 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
32 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
33 M. Neufeld-Wall. (2023),.Being Real: Gen Z, Self-Representation, and Authenticity on Social Media, Communication Honors Thesis, San Antonio, Texas, Trinity University, pg. 3 https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1026&context=comm_honors (accessed 8 June, 2024).
34 Neufeld-Wall, Being Real, pg. 10.
, while only 7.5% selected ‘no’.35 Additionally, many Generation Z responders explained why they believe this is the case. Respondent 35 stated that “people act differently”,36 Respondent 36 claimed, “you cannot get to know someone if they are behind a screen”,37 and Respondent 33 stated that “people can be fake.”38
This behaviour change is due to the inability to recognise and use non-verbal communication methods due to the physical distance that accompanies digital socialisation.39 Communication is not strictly limited to verbal methods; thus, studies have observed a significant decrease in Generation Z’s ability to process emotions and connect meaningfully with peers and friends.40 This particular idea was reinforced in my data from Generation X. Respondent 15 stated that socialisation through a screen “feels transactional”, and overall, 8/17 respondents from that generation mentioned body language, tone and facial expressions as more meaningful communication methods, which cannot be conveyed as clearly through a screen.41 One of the two corresponding members of my focus group discussed that the subtle mannerisms of the others can often be more important than words, while the other mentioned that physical presence is the main aspect of a proper relationship.42 Comparatively, 15/23 Generation Z respondents had similar opinions; however, Respondent 19 stated that adolescents develop a slightly varied ‘voice’ online.43 When prompted with this, the Generation Z members of my focus group agreed that with their peers and friends, they have a ‘virtual voice’, which is different from their ‘verbal voice’ because it changes alongside current trends in language and phrases, and differs greatly depending on whom they are conversing with.44
35 Questionnaire, Question 10, 40, June 4, 2024.
36 Questionnaire, Question 11, 40, June 4, 2024.
37 Questionnaire, Question 11, 40, June 4, 2024.
38 Questionnaire, Question 12, 40, June 4, 2024.
39 E. Venter. April 2019. “Challenges for Meaningful Interpersonal Communication In A Digital Era”. Theological Studies (75)1, pg 2 https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/332449641_Challenges_for_meaningful_ interpersonal_communication_in_a_digital_era (date accessed 4 June 2024).
40 Ibid.
41 Questionnaire, Question 11, 40, June 4, 2024.
42 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
43 Questionnaire, Question 11, 40, June 4, 2024.
44 Focus Group, June 9, 2024.
Figure 7: Question 7 of Questionnaire (Gen X)
Conclusion
In conclusion, Generation Z primarily uses technology and social media to socialise with peers and interact with the macro world through the screen. Social media is an extension of socialisation that allows them to maintain an awareness of changing trends, language patterns and topics of conversation; therefore, the vast majority feel an expectation to be online. In contrast, Generation X prefers face-to-face social interaction, and predominantly uses the media for entertainment or to connect with people they are unable to see in person. Although some of them also feel a pressure to be online in the Digital Age, the percentage is significantly less because they are more acclimatised to socialising without the media due to a lack of exposure until adulthood. The clear disparity between the two demonstrates the crossgenerational impact of the internet, and how social behaviours adapt with innovation.
My primary research was conducted ethically, with all my responses anonymous and the questions without personal bias or influence. Additionally, I acted as a mediator for my focus group, primarily prompting them with statements from my respondents that they openly discussed, which removed any bias from targeted questions, and provided broad insights that extended my knowledge of the topic. Both my qualitative responses and quantitative results aligned with my secondary research, and thus I believe that my results are a reliable representation of crossgenerational influence. Additionally, I utilised a wide variety of secondary sources that had very similar statistics to one another, which further reaffirms my thesis.
To limit bias, I could have expanded my randomised sample size of 40 to the wider community outside of Meriden, as the ability to download and use social media differs among socio-economic classes and, therefore, including the broader community could have provided me with a wider breadth of research.
Overall, I believe that my research was successful, as it provided me with a deeper understanding of how innovation and technology popularise certain aspects known as ‘trends’, which shape the social norms of the macro world. As a result, these norms shape how an individual behaves on a meso level, particularly among peers, as well as their interactions on a micro level. My cultural literacy regarding the “modern world” was enhanced through research on the psychological effect of online interaction as the primary method of socialisation, namely its subsequent element of performativity and inauthenticity. Thus, I have been able to develop a clearer understanding of how the primary methods of socialisation have altered across generations, which I can use to understand social norms, expectations and cross-cultural differences on a micro, meso and macro level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Primary Sources
Focus Group, June 9, 2024. Questionnaire, 40, June 4, 2024.
Secondary Sources
ChitChat Agency, The Rise of Messaging: How Gen Z and Millennials Prefer to Communicate [website], https://chitchatagency.com/the-riseof-messaging-how-gen-z-and-millennials-prefer-to-communicate/, (accessed 12 June 2024).
Drago, E., ‘The Effect of Technology on Face-To-Face Communication’, The Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, vol. 6, no.1, 2015, pp. 13-19, https://eloncdn.blob.core.windows.net/eu3/ sites/153/2017/06/02DragoEJSpring15.pdf (accessed 8 June 2024).
Language Services Direct, How Is Social Media Changing the English Language?, https://www.languageservicesdirect.co.uk/social-mediachanging-english-language/, (accessed 9 June 2024).
Li, C. et al., ‘Does The Internet Bring People Closer Together or Further Apart? The Impact of Internet Usage on Interpersonal Communication.’ Behavioural Sciences, vol. 12, no.11, 2022, pp. 1-24, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9687672/pdf/ behavsci-12-00425.pdf (accessed 4 June 2024).
Neufeld-Wall, M., Being Real: Gen Z, Self-Representation, and Authenticity on Social Media, Communication Honors Thesis, San Antonio, Texas, Trinity University, 2023, https://digitalcommons. trinity.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=comm_honors (accessed 3 June, 2024).
Northeastern University, Understanding Generational Influences in Communication Technology and Social Media Use, https:// inspireandinfluence.cps.northeastern.edu/2021/04/30/understandinggenerational-differences-in-communication-technology-and-socialmedia-use/, (accessed 13 June 2024).
Notre Dame of Maryland University. The Evolution of Communication Across Generations, https://online.ndm.edu/news/communication/ evolution-of-communication/ (accessed 8 June 2024).
PYMNTS. ‘Share of Consumers Who Browsed, Considered Purchasing or Purchased Goods or Services Through Social Media’ [picture], https://www.pymnts.com/news/social-commerce/2023/gen-z-topsmillennials-on-social-media-shopping-and-spending/, (accessed 19 June 2024).
Tirocchi, S., “Generation Z, Values, and Media: From Influencers To BeReal, Between Visibility and Authenticity”, Frontiers in Sociology, vol. 8, 2024, pp. 1-14.
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Spanish Language Poster: Columbia, Bogota
YEAR 11, 2024
PRIYA SUKH
BOGOTÁ
Bogotà es muy grande y bastante colorida. En Bogotá, la vida nocturna es fantástica.
M B IA
Bogotá tiene una población de 52,340,774 habitantes!
La ciudad de Bogotá está en el hemisferio sur. Bogotá es la capital de Colombia.
Moneda oficial: peso colombiano
Equivalente: 0.00036 dólares australianos
En Bogotá el monumento más famoso es la catedral primada de Colombia.
Bogotà es famosa por sus esmeraldas, el Café Colombiano las playas, su cultura y por ser una de las ciudades modernas de América Latina.
La bandera es de color amarillo, azul, y rojo.
Should regulations on social-media content be increased to avoid offensive speech at the expense of freedom of expression?
MICHELLE LU
YEAR 10, 2024
This research report was completed as part of the Cambridge International Global Perspectives Course.
Introduction
Globally, a technological rise has magnified social media’s role in shaping the communication of opinions and snapshots of individuals’ daily lives. Social media is built on free speech and expression, but this also means leading to the increase of offensive speech. (Clucas, 2020). Recently, with socio-political issues such as immigration, social media has served as an amplification for such discourse, proliferating violent comments to individuals, particularly those based on prejudice against political opponents or minority groups (Laub, 2019). But how can we balance socialmedia regulations with healthy, authentic discussion, whilst keeping a safe, non-hateful online community? Perspectives on this global debate differ nationally, so this report will aim to explain why disparities exist and examine perspectives for and against, through the lens of the United Nations, United States of America and Germany. To conclude, this report will explore courses of action and a personal opinion on this issue.
Why deciding on a standardised balance between freedom of speech and hate speech is difficult
Competing values in governing documents – such as “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights”, where Article 1 states everyone is equal and Article 19 states everyone is entitled to freedom of expression (United Nations, n.d.) – result in people cherry-picking evidence to support their side. Thus, there is no objective standard to measure whether something is inappropriate enough to silence.
Furthermore, disjunction also arises from the conflicting perspectives of different countries as a result of their history, culture and values. For example, the United States has a long history of adamantly ingraining freedom of expression due to its constitution (Cornell Law School, n.d.), whereas most European countries have stricter regulations to ban hate speech on social media as a result of the emphasis on protection of human rights emerging from World War II.
Additionally, Massaro (1991) explains that philosophical and ethical factors combine to highlight the nebulous nature of this issue, such as how we define key terms like ‘equality’ and to what extent the government and media have authority over citizens. Moreover, it’s difficult to categorise artistic expression, like political satire or social commentary, as offensive.
Therefore, this debate results in negative consequences for either of two options. If regulations are loosened, that contributes to an international increase in prejudice and schisms among groups (Laub, 2019). Whereas tightening restrictions leads to edging closer to digital censorship, while simultaneously indoctrinating users with ‘politically correct’ beliefs. Hence, censored terms may develop into new vocabulary, creating an underground community (Massaro, 1991).
In comparison, the consequence of increased prejudice against marginalised groups, resulting from a non-universal agreement for hate speech regulation online, is the most severe. This is because it affects a large population of minority groups, whether they are based on economic status, ethnicity, etc. and it occurs in every country. Moreover, systematically, minorities may not have as much access to support, like legal support and a platform to speak out against ambiguous or wrongful social regulations that have failed to protect them.
Global Perspective
The United Nations (UN) has established that its main values are to maintain international peace and equality, hence any incitement to discrimination posted online will be an exception to freedom of speech and in this case, social-media regulations are allowed. However, the UN is mainly concerned with how effectively social media is regulated. (United Nations, n.d.).
Peggy Hicks, Director of Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures, and Right to Development Division, at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, has claimed that instead of trying to protect the public’s interest through social
media laws, countries have endangered human rights because this allows legislation to silence unfavourable speech. Additionally, Hicks explains that increased social media regulations – through an over-reliance on automation and hasty solutions – focus on the act of banning and overlook the complexity of what makes content offensive. Hence, users are likely to be misleadingly banned from media (United Nations, 2021).
Therefore, the UN believes social media content that incites violence should be regulated, however, social media companies should take responsibility for establishing clearer guidelines and effective solutions, rather than adopting vague, overly disproportionate laws to prevent offensive speech, while allowing individuals to freely express their opinions.
United States perspective
A common concern of Americans is social media’s implications on safety. Many believe that it causes a hyper-individualised feed for users, feeding them increasingly extremist content (Ghosh, 2021).
An investigation conducted by the Anti-Defamation League found that 59% of Americans believe online harassment makes hate crimes more common (Laub, 2019.). Hence, social media regulations are what citizens intuitively support as the best course of action.
However, historically, the United States’ constitution is the basis for its prevailing advocacy for unchecked freedom of expression. The First Amendment of the constitution claimed that total freedom is crucial for the exploration of debate, aligning with many Americans (Gorenc, 2022). Moreover, independence from Britain caused a tradition of protecting expression, hence many citizens disagree with proper media regulations (Kennedy, Lawrence & Rountree, 2023).
Another perspective many Americans hold is that social media regulations shouldn’t be implemented because content would be distorted by authorities. On ‘authorities’, Big Think (2020) elaborates that social media platforms aren’t legally bound to protect citizens’ rights. Therefore, by allowing these platforms to integrate their subjective perspectives on what constitutes harmful information, content is modified for their liking. As a result, some citizens agree that social media regulations would be futile in
concretely protecting individuals, while simultaneously failing to allow the provision of a medium for people to express their thoughts authentically.
German Perspective
Germany’s social regulations regarding online content are manifested from the dark legacy of the country’s involvement in World War II, resulting in relatively strict regulations, such as specific support for the minimising of genocide and crimes against humanity. Additionally, Germany’s many refugees in recent years and the increase of anti-semitic incidents have caused the German government to further endorse eliminating prejudicial attacks.
However, the German government’s outlook inadequately considers limitations on authentic expression, as exemplified through the German court, which contends constitutional rights trump freedom of speech (Brugger, 2001). For example, in 2017, Germany passed the Network Enforcement Act, which punished social media platforms that failed to take down posts as instructed by the government with a hefty fine of up to 50 million euros. The Human Rights Watch agreed that severe fines incentivise platforms to censor content rashly, to avoid trouble (Laub, 2019).
Contrastingly, German citizens and major political parties disagreed with the intense social media regulations placed by the government, believing they threatened freedom of expression (Human Rights Watch, 2018). For example, in 2019, before a German election, a German Youtuber, Rezo, created a video criticising former Chancellor Angela Merkel’s political party – the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) – for hypocritical actions, including internet censorship (Schuetze, C. F.). In response, the CDU demanded new regulations for digital spaces, implying its support for exacerbating the already decreasing self-expression on social media (DW Shift, 2019). As a result, many Germans supported Rezo, including 90 other Youtubers, encouraging their viewers not to vote for the CDU (Schuetze, C.F.).
Therefore, with cultural identity and current issues in mind, the government has favoured tighter social media restrictions, whereas citizens are favouring a more relaxed approach to allow expression of authentic thoughts on social media.
Solution 1
The United Nations (n.d.) states that ‘The Rabat Plan of Action’ provides a clear differentiation between freedom of expression and incitement to hatred, which is unprotected (UNESCO Communication and Information Sector, 2021). The ‘Rabat Threshold test’ are six criteria that must be met for content to be considered incitement to hatred.
Furthermore, the OHCHR explains that The Rabat Plan recommends incorporating education on international human rights values into the school curriculum. (United Nations, 2013). Adding on, I think that a specialised one-hour session each week that involves e-safety, online ethics and media regulations should be implemented. Real case studies should be inspected, so students understand how social media laws interpret a user’s post and the ethical implications of potentially offensive speech on others.
I think that the Rabat Action Plan should be proposed to governments worldwide, as it results in a high level of consistency internationally for when content becomes a restriction of freedom of expression. Personally, I think that other standards for deciding the banning of social media posts should be minimised, whether it be from the social media platform or other organisations, as this would diminish the bias of these organisations controlling speech, as elaborated in the American perspective. With the decrease of many subjective standards for hate speech, there’s less discourse and issue over posts that sit in the grey area, as there’s one universal solution.
Solution 2
Another proposal for action could be The UN Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech. It aims to increase resources to address and delve into the root causes of hate speech. (United Nations, 2019). The implementation process would include the UN coordinating research and data collection nationally and globally on sources of hate speech, to interpret trends.
The UN also emphasises the importance of teaching global citizenship and media literacy. To implement and maximise this solution’s effects, I believe tariffs could be imposed on imported information and communication technology goods (ICT) of member states that fail to provide specialised media literacy classes in school and those that restrict the UN’s ability to collect flagged posts deemed as hate speech.
If implemented, this solution would incentivise co-operation among all member states and the UN to figure out the key catalysts of hate speech. With education on media literacy, the world can move one step further in spreading awareness about
creating a peaceful and less hateful online medium. There would be a decreased quantity of debate over content that is ambiguously hateful and freedom of expression, if people were more educated on how to use social media.
Evaluation of sources
Regarding the authority of sources, most were extremely credible, such as the ‘Social Media Regulation’ issue guide, which was written by authors, who all have PhDs in relevant fields. Additionally, articles from well-known newspapers or other publishers, like Taylor & Francis, The New York Times and UN websites, mean that authors have high levels of expertise and the information is trustworthy.
Most sources used also included information that could be cross-checked, usually with reputable sources. For example, The Human Rights Watch article on German social media law included hyperlinks for any quotes or relevant laws that led to objective, first-hand information; for example, Germany’s Federal Ministry of Justice provided accurate and reliable information.
In terms of objectivity, some sources were biased; for example opinion sources, such as Nadine Strossen on Big Think or the United Nations, which advocates for protection against discrimination. These sources were more likely to present information that was influenced by a specific perspective.
Reflection
I originally thought that social media regulations should be implemented, regardless of whether it diminishes freedom of expression, because I believed that protecting the safety of everyone online against hate was the priority.
However, this changed when I read the Network Enforcement Act implemented by Germany. I was shocked by the large sum media platforms had to pay as punishment. I agreed that the anxiety of these platforms would lead to censoring unharmful content just to avoid the fine. This led me to question how well social media regulations were protecting users rights, especially when I read the American perspective that social media platforms could mould the content to their liking. and when I learned of the UN’s caution against rash, algorithm based censoring.
The Rabat Plan and the Hate Speech Plan reinforced my original opinion that education should be emphasised, and delving into the roots of hate posts would create a safer online community that informs citizens on how to appropriately express their opinions.
Even though I hoped that regulations would enforce universal safety, I now realise that there are many practical and ethical obstacles I failed to consider. Overall, I believe that social media regulations should not be implemented.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Clucas, T. (2020). “Don’t Feed the Trolls’: Social Media and the Limits of Free Speech”. In S. Polak & D. Trottier (Eds.), “Violence and Trolling on Social Media: History, Affect, and Effects of Online Vitriol”, 47-64. Amsterdam University Press. Retrieved April 25, 2024 from https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1b0fvrn.6
Encyclopedia/Dictionary
Wex Legal Dictionary and Encyclopedia. (n.d.). First Amendment. In Cornell Law school. Retrieved April 14, 2024 from https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/first_amendment
Journal Article
Gorenc, N. (2022). “Hate speech or free speech: an ethical dilemma?”. Taylor & Francis Online, 32(3), 413-425. Retrieved April 14, 2024 from https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2022.2133406
Massaro, T.M. (1991). “Equality and Freedom of Expression: The Hate Speech Dilemma”. William & Mary Law Review, 32(2), 211-265. Retrieved April 15, 2024 from https://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1923&context=wmlr
Speeches
Brugger, F. (2001). “Ban on or protection of hate speech? Some observations based on German and American law”. no publisher. Retrieved April 17, 2024 from file:///C:/Users/michael/Downloads/ christ6,+c17 brugger 4.pdf
Websites
Ghosh, G. (2021). “Are We Entering a New Era of Social Media Regulation?” Retrieved April 16, 2024 from https://hbr.org/2021/01/ are-we-entering-a-new-era-of-social-media-regulation
Human Rights Watch. (2018). “Germany: Flawed Social Media Law”. Retrieved April 17, 2024 from https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/02/14/ germany-flawed-social-media-law
Kennedy, R., Lawrence, W.Y., Rountree, J. & UHD CPD Election Public Deliberation Team. (2023). “Social Media Regulation: How should we decide what speech is acceptable/unacceptable on social media?”
Retrieved April 13, 2024 from https://www.uhd.edu/documents/ academics/humanities/news-community/center-public-deliberation/ social-media-regulation-issue-guide-2023.pdf
Laub, Z. (2019). “Hate Speech on Social Media: Global Comparisons”. Retrieved April 12, 2024 from https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/hatespeech-social-media-global-comparisons#chapter-title-0-2
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2021). “Moderating online content: fighting harm or silencing dissent?” Retrieved April 12, 2024 from https://www.ohchr.org/ en/stories/2021/07/moderating-online-content-fighting-harm-orsilencing-dissent
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.). “OHCHR and freedom of expression vs incitement to hatred: the Rabat Plan of Action”. Retrieved April 16, 2024 from https://www.ohchr.org/en/freedom-of-expression
United Nations. (n.d.). “UN actions against hate speech: Further UN initiatives to combat hate speech”. Retrieved April 17, 2024 from https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/united-nations-and-hate-speech/ further-un-initiatives-to-combat-hate-speech
United Nations. (n.d.). “Understanding Hate Speech: Hate speech versus freedom of speech”. Retrieved April 16, 2024 from https:// www.un.org/en/hate-speech/understanding-hate-speech/hatespeech-versus-freedom-of-speech#:~:text=To%20
United Nations. (2020). “United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech: Detailed Guidance on Implementation for United Nations Field Presences”. Retrieved April 11, 2024 from file:///C:/ Users/miche/Downloads/UN_Strategy_and_PoA_on_Hate_Speech_ Guidance_on_Addressing_in_field.pdf
United Nations. (n.d.). “Universal Declaration of Human Rights”. Retrieved April 10, 2024 from https://www.un.org/en/about-us/ universal-declaration-of-human-rights
Video From Youtube/Social Media
Big Think. (2020, March 22). “Should social media platforms censor hate speech?: Nadine Strossen: Big Think”. [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved April 12, 2024 from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=bBDFowUx668
D.W. Shift. (2019, June 21). “Does Social Media Kill Democracy?: Freedom of Speech vs Censorship”. [Video]. YouTube. Retrieved April 10, 2024 from https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qraF9NSA3BQ&t=428s
UNESCO Communication and Information Sector. (2021, September 17). “The Rabat Plan of Action on the Prohibition of Incitement to Hatred”. [Video]. UNESCO. Retrieved April 11, 2024 from https:// www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-5554-eng-3
Newspaper/Magazine Article
Schuetze, C.F. (2019, May 25). “Youth’s Video Takes Aim at Merkel’s Party in Run-Up to European Elections”. The New York Times. Retrieved April 16, 2024 from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/25/world/ europe/rezo-cdu-youtube-germany.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner & Secretary-General. (2013). Annual report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved April 13, 2024 from https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Rabat_draft_ outcome.pdf
Acknowledgements
This edition of Muse would not have been possible without the support of:
Mrs Lisa Brown Principal, for her support of this endeavour.
Mrs Jessica Chilton Head of Teaching and Learning
Heads of Departments and members of the senior school teaching staff for their mentorship and encouragement of the students whose work is contained herein
Mrs Sharna Kershaw COLL – Research and Critical Thinking (Semester 1)
Mr Ian Randall Acting COLL – Research and Critical Thinking (Semester 2)
Dr Ann Goeth Research Fellow
Ms Anne-Maree Marczan, Director of Marketing, for her invaluable oversight of the publication process
Mr Haki Crisden for his proofreading and editing work
Melinda Holme, Graphic Designer, for the beautiful design, layout and formatting of this online journal
