Mel Yoo Dissertation S25

Designing for Food SelfSufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

Mel Yoo

© Mel Yoo, 2025

Mel Yoo

Designing for Food Self-Sufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

by

Mel Yoo

A dissertation submitted to the graduate division of the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Architecture

May 2025

Dissertation Committee: Cathi Ho Schar, FAIA, Chair Dr. Priyam Das, Committee Member Hale Takazawa, AIA, Committee Member

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Abstract

Many cities around the world face food security challenges, and Honolulu is no exception. Hawai’i's geographic location makes it vulnerable with 85% to 90% of its food being imported from across the Pacific Ocean.

At any point in time, there is only enough food throughout the Hawaiian Islands to sustain the population for just 5 to 7 days (Hawai’i Department of Health, 2021). Furthermore, our food system is currently dealing with the unique challenge of providing for a rapidly expanding population while preserving vital resources such as energy and water (D’Ostuni, 2022).

This dissertation presents a toolkit for city and state agencies and non-profit organizations to address limited food access in peri-urban neighborhoods by integrating regenerative architectural practices with urban agriculture methods. It explores techniques such as vertical farming, hydroponics, and green roofs, combined with strategies like water management, renewable energy integration, and waste reduction.

Aimed at tackling key challenges in food availability, accessibility, utility, and stability, the toolkit promotes food self-sufficiency, advances a circular economy, fosters social equity, and cultivates a healthy environment in Honolulu's peri-urban areas.

By embedding urban agriculture with regenerative architectural practices, the research emphasizes locally tailored strategies to confront global food security challenges. The design encourages the creation of interconnected networks of strategically placed gardens, urban farms, and green spaces, empowering communities to participate actively in sustainable food production. This approach reduces dependence on imports, sustains local populations during periods of scarcity

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Designing for Food Self-Sufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

and disruption, strengthens social ties, and fosters environmental stewardship across urban and peri-urban areas.

Keywords: Regenerative Architecture, Green Infrastructure, Urban Agriculture, Food Self-Sufficiency, Food Visibility, Circular Economy, Sustainability, Waste Reduction.

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Dedication

This dissertation, which delves into the importance of regenerative communities and addressing food security, draws its inspiration from the many individuals I have had the privilege of engaging with and learning from along the way.

I extend my deepest gratitude to the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa Professors Cathi Ho Schar, David Rockwood (Emeritus), Dr. Priyam Das, Phoebe White (former faculty), Karla Sierralta, Dr. Andrew Kaufman, and Martin Despang, whose guidance and support have been invaluable.

I am also immensely grateful for the financial support that made this journey possible, including scholarships from the Castagna Scholarship Fund, the University of Hawai’i Graduate Division, the Society of American Military Engineers, the Honolulu Chapter of the Construction Specifications Institute, and Better Block Hawai’i.

A special thank you goes to Hale Takazawa, Lauren Venu Roth, Dr. Miku Lenintine, Mahany Lindquist, and Alzira Fernandez for their professional insights and encouragement.

To my friends and family— your support has been my foundation.

Lastly, to Matt Wilander— thank you for your everyday, never-ending encouragement throughout this important journey. This wouldn’t be possible without you!

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Land Acknowledgement

I acknowledge Hawaiʻi as an indigenous land and honor its original people, the kānaka ʻōiwi (Native Hawaiians). The ʻāina (land) where I conduct my work lies within the ahupuaʻa of Waikīkī, in the moku of Kona, on the island of Oʻahu, part of the Hawaiian archipelago. I recognize that Queen Liliʻuokalani, under duress and protest, ceded the Hawaiian Kingdom to the United States to prevent bloodshed among her people, the kānaka Maoli (United States Congress, 1993). I am deeply grateful to the generations of Indigenous Hawaiians whose knowledge and stewardship have sustainably shaped Hawaiʻi, allowing us to benefit from its gifts today. I invite those engaging with this work to reflect on the importance of Indigenous knowledge, environmental stewardship, and social equity as we collectively strive for more sustainable and regenerative futures.

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Table of Contents

Abstract Dedication Land Acknowledgement Table of Contents Definition of Terms List of Acronyms List of Figures Preface Introduction Literature Review Food Security and Food Self-Sufficiency Overview Definitions Is Hawai’i Food Secure?

Hawai’i State Government Initiatives Aloha+ Challenge Hawai’i Food Hub Hui United States Government Initiatives USDA MyPlate Plan USDA Food Access Research Atlas Areas of Limited Food Access in Oʻahu USDA Local Food Directory Tool Food Aggregators of Oʻahu Urban Agriculture Soil-based Growing Systems Hydroponic Growing Systems Regenerative Architecture History and Timeline Design Principles

5 9 11 13 17 21 23 31 35 47 49 50 52 54 54 54 54 57 60 60 64 64 79 80 81 85 90 91

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Green Infrastructure 95 Analysis 96 Methodology 99 Case Studies 101 Regenerative Case Studies– General Information 102 Regenerative Case Studies– Short Analysis 104 Featured Case Studies 106 Village Homes in Davis, California (U.01) 106 Vertical Urban Farm in Romainville, Paris, France (A.04) 108 MA`O Organic Farms Facility in Lualualei Valley, Oʻahu (A.05) 110 Discussion 113 Toolkit Development Based on Case Studies + Analysis 116 Design 119 Concept 120 Regenerative Toolkit 125 Building Typologies 127 Suitability Analysis 133 Identifying Test Sites 148 Test Site: Pālolo Valley 152 Pālolo Valley + Subdistricts 158 Pālolo Valley Subdistrict 2 Site Plan 160 Adaptive Reuse + Landscape: Commercial 164 Adaptive Reuse + Landscape: Apartment Low-Density 168 New Construction: Recreation Center 172 Conclusion 177 Bibliography 183

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Definition of Terms

Food availability

The availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid).

Food access

Access by individuals to adequate resources (entitlements) for acquiring appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Entitlements are defined as the set of all commodity bundles over which a person can establish command given the legal, political, economic and social arrangements of the community in which they live (including traditional rights such as access to common resources).

Food desert

A census tract that meets both low-income and low-access criteria including: 1. Poverty rate is greater than or equal to 20 percent OR median family income does not exceed 80 percent statewide (rural/urban) or metro-area (urban) median family income; 2. at least 500 people or 33 percent of the population located more than 1 mile (urban) or 10 miles (rural) from the nearest supermarket or large grocery store.

Note: While ‘food desert’ is widely recognized and has been helpful in drawing attention to food access disparities, it’s important to acknowledge the term’s limitations. It can

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oversimplify complex systemic issues and even unintentionally stigmatize communities.

Many prefer terms like ‘food apartheid’ or ‘lowaccess food areas,’ which more accurately capture the structural and systemic barriers that contribute to these conditions.

Food insecurity

Food insecurity exists when people do not have adequate physical, social or economic access to food.

Food sovereignty

The right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agriculture systems.

Low income area

A tract in which the poverty rate is greater than or equal to 20 percent; or in which median family income does not exceed 80 percent of the statewide or metro-area median family income

Low-income household

A household with income less than the Federal poverty level: $17,050 for a family of four in 2000.

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Rural area

Includes areas defined by Rural-Urban Commuting Area codes as large rural, small rural, and isolated rural areas.

Urban agriculture

Urban agriculture includes the cultivation, processing, and distribution of agricultural products in urban and suburban areas.

Community gardens, rooftop farms, hydroponic, aeroponic and aquaponic facilities, and vertical production, are all examples of urban agriculture. Tribal communities and small towns may also be included.

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List of Acronyms

AMS

Agricultural Marketing Service

EPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

FARA

Food Access Research Atlas, by the USDA

FNS

Food and Nutrition Service

LILA

Low-income and low-access

NSLP

National School Lunch Program

SSR

Self-Sufficiency Ratio

SNAP

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Programs

TEFAP

The Emergency Food Assistance Program

USDA

United States Department of Agriculture

WIC

Women, Infants and Children

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List of Figures

Figure 01

Pg. 38

Trans-Pacific Shipping Routes and Distances: Key Connections Between East Asia, Hawai’i, and the U.S. Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 02

Pg. 40

Hawai’i’s Local Food Production and ImportExport Overview by Major Food Category Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 03

Pg. 44

Hawaiian Islands Areas of Limited Food Access Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 04

Pg. 49

Food Security and Self-Sufficiency Relationship Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 05

Pg. 53

Food Security Statewide Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 06

Pg. 59

USDA MyPlate Daily Nutritional Guidelines Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 07

Pg. 63

Oʻahu Land Use and USDA’s Areas of Limited Food Access Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 08

Pg. 68

Oʻahu’s Existing Local Food Farms and Aggregators Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A1

Pg. 72

Carrot Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A2

Pg. 72

Sweet Potato Illustration by author, 2024.

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Figure A3

Pg. 72

Leek Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A4

Pg. 73

Bok Choy Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A5

Pg. 73

Kohlrabi Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A6

Pg. 73

Green Beans Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A7

Pg. 74

Taro Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure A8

Pg. 74

Basil Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure B1

Pg. 76

Indian Mulberry Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure B2

Pg. 76

Avocado Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure B3

Pg. 76

Lemon Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure B4

Pg. 77

Breadfruit Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure B5

Pg. 77

Roma Tomato Illustration by author, 2024.

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Figure 09

Pg. 82

Aggregate Culture Types: Drip System and Flood-and-Drain System Diagram Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 10

Pg. 82

Water Culture Types: Raft System and Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Diagram (Top row); Aeroponics and Aquaponics Diagram (Bottom row) Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 11

Pg. 86

The Triple Bottom-Line of Sustainable Development Diagram Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 12

Pg. 88

Historical Timeline of Sustainable Architecture and Environmental Design Milestones Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 13

Pg. 120

Traditional Linear Approach to Food Supply Chain Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 14

Pg. 121

Tiered Food Access Model: Direct Consumer Access to Local Farms, Aggregators, and Market Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 15

Pg. 123

Decentralized Model: Network of FoodFocused Neighborhoods Illustration by author, 2024.

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Figure 16

Pg. 124

Regenerative Urban Agriculture Toolkit + Categories Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 17

Pg. 127

Building Typologies Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 18

Pg. 128

Building Typologies– Surrounding Landscape Toolkit Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 19

Pg. 130

Building Typologies– Adaptive Reuse Toolkit Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 20

Pg. 131

Building Typologies– New Construction Toolkit Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 21

Pg. 136

Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Land Use and Environmental Features Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 22

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Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Areas of Limited Food Access and Grocery Stores Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 23

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Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Moisture Zones Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 24

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Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Morning Heat Index Map Illustration by author, 2024.

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Figure 25

Pg. 144

Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Afternoon Heat Index Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 26

Pg. 146

Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Median Household Income Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 27

Pg. 148

Hickam Air Force Base Key Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 28

Pg. 149

Aliamanu Military Reservation Key Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 29

Pg. 149

Pearl City Peninsula Key Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 30

Pg. 150

Pālolo Valley Key Map Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 31

Pg. 160

Pālolo Valley: Limited Access to Food Area + Critical Facilities Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 32

Pg. 162

Pālolo Valley: Soil Drainage + Annual Rainfall Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 33

Pg. 164

Existing Commercial Building Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 34

Pg. 166

Commercial Building. Applying Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes Illustration by author, 2024.

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Figure 35

Pg. 168

Existing Apartment Low-Density Building Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 36

Pg. 170

Apartment Low-Density Building. Applying Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 37

Pg. 172

Existing Recreation Center Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure 38

Pg. 174

Recreation Center. Applying New Construction Illustration by author, 2024.

Figure P1

Pg. 104, 106

Village Homes Aerial View Google Earth. (2023). Aerial view of Village Homes in Davis, California [Satellite image].

Retrieved October 1, 2024, from https://www. google.com/earth/

Figure P2

Pg. 104

SPARK Architects. (n.d.). Home Farm [Image]. Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https:// sparkarchitects.com/work/home-farm

Figure P3

Pg. 104

EFFEKT Architects. (n.d.). ReGen Villages [Image]. Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https:// www.effekt.dk/regenvillages

Figure P4

Pg. 104

Landprocess. (n.d.). Thammasat University Rooftop Farm [Image]. World Landscape Architecture. Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https://worldlandscapearchitect.com/ thammasat-university-the-largest-urbanrooftop-farm-in-asia/

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Figure P5

Pg. 104

Bio-Architecture Formosana. (2021). Taisugar Circular Village [Image]. ArchDaily. Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https://www.archdaily. com/974658/taisugar-circular-village-bioarchitecture-formosana

Figure P6

Pg. 105

Space&Matter. (n.d.). Urban Farmers [Image].

Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https://www. spaceandmatter.nl/work/urban-farmers

Figure P7

Pg. 105

SPACE10. (2017). LOKAL—A Miniature Hydroponic Farm [Photograph]. Dezeen.

Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https://www. dezeen.com/2017/10/04/lokal-space-10miniature-hydroponic-vertical-farm-londondesign-festival/

Figure P8

Pg. 105

Overtreders W. (2019). Brasserie 2050 Restaurant [Photograph]. ArchDaily. Retrieved May 4, 2024, from https://www.archdaily. com/915973/brasserie-2050-restaurantovertreders-w

Figure P9

Pg. 105, 108

ILIMELGO. (n.d.). Cité Maraîchère [Image].

ILIMELGO. https://ilimelgo.com/en/projets/ cultiver/cite-maraichere.

Figure P10 Pg. 105, 110

AMA A/E. (n.d.). MAʻO Organic Farms Facility [Image]. AMA A/E. https://ama-ae.com/

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Preface

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“If we get food right, we get everything right.”

—Albie Miles and Kathleen Merrigan Honolulu Civil Beat, 2020

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Introduction

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Introduction

Food security exists when "all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life" (World Food Summit, 1996). Addressing this complex issue requires collaboration among governments, non-profit organizations, local communities, and professionals from various fields—including architects. By promoting sustainable building practices and enhancing the accessibility of food sources through thoughtful urban planning, architects can play a significant role in improving food security.

Hawai'i's geographic isolation profoundly impacts its food security, making it one of the most vulnerable regions globally. The state imports approximately 85% to 90% of its food, primarily from the U.S. mainland and other countries (Hawai‘i Office of Planning, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2012). This heavy reliance on long and complex supply chains means that any disruption—due to natural disasters, economic instability, or global supply chain issues—could lead to severe food shortages. Currently, the Hawaiian Islands have only enough food to sustain the population for 5 to 7 days at any given time, a precarious situation for a community located over 2,500 miles from the nearest major city outside the islands (Hawai’i Department of Health, 2021).

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Figure 01 | Trans-Pacific Shipping Routes and Distances: Key Connections Between East Asia, Hawai’i, and the U.S. This map illustrates the primary shipping routes across the Pacific Ocean, connecting major ports in East Asia—such as Hong Kong and Yokohama—with key cities in the U.S. West Coast, including Seattle, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. The map highlights the distances in nautical miles (NM) between these locations, emphasizing the strategic position of the Hawaiian Islands as a central hub in these trans-Pacific routes. These routes play a critical role in global trade, particularly in the movement of goods, including food supplies, between Asia and North America.

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Figure 02 | Hawai’i’s Local Food Production and Import-Export Overview by Major Food Category This diagram illustrates Hawai’i’s local food production by category, showing the percentage and total mass (in million kilograms) produced locally. It highlights key categories such as fruits, vegetables, milk, and seafood, and compares local production with import and export data.

The central ring reveals that Hawai’i produces 151.6 million kilograms of food locally, with fruits at 38.9% and vegetables at 26.1%, while heavily relying on imports, particularly from the U.S. mainland. The diagram underscores the gap between local production and imports, highlighting challenges to Hawai’i’s food self-sufficiency and security.

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Despite producing a significant amount of fruits and vegetables locally—151.6 million kilograms, with fruits accounting for 38.9% and vegetables 26.1%—Hawai’i continues to import even larger quantities.

For example, the state imports 83.9 million kilograms of fresh vegetables, more than double its local production of 39.5 million kilograms, and 58.1 million kilograms of fresh fruits, nearly matching the local production of 59.0 million kilograms. Replacing just 10% of Hawai’i’s food imports would retain approximately $313 million within the state economy (Hawai‘i Office of Planning, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2012). This dependence on imported food not only increases the risk of shortages during supply chain disruptions but also highlights environmental and economic inefficiencies.

Addressing this issue involves building resilience against external shocks, reducing the carbon footprint associated with long-distance food transport, and strengthening the local economy.

Given Hawai’i’s limited arable land, challenging topography, and competing demands from tourism and urban development, expanding traditional agricultural areas is highly constrained. Innovative approaches to food production within these spatial confines are necessary. Urban agriculture emerges as a viable solution, enabling the cultivation of fruits and vegetables in non-traditional spaces and integrating food production into the urban fabric. However, the challenge extends beyond where food is grown to how it is cultivated and sustained. Hawai’i’s infrastructure for supporting large-scale, year-round production—including irrigation systems, storage facilities, and distribution networks—is underdeveloped, limiting the state’s capacity to increase local food production significantly.

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This dissertation proposes a toolkit that integrates regenerative architectural practices with urban agriculture methods to address areas of limited food access, particularly in peri-urban neighborhoods. By exploring techniques like vertical farming, hydroponics, and green roofs alongside regenerative strategies such as water management, renewable energy integration, and waste reduction, the toolkit aims to tackle key challenges in food availability, accessibility, utility, and stability.

Embedding urban agriculture within regenerative architectural practices emphasizes the importance of locally tailored strategies to confront global food security challenges. The design encourages the creation of interconnected networks of strategically placed gardens, urban farms, and green spaces. These hubs empower communities to actively participate in sustainable food production, reduce dependence on imports, and sustain local populations during periods of scarcity and disruption. This approach also strengthens social ties and fosters environmental stewardship across urban and peri-urban areas. By promoting food self-sufficiency, advancing a circular economy, and fostering social equity, this dissertation seeks to cultivate a healthy environment in Honolulu’s peri-urban neighborhoods. Ultimately, it aspires to contribute to a more secure and sustainable future for Hawai’i and serve as a model for other island communities facing similar challenges.

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Figure 03 | Hawaiian Islands Areas of Limited Food Access

Mel Yoo

Dissertation Structure The dissertation is structured as follows: the introduction provides an overview of the research background, problem and objectives.

The literature review explores existing research on food security, US Government and Hawai’i state current efforts to fight food security, and regenerative architecture to provide a comprehensive understanding of the background and context of these interconnected subjects. The methodology chapter evaluates relevant case studies within the built environment globally, highlighting their urban agriculture practices and contributions to food security. The discussion chapter will critically analyze the outcomes of literature review and methodology research, assessing how regenerative urban agriculture methods address food security. The design chapter will introduce a design concept, regenerative urban agriculture toolkit, then evaluate a test site that will be selected through suitability analysis. This chapter will demonstrate how the integration of regenerative urban agriculture can help alleviate food access, and provide practical design solutions tailored to the specific environmental and social conditions of the site. The conclusion will provide a comprehensive evaluation of how the toolkit and design concept can effectively address food security in peri-urban Honolulu. It will reflect on the successes and limitations of the test site design, offer recommendations for future implementation and policy integration, and explore broader implications for urban planning in similar communities.

This dissertation demonstrates how regenerative urban agriculture can bolster the local economy, promote social equity, and cultivate a healthy environment. While food security is a pressing global issue, the most impactful solutions will emerge from locally tailored strategies and interventions.

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Literature Review

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Literature Review

Food Security and Food Self-Sufficiency Overview

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According to the Hawai‘i Office of Planning (2012), food self-sufficiency looks only at national production as the sole source of supply, while food security takes into account commercial imports and food aid as possible sources of commodity supply. Food self-sufficiency refers only to domestically produced food availability at the national level, whereas food security brings in elements of stability of supply and access to food by the population. In other words, food self-sufficiency is linked to an overall perspective on development which emphasizes the need for selfreliance—an auto-centric approach—whereas food security is consistent with a view of development that incorporates international specialization and comparative advantage.

Figure 04 | Food Security and Self-Sufficiency Relationship This diagram illustrates the interdependent factors of food security, highlighting the role of food selfsufficiency through the core elements of availability, accessibility, utility, and stability.

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Definitions Food Security

Food Self-Sufficiency

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to suffi cient, safe and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

Household food security is the application of this concept to the family level, with individuals within households as the focus of concern.

Food self-suffi ciency is the ability of a country, region, or individual to meet their food needs through domestic production, rather than buying or importing food. Food self-suffi ciency is measured by the Self-Suffi ciency Ratio (SSR) to measure how much of the food consumed is produced domestically.

SSR = production × 100/(production + imports − exports)

Food Sovereignty

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The right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to defi ne their own food and agriculture systems.

Mel Yoo

This dissertation acknowledges that while food self-sufficiency alone sounds ideal in theory, it doesn't account for the interconnected and interdependent nature of the modern global food trade system. Food self-sufficiency is part of the larger issue of food security. The primary focus of this research is on local food self-sufficiency, exploring its potential to enhance resilience by reducing dependence on global supply chains and fostering community-based agricultural sustainability.

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Is Hawai’i Food Secure?

Hawai’i’s food security remains a pressing concern due to its heavy reliance on imported food, geographic isolation, and the socioeconomic challenges faced by its residents. Despite the state’s abundant natural resources and favorable conditions for agriculture, Feeding America reports that 1 in 9 adults and 1 in 6 children in Hawai’i are experiencing food insecurity. In 2021, 11.9% of the population was reported to be food insecure. These statistics underscore the importance of evaluating whether Hawai’i is food secure. This section will explore the current state of food security in Hawai’i, examining both state and federal governmental initiatives that aim to address food availability, access, utilization, and stability. By analyzing tools like the USDA Food Access Research Atlas and highlighting the role of local food businesses such as agritourism enterprises, CSAs, farmers markets, food hubs, and on-farm markets, they aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the efforts and challenges in enhancing food security across the Hawaiian islands.

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Figure 05 | Food Security Statewide This illustration interprets ALOHA+ Local Food Production and Consumption values from 2011-2019.

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Designing for Food Self-Sufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

Hawai’i State Government Initiatives Aloha+ Challenge The Aloha+ Challenge is a statewide sustainability initiative launched in 2014 by the State of Hawai’i, its counties, and the Office of Hawaiian Affairs, in partnership with the Hawai‘i Green Growth network. It serves as a commitment to achieve six interconnected sustainability goals by 2030, focusing on Clean Energy Transformation, Local Food Production, Natural Resource Management, Waste Reduction, Smart Sustainable Communities, Green Workforce and Education. The Aloha+ Challenge plays a comprehensive role in addressing food security in Hawai’i by setting ambitious goals, coordinating multi-sector efforts, and integrating cultural values with sustainable development. Its focus on increasing local food production and strengthening the entire food system is essential for building resilience and ensuring that all residents have consistent access to affordable and nutritious food.

Hawai’i Food Hub Hui Hawai’i Food Hub Hui was established in 2017, and it is the state’s only food hub association that aims to raise the capacity of Hawai’i’s food hubs systematically by fundraising, coordinating market opportunity, advocating for policy and legislative change, and providing technical assistance to food hubs. HFHH works to grow opportunities and bridge the connection between local farmers and food hubs to fill gaps along

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the local supply chain. As of 2023, Hawai’i’s food hubs support 1,337 farms that currently serve approximately 14,465 customers per year across all Hawai’i counties. With further investment, food hubs alone will have the capacity to increase in-state food production by at least 10% over the next 10 years – supporting other food security initiatives underway statewide (HFHH). The Food Hub Hui Members Include Farm Link Hawai’i, Kahumana Food Hub & Organic Farms, Oʻahu Fresh, Mālama Kauaʻi, and many more.

United States Government Initiatives A federal government agency in the United States leading the efforts in addressing food security is the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Within the USDA, there is an extensive list of agencies that focus on food security including the Economic Research Service that is tasked with providing economic research and analysis on issues related to agriculture, food, the environment, and rural development. Its primary objective is to inform public and private decision-making on policies and programs affecting the agricultural sector and related industries, and provides database like Food Access Research Atlas (FARA), and Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS), which operates programs that promote the marketing and distribution of agricultural products, and includes services like the Local Food Directory, a searchable database for the general public to locate USDA approved Agritourism enterprises, CSAs (Community Supported Agriculture), Farmers Markets, On-Farm Markets, and Food Hubs.

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In the United States, food insecurity is often linked to factors like poverty and unemployment. In 2018, 88.9% (114.9 million) of U.S. households were considered food secure, but this figure has declined over the past years due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. The following visualizations depict household and child food insecurity rates across Hawai’i at both the state and county levels. Key components of food security are: availability (Is food present in sufficient quantities?), access (Do people have the means to obtain it?), utilization (Is the food nutritious and can the body make use of it?), and stability (Are these factors consistent over time?).

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USDA MyPlate Plan The USDA’s MyPlate guidelines underscore the importance of fruits and vegetables by designating them as essential components of a balanced diet. These widely recognized and implemented guidelines across the United States advocate for fruits and vegetables to occupy nearly half of an individual’s daily food intake. This significant emphasis highlights not only the nutritional value of these food groups but also their role in preventing chronic diseases and maintaining overall health. By aligning the focus of this dissertation with the MyPlate recommendations, the research taps into a universally accepted framework for dietary health, reinforcing the relevance of prioritizing local fruit and vegetable production to improve food security. Addressing the local production of these key food groups is a strategic move to align with national nutritional standards and ensure the population has access to the foundational elements of a healthy diet.

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Figure 06 | USDA MyPlate Daily Nutritional Guidelines This diagram presents the USDA’s MyPlate recommendations for daily food intake, visually emphasizing the proportions of each food group that should be consumed for a balanced diet. The plate is divided into sections for Vegetables (20 oz.), Fruits (16 oz.), Grains (6 oz.), Protein (5.5 oz.) on a plate, and a cup for Dairy (24 oz.). The guidelines also include recommendations for physical activity, suggesting that kids engage in over 60 minutes of physical activity per day and adults to aim for more than 150 minutes per week. It also advises limiting the intake of added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium to support overall health. The diagram provides detailed examples of what constitutes a serving for each food group, helping individuals make informed choices to meet their daily nutritional needs.

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Areas of Limited Food Access in Oʻahu USDA Food Access Research Atlas Low-income and low-access (LILA) neighborhoods are often referred to as areas of limited food access, where a considerable number of people face challenges in accessing major conventional grocery stores, which can be due to factors such as affordability, availability of nutritious options, and the distance required to reach sources of food.

The USDA Food Access Research Atlas (FARA) is a valuable tool used to understand and analyze food access in the United States. Users can map and compare census tracts by their income status and food store accessibility from 2015 and 2019 data results. The criteria for identifying a census tract as Low-Income (LI) are based on the U.S. Department of Treasury’s New Markets Tax Credit program. According to the program, a low-income census tract is one where the poverty rate is 20% or higher, the median family income is less than or equal to 80% of the State-wide median family income, or it’s in a metropolitan area with a median family income less than or equal to 80% of the metropolitan area’s median family income. Low-Access (LA) to food stores is determined by factors such as the number (at least 500) and share at least 33% of people at varying distances from the nearest supermarket, supercenter, or large grocery store. This includes those living in housing units without access to a vehicle and are more than 0.5 mile from one of these stores. FARA can map four measures of low food store access: Low Access at 1 mile and 10 miles: A significant number or share of residents live more than 1

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mile (urban) or 10 miles (rural) from the nearest food store. Low Access at .5 mile and 10 miles: A significant number or share of residents is more than 0.5 mile (urban) or 10 miles (rural) from the nearest food store.

Low Access at 1 mile and 20 miles: A significant number or share of residents is more than 1 mile (urban) or 20 miles (rural) from the nearest food store. Finally, Low Access using vehicle access: More than 100 housing units do not have a vehicle and are more than 0.5 mile from the nearest food store, or a significant number or share of residents are more than 20 miles from the nearest food store. Vehicle availability is a crucial factor in determining how easily a household can reach a food store. For households located far from supermarkets or large grocery stores, having access to a private vehicle may make it easier to reach these retailers than relying on public or alternative transportation methods, which have gaps to explore walkable places when accessing food.

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Figure 07 | Oʻahu Land Use and USDA’s Areas of Limited Food Access Map This map of Oʻahu highlights land use categories and areas of food accessibility challenges, particularly focusing on low-income communities. The map is color-coded to show: Urban Areas (104,232 acres) in gray, representing the densely populated regions of Oʻahu . Agricultural Land (67,048 acres) in bright green, indicating areas designated for farming and food production.

Conservation Land (212,525 acres) in dark green, which includes protected areas such as

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forests and natural reserves. Additionally, the map outlines Oʻahu’s eight regional planning areas, providing a framework for understanding how different parts of the island are organized in terms of development and resource management. The map also includes data from the USDA Food Access Research Atlas (2019), identifying census tracts where a significant number of residents in lowincome communities have low access to supermarkets. These areas are marked to show where residents are more than 1 mile away from a supermarket in urban settings or more than 10 miles away in rural areas.

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USDA Local Food Directory Tool In order to understand the local food landscapes that are aiding the efforts for Hawai’i to be food secure, the following explains what each local food businesses are and provides a list of existing businesses on O‘ahu via the USDA Local Food Directory tool. The Directory serves as a comprehensive platform that connects consumers, wholesale buyers, and local food producers by enabling easy access to nearby suppliers of fresh, locally sourced foods, fostering opportunities for farmers and distributors to engage in both direct-to-consumer and wholesale markets. The platform features various businesses including agritourism operations, community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, farmers markets, food hubs, and on-farm markets, offering a diverse range of opportunities for consumers and businesses to engage with local food producers.

Food Aggregators of Oʻahu Agritourism business is defined as a form of commercial enterprise that combines agricultural production and/ or processing with tourism in order to attract visitors onto a working farm, ranch, agroforestry, or aquaculture operation and produces supplemental income for the farm operator. It includes a wide range of activities that encourage the general public to appreciate agricultural surroundings and natural resources.

These activities may include– • Activities and events for educational, entertainment, and

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• • •

recreational purposes Dining, tasting, food for immediate consumption Sales of farm-grown/ raised produce and products Hospitality/ lodging services

Some of the classified Agritourism businesses on O‘ahu are Eggs Hawai’i, OK Poultry, Waimanalo Country Farms, Kualoa Ranch, Aloun Farms, Petersons’ Upland Farm, Manoa Honey Company, and Helemano Farms.

CSA stands for Community-Supported Agriculture, and is defined as a farm or network/ association of multiple farms that offer customers regular (usually weekly) deliveries of locally-grown farm products during one or more harvest seasons on a subscription or membership basis.

Customers have access to a selected share or range of farm products offered by a single farm or group of farmers based on partial or total advance payment of a subscription or membership fee. Some example businesses participating in the CSA program on O‘ahu are Waihuena Farms, Kolea Farm, Kahumana Farms, and MA‘O Organic Farms.

Farmers Market is a collection of two or more farm vendors selling agricultural products directly to customers at a common, recurrent physical location. The list of active farmers markets change over time, however, per Hawai’i Tourism Authority, there are several farmers markets on O‘ahu including Honolulu Farmers Market, Hyatt’s Farmers Market, Kapiʻolani Community College Farmers Market, Mahiku Farmers Market at King’s Village, North Shore Country Market, Kailua Farmers Market, and Windward Mall Farmers Market.

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An On-Farm Market is a single farm operation that sells agricultural and/ or horticultural products directly to customers on its farm property or on property adjacent to its farm. The majority of products sold at the onfarm market are either grown on the proprietor’s farm or are sourced from neighboring farms. There are various farms on the island including Keiki & Plow, Mari’s Garden, Kualoa Ranch, Waiahole Farm, Kahumana Farms and MA‘O Organic Farms are some examples of On-Farm Markets.

Lastly, a food hub is a business or organization that actively manages the aggregation, distribution, and marketing of source-identified food products to multiple buyers from multiple producers, primarily local and regional producers, to strengthen the ability of these producers to satisfy local and regional wholesale, retail, and institutional demand.

Examples of food hubs in O‘ahu are O‘ahu Fresh, Farm Link Hawai’i, and Kahumana Food Hub & Organic Farms.

These categories of food businesses including agritourism, community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, farmers markets, on-farm markets, and food hubs collectively enhance food availability and accessibility by fostering direct connections between producers and consumers, while also providing economic stability for local farmers and ensuring the efficient utilization of fresh, locally-sourced food within communities.

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In recent years, locally produced food farms and aggregators on O‘ahu have gained increasing signifi cance as key contributors to the island’s food security, sustainability, and community resilience. These food hubs, operating as vital connectors between small-scale farmers and the broader market, not only supply fresh produce to the local population but also foster a sense of stewardship over the land. Acknowledging their eff orts is crucial, as they embody the grassroots momentum towards regenerative agricultural practices and localized food systems that reduce reliance on imported goods.

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Figure 08 | Oʻahu’s Existing Local Food Farms and Aggregators This map represents the distribution of local food systems across the island of O‘ahu, highlighting key agricultural regions, urban zones, and conservation areas. The map shows various types of local food sources, including community-supported agriculture, farmers’ markets, on-farm markets, food hubs, and agritourism locations. These are overlaid on a geographic framework defined

by O‘ahu’s eight regional planning areas, offering insight into the spatial relationships between agriculture, urban centers, and conservation land. The map illustrates the potential for integrated food systems within the island’s existing land-use framework, emphasizing opportunities for growth in local food self-sufficiency.

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Leading Locally Produced Food Farms/ Aggregators on O’ahu Comparison Name

Year Producers Business On-site Founded (as of 2021) structure Farm

Kahumana Food Hub & Organic Farms

1974

MA‘O Organic Farms

2000

N/A

Farm Link Hawai’i

2015

150 vendors

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201 Non-profit vendors

Online/ Delivery Farm-to- Educational virtual Table Events services

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Non-profit

Yes

Yes

No

Yes

Yes

For-profit

No

Yes

Yes

No

No

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List of Vegetables, Herbs, and Fruits Being Grown and Sold in Hawai’i The catalog of vegetables, fruits, and herbs presented below has been compiled through a synthesis of resources and extensive research on local farm vendors, including MA'O Organic Farms, Kahumana Farms, and Farm Link Hawai’i. This compilation serves as a foundational reference for understanding the agricultural diversity and vendor practices within these established Hawaiian farms, offering insights into the availability and distribution of these crops in the Hawaiian Islands.

Vegetables: Current Conditions of Food Self-Sufficiency Hawai'i is close to self-sufficiency in production of watercress, Chinese cabbage, mustard cabbage, green onions, and Asian vegetables such as choy sum, Shanghai pak-choi, Shinjuku, malunggay leaves and yardlong beans. Local farmers also supply over 75% of tomatoes, sweet potato, cucumber and sweet corn to the local market. Most lettuce and other vegetables are imported (Hawai‘i Office of Planning, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2012).

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List of Vegetables and Herbs Currently Being Grown & Sold in Hawai’i

Roots Kava (‘awa) Rainbow Carrots Red Radish Watermelon Radish French Breakfast Radish Daikon Chioggia Beets Hakurei Turnip

Tubers Yam (uhi) Sweet Potato (‘uala) Arrowroot (pia) Purple Sweet Potatoes

Bulbs Fennel Leeks Green Onions Sweet Onions Purplette Onions 72

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Stems Celery Kohlrabi

Legumes Pods Green Beans

Leafy Greens Bok Choy Tatsoi Swiss Chard Mizuna Arugula Curly Kale Toscano Kale Endive Romaine Lettuce Butter Lettuce Oak Leaf Lettuce Manoa Lettuce Fusion Lettuce Cherokee Lettuce Magenta Lettuce Napa Cabbage Collards 73

Designing for Food Self-Sufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

Corms Taro (kalo)

Herbs Sugar Cane (kō) Turmeric (‘ōolena) Ginger Cilantro Italian Basil Curry Leaf Garlic Chives Kaffir Lime Leaf Moringa Leaf/ Kalamungay Sage Thyme Italian Parsley American Parsley

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Fruits: Current Conditions of Food Self-Sufficiency Hawai’i meets much of the resident demands for watermelon, papaya, pineapple, and banana. There also are healthy seasonal supplies from backyards and small orchards of mango and tropical exotic fruit such as lychee, rambutan, and jackfruit. Much of the local produce is not found in mainstream markets but is sold at farmer’s and ethnic markets. Other types of fruit are mostly imported. Market potential is seen in fruit like blueberries, dragonfruit, and pomegranate (Hawai‘i Office of Planning, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, 2012).

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List of Fruits Currently Being Grown & Sold in Hawai’i

Berries Indian Mulberry (noni)

Drupes Mountain Apple (‘ōhi‘a ‘ai) Coconut (Niu) Avocado Star Apple Jabuticaba Mango Green Pickling Mango Citrus Limes Meyer Lemons Eureka Lemons Tangerine Pomelo Calamansi Grapefruit Oranges

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Tropical Fruits Bananas (mai‘a) Apple Bananas (mai‘a) Breadfruit (‘ulu) Dragonfruit Gold Pineapple Starfruit Soursop Lychee Rambutan Passionfruit (lilikoʻi) Papaya

Other Green Zucchini Eggplant Cucumber Beefsteak Tomatoes Roma Tomatoes Cherry Tomatoes Candlenut (kukui) Paper Mulberry (wauke)

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Urban Agriculture As cities expand and food insecurity becomes an increasingly urgent issue, urban agriculture—the cultivation, processing, and distribution of food within urban and suburban areas—emerges as a transformative solution to connect sustenance with the built environment. The disconnect between food production and urban living has left many communities vulnerable, limiting access to fresh, nutritious food and exacerbating social and environmental challenges. Addressing this issue requires a fundamental shift in how cities are envisioned, integrating food systems into the urban fabric to foster resilience and sustainability.

By incorporating food production into cityscapes, urban agriculture reimagines the way we grow, distribute, and consume food, transforming underutilized spaces such as rooftops, vacant lots, and building facades into productive areas that support food security and enrich urban ecosystems.

As Gundula Proksch (2016) highlights, integrating agriculture into urban design not only provides fresh, local produce but also enhances ecological sustainability and strengthens community well-being.

Examples of urban agriculture range from community gardens and rooftop farms to innovative systems like hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaponics, and vertical farming. These methods redefine how cities can meet the growing demand for food while addressing environmental concerns, turning overlooked spaces into active contributors to urban life. Urban agriculture is not just about producing food—it is about creating resilient urban food systems that support ecological health, community engagement, and sustainable development. By embracing

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these methods, cities can bridge the growing need for sustenance with the potential of urban environments to build a more equitable and sustainable future.

Soil-based Growing Systems Soil-based growing systems play a critical role in urban agriculture, utilizing natural and constructed methods to maximize food production while fostering ecological benefits. In natural systems, soil functions as the medium through which plants access water, oxygen, and nutrients.

Organic matter, like humus, decomposes over time, gradually releasing minerals and ions essential for plant growth, which naturally replenishes soil fertility (Proksch, 2016).

Techniques like permaculture and biointensive farming highlight the versatility of soil-based methods. Permaculture creates self-sustaining ecosystems by mimicking the structure and function of natural environments. It incorporates layers of perennials—trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants—to foster biodiversity and minimize inputs like fertilizers and irrigation. Once established, these systems can thrive with minimal maintenance, revitalizing degraded urban spaces while offering educational opportunities about ecological cycles. In dense urban areas where soil quality or land availability is limited, constructed soil-based systems—including container gardens, raised beds, and green roofs—offer adaptable alternatives. Container gardens allow cultivation in portable vessels, overcoming issues like contaminated or sealed surfaces. Raised beds, with their larger soil volumes, stabilize soil

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temperature and moisture, improving yields and adaptability to rooftop installations. Green roofs, on the other hand, transform unused rooftops into productive spaces, integrating food production with rainwater retention and improved urban microclimates (Proksch, 2016). Vertical growing systems, such as green façades and living walls, address the spatial limitations of dense urban environments. Green façades use climbing plants and vines supported by trellises, while living walls employ pre-vegetated panels with integrated irrigation systems. Although less commonly used for food production, these systems show promise for growing edibles in urban settings. Vertical structures not only maximize available space but also contribute to greener, more sustainable urban environments.

Together, soil-based growing systems—whether natural or constructed— offer a spectrum of adaptable strategies for addressing food security in cities. By reclaiming underutilized spaces and integrating agriculture into urban environments, these systems support sustainable development while fostering ecological and social benefits.

Hydroponic Growing Systems Hydroponic systems offer a highly efficient, soil-less method of cultivation, relying on nutrient-rich water to deliver essential resources directly to plant roots. These systems are particularly suited to urban agriculture due to their ability to maximize yields, conserve water, and operate in confined spaces. Unlike soil-based systems, hydroponics allows for precise control over nutrients, water, and oxygen, enabling

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Figure 09

Figure 10

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crops to grow faster and more consistently. Proksch (2016) notes that urban agriculture projects often utilize closed recirculating systems, which "grant hydroponics the environmental benefits of resource efficiency, elimination of agricultural runoff, and potential integration with building systems" (p.31). Such systems filter, sterilize, and replenish nutrient solutions, ensuring minimal waste and optimal plant health.

There are two larger categories within hydroponics: aggregate cultures and water cultures. Aggregate-based hydroponics, such as floodand-drain systems, use inert rooting mediums like gravel or perlite to support plant roots. These systems periodically flood the medium with nutrient-rich water, which is then drained to expose roots to oxygen.

Proksch highlights that while these systems are effective for deep-rooted vegetables like tomatoes, “their substantial weight and potential for leakage pose challenges for building and rooftop integration” (p. 32). Drip systems, another form of aggregate culture, are commonly employed for vine crops and feature individual emitters that deliver nutrients directly to plant roots. Because the drip system is lightweight and flexible, they are well-suited for rooftop farms, but they require regular maintenance to avoid pump failure or clogged lines.

In water culture systems, such as the raft culture and nutrient film technique (NFT), plant roots are immersed in or exposed to flowing nutrient solutions. Raft culture involves floating plants on Styrofoam rafts over deep nutrient beds, a technique often used for herbs and lettuce in greenhouse environments. While effective for ground-level farming, the weight of water-filled pools limits its application for rooftop agriculture.

NFT, by contrast, is widely used for leafy greens and is described as “one

Figure 09 | Aggregate Culture Types: Drip System and Flood-and-Drain System Diagram Figure 10 | Water Culture Types: Raft System and Nutrient Film Technique (NFT) Diagram (Top row); Aeroponics and Aquaponics Diagram (Bottom row) 83

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of the most productive and frequently employed hydroponic growing methods for lettuces worldwide” (Proksch, 2016, p. 34). This system suspends roots in a shallow stream of recirculating nutrients, providing consistent oxygenation and nutrient delivery. However, Proksch points out that “plants at the top of the tray tend to extract inputs from the solution, depleting the concentration by the time it gets to the bottom” (p. 34), making careful calibration essential.

Aeroponics is a form of hydroponics, which grows plants by directly spraying the roots with nutrient-filled fine mist. This system cultivates roots in air, allowing for optimal oxygen exposure and nutrient absorption. According to Proksch, the plants can be suspended in an enclosed chamber such as a box, an A-frame structure, a teepee, or a lean-to structure (p. 34). Aeroponics requires sophisticated infrastructure and precise maintenance, including filtration systems to prevent clogged nozzles.

Aquaponics is a hybrid of aquaculture and hydroponics, and introduces an additional layer of sustainability by integrating fish farming. This closed-loop system relies on fish waste as a natural fertilizer, which plants absorb while simultaneously purifying the water for the fish.

Proksch (2016) describes aquaponics as “a self-fertilizing, recirculating ecosystem” that produces both fish and crops in a symbiotic relationship (p. 36). Microbes convert fish waste into nutrient-rich fertilizer, which supports plant growth. The plants, in turn, filter the water, maintaining a healthy environment for the fish. Aquaponics requires a high level of expertise and understanding for balanced plant cultivation.

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Regenerative Architecture Regenerative architecture focuses on creating buildings that produce a series of benefits instead of causing environmental harm. It involves designing systems that go beyond just doing less harm, aiming to introduce potential life and creativity by advancing the whole system. It aims to support the co-evolution of human and natural systems, acting as a catalyst for positive change within a unique place, enhancing life in all its manifestations through enduring stewardship. The fundamental perspective shifts from doing-things-better, to doing-better-things.

Rather than aiming to reduce or address the damage caused by human activities, it demands our perspectives to shift towards imagining and crafting solutions that enable humans to actively improve and support flourishing ecosystems. This shift in perspective is the first step in creating a compelling vision for a future that we can all embrace and work together to achieve.

Regenerative design methods aim to create a harmonious balance between economic, social, and environmental factors, or also known as the triple bottom-line of sustainable development (Persson, 2009).

Additionally, they both recognize the importance of long-term viability, the preservation of natural resources, and the promotion of resilience in the face of challenges such as urban population growth and climate change. According to Persson, triple-bottom line is defined as follows:

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Figure 11 | The Triple Bottom-Line of Sustainable Development Diagram

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•

Ecological development is significant to: • Minimize emissions to air, ground, and water • Conserve biodiversity • Conserve finite resources • Conserve resilience within ecosystems • Protect ethical and cultural values associated with nature

•

Economic development is significant to promote • Allocation of resources between countries and people • Ability to work and to earn a living • International trade that supports sustainability • Sustainable production and consumption • Technical development • Corporate responsibility • Consumer influence

•

Social development is significant to promote • Quality of life and health • Access to housing • Education • Possibility for individuals to influence the development of society and democracy • Free access to information • Ability to practice one’s own culture • Freedom of religion and speech • Equality

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Figure 12 | Historical Timeline of Sustainable Architecture and Environmental Design Milestones This graphic presents a timeline tracing key milestones in the development of sustainable architecture and environmental design from 1900 to the present day. The timeline highlights significant figures, publications, and events that have shaped the field, illustrating the evolution of ideas and practices that have contributed to modern sustainable design principles. This timeline serves as an educational tool, illustrating the progression of sustainable architecture and the influential thinkers and events that have contributed to the current understanding and implementation of ecological and regenerative design.

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History and Timeline It’s important to understand how we reached the regenerative era. The timeline provides a historical overview of pivotal movements, influential figures, and significant milestones that have shaped the evolution of sustainable design. It begins in the early 20th century, shortly after the Industrial Revolution—a transformative period for human progress that also marked the onset of widespread environmental degradation. The reliance on industrial processes during this era accelerated ecological harm, highlighting the urgent need for approaches that could restore balance between human activities and the natural environment.

The timeline traces the origins of sustainable design to foundational works such as Ebenezer Howard’s Garden Cities of Tomorrow, which introduced early efforts to integrate natural systems into urban planning.

Over time, this vision has matured through critical milestones, including the establishment of frameworks like LEED certification and the Living Building Challenge. These benchmarks signify a paradigm shift within architectural thinking—from an initial focus on minimizing harm and achieving efficiency to a contemporary pursuit of net-positive and regenerative strategies that aim to actively repair and heal ecological systems.

By charting this progression, the timeline underscores the dynamic trajectory of sustainable design, off ering a lens through which to understand how the fi eld has evolved in response to the ecological, social, and cultural challenges of each era. It situates current regenerative practices within a broader historical context, emphasizing their role as the culmination of over a century of innovation aimed at harmonizing built environments with the natural world.

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Design Principles The three key design strategies as described by Attia include defi ning a construction system, determining design elements and performances, and selecting materials. The fi rst step in choosing a construction system may include cradle-to-cradle and modular systems; the second step is to defi ne programming and implement passive methods, as well as perform site analysis, propose opportunities in renewable energy production and water management; the third step is to select building materials that are biogenic, recycled, or carry minimal embodied energy and carbon content (Persson, 2009).

When designing a regenerative building environment, defi ned criteria must be fulfi lled and verifi ed. 12 regenerative design principles can be considered with various examples of assumed applications (Attia, 2018): •

Place and nature – Ecosystem-place-based design approach for regenerating the ecosystem and making it possible for future development, i.e. ecosystem approaches, because each place or site is a unique dynamic entity; the building interacts with site environment and green neighborhoods, ecosystem, and biodiversity protection; re-establishes lost or removed soil; and adapts to microclimate circumstances.

•

Energy – Restorative and regenerative energy systems, eff ectively used and shared energy systems, and energy as part of a continuous restoration of ecosystems aiming to increase their quality, such as eff ectively used and shared renewable, restorative, and regenerative

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energy systems, and eff ective energy storage.

•

Carbon – Carbon-neutral and climate-positive approaches are measures of reducing carbon, such as reducing a building’s embodied carbon based on third-party life cycle assessment sources.

•

Water – Clean drinking water, such as improved water management and supply, and net positive water frequency supply by rainwater harvesting.

•

Material and resources – Improving material and resource productivity through life cycle assessment, material from renewable organic systems to conserve resources and maintain them for future generations, such as healthy and nontoxic materials, transparent labeling, the use of local renewables, responsible use, and conservation.

•

Waste – Zero waste approach, design for disassembly, deconstruction, and fl exibility of use, such as the C2C labeling system approach, upcycling, reuse, and recycling of materials and buildings.

•

Health and well-being – Enhancing quality of life, reconnecting humans with nature, contributing to individual, community, and societal health and well-being without taking advantage of other people, the environment, or future generations, such as applying the principles of biophilia, ensuring access to healthy food, ensuring air

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quality, indoor air quality, daylight, comfort, and mindfulness.

•

Social equity – Equality, gender equality, participation of people and countries, equity in the allocation of resources, inclusiveness of people and generations, support for vulnerable people, e.g. empowerment of women, older and young people, giving disadvantaged groups a voice, no threat associated with food production, and globally responsible action in dealing with resources.

•

Economy – Regenerative, circular, crowdfunding, and sharing economy; sustainable production and consumption; collaborative business approach; place-based economies at multiple scales, such as restorative enterprises; redesign business models with a focus on selling products that create waste to provide services in closed-loop models; and energy unions.

•

Culture and community – Address the social aspects of health, foster social cohesion and community identity, and promote accessibility and integration such as re-integrated and enjoyable heritage, buildings, and local heritage as visual, social, cultural, and economic catalysts for the community, accessibility of cultural and historical places, and inclusiveness of rural communities.

•

Education and inspiration – Enable and encourage stakeholder participation, bottom-up cultures and initiatives, whole life education, increase awareness, such as encouraging pioneer movements, i.e. permaculture, urban gardening, and place-making, giving a voice to diff erent sectors and interests of society, continuous and

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intergenerational learning and feedback, cooperation, interaction, and interdisciplinary planning.

•

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Environment and mobility – reduce carbon emissions caused by travel and transport, encourage walking and cycling, walkable and cyclable cities, rural–urban balance such as reducing transport volumes at the building site, encouraging and enabling car sharing, e-car charging stations, bicycle parking spaces and cycle paths, and footpaths to schools and shops. (Persson, 2023).

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Green Infrastructure Green Infrastructure planning originated as a holistic approach within ecological and conservation fields. In 2006, Mark A. Benedict, an ecologist and conservation biologist, and Edward T. McMahon, a lawyer and land use expert, wrote “Green Infrastructure: Linking Landscapes and Communities”, which provided one of the first comprehensive toolkits for implementing green infrastructure strategies in urban planning and development. For architects and professionals in the built environment, GI offers innovative strategies to integrate natural systems into urban development, enhancing sustainability and resilience.

By bridging the gap between ecological science and urban planning, Benedict and McMahon's toolkit has had a lasting impact on how cities approach sustainable development, making them key figures in pioneering green infrastructure within the built environment.

• • • • • • • •

Bioretention cells/ rain garden (low percolation, or shallow areas with soil, mulch, and plants).

Bioswales (high percolation; linear w/ grass, rocks, and vegetation).

Rainwater cisterns (Underground or above-ground).

Permeable surfaces Wastewater systems Filtration systems Water pumps

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Analysis Understanding the comprehensive landscape of food security—including its definitions, the relationship between food security and food selfsufficiency, and the initiatives undertaken by both the Hawai’i state government and the U.S. federal government (notably the USDA)—is essential for developing an effective toolkit. This foundational knowledge illuminates the challenges and opportunities within current food systems, guiding the identification of strategies that can enhance local food resilience. Integrating this with an in-depth exploration of regenerative architecture's history, terminology, timeline, and design principles bridges the gap between sustainable food production and the built environment. By synthesizing these domains, the final toolkit becomes a holistic resource that promotes not only food security but also ecological restoration and community well-being through regenerative design practices.

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Methodology

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Case Studies

The selection of case studies includes both existing and past food-focused architectural, urban, and landscape design projects implemented throughout the world. These projects prioritize making food visible, thereby enhancing the public's relationship with food and sharing knowledge of nutrition in ways that are accessible to the general population. Each project demonstrates the potential of integrating food systems into the built environment to foster community engagement, promote sustainability, and address food security. By focusing on regenerative practices and local food production, these case studies highlight how design can serve as a catalyst for social change, environmental stewardship, and resilient urban development.

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Regenerative Urban Agriculture Case Studies– General Information This table itemizes general information including the name of the project and design fi rm responsible for the project, project location, construction status, and the year of realization. The list is organized in chronological order, and categorized by project scale.

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Scale

Code

Project Name + Firm Name

Location

Status

Built Year

Urban + Landscape Architecture

U.01*

Village Homes Michael Corbett

Davis, California

Built

1982

U.02

Home Farm Spark Architects

Singapore

Concept

2014

U.03

Regen Villages Effekt Architects

Oosterworld, Almere, Netherlands

Concept

2016

U.04

Thammasat Urban Rooftop Farm LANDPROCESS

Bangkok, Thailand

Built

2019

U.05

Taisugar Circular Village Bio-Architecture Formosana

Tainan, Taiwan

Built

2021

A.01

Urban Farmers Space&Matter Hydroponic Farm Ikea Lab, Space 10

Built (Closed in 2018) Built (Temporary)

2016

A.02 A.03

Brasserie 2050 Overtreders W

The Hague, South Holland, Netherlands London Design Festival, London, UK Lowlands Festival, Netherlands

Built (Temporary)

2018

A.04*

Vertical Urban Farm (La Cité Maraîchère) Ilimelgo Architects MA`O Organic Farms Facility AMA A/E

Romainville, Paris, France

Built

2021

Architecture

A.05*

Lualualei Valley, Oʻahu, Hawai’i

2017

Under Present Construction

Project codes with an * notates Featured Case Studies.

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Regenerative Urban Agriculture Case Studies– Short Analysis

Code

Project Name

U.01*

Village Homes

U.02 Home Farm

U.03

Regen Villages

Photo

One Sentence Description Regenerative Urban Agriculture Features

Building Typology

Village Homes is a pioneering Renewable Energy Residential sustainable community in Green Infrastructure Development/ Davis, California, designed Urban Agriculture Masterplan

by Michael Corbett, featuring Circular Economy energy-effi cient homes, Social Equity edible landscaping, natural drainage systems, and a layout that promotes social interaction.

Conceptual project for an Renewable Energy Residential urban aff ordable retirement Green Infrastructure Development/ housing community that Urban Agriculture Masterplan combines residential housing, Circular Economy facilities, vertical farming, and Social Equity rooftop garden.

Conceptual framework for Renewable Energy Residential self-suffi cient development Green Infrastructure Development/ model with 203 residential Urban Agriculture Masterplan units integrated with soilless Circular Economy and ground-based agriculture Social Equity practices.

C2C Construction

U.04 Thammasat Urban Rooftop Farm

Repurposed expansively Renewable Energy Adaptive wasted 236,806sf rooftop Green Infrastructure Reuse/ Roof space as an opportunity to Urban Agriculture Retrofit host organic farms, inspired Circular Economy by traditional rice terraces Social Equity providing a circular economy through a sustainable food system.

U.05

Residential project focusing Renewable Energy Residential on a circular economy with Green Infrastructure Development/ 429 residential units and Urban Agriculture Masterplan separate buildings hosting Circular Economy food, shared amenities, and Social Equity kitchen.

Taisugar Circular Village

Project codes with an * notates Featured Case Studies.

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This table provides a reference photo, short description of each project, regenerative methods and urban agriculture features used, and project building typology.

Code

Project Name

A.01

Urban Farmers

Photo

One Sentence Description Regenerative Urban Agriculture Features

Building Typology

Greenhouse in the sky; urban Urban Agriculture farming unit used for events, Social Equity and teaching about sustainable urban food production

Mixed use/ Hospitality/ Adaptive Reuse/ Roof Retrofi t

A.02 Hydroponic Farm

Vertical mini-farm pop-up used to prepare nutritional salads during the London Design Festival 2017.

Urban Agriculture Social Equity

Temporary Restaurant

A.03

Brasserie 2050

Zero-waste, vertical farming Renewable Energy and food storage barn and Urban Agriculture restaurant constructed using Social Equity closed-loop methods.

C2C Construction

Temporary Restaurant

A.04*

Vertical Urban Farm (La Cité Maraîchère)

~10,700sf urban greenhouse Renewable Energy that meets growing demands Urban Agriculture for local crop cultivation in the Social Equity suburbs of Paris.

C2C Construction

Urban Agriculture Community

A.05*

MA`O Organic Farms Facility

Organic-certifi ed processing Renewable Energy Community facility to increase agricultural Green Infrastructure Education production in Waianae Valley Urban Agriculture Agriculture with outdoor root wash Social Equity bay, automated and manual processing equipment, prep kitchen, refrigerated storage, offi ces, and education areas

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Featured Case Studies

Village Homes in Davis, California (U.01) In 1973, architect and developer Michael Corbett procured a 70-acre parcel in Davis, California, with the aim of establishing an innovative community that prioritized robust energy conservation and solar energy adoption. Corbett’s design incorporated diverse residential clusters interspersed with commercial and agricultural areas, as well as communal spaces intended to foster social interaction. Completed in 1982, the Village Homes community has become one of the most sought-after in California’s Central Valley, serving as a model of successful sustainable development. The community comprises 244 single-family and multi-family residences with a commercial center situated on 60 acres adjacent to the University of California.

A central feature of Village Homes is its extensive use of edible landscaping, transforming both common areas and individual yards

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into productive gardens. Homeowners participated in planning the shared spaces between housing clusters, choosing to incorporate fruitbearing trees, shrubs, and vegetable gardens. Mature orchards and a vineyard produce a variety of fruits and nuts, including almonds, cherries, peaches, pears, persimmons, and plums. Residents are free to harvest most of the crops, which promotes a sense of community through shared agricultural activities.

The edible landscaping enhances the aesthetics of the community, creating a picturesque environment that attracts both residents and visitors. It exemplifi es sustainable land use by reducing reliance on transported produce and lowering the community’s carbon footprint. The shared cultivation and harvesting of food encourage social interaction, strengthening bonds among neighbors and fostering a collective responsibility for the environment.

In addition to edible landscaping, Village Homes incorporates other sustainable design elements. Homes are oriented to maximize solar gain, featuring calculated overhangs for seasonal shading, enhanced insulation, concrete slabs for thermal mass, and solar hot water systems.

Narrow, tree-lined streets reduce vehicular traffi c and heat absorption, contributing to cooler summer temperatures and a safer, more walkable neighborhood. A natural drainage system replaces conventional storm drains with landscaped swales that collect rainwater, allowing it to infi ltrate the soil and reducing infrastructure costs.

Figure P1 | Village Homes Aerial View Google Earth. (2023). Aerial view of Village Homes in Davis, California [Satellite image]. Retrieved October 1, 2024, from https://www.google.com/earth/ 107

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Vertical Urban Farm (La Cité Maraîchère) in Romainville, Paris, France (A.04) The Vertical Urban Farm in Romainville, on the outskirts of Paris and designed by architects ILIMELGO, is an example of vertical urban farming, and a centerpiece of the city’s urban renewal eff orts. Serving as both a community landmark and educational facility, the farm promotes healthy nutrition through short food chains by providing residents with fresh, low-carbon-footprint produce year-round. The ground fl oor off ers public access to a restaurant, workshops, and educational gardens, while the upper fl oors are dedicated to cultivating crops in a space-effi cient design that maximizes natural light. Refl ecting the city’s agricultural and industrial heritage, the building combines pragmatic construction— utilizing concrete for its durability and load-bearing capacity—with sustainable features like bio-based natural insulation materials, a woodfi red boiler for renewable heating, and a façade that adapts to climatic conditions to optimize plant growth. This bioclimatic environment not only meets user needs but also fosters responsible market gardening and encourages community interaction.

Figure P9 | Vertical Urban Farm ILIMELGO. (n.d.). Cité Maraîchère [Image]. ILIMELGO. https://ilimelgo.com/en/projets/cultiver/citemaraichere.

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MA`O Organic Farms Facility in Lualualei Valley, Oʻahu, Hawai’i (A.05) The MAʻO Organic Farms Facility in Lualualei Valley, Oʻahu, Hawaiʻi, functions as a sustainable agricultural hub that amplifi es organic food production and empowers local youth through mentorship and educational programs. Enabled by an EDA grant, the facility comprises essential processing areas such as a covered exterior root wash bay, automated and manual processing equipment, a prep kitchen, refrigerated storage, administrative offi ces, and an expansive covered lanai designed for educational tours and observation. The architectural design incorporates large windows to enhance natural ventilation and establish a connection with the exterior landscape and orchard. A pivotal aspect of the project is its comprehensive water management system: rainwater is harvested and stored; stormwater is channeled into bioretention swales; wash water is collected in a holding pond for irrigation purposes; greywater and condensate are directed to greywater gardens for natural fi ltration; and blackwater is treated onsite and dispersed into an absorption bed. This project exemplifi es the integration of sustainable architectural design with regenerative agricultural practices, making it a relevant case study for regenerative urban agriculture toolkits. Its holistic approach to water management and emphasis on connecting built environments with natural landscapes align with the principles of regenerative architecture, off ering valuable insights for sustainable design strategies that promote environmental stewardship and community well-being.

Figure P10 | MAʻO Organic Farms Facility AMA A/E. (n.d.). MAʻO Organic Farms Facility [Image]. AMA A/E. https://ama-ae.com/ 111

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Discussion

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Discussion

The literature review and case studies form the foundational pillars of my regenerative urban agriculture toolkit, off ering a rich synthesis of theoretical insights and practical applications. The literature review provides a comprehensive exploration of contemporary strategies in urban agriculture, regenerative design principles, and urban agriculture methods, establishing a conceptual framework that aligns with the ethos of sustainability and resilience. Complementing this, the case studies serve as tangible examples, showcasing how these principles are successfully applied in real-world contexts, particularly within urban communities facing environmental and social challenges. Together, they inform the development of my toolkit by integrating best practices, identifying critical gaps, and tailoring innovative approaches that address specifi c ecological, cultural, and urban needs. This synergy ensures that the fi nal toolkit is both grounded in robust research and enriched by actionable, context-specifi c solutions.

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Toolkit Development Based on Case Studies and Research Analysis

Code

Project Name

Ecological Green Infrastructure

Renewable Energy

Waste Management

Passive Methods

X

X

U.01*

Village Homes

X

X

U.02

Home Farm

X

X

U.03

Regen Villages

X

X

X

U.04

Thammasat Urban Rooftop Farm

X

X

X

X

U.05

Taisugar Circular Village

X

X

X

X

A.01

Urban Farmers

X

X

A.02

Hydroponic Farm

A.03

Brasserie 2050

A.04*

Vertical Urban Farm (La Cité Maraîchère)

A.05*

MA`O Organic Farms Facility

X

X

X

Project codes with an * notates Featured Case Studies.

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X

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This table evaluates regenerative features associated with each project categorized by triple-bottom line ecological, economic, and social aspects.

Economic

Social

Circular Economy + Jobs

Circular Materials + C2C

Social Equity

Beauty + Biophilia

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

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Design

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Concept

Consumers currently engage in a linear relationship with food that begins at conventional farms and progresses through a streamlined supply chain before reaching their hands. Farmers cultivate and harvest raw agricultural products, which are then collected by food aggregators who consolidate goods from various sources to optimize distribution. These aggregated products are supplied to grocery markets and retailers, making them accessible to the general public. Finally, consumers and wholesale buyers purchase these goods, completing the direct journey from farm to table. However, this linear progression is not universally accessible; factors such as geographic limitations, economic disparities, and distribution inefficiencies can restrict access for certain communities, hence, creating areas of limited food access. This highlights that while the existing system connects producers to consumers, it does not equally serve all populations, underscoring the need for more inclusive and accessible food distribution models.

In the tiered food access model, consumers are placed at the center of the system designed to provide multiple layers of accessibility. At the core is direct access to local farms, allowing consumers to engage with producers in their immediate surroundings, fostering stronger community ties and promoting fresher, seasonal produce. Surrounding this core are local food aggregators and markets located within walking distance, offering convenient access to a wider variety of goods while supporting small-scale producers and reducing the carbon footprint

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of food distribution. Finally, conventional grocery stores and external imports serve as an additional layer of access, giving consumers the option to purchase items not available locally, offering flexibility while still emphasizing the importance of local and sustainable choices. This model creates a more resilient and equitable food system, balancing local sustainability with broader food security.

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These networks of tiered food access models come together to form an interconnected system that enhances food accessibility on a larger scale. By linking multiple decentralized, food-focused neighborhoods, the model creates a robust network that allows for the sharing of resources, knowledge, and surplus produce between communities. This interconnectedness not only strengthens local food systems but also provides resilience against disruptions in the conventional food supply chain. As neighborhoods collaborate, they collectively help alleviate areas of limited food access, promote equitable access to nutritious food, and foster a more inclusive urban food ecosystem that benefits both local producers and consumers.

Figure 14 | Tiered Food Access Model: Direct Consumer Access to Local Farms, Aggregators, and Markets

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Figure 13 | Traditional Linear Approach to Food Supply Chain 121

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Figure 15 | Decentralized Model: Network of Food-Focused Neighborhoods 123

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Regenerative Toolkit The final toolkit includes the followingUrban Agriculture • Soil-based on-ground, vertical, trellis, terraced, and tower growing systems • Hydroponics/ aquaponics/ aeroponics on-ground, vertical, shelving, and tower growing systems • Greenhouses and structures (rooftop or on-grade) • Green facade Green Infrastructure • Rain garden (low percolation, shallow areas with soil, mulch, and plants) • Bioswales and grass swales (high percolation areas, often linear with grass, rocks, and vegetation) • Rainwater cisterns (Underground or above-ground) • Permeable surfaces • Permaculture, agroforestry, and other filtration systems Renewable Energy • Solar farming • Composting and other renewable energy

Figure 16 | Regenerative Urban Agriculture Toolkit + Categories 125

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Designing for Food Self-Sufficiency: A Regenerative Toolkit for Honolulu’s Limited Food Access Areas

The final regenerative urban agriculture toolkit was developed through a systematic process informed by an extensive review of literature, case studies, and analysis of ecological and urban systems. The toolkit was organized into three key categories: Renewable Energy, Green Infrastructure, and Urban Agriculture. These categories reflect an integrated approach to addressing food accessibility while prioritizing sustainability and resilience. Renewable Energy components, such as solar and compost systems, focus on reducing environmental footprints while enhancing resource efficiency. Green Infrastructure elements, including bioswales and rainwater harvesting, address stormwater management, biodiversity, and urban cooling. Urban Agriculture strategies, like soil-based and vertical farming, tackle food production within limited urban spaces, integrating community-oriented solutions such as food hubs and agroforestry. This categorization ensures a holistic, actionable, and adaptable toolkit that responds to the challenges of addressing food insecurity.

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Building Typologies

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The three building typologies—Surrounding Landscape, Adaptive Reuse, and New Construction—represent distinct approaches to architectural design, each with unique opportunities for sustainability and environmental stewardship. Surrounding Landscape typologies emphasize a seamless integration of the building with its environment, aiming to harmonize the structure with the surrounding natural or built context. These designs often prioritize minimal site disturbance, preservation of natural features, and the use of local materials, while employing passive design strategies such as natural ventilation and solar orientation to enhance energy efficiency. This approach fosters a connection between occupants and nature, contributing to both ecological preservation and biophilic design principles.

Figure 17 | Building Typologies 127

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Adaptive Reuse focuses on repurposing existing structures for new functions, a method that is innately more sustainable than demolishing old buildings to construct new buildings. This typology emphasizes preserving the embodied carbon and architectural heritage of existing buildings while updating systems and interiors to meet modern needs.

It aligns with circular economy principles by extending the life cycle of materials and reducing the environmental impact of construction processes.

New Construction offers a clean slate to design structures that meet specific contemporary needs and standards. While this typology allows for the incorporation of cutting-edge technologies, net-zero energy systems, and innovative materials, it also demands significant resources due to the extraction, production, and transportation of new materials.

Despite its higher initial environmental impact, new construction can be an opportunity to implement forward-thinking sustainability strategies and design solutions that adapt to evolving urban demands. Together, these typologies reflect a spectrum of approaches, from conserving and reimagining the past to innovating for the future, and their application depends on the specific environmental, cultural, and functional needs of a project.

Figure 18 | Building Typologies– Surrounding Landscape Toolkit 129

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Figure 19 | Building Typologies– Adaptive Reuse Toolkit

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Figure 20 | Building Typologies– New Construction Toolkit 131

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Suitability Analysis Suitability analysis is performed to determine the most favorable location for a specific test site to implement the design toolkit, evaluating various factors such as environmental conditions, social aspects, and economic considerations. By systematically assessing different areas against these criteria, it assists in selecting a test site that best aligns with this dissertation’s food security objectives.

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Archival image rephotographed and composited by the author, 2024.

Sterling, E. P., & Summers, C. C. (1993). Sites of Oʻahu (Rev. ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.​Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Figure 21 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Land Use and Environmental Features Map This map highlights land use in Honolulu’s Primary Urban Center, categorizing areas by color.

It includes: Urban Areas (34,595 acres, gray), covering residential, commercial, and industrial zones; Agricultural Land (609 acres, green), designated for farming; Conservation Land (31,799 acres, purple), protecting natural and cultural sites; and Impervious Areas (19,418 acres, brown), representing surfaces that block water absorption.

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Figure 22 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Areas of Limited Food Access and Grocery Stores Map The map integrates data from the USDA Food Access Research Atlas (2019) in red boundary.

These are low-income census tracts where a significant portion of residents live more than 1 mile (in urban areas) or more than 10 miles (in rural areas) from the nearest supermarket, indicating challenges in accessing affordable, healthy food. This map is a valuable tool providing insights into the spatial relationship between land use, conservation, and food accessibility, and highlighting areas where interventions might be necessary to improve food security within Honolulu’s Primary Urban Center.

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Figure 23 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Moisture Zones Map This map illustrates the moisture zones across the Primary Urban Center of Oʻahu, overlaid with the island’s eight regional planning areas and traditional ahupua‘a boundaries. The color-coded zones represent varying levels of annual rainfall, ranging from very wet to arid, which are critical for assessing potential agricultural viability within the region. Understanding these moisture gradients is essential for determining areas suitable for regenerative urban agriculture.

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Figure 24 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Morning Heat Index Map This map shows the morning heat index (6:00 - 7:00 AM) for the primary urban center of Honolulu and its surrounding areas (muted). The heat index is represented through a gradient, with higher temperatures (90.242°F) indicated by deeper red hues and cooler temperatures (71.416°F) by blue shades. The map highlights areas with impervious surfaces, which are prone to higher heat retention, also known as the urban heat island. Additionally, it marks low-income communities with limited access to food sources, as defined by the USDA Food Access Research Atlas 2019. These areas are overlaid with the natural watershed boundaries (Ahupua‘a) and regional planning areas to demonstrate the intersection of socio-economic vulnerability and environmental stress in the region.

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Figure 25 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Afternoon Heat Index Map This map shows the afternoon heat index (3:00 - 4:00 PM) for the primary urban center of Honolulu and its surrounding areas (muted). The heat index is represented through a gradient, with higher temperatures (107.312°F) indicated by deeper red hues and cooler temperatures (85.056°F) by blue shades. The map highlights areas with impervious surfaces, which are prone to higher heat retention, also known as the urban heat island. Additionally, it marks low-income communities with limited access to food sources, as defined by the USDA Food Access Research Atlas 2019. These areas are overlaid with the natural watershed boundaries (Ahupua‘a) and regional planning areas to demonstrate the intersection of socio-economic vulnerability and environmental stress in the region.

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Figure 26 | Primary Urban Center of Honolulu: Median Household Income Map This map displays the median household income across Oʻahu’s Primary Urban Center, from 2007 to 2011, and highlights USDA-designated low-income and low-access areas. The varying shades of blue represent income ranges, with darker shades indicating higher incomes and lighter shades representing lower-income areas. This map is crucial for identifying socioeconomic disparities that influence access to food in Honolulu’s urban areas.

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Identifying Test Sites Peri-urban neighborhoods, located in the transitional zones between urban areas and agricultural or conservation lands—primarily comprising residential zones such as R-20, R-10, R-7.5, R-5, and R-3.5, with close proximity to apartment mixed-use and business zones—present a significant opportunity for the integration of community food hubs. These hubs can empower residents within these neighborhoods to cultivate, share, and trade produce, reduce waste, and gain consistent access to fresh, nutritious food.

As indicated by suitability analysis, there are four distinctive areas with limited access to food in the primary urban center of Honolulu. The four locations are as follows–

Figure 27. Hickam Air Force Base (F-1 Federal and Military Preservation District) This military residential community is around 2,200 acres. The community has access to Hickam Beach and harbor, military fitness facilities, recreation parks, and community centers.

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Figure 28. Aliamanu Military Reservation (F-1 Federal and Military Preservation District) AMR is a military housing development, nearly 500 acres in size, situated in an inactive volcanic crater.

Figure 29. Pearl City Peninsula (F-1 Federal and Military Preservation District) This military community comprises over 600 single-family homes. The development includes several recreational facilities, such as dog parks, basketball courts, and a community swimming pool.

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Figure 30. Pālolo Valley (R-5 Residential District) Within this residential district, the indicated limited access to food area is largely occupied by a residential complex called Pālolo Homes, which is maintained by the State’s Hawai’i Public Housing Authority. It has 306 units across 63 two-story buildings. The complex is strategically located near educational institutions like the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, fostering opportunities for lifelong learning and vocational training. Since Mutual Housing’s acquisition in 2002 and a subsequent $17.5 million renovation, the property has become a well-maintained, secure environment with strong community leadership. Key initiatives include the Pālolo ʻOhana Learning Center, which serves as a hub for educational and supportive services, offering programs like after-school tutoring, STEM education, and early childhood classes. Within the residential district, there’s Pālolo Valley District Park, William P. Jarrett Middle School, Pālolo Elementary School, Kula Kaiapuni ‘O Ānuenue School, Valley Market, and Pālolo Fire Station.

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Due to the restricted nature of military housing, Pālolo Valley presents itself as the most viable test site for the dissertation. Unlike military housing, Pālolo Valley is accessible and offers a rich foundation for examining the integration of community support systems, educational programs, and food security within a peri-urban residential district setting.

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Test Site: Pālolo Valley

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Archival image rephotographed by the author, 2024.

Original: Pālolo Valley, Manoa Valley Aerial Photo. Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Pālolo Naming Palolo, the clay valley: palolo, meaning clay.

—Lyons Meaning of Some Hawaiian Place Names Hawaiian Annual, 1901, p182 Cultivation Palolo Valley had extensive areas of low terraces throughout its lower portion on the land now covered by houses and golf links, running along both sides of Palolo Stream. Above the junction of Waiomao and Pukele Streams, which form Palolo Stream, there are many high terraces on the hill side to inland, and there were a few terraces on the outer sides of the streams. Some of the upper terraces between the streams are now under cultivation by a Hawaiian planter.

Farther up the valleys of Waiomao and Pukele Streams there are a few terraces, and wild taro is said to grow abundantly in the upper reaches.

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—Handy Hawaiian Planter Vol 1, p74

Sterling, E. P., & Summers, C. C. (1993). Sites of Oʻahu (Rev. ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press.​Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Composite of two archival photographs by the author, 2024.

Original: Summerlin, J. (ca. 1948). Pālolo War Housing Project, Honolulu, HI. The Geography of Oʻahu. Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Archival image rephotographed by the author, 2024.

Original: Carlos Long Tract, Pālolo Valley, c. 1950. Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Archival image rephotographed by the author, 2024.

Original: Carlos Long Tract, Pālolo Valley, c. 1950. Courtesy of the Bishop Museum Archives.

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Pālolo Valley + Subdistricts defined by the City and County of Honolulu

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Pālolo Valley Subdistrict 2 Site Plan

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Figure 31 | Pālolo Valley: Limited Access to Food Area + Critical Facilities This map illustrates the existing conditions of Pālolo Valley, and mapping critical facilities and land uses. Key features include streams, roads, residential buildings, schools, parks, and community facilities such as the Hawai’i Public Housing Authority’s Pālolo Homes. The opaque area emphasizes areas with limited access to nutritious food sources, reinforcing the necessity of integrating regenerative urban agriculture into this community. Data sources include Honolulu GIS and USDA’s Food Access Research Atlas.

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Pālolo Valley Subdistrict 2 Site Plan

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Figure 32 | Pālolo Valley: Soil Drainage + Annual Rainfall This map illustrates the soil drainage patterns and annual rainfall within Pālolo Valley, highlighting areas with poor-draining soils and impervious surfaces. These conditions present challenges for water management but also opportunities for urban agriculture. By leveraging poor-draining areas for water-retentive crops and integrating water management systems, this site can become a model for sustainable agricultural practices that align with local hydrological conditions. Transforming poordraining soils areas into productive agricultural land helps mitigate issues like flooding by utilizing excess water, turning a potential challenge into an ecological and community benefit.

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Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes: Commercial

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Figure 33 | Existing Commercial Building This depicts a commercial building surrounded by impervious surfaces such as parking lots, driveways, and roads. The site is currently underutilized, presenting opportunities to integrate sustainable urban agriculture practices.

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Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes: Commercial

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Figure 34 | Commercial Building. Applying Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes The commercial building integrates adaptive reuse and sustainable landscaping to create a regenerative local market. Key features include rooftop and soil-based beds, trellises, and a greenhouse for food production. Rainwater harvesting, green façades, and permeable surfaces reduce resource dependency, while productive bioswales manage stormwater. This design transforms the site into a functional and self-sustaining space, promoting community engagement and ecological resilience.

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Figure 35 | Existing Apartment Low-Density Building Current low-density apartment complex has expansive green lawns with chain link fences without tree cover. Green lawns are ecologically inefficient, requiring high water use, contributing little to biodiversity, and providing limited functionality. Similarly, chain link fences without tree canopy create uninviting spaces, offer no shade, and fail to support ecological connectivity or community interaction.

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Figure 36 | Apartment Low-Density Building. Applying Adaptive Reuse + Surrounding Landscapes This design transforms low-density apartment complexes by replacing inefficient green lawns with meandering permeable pavers and native ground covers, improving stormwater management and promoting biodiversity. Solar panels generate renewable energy, lowering residents’ monthly energy bills, while rainwater harvesting systems provide a sustainable water source for irrigation, reducing water bills. Features such as soil-based beds, agroforestry, rain gardens, productive bioswales, compost stations, and green façades create a self-sustaining, environmentally friendly space that enhances community engagement and ecological resilience.

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New Construction: Recreation Center

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Figure 37 | Existing Recreation Center The existing conditions of the recreation center is largely underutilized, surrounded by expansive green lawns and impervious surfaces with its primary function limited to public restroom access.

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New Construction: Recreation Center & Food Hub

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Figure 38 | Recreation Center. Applying New Construction The proposed design reimagines the recreation center as a self-sustaining food hub and community resource. Solar panels generate renewable energy, with surplus power sent back to the grid to benefi t the surrounding community, while rainwater harvesting systems reduce water bills and channel excess water for local use. The greenhouse, prominently positioned along the main avenue, serves as a visual focal point, inviting curiosity and engagement from passersby.

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Inside, vertical and shelved hydroponics, soil-based towers, and aeroponic systems maximize food production, while agroforestry and permeable surfaces enhance surrounding biodiversity and stormwater management. A compost station and productive bioswales further strengthen ecological resilience, creating a hub that not only sustains itself but supports and inspires the wider neighborhood.

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Conclusion

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Conclusion

This dissertation delivers an actionable toolkit for city and state agencies and non‑profits to transform residential neighborhoods into a resilient network of food‑producing landscapes. By combining regenerative design elements such as green roofs, vertical farms and living walls with rainwater harvesting systems, decentralized renewable energy microgrids and closed loop waste management, these strategies strengthen the four pillars of food security—availability, access, utilization and stability.

At its core, this dissertation asserts that Hawaiʻi—blessed with fertile volcanic soils and a year‑round growing climate—must leverage fruit and vegetable cultivation as a vital strategy for independence, where reducing imports by even a few percentage points constitutes a decisive win. Strategically placed gardens, rooftop farms and bioswale corridors connect self‑sufficient micro‑neighborhoods capable of withstanding climate‑driven disruptions, supply‑chain breakdowns and demographic pressures without external aid. To realize this vision, architects, planners, and policymakers must work together to embed edible landscapes within everyday urban design with supportive policies such as community land trusts, incentive zoning, and participatory planning.

To break free from systematically flawed approaches, policymakers must begin posing new questions that prioritize resilience, equity, and long‑term stewardship: •

How can we structure our zoning codes to welcome rooftop farms, community gardens, and neighborhood market hubs as integral parts of everyday urban development?

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•

What modifications to the property tax system would actively reward regenerative methods, such as stormwater retention, carbon sequestration, and local food production?

•

Which fiscal and regulatory incentives can most effectively encourage developers to place closed‑loop water, energy, and nutrient systems at the core of their projects?

•

Which policy tools, such as inclusionary zoning, long‑term rent stabilization, and targeted property‑tax relief, can ensure that regenerative neighborhoods remain affordable for existing residents, protecting cultural continuity and preventing involuntary displacement?

•

How will we measure success beyond return on investment, capturing social cohesion, public health gains, and cultural preservation?

This toolkit equips policymakers to stitch individual nodes—community gardens, urban farms and bioswale corridors—into an island‑wide network, and to allocate the funding, incentives and regulatory frameworks necessary to turn rhetoric into reality. By adopting a proactive approach that emphasizes prevention over response, leaders can better protect communities from supply chain disruptions, climate change impacts, and demographic challenges, rather than reacting once crises occur. Without leadership that goes beyond mere labels and actively implements these strategies, we risk remaining stuck in cycles of reactive responses. Building an independent, equitable, and resilient food future—empowering each neighborhood—is essential.

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