Young Pioneers’ Challenge Africa and the African Diaspora

Young Pioneers’ Challenge Africa and the African Diaspora March 2021 The Young Pioneers’ Challenge (YPC) is unique to Marlborough and is the creation of our Head of History, Mr Moule. It consists of tests of knowledge of escalating difficulty which can be tackled at a Bronze, Silver and ultimately Gold level. The first YPC covered the whole span of Western history from 1000 AD to the present and this new version covers the equally vast topic of African history over the same time period.

There are twelve topics in the series and each topic has been researched by a pupil editor, with their research concluding on ten key facts that encapsulate the significance of their chosen area.

We have asked each pupil editor to tell us why they chose the topic they did and what they found most interesting whilst researching it and you will find their

Africans in Britain:

West Africa:

Ariana Jones

Sophie Smith

answers, alongside their top ten facts, under each of the boxes below.

Together, the Challenge offers 120 key things to know from the last thousand years of African history.

If you would like to take on the Challenge then please contact Mr Moule CAFM@marlboroughcollege.org.

The British Transatlantic Slave Trade:

Africans and Sport: Archie Del Mar

Olivia Eversfield

Southern Africa:

Maghreb:

Tabitha Reed

Isobel Benster

Africans’ depictions in Western Culture and Media:

East Africa: George Elvin

Saira Chowdhry

Egypt and the Nile Valley: Lara Higgins

Central Africa: Poppy Bell

Africans in the West Indies: Tigerlily Hamilton-Davies

Africans in the USA: Jessica Hughes

Pupil Editor: Ariana Jones (IH U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

Earlier this year The Black Lives Matter protests made me realise how little I actually knew about Black History, only really having touched upon the Transatlantic Slave Trade before. Therefore, when the project was proposed I jumped at the opportunity to further my learning. Additionally, I felt this challenge would provide an accessible way for others from the Marlborough community to engage in lesser known topic areas that society now calls for.

Why did you select the topic you did?

Being a self-confessed Anglophile, I felt a strong attraction to the history of the Black Diaspora in Britain. I had heard of Black movements in Britain such as that of the Windrush Generation but had never taken my investigation any further and felt that this was the perfect time to do so. Further, I was excited to see how Black History would relate and interlink with the other British historical periods I had studied such as that of the Tudors.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

Having always had a passion for Tudor history as a child, it is hardly surprising that this was emulated in my study of Black History. Personally, the existence of a black trumpeter, named John Blanke, to Henry VIII who regularly partook in Court proceedings such as The Westminster Tournament (1511) marked the high point of my project and is something that I wish to continue researching. I found Kaufman’s book ‘Black History’ fascinating and would highly recommend it to anyone who wishes to find out more about the subject.

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The Black Diaspora in Britain – Top 10 1. Black Musician in Henry VIII’s Royal Retinue (1511)

3. Lord Mayor of London blocked Black people undertaking apprenticeships (1731)

There is evidence that a black musician named John Blanke played the trumpet in Henry VIII’s court.

In fact, he even played in the celebrations put on in 1511 to celebrate the birth of a son named Henry, Duke of Cornwall, to King Henry VIII and Queen Catherine of Aragon. Blanke is visible on the 1511 Painted Westminster Tournament Roll playing his trumpet.

In 1731 the Lord Mayor of London ruled that “no Negroes shall be bound apprentices to any Tradesman or Artificer of this City [London]”. As black people could no longer gain valuable job experience, it forced most into work as servants.

This is a significant occasion as it is one of, if not, the first time that a black person was recorded on a British document. It showed that black people were present in the British population even before major black populations began to migrate in the later century. Although they were evidently still not common, it showed that a proportion of the population, including the royal circles, had contact with black people and suggests that the white British population weren’t completely unacquainted with them.

This ruling was key in defining black history in the British Isles as it meant that if you were a black person in the 18th century, you had little chance of making it into the higher echelons of society. It meant that effectively the best job you could secure was that of a servant. However even then many of the black servants were unpaid meaning that they were basically slaves in everything but name. It shows that despite the progression of time, the presence of the black diaspora in Britain was still creating moral panic and, as a result, harsh discrimination and intolerance often existed towards the minority.

2. Moral Condemnation in Elizabeth I’s reign (1593)

4. 4000 Black Londoners were strongly aided in emigration to Sierra Leone (1787)

One of the first Africans in London, named Cornelius, was recorded in 1593. During this period, it is evident that London residents became increasingly fearful of the ever increasing black population as Elizabeth I, the monarch at the time, declared that “black Negroes and black Moors” were to be arrested and expelled from her kingdom (although this didn’t actually lead to any known legislation).

After being encouraged by the Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor (who would supposedly help distressed people with Black Ancestry), 4000 Londoners were transported for resettlement in the colony of Sierra Leone. Although it was presented to the public as a voluntary, desirable scheme where the Black British could become their own slave and land owners in the “Province of Freedom”, it was in reality no utopia. Most of the group were unhappy to take part in the scheme forcing the government to resort to coercive methods. Additionally, 96 passengers died on route showing that inadequate preparations had been put in place for the voyage and once they had arrived, many of the colonists died due to disease and warfare with the indigenous tribes.

It’s been suggested that because the black population was on the rise and the general white population had become so fearful of this swelling minority, that the monarch felt she had to take action. Although we don’t have any affirmative evidence on whether Elizabeth formally took action, it is significant that she felt the need to publicly condemn and repudiate them as it informs us that the black population was growing to a point where the general population sought relief and support from the highest power in their country.

This event highlights how black people were still severely unpopular and discriminated against in late 18th century British society. The suggestion that this

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passengers walking off the boat has come to symbolise the beginning of modern British multicultural society. It acted as an important landmark in British history and changed Britain’s social landscape forever.

The coming of the Windrush generation allowed Britain to transfigure the country from its history of predominantly white ethnicities to a wider and more diverse nation.

scheme was undertaken to reduce the ever growing black population in London probably contains significant elements of truth. It is highly probable that the government sought a way to remove the “Black Poor” from England’s capital. It shows how they were yet to be treated as human beings capable of integrating with the white population. There was little notice taken of their opinion, their conditions and their likelihood of survival. British society had no qualms about seeing themselves as the blacks’ superiors and as a result refused to treat them as much more than undesirables.

7. Commonwealth Immigrants Act (1962) This act specified that any Commonwealth citizens would now be subject to immigration control on entry to the UK. Previously citizens of the commonwealth had extensive rights to migrate to the UK, but this Act heavily restricted the entry of Black Caribbean immigrants to the UK. It was a result of the culmination of public dissatisfaction about the increased immigration in the mid 20th century .

5. Slavery Abolition Act (1833) Although the British Slave Trade had been abolished in 1807, slavery was still legal and widely used in the British Isles. The Act was a result of a culmination of social pressure. These pressures came both from within Britain where an Anti-Slavery Society had been founded in 1823 but also from outside of it from countries such as France which had already briefly abolished slavery in 1794. The act made the purchase and ownership of Slaves illegal, freeing 800,000 enslaved people.

The Act was important as it singled out minority groups and prevented them from entering the UK. It made white citizens more aware of the increasing black population in Britain and it is commonly argued that it also increased racism as the white population felt that the black outsiders didn’t belong in Britain. It provoked a period of struggle in Britain against racism and prejudice where racial discrimination and distain was very common.

This act not only liberated large numbers of slaves but also started the downfall of large-scale slavery plantations across the world. Black people in Britain had up to this point predominantly been imprisoned as slaves under their owners; however, from 1833 they could choose to live out their lives as they wished.

Although prejudice against black people would have still survived in society, it marked a point where the black diaspora who had previously been synonymous with slavery could now live in Britain as free people.

8. First Black Member of the House of Lords (1975) David Pitt, a member of the Labour party and of Grenadian descent, was the first black man to sit in the House of Lords when the British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, nominated him: he became Baron Pitt of Hampstead. As a member of the House of Lords he campaigned relentlessly in race related issues and was one of the key figures in bringing about the Race Relation Act in 1976 (which prohibited discrimination due to skin colour).

6. Windrush arrivals (1948) In June 1948, The HMT Empire Windrush brought 492 workers from Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago to the United Kingdom. They were brought in to help fill up post-war UK labour shortages such as the gaps in the NHS and the London Transport system. As a result, most of the arrivals were working age males as they could offer the highest amount of labour output.

This election was instrumental in black empowerment in Britain. Pitt, with his new position, brought a new voice to the house which actively spoke out against racism and argued for the equality of all British residents, regardless of their skin colour.

His appointment allowed the black diaspora a

This advent marked not only the first arrival of a large black population in Britain but also the start of the post-war immigration boom. The image of the 4

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10. Black Lives Matter Movement & Removal of Colston’s statue (2020)

springboard from where their issues and upsets could be highlighted and solved. The increased coverage Pitt brought to black issues pushed the Government to pass laws such as the Race Relation Act (1976) which marked the start of a period where it was no longer socially acceptable for the British public to discriminate against people for their skin colour.

Racial tension reached another peak at the end of May across the world after George Floyd was killed by the Minneapolis police department. Black Lives Matter (BLM) rallies were organised worldwide and in June BLM protests occurred across the whole of the United Kingdom. In the BLM protest in Bristol, the statue of Edward Colson, a philanthropist, politician and slave trader was pulled down and pushed into the harbour. Other statues such as that of Winston Churchill were defaced: the wartime prime minister was labelled a ‘racist’.

9. Brixton Riots (1981) In April 1981, riots occurred as a result of antagonism between black youths and the Metropolitan police.

In them 279 police and 45 members of the public were injured and the worst phase was dubbed “Bloody Saturday”. The riots occurred as a result of growing tension in the deprived Brixton area, inhabited by a large black community, between the police and the public. The tension reached a head when a police officer who was helping a black stab victim was thought to be arresting him. As a result over 200 members of the community turned on the police and partook in the “Brixton Riots”.

This movement, as well as being fresh in our minds, is also likely to be one of the most important. The movement advocated racial issues on a scale arguably never seen before, occurring in 60 countries across the globe. Its desire to bring equality to all and to end systemic oppression has encouraged a great number of people in Britain not only to reject racism but also to be anti-racist, and to attempt to correct or censure those institutions (and sometimes individuals) who speak, act or even think in a racist manner. The assault on statues was aligned with their anti-racist stance and the belief that people whose racist views and actions caused such harm should not be celebrated. The protests in Britain could be seen to be the biggest and most active step ever towards total equality in British society.

These riots were incredibly significant as they showed the vast extent to which distrust existed between some black communities and the police. Some were quick to blame the police and show their anger to them even when the latter were trying to help the black youth. This indicates that due to frequent racism and prejudice the black community was often suspicious of the predominantly white police. This explosive chain of events allows us to sense how large the gap has been between racial groups even in recent times.

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Pupil Editor: Sophie Smith (DA U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

I wanted to be a part of the YPC Africa initiative as I was really interested to learn more about an area of history with which I was previously unfamiliar.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I selected my topic after having enjoyed Yaa Gyasi’s novel ‘Homegoing’, set in West Africa, which made me keen to learn more about the history of the area.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I was most interested to find out about the extraordinary wealth and influence of West African kingdoms in the Middle Ages, achieved through the establishment of lucrative trading networks, and how this may have first sparked outside interest in the region.

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West Africa and the Niger – Top 10 and native Africans, marking the beginning of European involvement in West Africa. The Portuguese were quick to exploit the region for slavery, as well as providing a middle-man-free trade route which would make redundant the sub-Saharan trade, which had been the source of the Medieval empires’ great wealth.

1. Timbuktu founded (12th Century) Following its establishment by nomads, the city quickly became a centre for trade and commerce, its location enabling it to control trade routes running from the river Niger across the Sahara to North Africa. The trading of slaves, gold, salt and ivory was incredibly lucrative, and the city flourished as a centre of great importance, culture and learning. Timbuktu, as well as other important centres such as Gao and Djenne were the sources of wealth for the great medieval empires of Mali and Songhai.

5. Beginning of transportation of West Africans by the Portuguese for use as slaves (1480s) Initially transported to sugar plantations on Cape Verde and the Madeira Islands, slaves were then exploited by other European powers following the lead of Portugal, including Spain, the Netherlands, Britain and France. The subsequent growth of the slave trade was to have a devastating impact in West Africa, with economic incentives for tribe leaders leading to chaos and violence. The notorious middle passage transporting captives to America subjected Africans to extreme suffering, with 15-25 percent of those captured not surviving the journey.

2. The Edo people invite Prince Oranmiyan of Ife to rule (13th Century) Oranmiyan’s son Eweka was to become the first Oba, or king, of Benin. Under Eweka’s successor Ewuare the Great (ruled 1440-80) and the hereditary dynasty he established, the Kingdom of Benin became central to trading networks and underwent significant expansion, with territory stretching from modern day Lagos to the Niger River Delta by the mid 16th century. The famous bronze and brass sculptures created by Benin craftsmen under the rule of these obas act as powerful symbols of the region’s prosperity.

6. The Battle of Tondibi (1591) The invasion by Moroccan forces and their destruction of important trading cities led to a decisive defeat and the subsequent collapse of the Songhai Empire, the last of the great West African empires. Due to the vastness of the Songhai Empire, the Moroccan invaders were unable to establish control, leading to fragmentation and conflict. The lack of a coherent, powerful empire then allowed European powers to more easily colonise the area, as well as perhaps helping to cement the idea of Western superiority.

3. Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca (1324) On his journey to Mecca, the emperor of the kingdom of Mali had an entourage of around 60,000 men, officials, entertainers, over 12,000 slaves, and 100 camels, each said to have carried 100 pounds of gold.

Such was the emperor’s wealth and generosity that he was the cause of a long recession in Egypt. News of this vast wealth quickly spread, sparking great interest in the region and lifting it from obscurity, arguably beginning the great foreign interest in West Africa which would lead to so much future conflict and unrest.

7. US and British abolition of the transAtlantic slave trade takes effect (1808) The major role these two nations played in the slave trade meant their withdrawal had considerable impact.

British and American ships instead tried to stop the illegal transportation of slaves. While Spain, Portugal and France continue trading, the sponsoring of the abolition by these two major powers was to send an

4. First Portuguese ship rounds Cape Bojador (1434) Led by Gil Eanes under Henry the Navigator, the expedition was the first contact between Europeans 7

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9. Ghana becomes the first country to gain independence in West Africa (1957)

important message to others and marked an important change in the attitude towards African peoples. The last voyage transporting Africans across the Atlantic took place in 1867.

Ghana led the way in the decolonisation of West Africa, with Guinea following in 1958, and Togo, Mali and Senegal in 1960. 54 African countries had gained independence by 1977. However, lack of infrastructure and a dependence on European powers for energy, as well as inexperienced government and issues with national identity made governing independently difficult, leading to political unrest in many countries.

8. The Berlin Conference (1884-5) Organised by German statesman Otto von Bismark, the conference was attended by Britain, France, Portugal and Belgium, and was arranged to divide up Africa between the European powers. Desire among European countries for natural resources to fuel their growing industries and markets had led to intense competition for land in Africa, a conflict which came to be known as the ‘Scramble for Africa’.

The conference gave no say to the African peoples whose homelands were to be arbitrarily divided, disregarding ethnic and social differences. This was to cause issues regarding national identity when African nations were to gain independence a century later.

The infrastructure built by European powers was focused only for colonial purposes, serving no benefit to the African populous. By formally mapping and partitioning Africa, the conference also helped to legitimise European colonisation of Africa.

10. Highest level of deforestation in the world recorded in Nigeria (2005) Between 1990 and 2005, Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover to create land for agriculture, provide fuel, and profit from timber export. The resulting soil erosion, lack of biodiversity and desertification has made agriculture, on which many communities depend, increasingly difficult, contributing to conflict in some areas. This demonstrates the negative impact that the exploitation of Africa’s natural resources is still having today. ➤ ➤➤

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Pupil Editor: Olivia Eversfield (MM U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

I really wanted to become part of this YPC Africa project as it meant the time I spent at home in the summer was truly worthwhile, researching and learning things that were hugely important for everyone, especially my generation to know and understand, especially with regards to global issues around the world over the last few months which has shown that many people do not know the history of the slave trade, the brutality of it and what many people’s predecessors suffered through.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I selected this topic as it is so vast: the transatlantic slave trade was huge as it followed the trade ’triangle’ from Europe to West Africa to the Americas and West Indies. For me, learning about all the Western European countries involved and ultimately the core slave trade history for Britain felt important. A few years ago, I also visited the Liverpool slave trade museum which started my interest in this topic.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I learnt so many fascinating things, particularly through watching documentaries too. Perhaps the most interesting was learning about the many campaigners such as William Wilberforce and the extremely difficult and lengthy process it took for the slave trade to become abolished.

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The British Transatlantic Slave Trade – Top 10 1) First record of trans-Atlantic British slave trading (1562)

4) Bristol becomes the biggest slave port in England. There are 37 journeys made every year (1737)

Trade and naval commander Captain John Hawkins, who is considered the first slave trader, was on his way to Sierra Leone, West Africa from England. He captured around 300 slaves and sold them to Spanish plantations in the Caribbean, Santa Dominga as slaves.

He was commissioned originally by Queen Elizabeth I to go and loot the Spanish fleet and set off with 3 ships and 3 other men (known as the sea dogs). From his trade in Santa Dominga he received sugar, pearls and hides; his mission was so successful he received a unique coat of arms bearing a bound slave. He made 4 voyages to Sierra Leone over the next 7 years and transported around 1200 slaves to Spanish settlers in the Caribbean. This first journey proved to be the start of a horrific exploitation of mankind.

Bristol merchants financed over 2000 slaving voyages between 1698 and 1807. Due to the city’s wealthy merchants they were able to play a huge role in the trading of over 500,000 slaves. Their first ‘legitimate’ slave ship was The Beginning owned by Stephen Barker.

However, in the last years Bristol decreased to only being responsible for 3.3% of the trade in Britain, compared to 37% between 1740 and 1750. The three biggest slave trading ports were London (1660-1720s), Bristol (1720s-1740s) and Liverpool (1740s-1807); all became extremely wealthy. Under the 1799 Slave Trade Act, the slave trade was restricted to these three ports. By this time, Britain had become the biggest slave trading country, between 1690 and 1807, 2.8 million slaves were moved. Portugal and Britain were responsible for 70% of the slaves transported to the Americas (Caribbean/ North America/South America).

2) Slave trade to British colonies begins (1619) The first ship, named The White Lion, bringing 20 Africans as slaves arrives in the British colony Jamestown, Virginia. The crew had kidnapped the Africans from a Portuguese slave ship called Sao Jao Bautista bound from the African city of Luanda to Veracruz, Mexico. The Portuguese had been fighting with the people of Ndongo in West Africa and were transporting slaves across to mines in Mexico and fields in Brazil. Without any papers, these Africans were not legally protected therefore could be exploited as slaves.

5) Slave trade campaigner William Wilberforce is born in Hull (1759) He became a Politician in 1780, philanthropist, and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade.

He wrote many passionate books and his achievement to change the law regarding slavery was the passing of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Bill in 1807. His campaign also led to the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833 which abolished slavery in most parts of the British Empire. He died 3 days after hearing the news of his success and is buried at Westminster Abbey.

3) Eight in every ten people living in the Caribbean are African slaves (1699) This shows how quickly tens of thousands of slaves had been brought over. More than 3% of Africans were enslaved and exported between 1525 and 1600 compared to 16% in the 17th Century. John K. Thornton notes that Europeans were usually exploiting the prevalent warfare taking place between African states. Crucially, lots of the slaves had in fact been captured by Africans from other states, kidnapped, captured and sold. African slaves were transported from markets by Africans to European trading ports in exchange for goods.

6) First and biggest protest against the slave trade (1760) A slave called Tacky led a protest against the treatment of slaves on sugar plantations in Jamaica from May to July 1760. This became known as ‘Tacky’s War’. Tacky was originally from West Africa and part of the Fante ethnic group. He had been an important chief in his land, now present-day Ghana, before he was captured.

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leg irons. The space was often so cramped slaves were forced to lie down or crouch. Hence, this Act meant no more atrocities such as the Zong incident in which the captain of the Zong slave ship threw 133 slaves overboard due to over-crowding. It did not matter to him as all slave owners could claim insurance.

His comrades and himself planned on taking Jamaica from the British and creating a separate country for West Africans. Hundreds of slaves attacked the plantations setting crops and sugar alight. In the end Tacky was captured and beheaded. It became known as the most significant slave rebellion. It started many smaller revolts such as Toussaint Louverture’s successful slave revolution in French Saint Domingue in 1791.

9) Abolition of the Slave Trade Act – prohibition of the slave trade in the British Empire (1807)

7) First slave case goes to court (1772) Slave James Somerset escaped from his owner who had beaten him badly in London. He was befriended and helped by famous campaigner Granville Sharp.

Sharp took his case to the Lord Mayor and Somerset became a free man. After this, Sharp became involved in achieving the ruling in 1772 by Lord Chief Justice William Mansfield which concluded that slave owners could not legally enforce slaves to return to colonies once they were in Britain. Many people saw this as the start of abolishing slavery in Britain.

Anyone found transporting slaves was fined £100 (a lot of money at the time) for every slave. Many thought that this was the end of slavery as there was much anger towards slavery at this time. The Abolition of the Slave Trade was an Act of Parliament introduced by William Grenville. Lord Grenville fought hard to pass the Bill through the House of Lords whilst the House of Commons Bill was led by Lord Howick who was Foreign Secretary at the time. One of the last boats to sail was Kitty’s Amelia, which was legally cleared to sail in April 1807.It set off in July 1807 as one of the last legal English vessels to set off on a slave voyage.

According to the transatlantic slave trade database, 34 ships left Britain after May 1807 by which time it was assumed that the ships had all received their passes for clearance before the Bill. This meant they would have had to leave with sufficient time in order to trade and deliver slaves before the 1st March 1808 when the Act became law.

8) Group called Abolition of the Slave trade formed (1787) This group did all it could to try and put an end to the slave trade. Some key abolitionist members were Granville Sharp (1735 – 1813) and Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846). The society aimed to educate the public about the grim reality of the slave trade in the British colonies. Sharp and Clarkson were Anglicans despite many of the other founding members being Quakers.

The group were able to gain the support of William Wilberforce (MP) to become their spokesman in Parliament. These campaigners boycotted sugar, presented petitions, published leaflets of first-hand stories about atrocities that had happened and wrote letters to various MP’s and slave owners. A flurry of achievements soon followed. Dolben’s Act (1788) limited the number of slaves a ship could carry. It is thought that before this Act, around one fifth of slaves died on the middle passage during the horrific journey across the Atlantic and one third died in total with medical conditions caused by the journey. The ships conditions were unhygienic; many died of dehydration, dysentery and scurvy. Often ships carried hundreds of slaves, all chained tightly to plank beds and secured by

10) The Atlantic slave trade was abolished over a 30-year period (1860s) The Atlantic slave trade ended with Portugal’s 1836 ban on slave trading. Legal abolition, however, did not end the still profitable trade. It continued illegally well into the 19th century. As long as there remained a market for slaves in the Americas, mostly in Brazil and Cuba, the trade would continue illegally. By this time, opinions in Europe had hugely changed regarding morals, religion and humanitarian arguments which were gathering more support. This would all contribute to the end of a huge, catastrophic era in which approximately 12 million Africans were captured and taken to the Americas. ➤ ➤➤

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Pupil Editor: Archie Del Mar (B1 U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

The current BLM protest made me realise how little I really knew about the history of BAME people.

I believe it is extremely important to learn the history of a topic before indulging oneself into debates and arguments about a huge current affair such as this: the YPC Africa project was a perfect opportunity to do this.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I love the contrast between sport and history. My special interest is in cricket and the West Indies cricket team feature hugely when looking at the history of Africans, the African diaspora and Sport.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

How late many African American and black sportsmen and women were actually allowed to be heavily involved in the world sporting set up, both in larger, supposedly more developed countries, as well the smaller African countries.

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Africans and Sport – Top 10 was asked to help back the Republican party in the US against the current President F.D Roosevelt, who like Hitler did not send a letter of congratulations to Owens after the games as he was ‘too busy’. This did not work out as the Republicans lost the next election later that year, but it proved a huge change in the dynamic of the way people, especially in the US, looked at African American athletes. What is so interesting is that the American public generally backed Owens, in spite of the frequency of racism, over the overtly racist Nazis. This was a huge step forward for African Americans and black rights.

1) John Taylor becomes the first African American to win a gold medal at the London Olympics (1908) In 1908, the first African American was allowed to compete in the Olympics. His name was John Taylor.

He won a gold medal in the men’s medley relay. He was said to be the best on his team, yet it was an enormous struggle for him to get onto the side due to overwhelming degrees of racism. He was also said to be purposely fouled in many of his races, but despite all of this broke the record when he became the first African American to win a gold medal at the Olympics. This was a huge lift for many aspiring black athletes, and he was the first of his time.

4) Louise Stokes and Tidye Pickett become the first African American women to be included in the Olympics (1936)

2) Joe Louis vs Max Schmeling fights (1936 & 1938)

Another Olympics reference, as black people were not yet allowed into professional sport, and no less important. This touches on women’s rights, as these were the first black women to take part in the Olympics, an astonishing 36 years after the first woman was allowed in the games. This was extremely important for both women and for African Americans and set the platform for activists such as Rosa Parks a few decades later.

The most significant African American boxer of his time, Joe Louis took on the equally matched German Max Schmeling in two fights over two years. Having lost the first in the 12th round, he came back in the second and gave a sterling performance to knock out Schmeling in the first round. The second fight encouraged huge crowds and raked in the equivalent of $18.4 million. The controversy came during and after the fights, when many of the more racist Americans did not know who to back. They had a choice between their own man, who was black, or the white man boxing for Nazi Germany. Many ended up supporting Louis, and this was a testament to how influential and great a fighter he was.

5) Jackie Robinson and breaking the colour barrier (1947) One of the undisputed greats of baseball, to the point that there is now a ‘Jackie Robinson Day’ celebrated on the 15th April, where every player in the MLB wears his number, 42. He broke numerous records such as National League Most Valuable Player Award in 1949: the first black player so honoured, and was also the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black Vice President of a major American corporation. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African American owned financial institution and his legacy is unparalleled, with the likes of Martin Luther King Jr praising him as “a legend and a symbol in his own time”.

3) Jesse Owens and the Berlin Olympics (1936) Possibly the most important event on this list. Jesse Owens single-handedly shattered Adolf Hitler’s plans to use the Berlin Olympics as a showground for Arian superiority. He won the 100m, 200m, 4x100m and the long jump, all watched live by Hitler himself. Hitler then did not publicly congratulate Owens or shake his hand. Owens afterwards became a public hero and 13

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6) Bill Russell in Boston (1956-69)

Sport, it is hard to look beyond the influential African American characters that stood for so much, however Sullivan was also extremely important for black Brits and deserves significant recognition.

Bill Russell was an extremely successful NBA player, and broke several records. However, playing and living in the famously racist city of Boston, he struggled with rocks and tomatoes being thrown at him on a regular basis. He went on to help those oppressed and in 2011 was awarded the Medal of Freedom for his part in the Civil Rights Movement on and off the baseball court.

9) The West Indies unbeaten cricket team (1980-95) Led by the fearsome Clive Lloyd, Viv Richards and Michael Holding, this West Indies team went an astonishing 15 years without a series defeat. They were in a league of their own and became public heroes.

The poster boys of the Caribbean went all over the world thrashing teams such as Boycott’s England, who famously said ‘I want to make them grovel’: he most certainly did not. The significance of these descendants of slaves traded by the English rising up through the most English of games united the Caribbean and gave many people something to be enormously proud of.

7) Muhammed Ali and the Vietnam War (1967) The then world heavyweight champion was meant to be inducted into the US army to fight in Vietnam, however he refused. He was then arrested and even had a trial, where his title as world champion was taken away. Ali argued that it was a racial matter, too many black Americans were forced to go out to Vietnam, in fact 23% of the troops out there were African American, compared to a population with less than half that percentage. Ali was a huge influence on African American rights at such an important time with the likes of Rosa Parks also protesting.

10) Nelson Mandela and the Rugby World Cup (1995) Having captained his country to world cup glory, Francois Pienaar was then handed the trophy by his President Nelson Mandela, who was wearing the Springbok badge on his jersey, a symbol previously reviled by non-whites in South Africa as it was used so strongly by the apartheid regime. This image was monumental for the people of South Africa, it showed a glimpse of equality after such a torrid time.

8) Clive Sullivan became the first black British captain of sport (1972) With his appointment as captain of the England rugby league team came instant success when he won the world cup. Clive Sullivan showed that not only could black men be in national teams, but also be respected leaders. When one looks at the history of Africans in

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Pupil Editor: Tabitha Reed (DA U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

I wanted to be part of the YPC Africa initiative because I realised how little I knew about African history.

I thought it was important to educate myself and the YPC stood as an opportunity to do just that. I was particularly eager to be part of the YPC Africa initiative because the project not only provided an opportunity to broaden my understanding of African history but also, a way to promote the importance of Marlburians learning about African history for years to come.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I picked Southern African history. Southern Africa is made up of people from a wide range of backgrounds, including people that are of mixed African, Asian, and European descent. I was eager to learn the history behind this mix of people and explore the different factors that brought them to Southern Africa.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I learnt about the Sharpeville massacre. The Sharpeville massacre occurred on the 21 March 1960. After a day of demonstrations against pass laws, the South African police open fired on the crowd, killing 69 people, and injuring 180 others. This incident came to symbolize the struggle against apartheid and its impact on society. I was surprised to not have known about the Sharpeville massacre as it is an important symbol of the extreme oppression that black South Africans faced.

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Southern Africa – Top 10 resulted in the ‘Great Trek’ from 1836, in which many Boers left the colony in search of new areas to rule, including the Orange Free State and the Transvaal – the latter states remained independent from the British until the end of the Boer War in 1902, after which they joined South Africa.

1) The construction of Great Zimbabwe began (1100) Great Zimbabwe was the capital of the most imposing late iron age civilisation in the region. Construction of the city began in the 11th century and continued until it was abandoned in the 15th century, due to exhausted soil and growing interest in gold. The majority of scholars believe it was built by members of the Gokomere culture, who were the ancestors of the modern Shona in Zimbabwe. The ruins at Great Zimbabwe are some of the oldest and largest structures in southern Africa. Archaeological evidence suggests that Great Zimbabwe became a centre for trading, with artefacts suggesting that the city formed part of a trade network linking to Kilwa and extending as far as China.

4) Indian indentured labour in South Africa (1860) Arrival of thousands of labourers and traders from India, under British direction. They were transported as indentured labourers to work on the sugarcane plantation of Natal Colony. In total, approximately 200,000 Indians arrived as indentured labourers over a period of five decades, later indentured coal miners and railway workers were also introduced. This is extremely important as a large part of the modern South African community is descended from Indians who arrived in South Africa from 1860 onwards.

2) Period of European discovery (1480) 1480 marks the beginning of a period of discovery. The Portuguese navigator Bartholomeu Dias, was the first European explorer to travel around the southern tip of Africa. The discovery of South Africa was taken further

by Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, who landed on the Natal coast in 1497. In 1652, Jan Van Riebeeck, who represented the Dutch East India company, founded the Cape Colony at Table Bay. This sequence of events marks the European discovery of South Africa, and the Dutch who settled in the Cape area became known as ‘Boers’ (farmers), the progenitors of many of today’s Afrikaners.

5) Discovery of diamonds (1867) Diamonds were discovered at Kimberley, the capital city of Southern Africa’s North Cape Province. Kimberley’s population sky rocketed, as increasing numbers of (mostly British) prospectors arrived in hope of diamonds. This caused diamond mining to increase in scale. The discovery of diamonds marked the beginning of the mineral revolution, a term used to refer to the rapid industrialisation and economic changes which occurred in South Africa from this time onwards.

3) Conquest of the Cape Colony by the British, and beginning of British rule in South Africa (1795)

6) Discovery of Gold (1886) Gold was discovered in the Transvaal, Boer territory.

Even more than diamonds, this discovery caused a turning point in South African history. This discovery moved South Africa from an agricultural society to become the largest gold producer in the world. Gold mining quickly became the biggest and the most significant part of the economy, and it continues to be a major contributor. The Transvaal discoveries motivated Cecil Rhodes to explore southern Africa further to try and find more goldfields. An ardent

The invasion of the Cape Colony, also known as the Battle of Muizenberg, was a British military expedition, led by Vice-Admiral Sir George Keith Elphinstone, against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope. British forces seized the Cape Colony from the Netherlands. Territory was returned to the Dutch in 1803; it was ceded to the British in 1806. Subsequent dissatisfaction with British rule 16

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apartheid system was put in place. Although whiteminority rule and racial segregation based on White supremacy were already in existence in South Africa, apartheid intensified the segregation with stern penalties for non-Whites entering into areas designated for Whites-only. Interracial marriage and sexual relationships were illegal and punishable offences.

believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe or Zambia), which the company named after him in 1895.

7) Boer War (1899) The 11th of October 1899 marks the beginning of the Boer War. This was a vicious war fought between the British Empire and two independent Boer states, the South African Republic (Republic of Transvaal) and the Orange Free State over the British Empire’s influence in South Africa. The origins of the war were complex and stemmed from more than a century of conflict between the two sides. However, the immediate trigger was the discovery of gold and diamonds. The Boers and British fought for primary control and benefit from the Witwatersrand (Transvaal) gold mines. Initial Boer attacks were successful, and the war continued for three years with Boer guerilla warfare. However, harsh British counter measures brought the Boers to terms in 1902.

The British used a ‘scorched earth policy’, towns and thousands of farmsteads were burn or ravaged, as a result the Boers were deprived of food and shelter. The British also operated concentration camps which lasted from 1900-1902 in an attempt to break the guerilla campaign. The war resulted in British victory and the consequent collapse of the South African Republic and Orange Free State. Territorial changes were made, the British claimed administration over The Orange Free State and the Transvaal in accordance with the Treaty of Vereeniging.

9) Sharpeville massacre (1960) The Sharpeville massacre occurred on the 21 March 1960, at the police station in the African township of Sharpeville in Transvaal. After a day of demonstrations against pass laws, a system designed to segregate the population, a crowd of about 7,000 protestors went to the police station. The South African police open fired on the crowd, killing 69 people and injuring 180 others. There were 249 casualties in total, including 29 children. Many were shot in the back as they fled.

This incident resulted in the largest number of deaths of South Africans in protest against apartheid. It also came to symbolize that struggle.

10) Nelson Mandela wins election (1994) Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela, a South African apartheid revolutionary, was arrested and imprisoned for conspiring to overthrow the state following the Rivonia trial. After 27 years in prison, President F.W Klerk released him. This led to a period of negotiation between Mandela and de Klerk. Mandela’s release resulted in the first multiracial general election in 1994 in which Mandela led the African National Congress to victory. Mandela was the first non-white head of state in modern South African history, as well as the first to take office following the dismantling of the apartheid system and the introduction of multiracial democracy.

Mandela’s victory brought an end to the country’s harsh, institutionalized system of racial segregation.

8) National Party (NP) takes power (1948) The Afrikaner nationalist party which promoted Afrikaner interests in South Africa took power. The government party of South Africa began implementing its policy of racial segregation and the South African

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Pupil Editor: Isobel Benster (DA L6) Why did you want to be a part of the YPC initiative?

As this initiative arose, I realised how limited my knowledge was when it came to African history. As a result, I thought that taking part in the project would be the perfect opportunity to begin my education concerning an area of history that is scarcely covered in the traditional curriculum. I think that the YPC initiative as a whole is a great project as it is providing the opportunity for the entire school community to learn about a history to which it is connected, but one which is nevertheless entirely different from its own.

Why did you select the topic you did?

While I don’t know much about the history of other regions of Africa, I know that the Maghreb is different in so far as it reflects a convergence of Arab, European and African culture. I was interested in learning more about the influence of these cultures on the Maghreb through history as a starting point to my education in African history.

What is the most interesting thing you discovered?

I was very interested to find how influential Islam has been in the Maghreb through history, especially during the colonial period, where there was certainly an opportunity for Western culture and religion to impose itself more strictly on the region. I also thought it was interesting to learn how interconnected Europe (especially England, Spain, France and Germany) is with the Maghreb and how each have influenced each other’s history. Finally, I found it interesting to find that events, such as The Black Death, with which we are so familiar in European History, had just as great an impact on the Maghreb (as I’m sure it also did in other African regions).

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Maghreb – Top 10 conquered and united the whole of Morocco. Through doing so they prevented the Ottomans from extending their empire into the Western Maghreb. They also drove the Christian Portuguese from their Atlantic costal ports. In 1578, when the Portuguese invaded Morocco, they suffered a major defeat in the battle of al Ksar Kebir where both the Portuguese King and the Sultan of Morocco were killed. This made way for the rise of Ahmed al-Mansur whose rule brought Morocco to the height of its power.

1) Zirids’ renunciation of Shia Islam (1048) The Zirid Dynasty was a Sanhaja Berber Dynasty from modern day Algeria that ruled the central Maghreb (from 972 to 1014) and Eastern Maghreb (from 972 to 1148). In 1048, the Zirids renounced Shia Islam and recognised the Abbasid Caliphate (as the third successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammed). In response to this, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the Banu Hilal and the Bany Sulaym to Ifriqiya to defeat the Zirids.

This resulted in anarchy that devastated the previously flourishing agriculture. The coastal towns became the last holdout of the Zirids focused on maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping.

5) The Conquest of Songhay (1591) A civil war in the 1580s weakened the power of the Askiya dynasty, which in turn began the weakening of the Songhay empire. The Askiya saw no reason to modernise their army (since they had not faced external threat for about a century) and therefore, were weak.

Ahmed al-Mansur saw this as an opportunity to exploit them so he could, in turn, outflank the Ottoman Turks and gain exclusive control of Songhay’s gold trade. At the time, most of the trade in gold from the Sahara was being diverted to European traders. In 1591, Al-Mansur sent an army to cross the desert. It consisted of 4000 soldiers, 600 non-combats and 10,000 camels to carry their equipment. It took them 2 months to cross the desert, and over a quarter died in the attempt. On the 12th March 1591, the Battle of Tondibi, near Gao, took the people and rulers of the Songhay empire by surprise. After their easy victory, the Moroccans went on to capture Timbuktu and Jenne, but failed in their conquest of the region as a whole. There was little long-term financial reward for the Sultan of Morocco.

Following the battle of Tondibi, much of the Songhay army regrouped in the Songhay heartland of Dendi, where they formed a resistance to ensure that Morocco drained their resources in keeping an active army in the south of the Sahara.

2) The Almoravid foundation of Marrakech (1070) Marrakesh was founded by Abu Bakr ibn Umar, chieftain and second cousin of the Almoravid King Yusif Ibn Tashfin. The date most commonly accepted by modern historians is 1070, although historical sources cite dates ranging from 1062 to 1078. Under the Berber dynasty of the Almoravids, mosques and madrasas (Qur’anic schools) were built, developing the community into a trading centre for the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa.

Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural and religious centre, replacing Aghmat, which had long been the capital of the Haouz region.

3) The Black Death (1348) The 14th century Plague, known as the Black Death, came from Europe via Sicily to Northern Africa. It seriously undermined the social and economic life of the Maghreb, and trade and agricultural production suffered greatly. The disease reduced the population of the Maghreb between a quarter and a third.

4) Sa’dis conquered and united Morocco (The first half of the 1500s)

6) French invasion of Algeria (1830) Since the 18th century, Algeria had been exporting olive oil to France. However, a strain in their relationship led to disputes that caused a break in diplomatic relations in 1827. In 1830, the French

During the first half of the 16th century, the Arab nomad clan, the Sa’dis (who claimed to be descendants of Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima) gradually 19

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9) Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria gain Independence (1956-62)

invaded Algeria. As an excuse, they said that they wanted to bring an end to piracy by the corsairs of Algiers. The reality was that their occupation was an attempt to raise nationalistic support back home for the corrupt and unpopular French monarchy.

The French (unlike the Turks, who were Muslim and enforced Islamic laws and practices) threatened not only conquest and foreign rule, but also the imposition of a completely alien religion, culture and legal system.

As a result, African resistance took the form of jihad, a holy war that lasted almost 50 years.

The French had used indirect rule to govern Morocco influencing the choice of Sultan. Despite staying loyal to France during World War 2, in 1947 Sultan Muhammed V sided with the Muslim nationalist movement, which demanded national independence.

A failed attempt to exile the Sultan to Madagascar, resulted in him becoming a national hero and as a result the ‘Liberation Army’ was founded to fight for independence. The French agreed to independence in Morocco and Tunisia. For both territories, this came into effect in March 1956. In Algeria, the French were determined not to grant independence. By 1945, there were 2 million French settlers in the country.

Increasing numbers of Algerians became committed to the cause of an all-out war of liberation. The war was launched by the Front de Liberation Nationale (FLN) in November 1954. The French realised the scale of revolution and by 1958 there were up to half a million French troops in Algeria. By 1962, the combined efforts of the FLN had forced the French government to override the protests of the colons and negotiate independence.

7) European colonists in Algeria reached 130,000 (1871) As a result of the French conquest, white settlers came from Spain and the poor rural districts of the Mediterranean Islands, as well as France. The European settlers took over olive plantations and vineyards along the costal hillsides and wheat farms in the plains of the towns. In 1871, the European colonists in Algeria, known as colons, numbered 130,000. By the end of the century they had reached a million (13% of the total population). Muslim Algerians were brought under strict control with limited freedom. To add to the humiliation, Islamic law was overridden by French law.

10) The number of tourists in Morocco reached 13 million (2019)

8) Italy seized Libya (1911-13) It was not until 1911-13 that Italy seized Libya – the last remaining independent Ottoman territory in North Africa. The Sanusiyya Muslim Brotherhood of the Eastern Libyan desert organised a brilliant guerrilla campaign which kept the Italian invaders at bay until 1931. In the end, Italy only conquered Sanusiyya resistance through the employment of tens of thousands of Italian troops, combined with aerial bombing of civilian targets, the imprisonment of hundreds of thousands of civilians in concentration camps, and the construction of massive barbedwire fences across the Libyan desert. An estimated 100,000 civilians died in the appalling conditions of the concentration camps. In September of 1931, the Sanusiyya leader was captured and executed. With his death, the Libyan resistance collapsed.

In 2019, a record breaking 13 million tourists visited Morocco. This was up from 5.2% the previous year.

The figure is comprised of Moroccans from the diaspora, who make up nearly half of annual visitors to the country. The increase in tourist arrivals was attributed to increased air links to Morocco – with budget airlines introducing new routes from Europe.

The surge in tourist numbers contributed to MAD 78.6 billion (USD 8.15 billion approximately) in terms of revenue, as compared to MAD 73.04 billion the year before. Despite the growth, the occupancy rate in hotels averages 45%, meaning many still don’t make sufficient money to be profitable. ➤ ➤➤

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Pupil Editor: Saira Chowdhry (LI U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

The YPC Africa project was a great opportunity to research into a topic I admittedly did not know enough about, and gave me a chance to increase my own awareness on the same. In light of recent events surrounding the Black Lives Matter movement, I felt that this initiative would provide an easy way for the school community to engage in the subject.

Why did you select the topic you did?

After attending an exhibition called ‘African Narratives in Art’ at the Victoria and Albert Museum last year, I realised that the manner in which people are depicted in art and media through history not only informs us of dynamic attitudes towards race as it reflects the social attitudes of the time, but it also has the power to change and influence perception. In the segregated society of the 20th century, people learnt about African lives not through personal relationships but through their portrayal in media and culture. I wanted to learn more about the significance of these representations.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

It was alarming to discover that even though we live in an age where one cannot afford to be unaware, many large corporations still release prejudice-based publications which contain strong hints of overt racism that were perhaps unrecognisable to them but still offensive nonetheless. I was also interested in how black lives were depicted in medieval art, such as in the Adoration of the Three Magi as they are otherwise quite underrepresented during that era.

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Africans’ depictions in Western Culture and Media – Top 10 1) Adoration of the Magi ca. 1500

3) Wedgwood medallion 1787

The Adoration of the Magi, stained glass panels by the Master of the Holy Kindred in Germany, depicts the three wise men and one of the kings as a black African. It is certain that by the beginning of the 15th century some European artists had begun to portray kings as African, distinguished by additional features such as flamboyant dress, white bandeaus, and earrings which reflect the influence of heraldic moors’ head devices, or the jewelry and clothing worn by African domestic slaves and servants in wealthy European households. The black king further represented European notions of Africa as the youngest of the three civilizations in the spread of Christianity and symbolized the idea that Christianity appealed to all humanity, even the most foreign and remote people.

‘Am I not a man and a brother? The inscription on Josiah Wedgwood’s emotive image of a kneeling, supplicant slave is viewed as the symbol of the struggle for abolition and emancipation and the embodiment of the humanitarian mission of the abolition movement. It serves as a vital inclusion in publications relating to the work of abolitionists commemorating the Abolition Act of 1807 and is central to the public perception of slavery.

4) The Brookes slave ship image 1787

2) Othello 1604 Although Shakespeare’s writing relates to the transatlantic slave trade and hints at biological classification from which our idea of ‘race’ emerged, it is uncertain as to whether he described the word ‘black’ in the same manner as the modern definition. The main function of Othello’s race in the play is not his skin color, but rather being symbolic.

Contemporary audiences would have held the belief that dark skin reflects evil nature. Modern critics have raised questions on how the character’s jealous tendencies and aggression reinforce contemporary stereotypes. While the original meaning of Othello’s blackness is ambiguous, the challenging and timeless nature of the focus of the play allows for dynamic interpretations as our ideas of racial identity continue to change and evolve.

Created by William Wilberforce the image depicts a slave ship loaded to its full capacity – 454 people crammed into the hold. The model was based on an actual slave ship built in Liverpool in 1780-81 and co-owned by Joseph Brooks, a Liverpool Merchant. It came to epitomize the cruelties of the trade in enslaved Africans of the 18th and 19th centuries and the struggle to abolish that trade. Its use has been strongly criticised by some individuals and groups of African heritage as providing a very limited view of the history of the transatlantic slave trade, resistance and abolition and its continued use is an indictment of the unequal nature of power and representation in Britain for those of African heritage.

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5) Jim Crow minstrel 1828

of mainstream white America. During slavery, the ‘mammy’ caricature was used as proof that black women were content as slaves. Some believe that it played a role in historical revisionism efforts to legitimize the legacy of racial oppression in South America. Earlier this year, the brand name and logo were removed as the company acknowledged that its origins were based on a racist stereotype. America’s consumer culture from the early 20th century has been rife with the stereotype of black people’s passiveness and subservience. Although the mascots have been tweaked or replaced over the years, unfortunately this racist myth has persevered for many.

Fifty years ago, the Voting Rights Act targeted the laws and practices of “Jim Crow”. The Voting Rights Act and its predecessor, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, fought racial discrimination in the American South by banning segregation in public accommodation and outlawing the poll taxes and tests that were used to stop African Americans from voting.

7) The Golliwog 1895 onwards

In the early 1830’s, Thomas Dartmouth Rice began performing an act: he painted his face black and did a song and dance he claimed was inspired by a slave he saw. The act was called “Jump, Jim Crow”. Regardless of whether the term “Jim Crow” existed before Rice took it to the stage, his act helped popularize it as a derogatory term for African Americans aimed at reducing them to the kind of caricature that he performed on stage. Although it was born out of blackface minstrelsy it came to represent the racist laws and policies of the South.

Created by Florence Upton for her children’s book series ‘The Adventures of Two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg’, this doll-like character – characterized by very dark, often jet black skin, eyes rimmed in white, big red lips and frizzy hair – contributed greatly to the spread of blackface iconography from the 19th century and has been a subject of controversy since. The image entered the public domain soon after its creation and began being manufactured as a highly popular children’s toy.

It’s found on a variety of items in England, such as postcards, paperweights, brooches, wallets and brand mascots, and further inspired ‘wog’, a derogatory term.

The 1960s saw widespread racial antagonism between black people and white people in England due to the increase in immigration, minorities’ refusal to subject themselves to ethnic subordination, and fear of loss of English national character. Britain was highly influenced by the images of the harsh racial conflict in the US. It was in this context that the Golliwog emblems started to be seen as symbols of racial insensitivity and black oppression during the slave era.

6) Aunt Jemima 1889

An example of overtly racist advertising, the brand mascot of “Aunt Jemima” by the company Quaker Oats was the ‘mammy’ image which was typically used to serve the political, social and economic interests 23

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8) Birth of a Nation 1915

‘Destroy this mad brute’ is the caption of a World War 1 propaganda poster for enlistment in the US Army which depicted a dribbling, crazed gorilla which has provoked allegations of racial stereotyping. It exploits the old racist theme of violation of black women by an overpowering black man, or ‘King Kong’. A Vogue cover from 2018 bears striking resemblance, and however innocent, the depths of racism and need for a more diverse workplace is clear. It distills the worldview of an era into a single image and demonstrates how traces of structural racism are still prevalent in society today even if some are unaware of contributing to it.

10) Black Panther 2018 The Birth of a Nation, one of the most influential films of that century’s first half, is also regarded as one of the most offensive movies ever produced due to its explicit racism. It glorified the Klu Klux Klan as the saviours of the South from ‘freed people’ who were portrayed as brutish and bestial and it further gave a highly subjective, convoluted history of the Civil War and Reconstruction. African American writer James Weldon Johnson wrote in 1915 that The Birth of a Nation did “incalculable harm” as it created a justification for prejudice and discrimination for decades to follow. That same year, the Ku Klux Klan, inactive since the trials of 1872, reemerged across the country to terrorize African Americans and immigrants. It is of immense importance today as it formed the foundation for modern cinema (essentially Hollywood) and is a famously cited example of severe racial misinterpretation.

‘Black Panther’, the 18th movie in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, is the first movie to have a predominately black cast which grapples with issues affecting modern day-black life. It not only traces the journey of a superhero but also delves into African descent and celebrates everything from traditional African society, African-American political debates, the power and beauty of black women to the preservation of identity, all within the lush confines of the fictional African nation of Wakanda.

9) ‘Destroy This Mad Brute’ 1917 and Vogue 2008

Unlike many other films where Africa has been traditionally portrayed as unsophisticated and backward, Black Panther’s vision of Wakanda as the city of the future is more refreshing. It has left a significant cultural footprint by showing what it means to be black in both America and Africa— ➤ ➤➤ and, more broadly, in the world.

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Pupil Editor: George Elvin (PR L6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

The YPC Africa initiative was an opportunity to learn about a continent’s history, that isn’t focused on in the normal school curriculum. African history is varied and intriguing and the initiative really allowed me to focus and specialise on a subject that I would not have otherwise confronted in lessons.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I decided to choose East Africa as my topic as its history is closely intertwined through trade with the Arab world, while also having lots of interesting modern history. This combination was not only fascinating, but also meant I was able to make cross links between time periods.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

Being interested in economic history, the trade routes and how they withstood the measure of time, moulding history and being relevant to almost all turning points in East African history fascinated me.

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East Africa – Top 10 As a result, a booming trading economy emerged in key coastal trading towns such as Malindi, Mombasa, Pemba, Inhambane and Sofala. These all became international trading powers, exchanging goods and wealth especially with the Persian Gulf. These trading links with the Gulf were first established in around the eleventh century and were crucial for the advancement of the area. They stayed in place for hundreds of years until they became eroded due to Portuguese control.

1) The Shirazi and the resulting Spread of Islam to East Africa (c.10th/11th century) It is unclear where the Shirazi people originated from and how they came to inhabit the Swahili coast for much of the Middle Ages, but there are two theories.

Firstly, that through immigration from southern Iran, people started to migrate across the trade routes between Iran and mainland ports in East Africa. The second theory is that they came from Persia, but first settled on the Somalia littoral because of the trade of gold. They then gradually migrated south down the coast founding many important port towns and cities and by the eleventh century the Shirazi had established the sultanates and mercantile networks along the Swahili coast. Although Islam in East Africa can be traced back to the seventh century, the significant movement and slow migration of the Shirazi people taking hold through trade can be seen as a defining point in the spread of Sunni Islam to East Africa. The results of this movement can still be seen today, with the majority religion on the Swahili coast still being Islam.

3) Portuguese Mozambique, its development in the Scramble for Africa, and the eventual fall of Portuguese Imperial power (14981975) Portuguese Mozambique was the first name for the south eastern coastal area of Africa when it was a Portuguese colony. The origins of the colony were in trading cities along the eastern coast settled by Portuguese traders. Over the next four hundred years Portugal became the dominant power in South-East Africa, solidifying this power during the Scramble for Africa. The massive expanse of land under Portuguese control became known as Portuguese East Africa, but before 1800 Portuguese presence was relatively small.

It was in the 19th and 20th centuries that Portugal started to integrate areas of South-East Africa (Mozambique) into the structure of the Portuguese nation.

2) The Kilwa Sultanate (1178) The Kilwa Sultanate was a medieval Sultanate on the island of Kilwa, just off the coast of modern-day Tanzania, whose authority stretched for the whole of the Swahili coast. In 1178 the Kilwa Sultanate really blossomed into a commercial hub when Suleiman Hassan ascended to the role of Sultan. Huge progress was made in expanding the Kilwa territories, including key cities such as Sofala. According to legend, it was founded in the tenth century by a Persian prince of Shiraz. The same family ruled the Sultanate until 1277 when an adversary Arab family took power. Kilwa emerged as a commercial centre and challenged the Mogadishu dominance over the East African trade business. The capture in 1178 of the southern city of Sofala and the vast gold and ivory trade that came with it, caused a huge boom in trade and brought huge revenues to the Kilwa Sultans. This allowed them to finance their expansion and extended their trading power all along the East African coast.

Portuguese influence over East Africa had much impact during the 19th and 20th centuries. Colonial legislation discriminated against Africans by forcing natives to do mandatory free labour, as well as passing segregation laws. The Portuguese approach to Africans spread across Europe and arguably set precedent for many other colonies all over Africa. During their occupation of South-East Africa, the Portuguese also destroyed many of the Arab trade routes in the Indian Ocean and replaced them with their own, while also taking advantage of the multiple natural resources in East Africa, mainly gold and ivory. Until 1883, slaves were traded by the Portuguese with the Arab and Asian worlds, uprooting many Africans – many 26

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the protector of Zanzibar’s interests in Congo. He still managed to maintain a close relationship with Europeans and when in 1886 fighting broke out between the Swahili and Belgian officials, he went to the Belgium consul at Zanzibar to assure King Leopold of his good intentions.

being East African. Portuguese involvement in East Africa was also crucial for mapping and therefore understanding the interior of Africa: after Bartolomeu Dias’s first exploration of the exterior of east Africa progress advanced quite quickly.

4) The Nile’s source discovered (1858)

Tippu was a leading trading figure not only in Zanzibar. His ‘empire’ spread to Asia, the middle East and to most of Africa. He is one of the most famous non-European figures to have created a slavers’ trading empire and to have amassed vast amounts of wealth in doing so. He is also key in showing the close trading relationship between countries such as Oman and Saudi Arabia, which lasted hundreds of years and brought vast amounts of wealth to both regions.

There were two key figures in the expedition organised by the Royal Geographic Society in 1856, Captain Richard Burton and John Speke. The expedition moved inland from the east coast, and in February they discovered Lake Tanganyika. The paired explored the lake for three months before both fell ill and the expedition looked to be over as they made towards the coast. However, Speke heard rumours of an even larger lake to the north. Speke, who had by now recovered, set off north with a select few. In August they set eyes on what he later described as a ‘vast expanse’ of ‘the pale-blue waters’ of the northern lake. He named it Lake Victoria and stated correctly that it was the source of the Nile.

6) The Anglo-Zanzibar War (27 August 1896) and the ending of the Zanzibar Sultanate Commonly known as the shortest ever recorded war (lasting only between 38 and 45 minutes). It was a military conflict between Great Britain and the Zanzibar Sultanate, on the old island state of Zanzibar.

The trigger was the death of a pro-British Sultan, Hamed bin Thwaini, and the subsequent succession of Sultan Khalid bin Barghash, without the permission of the British consul. The British considered this a casus bello (an act of war) and demanded that Sultan Khalid and his forces stand down. In response Sultan Khalid barricaded himself in the palace with his personal guard and a small citizen force, numbering about 2000. The British grouped their forces in the harbour under the leadership of Rear-Admiral Harry Rawson.

Artillery bombardment on the Palace lasted just over half an hour and the Sultan’s forces sustained around 500 fatalities; meanwhile the British sustained none.

Sultan Khalid escaped, fleeing to German East Africa, and the British appointed Sultan Hamud as head of a puppet government.

The finding was significant as it answered one of the unanswered questions of the time. It was a landmark moment for the understanding of the geography of Africa, and demonstrated advances in exploration, science and technology.

5) Tippu Tip (1870) He was the most infamous of Omani slave traders, a Zanzibar Omani, whose ruthless raids forced thousands of Africans into slavery. In 1870 he conducted his first expedition with 4,000 men into the interior of Eastern Africa, where village chiefs would sell their people into slavery for protection.

Tippu was also a trader of ivory and became extremely wealthy through both trades. He built his trading empire through trading links with the Middle East with countries such as Oman, where trade routes had been put in place for hundreds of years by the Zanzibar Sultanate. Upon his retirement in Zanzibar, he owned dozens of plantations with an estimated total of 10,000 slaves. Tippu Tip also met and helped many famous western explorers, including David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley. He claimed Eastern Congo for himself and for the Sultan of Zanzibar, serving as

The war has significance as it marks the end of the Zanzibar Sultanate, an expansive Islamic state that stretched a substantial part of the Swahili coast and a large interior, similar in geography to modern day Kenya. It also marks the development of a period of British influence in East Africa and significantly 27

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British armed forces, the largest wartime uses of capital punishment by the British Empire ever.

changed the cultural landscape on the Swahili coast in such forms like: banning slavery, decreasing Islamic influence and solidifying British superiority; and meaning that for 67 years there would be no rebellions against British influence under the protectorate.

The Mau Mau no doubt played a crucial role in creating a rift between the European colonial community in Kenya and the British foreign occupants. The violent resistance to British domination marks a turning point for British influence in Eastern Africa and the emergence of an independent state in 1963. The Kikuyu people directed the uprising, and Jomo Kenyatta their unofficial leader, became the first prime minister of an independent Kenya. The ban on the Mau Mau was lifted in 2003.

7) The Abyssinian Crisis (1935) The Abyssinian Crisis was an international crisis rooted in the Walwal incident, in the conflict between Italy and the Empire of Ethiopia (then known as Abyssinia). Italy built a fort at the Walwal oasis, which was in the boundary zone of a border that was not well marked. Thus, a conflict proceeded with military force used on both sides. The League of Nations ruled against Italy (governed by Mussolini) and voted for economic sanctions; but they were never effectively applied. The ultimate conclusion was that Italy got away with annexing and occupying Abyssinia.

9) Idi Amin (1971) Ida Amin Dada Oumee was a Ugandan military official who became President in 1971.His tenure lasted eight years. Globally known as the ‘Butcher of Uganda’, he is still seen as one of the most despicable tyrants in history. Before becoming President, he rose through the military ranks, becoming Major and then appointed Commander of the Ugandan army. However, once he became aware that the President Milton Obote was going to arrest him for mismanagement of finances, he launched a military coup, successfully claiming the office of President. The country shifted from alliance with the Western world and formed friends such as Russia, East Germany and Libya. Amin’s rule consisted of multiple human rights abuses, political repression, extrajudicial killings, ethnic persecution, nepotism, corruption and economic turmoil. It is estimated that his regime killed between 100,000 and 500,000 people. His rule highlights the turmoil that ransacked much of the African continent after colonialism. His rule marks a dark age for Uganda and the political, economic, and social instability of much of the continent (particularly Eastern Africa) after the Scramble for Africa.

The crisis significantly discredited the League of Nations, being a perfect example of how the League was an ineffective body. The failure of the League of Nations also highlighted the failure in international cooperation among countries. The crisis had huge effects in Europe as it moved Fascist Italy closer to an alliance with Nazi Germany. It also marked an official Italian occupation of Ethiopia, which lasted from 1935 to 1941.

8) The Mau Mau Uprising (1950s) Although banned in 1950 by British authorities, the Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA), also known as the Mau Mau, rose up against British Authorities in the pursuit of a liberated Kenya. The Mau Mau comprised mostly of the Kikuyu people, Meru people and Embu people. They all fought against white European colonist-settlers in Kenya, the British Army and the local Kenya Regiment. However, the Mau Mau movement was internally divided; and despite attempts to unify the factions, no significant revolution happened. During the conflict, the British Kenyans declared a state of emergency and began four years of military operations against their adversaries. By the end of 1956, more than 11,000 rebels had died fighting and 20,000 were put in detention camps. At the end of the war 1,090 executions were carried out by the

10) The Rwandan Genocide (1994) This was an especially fierce and rapid genocide against the Tutsi, Twa, and moderate Hutu in Rwanda. The Rwandan civil war started in 1993 and was the main cause of the genocide. It began when Tutsi forces invaded from their base in Uganda; but neither Tutsi nor Hutu managed to gain a decisive victory, resulting 28

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intervened, highlighting not only a regional but also global failure.

in the Arusha Accords. The peace did not last long. On 6th April 1994, the assassination of the Hutu president Habyarimana prompted a power vacuum and triggered the killing. Genocidal killing began the following day.

Key Tutsi military and political leaders were shot and stabbed to death by Hutu soldiers, police, and militia.

The following months consisted of thousands of killings and violent sexual acts. Hutu gangs ransacked villages and towns, killing and raping thousands of Tutsi people. An estimated 500,000 to 1,000,000 Rwandans were killed, a total of about 70% of the country’s Tutsi population. Estimated numbers of rape were between 250,000 to 500,000. The world was shocked, but nonetheless not a single other country

The genocide is the one of the bloodiest massacres of the 20th century and has had lasting and profound effects on Rwanda. In 1996, the newly formed Rwandan government launched an offensive into Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) as it was home to many exiled leaders of the former Rwandan Government. This started the first Congo War and killed an estimated 200,000 people. Today, Rwanda has two public holidays to mourn the genocide and denial or historical revisionism of the genocide is a criminal ➤ ➤➤ offence.

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Pupil Editor: Lara Higgins Anderson (LI L6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

The YPC Africa initiative appealed to me as it offered the opportunity to broaden my historical knowledge and learn more about African history, which is incredibly fascinating and yet I was previously unfamiliar with much of it.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I have always found myself drawn to Ancient Egyptian history. However, I came to the realisation that I knew very little about the medieval to modern period, which is full of colourful characters and events that have shaped world history.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I found the powerplay of the ruling dynasties in Egypt in the middle ages fascinating, particularly the rule of mad Caliph Hakim with his baffling legislative agenda and his central role in inspiring the Druze religion, which is still practiced to this day.

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Egypt and the Nile Valley – Top 10 source of financial support; however, according to contemporary sources he spent very little time there following 1174. Using Egypt’s wealth as a financial base for the conquest of Syria, Northern Mesopotamia, and Palestine, he succeeded to unite these Muslim territories under his rule.

1) Mad Caliph Hakim disappears (1021) Between the years 996 to 1021, Caliph Al-Hakim Bi Amr Allah held a despotic rule over Egypt. He was a relentless leader renowned for his frequent employment of corporal punishments and executions, and the persecution of Jews and Christians.

Furthermore, during his reign he enforced a multitude of cruel and baffling decrees on the people of Egypt including the destruction of churches, and the killing of stray dogs until none remained in alleyways.

Moreover, he made the consumption of a multitude of things illegal: such as wine and beer, lupine beans, fish without scales, raisins, and the Egyptian staple Molokhia. His decrees were especially severe on women; who were no longer allowed to show their faces publicly and, to ensure the execution of this decree, he rather amusingly banned shoemakers from making or selling shoes to women. His deranged reign ended abruptly in 1021 after he vanished under mysterious circumstances. It is widely speculated that his murder was arranged by his sister Sitt-Al-Mulk, who was opposed to his intolerant politics. As well as his perplexing legislative agenda, he is renowned for being the spiritual focus of the Druze Faith, a religious sect derived from Islam that emerged during his reign.

The Druze claimed that Caliph al-Hākim was a divine manifestation of God. Following his mysterious disappearance, the Druze religion gradually vanished from Egypt only surviving in isolated areas of Syria and Lebanon, which is where it can primarily be found today with between 800,000 and a million followers; immortalising this mad Caliph in Egyptian history.

Following his famous capture of Jerusalem, after multiple wars against Christian Crusaders, Saladin became a religious hero for the Muslims, leaving a substantial legacy. Following Saladin’s death in 1193, his family (the Ayyubid dynasty) continued to rule over Egypt and neighbouring lands, until they succumbed to the powerful Mamlūk dynasty in 1250.

3) Mamlūk takeover (1250) Mamlūks were a class of slaves who were trained to be elite warriors, and over the centuries their political influence and power increased. Taking advantage of the weakening Ayyubid rule, Mamlūks of Turkish origin overthrew the last independent Ayyubid Sultan in Egypt establishing their own dominion.

They created the greatest Islamic empire of the late middle ages; the capital of this powerful empire being Cairo in Egypt which became the epicentre of the Arab Islamic world. Its flourishing trade generated prosperity, encouraging generous patronage, resulting in art and architecture that still survives and is revered to this day; an example being the complex of Qa’itbay in the Northern Cemetery (1472-74).

4) Battle of Ayn Jalut (1260)

2) Saladin takeover (1174)

The Battle of Ayn Jalut marked the decisive victory of the Mamlūks over the invading Mongol armies, halting the westward expansion of the formidable Mongol Empire. Furthermore, it is of momentous importance in world history as it preserved Muslim rule over Egypt and Syria, and (arguably) ensured the survival of Islamic states and indeed Islam itself. Had the Mongols emerged victorious, not only Islamic history but world history would be immensely different.

In 1169, Saladin was appointed as both commander of the Syrian troops in Egypt and vizier of the Fātimid Caliph there, receiving the title ‘malik’, meaning king (although he was often referred to as ‘Sultan’). Saladin strengthened his position through the abolition of Egypt’s unpopular Shī’ite Fātimid Caliphate. Under Saladin, Egypt saw a return to Sunni Islam. Egypt and its rich agriculture became Saladin’s primary 31

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5) Conquest by the Ottomans (1517)

7) Muhammad Alī ‘The Father of modern Egypt’ (1841)

Towards the end of the Mamlūk Sultanate, its dominion fell into a period of prolonged decline.

Egypt’s commercial importance was rapidly deteriorating as a result of population losses due to plague, coupled with the loss of control over Indian trade to the Portuguese. The Ottomans invaded Syria in 1516, likely to scupper an impending coalition against Ottoman expansion between the Safavid dynasty of Persia and the Mamlūks of Egypt following Ottoman military activity in eastern Anatolia bordering the hotly contested frontier states north of Syria. The Ottoman Sultan Selim I (the Grim) attacked and defeated the Mamluk’s recently refortified army, where Mamluk Sultan Qānṣūh al-Ghawrī was lost in the battle. However, the Mamluks resisted Selim’s terms for a settlement and rallied around a new Sultan in Cairo which resulted in their final defeat at the hand of Selim in 1517, who installed an Ottoman ruler in Cairo following a march on Egypt.

Muhammad Alī arrived in Egypt in 1801 as the second in command of an Albanian regiment sent by the Ottomans, with the goal of expelling the French from Egypt and thwarting a re-emergence of Mamlūk power.

Within three years, his skillful political manouvering and strong leadership had propelled him to the summit of power as the Ottoman’s Sultan’s viceroy in Egypt, the Wālī. He successfully consolidated his position by conquering Upper Egypt, the Mamlūk’s last remaining territory. The French had occupied Egypt for the three years preceding 1801 and the country was slipping into anarchy. Capitalising on this disorder, Muhammed Alī erased Egypt’s traditional societal structure, introducing a radical modernisation program. This involved the nationalising of Egypt’s agriculture to fund militarisation, a large canal building program and industrial development. Although he never became completely independent from the Ottoman Empire as he had aspired and his powers remained subject to restraints, in 1841 he and his family were granted the hereditary right to rule Egypt and the Sudan, and his legacy as ‘the Father of modern Egypt’ has lived on.

6) The Battle of the Nile and Egyptology (1798) The Battle of the Nile was a tactical naval conflict, that took place on 1st August 1798 at Aboukir Bay near Alexandria in Egypt. It was fought between the British Royal Navy, under the leadership of Admiral Horatio Nelson, against the French Republic, headed

by Napoleon Bonaparte. Following an intense twoday battle, the British fleet emerged victorious, quashing French ambitions to invade Egypt and constrict Britain’s trade routes, and glorifying Nelson for centuries to come as a war hero. Subsequently, in the summer of 1799, a French soldier discovered the Rosetta stone in the Egyptian port city of Rosetta, or Rashid, and following the English victory over the French in Egypt, it was brought to the British Museum where it remains to this day. The stone is engraved with three distinct scripts, hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek, which were all utilised in Egypt at the time of the its creation. The discovery of the Rosetta Stone was of paramount importance in the development of the field of Egyptology, as it led to the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphics by French linguistic expert Francois Champollion in 1822, establishing the field of Egyptology and developing western interest in Orientalism.

8) The opening of the Suez Canal (1869) In 1854, Ferdinand de Lesseps, French consul to Cairo, made an agreement with the Ottoman governor of Egypt, to build the Suez Canal which is a 120-mile-long manmade waterway, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean; allowing expeditious trade between Europe and Asia and saving ships between 10 to 12 days travel. Construction of the canal began in 1859 with hand picks and shovels originally being used, until European intervention in the production process brought workers with steam shovels and dredgers vastly speeding up the process. On 17th November 1869, the Suez Canal was opened, four years after its predicted finishing date as the result of labour disputes and a cholera epidemic. However, its dimensions were wanting, limiting the number of ships able to navigate to only 500 in the first year. In 1875, Great Britain became heavily involved, buying up the majority of shares in the Canal and leading to substantial improvement beginning in 1876, which as a result, led to it becoming one of the most heavily travelled shipping passages in the world.

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9) Suez Crisis (1956)

10) Arab Spring and the fall of Mubarack (2011)

The Suez Crisis began on 29th October 1956, following the nationalisation of the Canal by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser. Israeli, French and British armed forces attempted to seize back the important Canal, which controlled around two-thirds of the oil used by Europe. However, ultimately, they were defeated by the Egyptians, who were supported by the Soviet Union; they withdrew their troops in late 1956, after receiving threats from both the US and the Soviet Union. The Suez Crisis was a pivotal event of the Cold War, which challenged the US relationship with two of its primary Cold War allies, Britain and France.

The Arab Spring was a wave of protests and uprisings across several Arabic speaking countries in North Africa and the Middle East, demanding democracy and increased cultural freedom. This civil unrest began in Tunisia, protesting against government corruption.

With the aid of social media, Tunisia’s protests spread, sparking similar demonstrations in neighbouring countries, including Egypt where the Tahrir Square in Cairo hosted 18 days of protests. The Egyptians called for reform and demanded that their President Hosni Mubarak step down after 30 years in office. Some refer to this as ‘the Egyptian Revolution’ which left Egypt in ➤ ➤➤ political instability and chaos.

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Pupil Editor: Poppy Bell (IH U6) Why did you want to be a part of the YPC initiative?

After the Black Lives Matter protests, I did much research on how I could improve my understanding in light of the issues raised. This research highlighted to me the fact that many schools had been lacking in the teaching of African history. Therefore, when Mr Moule put forward this initiative, I saw an amazing opportunity to not only further my own knowledge but to also help support an important change in focus in our education

Why did you select the topic you did?

I wanted to tackle something I knew nothing about. I wanted a topic that would expand my knowledge deeper into African history and that wouldn’t focus entirely on slavery, but that still remained important and interesting.

The history of Central Africa was exactly this.

What is the most interesting thing you discovered?

I think the fact that Africans also had slaves, especially in the Kingdom of Kongo. Quite often, one focuses on the Atlantic slave trade and its injustices without realising that before the Atlantic slave trade there were prejudices between the African tribes, resulting in many being masters to their own slaves.

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Central Africa – Top 10 the slave trade in Africa by Pope Nicholas V, as long as all the enslaved people were converted to Christianity.

There was a high demand for African slaves as there was a shortage of labourers and they were much easier to convert.

1) 1390 – Kingdom of Kongo It was made up of Angola, the western part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and the most southern part of Gabon. At one point it reached to the Kwango River in the east, the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Kwanza River in the south and the Congo River in the north. However, the kingdom had a sphere of influence much wider than this, over nearby kingdoms such as the Ndongo and the Loango. There was a relationship between Portugal and the Kingdom of Kongo, as you shall read, but, despite Portugal’s involvement, from 1390 until 1857, the Kingdom of Kongo was mostly an independent state. It was only in 1857 that Portugal acquired it as a vassal. It was dissolved in 1915 into the modern states that exist now.

It was estimated that African slaves made up around 10% of the population of Portugal, however most of the slaves were concentrated in Lisbon and in the Algarve. Despite being the first major country in the Atlantic slave trade, Portugal was the first country to abolish slavery in 1761. Even after slavery was abolished in Portugal, the Portuguese continued to trade slaves in other countries where slavery was not abolished, such as Brazil, or even within their own African colonies. Even though slavery within the African Portuguese colonies was eliminated in 1869, Portuguese involvement in its African colonies continued on into the 20th century, as we’ll see later…

The Bundu dia Kongo, ruling now, favours the union that the Kingdom of Kongo had and wishes to unite Angola, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Gabon in order to achieve this.

3) 1500-1850 – The Atlantic slave trade to America

2) 1441- Start of Portugal’s involvement in the Atlantic Slave trade

The entirety of the east coast of Africa was affected, but in particular, the area around the mouth of Congo suffered the most. On a 250-mile coastline, approximately 4 million people were enslaved in Brazil, the USA and the Caribbean to work on sugar plantations. Demand increased dramatically in the USA and so by 1750 there were over 15,000 slaves shipped from the Loango Coast, north of the Congo.

The last country to ban this slave trade was Brazil in 1831, however illegal slave trade is rumoured to have carried on into the 1860s in Brazil and Cuba. The last recorded ship of the slave trade was the Clotilde, which managed to smuggle quite a few Africans into Mobile, Alabama in 1859. The Africans were later sold as slaves, however, as Slavery was abolished in America in 1865, a few then survived living there to as late as 1940. Brazil was the last country to ban slavery in 1850 when the Eusébio de Queirós Law was passed. However, Brazil then began the slave trade illegally until 1888 when the abolition of slavery became permanent.

Portugal was one of the chief countries that exported slaves during the Atlantic slave trade, in fact, it was the first country to start. It began in 1441 when Portuguese traders arrived in Europe with the largest number of African slaves. The first notable selling of African slaves was from Prince Infante D. Henrique who was selling slaves in Lagos in 1444.

The majority of these traders came with slaves from the Kingdom of Kongo, although slavery had existed in the Kingdom of Kongo long before the influx of the Portuguese. In 1526, Afonso wrote to King João III of Portugal begging him to stop the practise, as he believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law, and he established a committee in order to determine the legality of the enslavement for those slaves being sold. However, he didn’t get very far, and the slave trade continued under the regulations of King João. Portugal was even given the rights to continue 35

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Africa. But in 1876, he devised a plan to organise a private holding company in the disguise of a scientific and philanthropic association. Leopold called upon Stanley upon his return from Congo in order to hire him for help. Stanley at first refused because he was ever hopeful for British backing, but when that didn’t come, he took on Leopold’s offer.

The anti-slavery movement rose during this period and helped capture many ships and free many slaves, helping slow the trade right down until it was completely abolished. However, the movement was also used as a tactic by European countries to invade African colonies, leaving the continent fractured.

Throughout the 19th century, slavery and serfdom was abolished. However, it took later into the 20th century for slavery to be formally abolished, and it some places across Central Africa slavery of some forms still exists (e.g., the illegal trafficking of women and children). It is estimated that there are 30 million victims of slavery worldwide. For example, in Mauritania about 20% of the population (600,000 men, women and children) are essentially enslaved or are used as bonded labour.

Under Leopold’s pretence of the holding company in 1885, Stanley sailed down the Congo river where he established a colony in the Congo region. However, Leopold, not trusting Stanley to deliver Congo as a free state, did not make Stanley governor. Stanley, after his previous trip to Congo, was very much against Leopold’s ideas of treating the Congolese “as though they were conquered subjects”. Thus, started Leopold’s involvement in the country of Congo.

4) 1576 – Luanda and the Ndongo kingdom

6) 1878 – Brazza’s expedition to Congo

Traders from São Tomé who were unable to trade safely in Kongo anymore because of Kongo’s involvement with the Portuguese, now turned their eyes towards Luanda and the Ndongo kingdom. Guerrilla warfare was used across the kingdom for quite a while until, defeated by tropical disease and the resistance from the Ndongo, the invasion lost substance and ceased in the late 1580s.

In 1878, France sent a new French citizen, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza into the Congo Basin in order to try and prevent Belgian’s control of the entire area. He ended up signing a treaty with King Illoh Makolo that placed the country under the protection of the French flag. Stanley encountered Brazza near Vivi and Stanley realised that he had lost the ‘race’. In 1883, Brazza was named governor-general of the French Congo, but was dismissed a year later due to poor revenue from the colony. Due to Stanley having colonised much more of the area than Brazza had, Congo was in the end granted to Belgium.

However, in 1576 Luanda became a Portuguese colony.

Luanda was Atlantic Africa’s best natural harbour, even though it had to rely upon America and Europe for its supply of food during the period of the transAtlantic slave trade. There were about 40,000 African inhabitants and around 6,000 of mixed (African and Portuguese) descent. The majority of these 46,000 were enslaved, many of whom were sent oversees on slaving vessels. Despite slavery being abolished in 1878, forced labour in Luanda continued far into the 1900s.

7) 1884 – Start of the Berlin Conference This conference determined the European colonisation of Central Africa, which was divided up between thirteen European colonial powers and the USA. The conference was organised by Otto von Bismarck and also marks the sudden surge in imperial power in Germany. It lasted from November 15th 1884 to February 26th 1885. The conference was not the sole decider of the partitioning of the African countries, in fact it came down to bilateral agreements made before and after the conference. However, the conference did help the rise of European colonial activity in the African countries, where the European countries were able to overthrow their self-governance.

5) 1875 – Stanley’s journeys down the Congo river Stanley’s first trip down the Congo river was funded by the New York Herald and the Daily Telegraph so that he could map out the area for Europeans.

Before 1876, King Leopold of Belgium had tried and failed to gain colonies in the Philippines, Asia and in 36

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8) 1897 – King Leopold of Belgium’s take over and the exploitation of Congo

as you can see from the dates, this kickstarted the string of independence for these countries. Angola’s and São Tomé and Príncipe’s independence was granted so much later than the rest of the countries because, despite the growing pressure, Portugal was unwilling to let go of such valuable countries. Angola ended up having a war of independence for 12 years, and São Tomé and Príncipe had to create the Movement for the Liberation of São Tomé and Príncipe to overthrow the Caetano dictatorship before they were granted freedom.

King Leopold was recognised as the sovereign of the majority of the area that he and Stanley had laid claim to between 1878 and 1884, and on 5th February 1885, Congo was officially under the rule of Leopold and the kingdom of Belgium. In 1894, King Leopold signed away the Lado Enclave in order to gain a strip of land on the eastern border of Congo Free State. However, in 1895 he sent an expedition into Lado Enclave after it’s rubber profits increased hugely and ended up succeeding in securing the Lado Enclave as Belgian territory in February 1897.

10) 1996 – The First Congo War starts Particular experts view both the First and Second Congo War as one war. The First Congo War, also known as Africa’s First World War, took place mainly in Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo) but also in Sudan and Uganda. The war caused destruction across the country, but most importantly there was a huge abundance of ethnic violence. After it was over, a new government was put in place and the country was renamed as the Democratic Republic of Congo. The second war was nicknamed the Great War of Africa or the Great African War. In the end, nine African countries got involved and there were 25 armed groups involved in the conflict. The peace agreement was signed in 2002 and the war officially ended in July 2003, the aftermath of the war carried on for years afterwards with a thousand people dying daily from starvation and disease in 2004. By 2008, the wars and its aftermath had caused 5.4 million deaths, most of which were actually due to the disease and starvation that originated from the fighting. On top of this, 2 million were displaced from their homes and/or sought asylum in nearby countries. The Second Congo War was the deadliest conflict since World War II across the whole world.

Leopold exploited the natural resources of Congo to a huge extent. At first it was ivory, and then the demand for rubber exploded. The Free State government abandoned the promises of the Berlin Conference by restricting foreign access and extorted forced labour from the natives. There were a high number of abuses such as extensive killings, beatings, and often mutilation being carried out for not meeting a certain level of production. The estimated death toll is somewhere between one million and 15 million, not including the deaths from illnesses and diseases.

9) 1960 – The first countries of Central Africa gain independence In this period, the Democratic Republic of Congo (1960), French Equatorial Africa (1960), Chad (1960), the Central African Republic (1960), Federal Republic of Cameroon (1961), Rwanda (1962), Burundi (1962), Equatorial Guinea (1968), Angola (1975), and São Tomé and Príncipe (1975) were liberated from France, Portugal, Belgium, Germany and Spain. Belgium was the first country to liberate its mandate on the Democratic Republic of Congo, and,

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Pupil Editor: Tigerlily Hamilton-Davies (SU U6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

Black history has always been of interest to me and in light of the BLM protests I thought it would be an appropriate time to partake in expanding the YPC and therefore taking part in the YPC Africa initiative. I think history in general is very important to understand and learn so finding myself with little knowledge of black history, I was extremely happy to help build a platform for myself and others to learn from.

Why did you select the topic you did?

Again, I do not know a lot about the West Indies and therefore thought it a great opportunity to understand the rich history of the region. With so many different countries claiming the West Indies throughout the centuries, it was bound to have a dynamic history; and so it did! I found so much information about Spanish, French and British colonies that I decided to streamline my research and focus on the British and the West Indies.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I learnt about the The Slave Trade Act which was passed in Britain in 1807. It declared that slavery was to be “utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful”. However even with the slave trade being made unlawful, it continued for many years after. I found this amongst many things saddening, yet it is interesting that even though what many were doing was seen as unlawful, the freeing of slaves was seen as an even bigger threat.

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Africans in the West Indies – Top 10 1) Britain seizes several islands including Jamaica, 1655

4) Bussa Rebellion, 14th April 1816 Bussa was born a free man in West Africa, (possible of Nigerian descent), who like so many others was captured by African slave merchants who then sold him to the British: he wound up being transported to Barbados where slavery had been legal since 1661.

Interestingly records show that a slave named “Bussa” worked as a head officer among the slaves on “Bayley’s Plantation” in the parish of Saint Philip around the time of the rebellion. This position would have given Bussa more freedom of movement than the average slave and would have made it easier for him to plan and coordinate the rebellion.

The slavery system that developed in the Lesser Antilles was an outgrowth of the demand for sugar and other crops. The Spanish loosened their foothold in the Caribbean during the first half of the 17th century, thus allowing Britain to seize several islands. This was the beginning of a long torturous stay where Britain shipped 3.1 million African slaves across the Atlantic Ocean in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. They were forcibly brought to British colonies in the West Indies and sold to work on plantations.

2) The Maroon Wars, 1728

The revolts arose at a time when the British Parliament was working on schemes to ameliorate the conditions of slaves in the Caribbean.

This was a conflict between the Jamaican Maroons and the colonial British authorities. The Jamaican Maroons were runaway slaves that had banded together. The ratio of whites to slaves had turned, leaving slaves outnumbering white settlers. British forces saw they were unable to defeat the Maroons so offered them a peace treaty instead in 1740.

Among Bussa’s collaborators were people called Washington, Franklin, John and Nanny Grigg, a senior domestic slave, and Jackey on Simmons’ Plantation, as well as other slaves, drivers and artisans. These names were to become immensely significant to West Indies history.

This is an important event as it shows not only the length of the Maroon Wars but how the African slaves came together to fight for what they believed in and how determined they were for their freedom.

By February 1816, Bussa was an African driver, one of the few in his position. He and his collaborators decided to start the revolt on 14 April, Easter Sunday.

Bussa led 400 freedom fighters, both men and woman; he was killed in battle. His forces continued the fight until they were defeated by superior firepower of the colonial militia. The rebellion failed but its influence was significant to the future of Barbados.

3) The Slave Trade Act was passed in Britain, 1807 Trading in African slaves was declared to be “utterly abolished, prohibited and declared to be unlawful”.

Full freedom to slaves working in British territories was granted in 1835.

5) The Morant Bay Rebellion, October 1865 Paul Bogle, a black activist and preacher, led an 87km march to the island governor Edward Eyre to protest over legal inequity, living conditions, food shortages, lack of access to property and high taxation. More than 430 Africans were executed or shot, hundreds more flogged, and thousands of dwellings destroyed. Paul Bogle, now a national hero, was hanged.

This is a very important date as I believe not many know about this key date and that the slave trade was now seen as unlawful, yet it continued for many years after. I discussed this with a few members of class and they too thought it was diabolical that the law did not stand as a bigger threat.

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Indies team into a 15-year streak of no defeat. I can only imagine the sense of camaraderie and unity when the West Indians could prosper in sport and enjoy the triumphs of their country.

This is a very important event and key date: 58 years after the abolition bill protests were being led for legal inequity, living conditions, food shortages, lack of access to property and high taxation; the consequence for this was heinous.

9) Rihanna, 2005

6) The state of the West Indies is created, 1871 In 1871 the British government passed the Leeward Islands Act, by which all the islands were under one Governor and one set of laws. This Act established a Federal Executive Council and a General Legislature which had the power to make laws for the Leeward Islands, such as postal matters, currency, audit, mercantile and criminal law, the police force and immigration. This represented a huge change in Britain not only acknowledging the Act but actually delivering what the Act enabled for the people of the West Indies.

In 2005, Rihanna became famous with her debut ‘Pon de Replay’. Rihanna was born in Barbados and raised in Bridgetown. She has sold over 250 million records and is one of the best-selling artists worldwide. An idol and very successful woman: she has not only gone on to prosper as a young woman representing Barbados through her success in the business world and the music industry, but has also now become Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. Her role includes “specific responsibility for promoting education, tourism and investment for the island”.

7) Jamaica was granted its independence from England, August 6th 1962

10) 25 million visitors came to the West Indies, 2013

Jamaica now created its own constitution which set out the framework by which the people would be governed. This day is of course celebrated as Independence Day in Jamaica. It’s a significant day as it commemorates the beginning of the freedom of peoples in the British West Indies, and the Caribbean more generally.

The Caribbean by the 20th century was enjoying political stability. Large scale violence was no longer a threat as the wars on slavery were over. The onset of peace made the islands a much more attractive destination to visit and the growth in tourism shows how the West Indies are now seen in the eyes of other populations. For example, in 2013, 25 million visitors visited the West Indies contributing $49 billion towards the area’s gross domestic product. Whereas in 2019, there were 26.3 million tourists who came to visit the West Indies within the year. Interestingly a large amount of these tourists arrived via cruise ship: in 2018, it was recorded that 11 million tourists came to the West Indies via cruise ship. Statistics show that in the global cruise industry, the Caribbean holds the largest share of worldwide deployment with 32 percent, followed by the Mediterranean with 17 percent. ➤ ➤➤

8) West Indies won their first Cricket World Cup, 1975 The West Indies cricket team won their first ever Cricket World Cup. The West Indies beat Australia in England.

This is important as is shows the West Indies prospering and taking part in world events. However, winning the World Cup was most definitely not the last we saw of their fearsome cricket team. Cricket stars such as Clive Lloyd, Viv Richards and Michael Holding, led the West

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Pupil Editor: Jessica Hughes (SU L6) Why did you want to be part of the YPC Africa initiative?

The YPC Africa project was a perfect opportunity to not only evolve my own knowledge on the history of African Americans but also to create an accessible resource for the college. I think it’s incredibly important to educate ourselves, especially in light of the recent Black Lives Matter protests, as education is the key to progression.

Why did you select the topic you did?

I picked Africans in the United States as I was very keen to expand my knowledge on topics that are often debated in the media and this was perfect for that, especially considering the recent unrest in America concerning this very topic.

What is the most interesting thing that you discovered?

I explored two prominent slave revolts, the Stono rebellion and a slave revolt in Louisiana, both were extremely interesting as this was something I hadn’t explored before. I wasn’t aware of them before and found it incredibly intriguing and admirable to see so much resistance and resistance in such horrendous circumstances.

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Africans in the United States – Top 10 restrictions on their already incredibly restricted life, such as no reading and no earning money independently.

1) African slaves first Brought to Jamestown, VA, 1619 The origins of slavery in America are often connected by historians to the arrival of “20 and odd” Angolans who touched American soil on August 20th, 1619.

These “20 and odd” women and men were kidnapped by the Portuguese and were en route to Mexico when English privateers attacked their ship and brought them to an English colony in Virginia. The English warship they were brought to America on was called White Lion. There is a heated debate on whether this signifies the beginning of slavery in America or if it was simply a turning point. However, one thing is for sure that their arrival in North America symbolises a new era in the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.

3) Slave Revolt in Louisiana, 1811 The largest slave insurrection in the history of the United States occurred on January 8th, 1811; it was led by Charles Deslondes. It lasted from the 8th to the 10th of January as the rebels marched from sugar plantations to New Orleans. The slaves, armed with axes, pikes and even some rifles, began a two-day march down the east bank of the Mississippi river whilst burning plantations, crops and storehouses.

As they continued to march their army of rebel slaves began to grow rapidly as they accumulated slaves from neighbouring plantations. Eyewitnesses estimated the army to consist of around 200-500 slaves.

2) Stono rebellion, large slave uprising on September 9, 1739

The New Orleans government dispatched a militia in response and the revolt was brought to a head on the morning of January 10 when there was a brutal clash between the militia and the army of slaves resulting in most of the slaves being killed in the fight or later executed. As a warning to fellow slaves the authorities placed the slaves’ heads on long spikes along the river as a way of deterrence. The revolt was a heroic act of defiance against the oppression forced on African Americans and although defeated it was not in vain, for it inspired several more revolts in the upcoming years and contributed to the weakening of the system of chattel slavery. It ultimately set the stage for the Civil War in 1861. Although the slaves lost in 1811 their children and grandchildren triumphed in the Civil War and carried on their legacy of resistance.

The Stono rebellion, in South Carolina, was the largest slave uprising in the British mainland colonies and began on September 9, 1739, resulting in the death of 60 people. The leader of the revolt was an illiterate slave called Jemmy who historians believe was most likely from the Kingdom of Kongo. Jemmy proceeded to gather twenty-two enslaved Africans and to march down the road with them while holding a banner that said ‘Liberty!’. They then attacked Hutcheson’s store, which has since been declared a National Historic Landmark – this resulted in the death of two storekeepers – and gathered weapons and ammunition.

They continued to march south and forced reluctant slaves to join; there were now 81 slaves. It has been speculated that they may have been hoping to reach St. Augustine, Florida, where the Spanish were offering freedom to any fugitive slave.

4) Last Known Slave Ship Arrives in United States, 1859

The revolt came to a head by the Edisto River where armed white colonists killed most of the slaves and the remaining rebels were sold in the West Indies.

As a result of the revolt harsher and more restrictive slave codes, enshrined in the Negro Act of 1740, were imposed to the colonies: these forced further

Allegedly, Timothy Meaher who was a wealthy landowner and shipbuilder, made a bet of $1000 with several northern businessmen that he could smuggle Africans into the bay without being caught by Federal officials. The result of this bet was the voyage of the schooner Clotilda, the last known slave ship to arrive 42

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in America. It arrived at Mobile Bay in 1859 carrying 110 men, women and children who were ripped from their homeland in Benin. The ship operated in secret as the US had banned the importation of slaves in 1808, but despite this there remained a demand from southern plantation owners for workers. It was therefore sunk after to hide the evidence. The Clotilda symbolises just how pervasive the slave trade was even at the dawn of the Civil War.

men to be able to vote although women did not receive this right until the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920.

A year long search by marine archaeologists resulted in the remains of the Clotilda being found at the bottom of the Mobile River in Alabama, just north of Mobile Bay. This find was extremely significant to the residents of Africatown in Alabama since many of their descendants arrived on the Clotilda. These descendants were the last of around 389,000 Africans who were exposed to the brutal slave trade from the early 1600s to 1860.

6) NAACP Established 1909

The Civil War Amendments collectively progressed African Americans’ legal and civil rights: however, it was only on paper as many states refused to ratify the Amendments and discrimination continued to run rife.

The National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People was founded on the 12th February 1909 by activists in New York in response to the ongoing discrimination and violence against people of colour. The NAACP played a pivotal role in the Civil Rights Movement and through peaceful protests and the judicial system advanced the cause of civil rights.

Members undertook several campaigns in order to abolish segregation and discrimination and with the aid of peaceful protests they were successful several times. One of their earliest victories was the fight against the ‘grandfather clause’ which was enforced in Oklahoma in 1910. This allowed people whose grandfathers were eligible to vote in 1866 to vote without having to sit a literacy test but this discriminated against illiterate black people whose grandfathers could not vote. After years of protesting the US Supreme Court ruled the grandfather clauses unconstitutional in 1915.

5) Civil War Amendments (1865-1870) The Civil War Amendments contain the Thirteenth (1865), the Fourteenth (1868) and the Fifteenth Amendment (1870) and were designed to provide equality for recently emancipated slaves following the Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment was passed by Congress on January 31st, 1865. It stated, “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” Illinois was the first state to ratify it on February 1st, 1865, and 29 other states followed that very same year. However southern states remained deeply antagonist and were much more reluctant. In fact, Mississippi only ratified it on March 16th, 1995, 130 years after it was originally passed.

One of the main campaigns of the NAACP was their anti-lynching campaign. In 1917, 36 African American’s were lynched including the infamous case of Ell Persons. The very same year as the unjust lynching of Ell Persons the NAACP organised a silent march in which around 10,000 people participated.

Although no legislation was passed the NAACP successfully raised public awareness of the issue and violence against people of colour in general.

The Fourteenth Amendment addresses citizen rights and equal protection under the law and has been famously used in many legal battles such as Brown v.

Topeka Board of Education (1954). It aims to promote equal civil and legal rights for all citizens.

The NAACP’s role in the Civil Rights Movement was vital and it acted as a catalyst in its progression.

For instance, it had significant involvement in the landmark anti-discrimination case of Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954), as well as the 1963 March on Washington.

The Fifteenth Amendment states that the right to vote cannot be denied based on “race, colour, or previous condition of servitude”: this allowed African American 43

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7) Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, December 1955

8) The Civil Rights Act is signed, prohibiting discrimination of all kinds – 1964

African Americans had faced discrimination and unfair treatment on public transport for many years leading up to this point. They were forced to sit at the back of the bus and give up their seats on request for a white person and were also unable to be hired as drivers. They were treated as second class citizens and these cruel rules only exaggerated the harsh segregation they faced.

On July 2, 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act which made all discrimination on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin illegal. It was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963; however, it was initially opposed.

It is a landmark in Civil Rights history and was a huge victory for the Civils Right Movement. It has been called ‘the most sweeping civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction’, and one which provided a legal end to the Jim Crow laws. It is composed of eleven segments: the most central parts of the Act are equal voting, the prohibition of discrimination in public and in trade unions, school or employers. It provided the scope for rapid change in areas such as the equalisation of education – something which had been demanded for decades – and protection in the workplace.

Rosa Parks, a secretary for NAACP, attempted to board a city bus which was being driven by James F. Blake.

She was told to get on through the rear door of the bus and Blake then drove off without her. She vowed never to ride a bus driven by Blake again but on December 1st, 1955, Parks was on the bus when a white man boarded, and the bus driver ordered Rosa and everyone in her row to give up their seat for him: at this moment Parks realised Blake was the bus driver. Bus drivers in Montgomery had the legal ability to arrest black passengers if they refused to give up their seats. As a result, everyone in her row complied, except Rosa who was arrested for failing to follow Blake’s order. She was fined $14 which equates to $134 in 2019.

Several other Acts swiftly followed and expanded upon the Civil Rights Act of 1964 such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Acts of 1968. In this way the Civil Rights Act of 1964 acted as a blueprint for other legislation that aimed to restore justice to the African American community. Although the act was deeply transformative and caused a domino effect for further justice, discrimination and prejudice had been so deeply ingrained in American society that discrimination still continued.

Rosa Parks’ arrest resulted in a fifteen-day protest against the racial segregation on public transport which was coined the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and was organised by Martin Luther King Jr. The African American community in Alabama united against Montgomery buses. Only a day after Rosa’s arrest, Jo Ann Robinson, a local schoolteacher, had delivered 50,000 protest leaflets around town.

9) Obama Election, 2008, and Presidency, 2009-2016 American politics have constantly neglected and excluded African Americans despite them making up a considerable percentage of the population: however, Obama’s election and presidency became a national turning point and restored faith in the black community as for the first time in history America had a black President. It was a monumental victory for African Americans and democrats alike. Obama was President for the maximum eight years, a time in which he continued to press for equal rights with a particular focus on restoring economic security to African American families after the stock market crash in 2009.

The poverty rate for African Americans fell faster in 2015 than in any other year since 1999.

Over 70% of the bus company’s patrons were African American, so it lost a significant amount of income, eventually becoming bankrupt. Montgomery City Lines estimated a loss of between 30,000 and 40,000 bus fares each day. The community united and created a sophisticated and admirable carpool system some even walked up to eight miles a day just to continue their boycott.

Segregation on public buses was ruled unconstitutional on June 5th, 1956, and the company reluctantly desegregated its buses on November 13th, 1956.

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across social media, allowing the world to witness the deeply disturbing and upsetting video. His murder caused a domino effect of BLM protests throughout America and the rage and disgust at this unjust and brutal murder as a result of systemic racism and police brutality caused America to erupt into chaos.

Despite these monumental changes unemployment among African Americans is still almost double that of white people and more than a quarter of the country’s 37 million African Americans still live in poverty.

Obama’s election was a great feat politically, but it is delusional to simply think African Americans’ lives were revolutionised due to his presidency.

Black Lives Matter became the headline for every media outlet as global protests broke out in every corner of the globe with ‘I can’t breathe’ and ‘Black Lives Matter’ being echoed across the globe. His death triggered cries for police reform and even the abolition of the police, which could be heard from Brazil to the UK and even China. Most of all African Americans simply didn’t want to be treated as second class citizens anymore. But National Guards flooded America, armed with tear gas and pepper spray, and several months of protesting ensued.

10) George Floyd and BLM – 2020 George Floyd was an unarmed African American who was killed as a result of police brutality in Minneapolis due to a store clerk claiming he had paid using a counterfeit $20 bill. The police were then called and a police officer, Derek Chauvin, knelt on George Floyd’s neck for 7 minutes 46 seconds despite George Floyd’s desperate pleas and his repeatedly telling both the police officers and bystanders that he ‘couldn’t breathe’. Video footage of his death rapidly spread

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