Jamaica's Architectural Practices, Post-Colonial Identity, and the Reconstruction of Sovereignty
Seminar 2024 Fall, Cornell AAP
1 ' Research on the Building Technology Evolution of Jamaica
2 ' Field Research on Petersfield, Jamaica
3 ' Deep Rhinking and Essay Writing
Concrete plays a central role in Jamaican architecture, with construction practices highlighting its adaptability and cultural significance within the built environment. Its properties, including durability, versatility, and strength, make it essential to architectural design and construction. It is widely used for both structural and non-structural components, including foundations, columns, beams, walls, and decorative elements.
Concrete is a composite material composed primarily of cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures, known for its strength, durability, and adaptability. Its history traces back to ancient civilizations, where early forms were used in construction, evolving through innovations in production and engineering. From an experimental material, concrete gradually gained acceptance in mainstream construction, becoming a standardized commodity.
The production and use of concrete observed onsite in Jamaican construction reveal its deep integration into people’s daily lives, labor practices, and the island’s broader cultural and political fabric. As a ubiquitous building material, concrete not only supports infrastructure and everyday architecture but also embodies the physical efforts of local workers while shaping spaces of both communal and personal significance.
The process of learning to use concrete in Jamaica involves both formal and informal systems of knowledge transfer. Vocational schools offer structured training programs, equipping individuals with essential technical and practical skills. Informal mechanisms, such as onsite apprenticeships and mentorship, emphasize strong interpersonal relationships and collective learning within Jamaican society.
The widespread use of concrete in Jamaica extends beyond construction, influencing cultural identity, politics, land use, and national development. As a material deeply embedded in the country’s postindependence era, concrete symbolizes progress and modernization while reflecting Jamaica' s efforts to define its cultural and political identity. At the same time, it intersects with local cultural practices and political realities, revealing its complex role in Jamaica’s evolving social and economic landscape.
The future trends in concrete development focus on sustainability, improved durability, and enhanced performance. Recent advancements in new design methods, 3D-printed construction, and materials science are driving innovation. These developments have the potential to transform Jamaica’s architectural landscape, fostering resilient infrastructure and supporting sustainable growth.
Roof durable, strong, hurricaneresistant, insulating, and adaptable to various use
Wall durable, fire-resistant, soundproof, insulating, cost-effective, and hurricaneresistant.
Structure strong, durable, pest-resistant, versatile, and costeffective, handling heavy loads and environmental stresses.
Concrete serves as a binder due to the adhesive properties of cement, its key component. When mixed with water, cement hydrates and forms a paste that binds aggregates (sand and gravel) together, creating a solid, cohesive structure upon hardening.
The house walls are built with prefabricated pumice-concrete blocks, ranging in thickness from 4 to 10 inches. For a wall 4.5 inches thick, 50 small bricks or 7 large blocks are needed per square metre. These lightweight bricks must be dipped in water to prevent unstable joints. Walls require proper masonry bonds and alignment. Strip footings, made of concrete or stone, support the walls, while a reinforced concrete or wooden tie beam is recommended for the top row to allow for a second storey. Wall thickness should be 6 inches for single-storey houses and 10 inches for two-storey structures. Roofs can be made of clay tiles, metal, or natural materials. Doors and windows, tied to the masonry, can be made of wood or metal. The design is ideal for self-help construction, with one person able to produce bricks using simple materials.
general introduction to concrete
Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that cures to a solid over time. When aggregate is mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water through a process called concrete hydration that hardens it over several hours to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material . Concrete can be moulded into various shapes and sizes and finished with multiple surface treatments to create a finished product with a unique appearance.
Yuanlong Yu
Water Fine Aggregates
Cement
Coarse Aggregates
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a. Aggregate
Aggregate is a broad category of coarse-to medium-grained particulate material used in construction, including sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, recycled concrete and geosynthetic aggregates.
b. Cement
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, it was developed from other types of hydraulic lime in England in the early 19th century by Joseph Aspdin, and is usually made from limestone.
c. Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely. The hydration of cement is irreversible.
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a. Strength and durability
Concrete is a strong and durable material that can withstand various environmental conditions, including extreme temperatures, heavy loads, and exposure to water and other elements
b. Versatility
Concrete can be moulded into various shapes and sizes, making it suitable for multiple construction applications.
c. Cost-effectiveness
Concrete is generally less expensive than other building materials, such as wood or steel. It is also easy to produce and transport, making it a cost-effective choice for many construction projects.
d. Sustainability
Concrete can be made using recycled materials, making it a sustainable choice for construction projects. Additionally, concrete structures have a long lifespan, which reduces the need for frequent replacements and reduces the overall environmental impact of the building.
e. Fire resistance
Concrete is a non-combustible material, which makes it resistant to fire. This makes it a safe choice for use in buildings, providing added protection against the spread of fire.
general introduction to concrete
Yuanlong Yu
The Romans invented concrete, but it faded into obscurity with the fall of the Roman Empire. Modern concrete usage began with John Smeaton ' s development of hydraulic cement for constructing the Eddystone Lighthouse in the mid-18th century. As an empire undergoing the Industrial Revolution, Britain faced a growing demand for infrastructure such as factories, docks, and bridges. This demand drove further advancements in concrete technology.
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement, laying the foundation for modern concrete. Engineers ' increasing proficiency in using steel during the 19th century naturally led to the combination of cement and metal. In 1849, Frenchman Joseph Monier successfully experimented with pouring concrete over steel mesh, thereby inventing reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete allowed for larger spans and greater heights, liberating the constraints on building scale and form. It revolutionized construction, ultimately shaping the "modern landscape" .
In its early stages, concrete was predominantly used in industrial buildings for aesthetic reasons. From 1850 to 1890, Portland cement was first widely employed in residential construction in Britain and France, pioneered by Frenchman Francois Coignet. The first building constructed using reinforced concrete as a material was a servant’s cottage built by William B. Wilkinson in 1854 in England. In 1875, American engineer William Ward built the first concrete house in the United States. To gain public acceptance for concrete residences, these buildings were often designed to mimic masonry structures. However, public distrust of the material persisted, as it was widely perceived as suitable only for warehouses and factories.
In 1902, August Perret designed the Rue Franklin Apartments in Paris, showcasing the ingenuity of reinforced concrete structures. The building featured a fully reinforced concrete frame with no load-bearing walls, offering an elegant design that received widespread acclaim and gradually improved societal acceptance of concrete. Inspired by August Perret, visionary avant-garde architects began to see reinforced concrete as a transformative tool for architectural innovation. Perret ' s student, Le Corbusier, proposed the Domino system in 1914, a structural system that used reinforced concrete columns to replace load-bearing walls Earlier, in 1904, the first concrete high-rise building was constructed in Cincinnati, Ohio. Standing 16 stories tall (210 feet), it marked the advent of a new architectural prototype. The modern era, characterized by modernist architecture and skyscrapers, had begun to take shape.
Yu From World War I to World War II, concrete underwent significant advancements, becoming a cornerstone of the construction industry due to the acceleration of industrialization, urbanization, and the demand for advanced building technologies driven by the wars. Following World War I, the need for urban reconstruction in European countries made reinforced concrete a favored material, marking the rise of an era focused on large-scale production, functionality, and efficiency.
Concrete was also extensively utilized in large-scale hydraulic engineering projects. For example, the Hoover Dam, completed in 1935, involved the pouring of approximately 3,250,000 cubic yards of concrete, with an additional 1,110,000 cubic yards used for the power plant and other related structures.
During the war, reinforced concrete was widely applied for military purposes, such as building bunkers, air-raid shelters, and Germany ' s Atlantic Wall. These demands further accelerated its development. Reinforcement techniques were optimized, and concrete additives were developed to significantly improve its properties, such as strength and durability. The specialized knowledge of reinforced concrete also led to the development of innovative construction methods. Architectural and engineering advancements introduced thin-shell structures, freeform surfaces, and large-span designs. These breakthroughs not only met industrial and military demands, but also facilitated the integration of aesthetics and functionality, paving the way for modern concrete architecture and laying a strong foundation for postwar industrial and urban development.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, concrete belonged to industrialized Western nations, while Third World countries lacked the capacity to produce it. During the colonial era, colonizers introduced concrete and related construction technologies to their colonies. These materials and techniques were primarily used to build infrastructure, administrative buildings and residential structures for colonizers. Concrete was regarded as a symbol of modernization, and colonial governments aimed to showcase technological advancement while consolidating control over the colonies by introducing this material.
Yuanlong Yu
Yuanlong Yu
After World War II, as the colonial system collapsed, newly independent nations pursued rapid urbanization and industrialization. Countries like Brazil, China, and India established their own cement industries in the mid-20th century. Besides, during this time, cement became a global commodity, circulating widely across international markets. Concurrently, International Style architecture gained prominence, with architects promoting concrete in Third World countries. For example, Le Corbusier ' s work in w, India, played a significant role in popularizing concrete as a material that embodied modernist ideals and technological progress.
Meanwhile, both Western countries and the Soviet Union used infrastructure projects as tools to extend their political influence in Third World nations during the Cold War. Massive infrastructure projects, such as housing developments, transportation networks, and dams, relied heavily on concrete, turning it into a symbol of both economic development and political power. Consequently, concrete became a significant economic and political tool in shaping the postcolonial and Cold War-era global order.
At noon, the air, thick with an unrelenting heat, seemed to shimmer with a peculiar sense of vertigo, as though the very atmosphere conspired to blur the edges of reality. As we descended from the cool, artificial haven of the bus, the first sensation that enveloped us was the sharp, almost ceremonial pain of sunlight bearing down upon our skin, a force neither subtle nor avoidable. Beneath the sprawling, glistening leaves of green palms, we entered a clearinga sloped expanse carved with quiet determination from the dense, encroaching jungle. This space, far from chaotic, bore the unmistakable imprint of human intention, its divisions an eloquent reflection of practicality and foresight.
At its lowest level stretched a dirt road, humble yet essential, its flanks bordered by orderly stacks of concrete blocks, inert yet full of latent potential. Rising from the road, a narrow path wound upward, worn into existence by the rhythm of countless steps.
To the left of this path, an area had been meticulously prepared for labor piles of sand, cement, and water tanks arranged like tools in a craftsman' s kit, waiting to summon solidity from the ephemeral. On the right, beneath the forgiving shade of the trees, lay a collection of materials steel rods, aluminum sheets, doors, and windows silent yet expectant, their purpose suspended in the promise of construction. At the summit, the culmination of this ordered effort stood before us a residential structure, still skeletal, yet teeming with the energy of becoming. It was the fourth day of our journey in Jamaica, and every detail of what we encountered had been curated by the PGBS community. What they chose to reveal was not merely a place or a process but a testament a narrative shaped by their hands and their conviction. Here, they presented their mastery of the tangible, their confidence in transforming the raw into the purposeful, and their pride in crafting an environment that bore witness to their vision of what could be.
For Jamaica, choosing concrete seems the most natural course of action. To work with concrete is remarkably straightforward : its composition is simple, its raw materials are widely available and reasonably priced, making it easily adaptable to Jamaican societal conditions. It requires little of its construction environment, and its processes are simple enough to be mastered by anyone with basic physical and intellectual capabilities.
Concrete is durable, resistant to termites that would ravage wooden structures, and superior in stability. Its weight and solidity anchor it firmly to the land, capable of withstanding the onslaught of hurricanes and heavy rains. Since 1952, when the Caribbean Cement Company began production, cast-in-place concrete, along with its precast blocks and hybrid steel-frame structures, quickly replaced the once-dominant materials of wood, wattle, mud, and lime mortar, becoming Jamaica’s most favored building material.
The term "concrete jungle " offers the most vivid description of the modernized face of postcolonial Jamaica. It represents the mutual determination of production and consumption in practice, a living testament to how Jamaicans interact with the material world through the lens of their social relationships. Concrete, in this sense, is both a tool and a narrative, a record of how a society inscribes its ambitions, resilience, and evolving identity into the very structures it builds.
Environment, Artifact, Living Concrete Foundation in Petersfield, Jamaica
interconnection between production and consumption
Mr. Smith proudly introduced us to his construction site. He was the seasoned helmsman of this small-scale project, guiding every aspect of its building cycle with practiced expertise. Acting as the designer, site supervisor, laborer, financial manager, and final inspector all at once, he embodied the multifaceted role of a Jamaican construction leader. Like his peers, he possessed an intimate understanding of every technical detail and carried unwavering confidence in the results of his efforts. From the positioning and attachment of downspouts to the angles at which rebars were bent to support a roof, from the integration of wall columns and beams to the relationship between block dimensions and offset arrangements, his mind was a repository of practical knowledge and wisdom passed down through experience and oral tradition. As he demonstrated his work to us, laborers were busy pouring large quantities of concrete into wooden molds that had been reinforced with anchor bolts and steel bars. The pouring process happened simultaneously with the on-site mixing of concrete. Without the aid of mechanical mixers, the workers relied solely on their physical strength and practiced intuition. Using shovels, they blended the mix by hand, adjusting its consistency as they went adding water if it was too dry, gravel if it was too wet. The ratio of mortar, cement, and gravel was judged by eye and through experience alone. Once the desired consistency was achieved, the concrete was shoveled into buckets, carried to the site, and poured into the molds. This cycle continued rhythmically until the molds were completely filled. Beads of sweat gathered on the workers’ sun-darkened skin, dripping steadily into the concrete they were shaping. After ten hours of intense labor, the mixture of concrete and sweat would harden into the foundation piles of a two-story house, a permanent embodiment of human effort, skill, and resilience.
Since 1959, Jamaica Pre-Mix Limited (JPM) has been providing a wide variety of high-quality ready-mix concrete products for industrial construction across Jamaica. By 2024, the company ' s offerings had expanded to over 150 types of ready-mix concrete. However, on small-scale construction sites, such as residential housing, the preferred building method remains a combination of on-site cast concrete and prefabricated concrete blocks. Most construction sites rely on rainwater collection as their water source, making water costs negligible. As a result, the primary cost components for concrete are cement, blocks, and aggregates. According to the pricing from the Bureau of Standards Jamaica, a 25-kilogram bag of Caribbean Cement CEM001 is priced at USD 9.85, while an imported 8 * 8 * 18 inches hollow concrete block costs USD 2.99 each. More competitive pricing comes from local manufacturies, as Mr. Smith explained, with Jamaica produced blocks priced at less than USD 1 each. Jamaica ' s abundant rivers and mining industries supply a wide variety of aggregates, and construction workers are well-versed in the strength differences each type of aggregate provides.
On this small construction site alone, we observed four different types of concrete in use. Concrete mixed with large yellow gravel was used to fill wall foundations below windowsills, valued for its superior wind resistance, insulation, and waterproofing properties. Naturally graded aggregates were used for castin-place load-bearing structures, while cinder aggregates, known for their low cost and lightweight density, were applied in upper-level construction. Mixed sand mortar filled the gaps between concrete blocks.
In Jamaica, both government and NGOs provide training in concrete construction to support employment and infrastructure development. Among these, the HEART/NSTA Trust ( Human Employment and Resource Training/National Service Training Agency ) plays a significant role in vocational and technical training in construction-related fields. This national institution offers a wide range of Technical and Vocational Education and Training ( TVET ) programs aimed at building a globally competitive workforce.
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In the field of construction, HEART/NSTA Trust operates the HEART College of Construction Services ( HCCS ) , which specializes in training programs tailored to the needs of the construction industry. HCCS is dedicated to developing innovative graduates ready to meet industry demands. Specific training programs related to concrete construction include general construction, steel fixing and masonry.Teaches methods for constructing with concrete blocks and other masonry materials. These programs combine theoretical knowledge with practical training, ensuring participants gain comprehensive skills in concrete construction. Additionally, HEART/ NSTA Trust offers on-the-job training, allowing participants to acquire handson experience in real work environments. This blend of academic and practical learning ensures that workers are wellprepared to contribute to housing and infrastructure projects across Jamaica.
One of the most common methods is apprenticeships, where less experienced individuals work alongside seasoned masons or builders on construction sites. We had a brief experience of this type of training in Jamaica. At the construction site, under the guidance of Mr. Smith, we learned how to mix and work with cement. At the concrete blockyard, Mr. Shawn taught us how to manufacture concrete blocks.
Concrete, as a simple and versatile material, was relatively easy to handle once we understood the machinery and the steps involved. However, the true skill lies in mastering the nuances and techniques, which require years of experience.
The seasoned workers demonstrated their expertise by skillfully adjusting the amount of water, cement, and aggregates based on the specific conditions of the project. Their ability to fine-tune the mix and adapt to realworld challenges highlighted the depth of knowledge gained through hands-on experience. This practical, relationshipbased training approach not only ensured efficiency but also emphasized the importance of learning from the expertise of others, a hallmark of Jamaica’s informal training systems.
With the rise of digital resources, self-learning has become an increasingly popular option for acquiring construction skills in Jamaica. Many aspiring workers use online tutorials, videos, and construction manuals to teach themselves concrete-related techniques. On platforms like YouTube, there are thousands of videos specifically demonstrating how to build homes using reinforced concrete in Jamaica’s local context. These videos often include stepby-step instructions, tips on materials, and practical advice tailored to smallscale or self-built housing projects.
Concrete ' s versatility in formmaking allows for diverse expressions, which play a crucial role in shaping Jamaican identity. In European classical architecture, architectural orders are iconic elements, often crafted from expensive stone masonry to symbolize power, wealth, and a Westerncentric social hierarchy. In contrast, residential buildings in Petersfield, Jamaica, frequently incorporate concrete orders. These forms appear in various roles as porches defining transparent entry thresholds, as pavilions or colonnades enclosing communal spaces, and as balconies extending from upper floors. These concrete orders, produced in bulk using simple molds, are highly affordable. Through this transformation, concrete demystifies and democratizes the architectural order, reducing it from a symbol of authority to an adaptable decorative element.
This recontextualization highlights a broader reclaiming of meaning. While external forces often determine what elements are imbued with significance, concrete empowers Jamaican society to redefine architectural orders on their terms. On meticulously constructed plots, various types of concrete each with distinct densities and physicalchemical properties work in unison, performing roles of support, adhesion, stacking, enclosing, and wrapping. Together, they form an interdependent and cohesive system, building not only functional structures but also a humanmade habitat that reflects the ideals and aspirations of the Jamaican people.
up Concrete Jungle, Postcolonial Jamaican Landscape down Ruins of Concrete Castle
Mengmeng
He From August 1, 1834, when slavery was abolished, to August 6, 1962, when Jamaica declared its independence, the nation underwent a long and complex journey of identity formation. The sound of the whip disappeared, and people transformed from slaves into masters of their own lives. Yet, this transformation did not immediately result in a solid sense of self. Jamaica ' s diverse ethnic makeup and the mixed origins of its population perpetuated a persistent sense of identity fluidity. For Jamaicans, the relationship between the land and its people remained a central question does the land belong to the people, or do the people belong to the land The answer not only addressed notions of ownership and belonging but also raised deeper questions about how individuals interacted with the land and its products a dilemma that ultimately extended to the relationship between living and working with concrete.
In the prolonged struggle against the colonial system, the mindset of using everything good for my own benefit became widespread. However, under the continued influence of the colonial economic system, these good things were almost entirely reliant on external sources. Most Jamaicans were not landowners but agricultural laborers. Without land or economic stability, they were forced to sell their labor to survive. Their daily necessities, nearly all purchased from stores, were overwhelmingly imported from fabric, clothing, food, and medicines to building materials. This consumption model reflected the realities of global economic integration while also perpetuating the structural inequalities of the colonial era, deepening Jamaica ' s economic dependence on external sources.
SYMBOL OF MODERNITY Mengmeng He
Within this socio-economic context, the widespread adoption of concrete not only transformed Jamaica's architectural landscape but also brought profound changes to cultural and social identity. Traditional building materials like wood, wattle, and mud were closely tied to rural life and the direct use of natural resources. Concrete, by contrast, became a symbol of modernity and urbanization. Freed from the historical constraints of colonialism, concrete structures emerged as a representation of "modern Jamaica" , starkly contrasting with the ornate and foreign architectural forms of the colonial past. More than just a building material, concrete became a medium of identity expression : modern, durable, and practical concrete buildings embodied the spirit of nationalism and economic independence.
Yet, this transformation was not entirely autonomous : it was accompanied by a continuation of power dynamics and the reproduction of economic inequalities.
This resistance was particularly visible in the production of concrete bricks. At a small-scale hollow brick manufacturing workshop in Jamaica, we observed a production line run by just two or three workers. They used concrete mixers and brick molds imported from China, along with drying racks sourced from Japan. Unlike direct reliance on imported building materials, these workers sought to gain agency over their future by mastering the technology and production processes. This emphasis on the pursuit of knowledge and skills reflected a desire for self-empowerment, characteristic of Third World countries striving for independence in a landscape dominated by resource and technological dependence. This spirit of innovation and resilience, intertwined with broader economic and political transformations, drove the transformation of Jamaica ' s construction industry.
According to urban studies reports from Kingston, concrete has become the cornerstone of Jamaica ' s urbanization process. From government office buildings to affordable housing developments, the durability and versatility of concrete have enabled large-scale construction projects. This material has not only reshaped the spatial organization of society but also facilitated the separation of industrial zones and residential areas, ushering in a new era of modern urban planning. The economic importance, cultural significance, and emotional resonance of concrete have elevated it beyond the status of a mere building material, transforming it into a profound symbol of Jamaica ' s social development and evolving identity.
Gustavo A. P. Del Castillo
Concrete has long been a cornerstone of construction, prized for its versatility, durability, and affordability. In the context of Jamaica, concrete plays a vital role in shaping the built environment, particularly in traditional housing typologies that reflect the island’s unique socio-cultural and climatic conditions.
Over time, the evolution of housing designs has paralleled advances in concrete technology, emphasizing the material’s adaptability and importance. As the world faces increasing environmental challenges, including resource depletion and climate change, the construction industry is under pressure to innovate. Traditional concrete, despite its widespread use, is associated with a high carbon footprint due to its reliance on natural aggregates and energyintensive cement production. This has prompted researchers and practitioners to explore alternative materials and technologies that enhance sustainability without compromising performance. This study focuses on the emerging innovations in concrete production, particularly the integration of recycled materials and plastic components. By incorporating waste products into concrete, these new approaches not only reduce environmental impact but also offer practical solutions to managing construction and industrial waste. Additionally, these advancements hold potential for enhancing the efficiency, affordability, and ecological viability of concrete, making it a key player in sustainable development.
In this research, we aim to analyze the historical and modern applications of concrete in Jamaica, emphasizing its socio-cultural relevance and economic impact. The study concludes by exploring three case studies that demonstrate the effectiveness of sustainable materials and technologies in transforming concrete into a more environmentally responsible building material.
Concrete has become a defining element of Jamaican architecture, particularly in residential construction. Its affordability, durability, and resistance to tropical weather conditions have made it indispensable for traditional and modern housing. From humble singlestory homes to multi-unit complexes, concrete’s adaptability has allowed it to address the diverse needs of Jamaican communities.
Over the years, the typology of Jamaican housing has undergone significant transformation, influenced by socioeconomic factors, population growth, and environmental concerns.
Early homes were characterized by natural materials such as wood and thatch, but the growing demand for sturdier and more permanent structures led to the widespread adoption of concrete. Today, concrete remains the backbone of the island’s built environment, reflecting a balance between tradition and modernity.
While concrete is a cornerstone of modern construction, its environmental impact cannot be overlooked. The cement industry, a key component of concrete production, is responsible for approximately 8 percent of global carbon dioxide emissions. Furthermore, the extraction of natural aggregates depletes finite resources, disrupting ecosystems and contributing to land degradation. In Jamaica, these challenges are compounded by the country’s vulnerability to climate change. Rising sea levels and intensifying storms necessitate sustainable building practices that can withstand extreme weather while minimizing environmental harm. This has led to a growing interest in alternative materials and methods that reduce concrete’s carbon footprint.
Gustavo A. P. Del Castillo
Recent advancements in concrete production aim to address these environmental concerns. A promising avenue involves incorporating recycled materials, such as plastic waste and construction debris, into concrete mixtures. By repurposing waste products, these methods not only reduce landfill pressure but also improve the sustainability of construction practices. These innovations have the potential to transform the construction industry by promoting a more resource-efficient approach to building and contributing to global sustainability efforts.
For instance, the integration of recycled aggregates has been shown to maintain or even enhance the structural performance of concrete, while the use of polypropylene fibers can improve its tensile strength and durability. Additionally, emerging technologies such as carbon capture in cement production and the use of alternative binders like fly ash and slag further contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These innovations are particularly relevant to Jamaica, where waste management and sustainable development are pressing concerns.
By adopting these practices, the island can create a circular economy in construction, reducing dependency on imported materials and promoting environmental resilience. This could also pave the way for a more localized approach to construction, fostering economic growth, reducing the ecological footprint, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of urban development.
To illustrate the potential of sustainable concrete, this study examines three pioneering approaches.
1. Recycled Aggregates and Fiber Reinforcement. Exploring the mechanical properties and durability of concrete blocks made with recycled aggregates and polypropylene fibers.
2. Plastic-Infused Concrete. Analyzing the effectiveness of incorporating plastic waste in enhancing concrete’s strength and sustainability.
3. Carbon-Neutral Technologies. Investigating the use of carbon capture and alternative binders to produce ecofriendly concrete.
Gustavo A. P. Del Castillo
Adopting new technologies and materials in concrete production is not just an environmental necessity, it is a strategic investment in Jamaica’s future. These innovations address pressing challenges while unlocking opportunities for economic growth, social cohesion, and environmental stewardship. By leading the way in sustainable construction, Jamaica can ensure a thriving, resilient, and sustainable built environment for generations to come.
The adoption of new technologies and materials in concrete production presents significant opportunities for Jamaica’s future. These advancements extend across economic, environmental, and socio-cultural dimensions, fostering a more sustainable and resilient built environment. By embracing these innovations, Jamaica can address pressing challenges while unlocking longterm benefits.
One of the most notable advantages lies in economic opportunities. Utilizing recycled materials such as plastics, construction debris, and alternative binders supports local waste management businesses and reduces dependence on imported materials. This approach can also lower construction costs, making affordable housing accessible to more Jamaicans. Additionally, introducing sustainable concrete production methods creates jobs in research, manufacturing, and implementation, fueling economic growth at both the community and national levels.
Environmental benefits are another critical aspect of these innovations. Implementing carbon-neutral technologies, such as carbon capture in cement production and alternative binders, significantly reduces the carbon footprint of the construction industry. Moreover, incorporating waste materials like plastics into concrete addresses Jamaica’s growing waste management challenges while preserving natural resources and mitigating land degradation. These practices ensure that the island’s ecological balance is maintained while promoting sustainability.
Gustavo A. P. Del Castillo
Sustainable concrete materials also contribute to climate resilience. Buildings constructed with innovative materials tend to be more durable and adaptable, better suited to withstand the hurricanes, floods, and other climate-related challenges Jamaica frequently faces. Furthermore, these materials can improve the thermal efficiency of buildings, reducing energy consumption and supporting efforts to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Socio-cultural impacts further underscore the importance of these advancements. By involving local communities in the production and implementation of sustainable concrete, these initiatives foster social participation and strengthen community bonds. Additionally, blending modern technologies with traditional Jamaican aesthetics preserves the island’s rich architectural heritage while integrating sustainable practices.
On a global scale, adopting these innovations positions Jamaica as a leader in sustainability. By serving as a model for other nations, particularly in the Caribbean, Jamaica can inspire similar initiatives and attract international funding and partnerships to further its efforts. This leadership enhances Jamaica’s reputation as a forward-thinking and environmentally conscious nation. Lastly, these innovations future-proof Jamaica’s infrastructure. Scalable and replicable solutions ensure that the growing demand for housing and infrastructure is met while promoting sustainability. Encouraging architects, builders, and policymakers to adopt these practices ensures their long-term impact and benefits the next generation. Adopting new technologies and materials in concrete production represents an essential step for Jamaica. These advancements not only address current challenges but also pave the way for a sustainable, resilient, and thriving built environment, securing a prosperous future for the nation and its people.
A. P. Del Castillo
This research delves into the innovative use of crushed clay waste bricks and plastic bottles to produce sustainable concrete masonry blocks. These materials serve as a full replacement for traditional aggregates, addressing critical environmental concerns such as excessive waste generation and the high energy demand associated with conventional building materials. By exploring the mechanical and thermal properties of these blocks, the study aims to provide viable, eco-friendly alternatives for the construction industry. The methodology employed in the research highlights the use of 350 ml plastic bottles and crushed clay brick waste to manufacture blocks measuring 150 mm x 200 mm x 400 mm. These blocks were subjected to rigorous testing to evaluate properties such as water absorption, density, compressive strength, thermal conductivity, and ultrasonic pulse velocity.
All assessments were conducted following ASTM C140 standards, ensuring the reliability and applicability of the findings in real-world construction scenarios. The results of the study reveal promising outcomes. The blocks, with 23 percent voids due to the plastic bottles, were significantly lightweight, achieving a compressive strength of 12 MPa, which meets ASTM C129 standards for loadsupporting masonry units. Thermal conductivity was reduced by over 50 percent compared to conventional blocks, as verified by Finite Element Method simulations.
Additionally, the blocks demonstrated an absorption rate of 134.9 kg/m3, making them suitable for construction in regions requiring heat insulation. These findings position the blocks as a compelling option for enhancing building energy efficiency.
Modeling of Thermal Performance and Mechanical Properties of Concrete Blocks Incorporating Plastic Bottle Waste with Crushed Clay Bricks as Coarse Aggregates
Gustavo A. P. Del Castillo
From an environmental perspective, the study underscores the dual benefits of waste management and sustainability. The incorporation of clay brick waste and plastic bottles helps tackle two major waste streams, construction debris and plastic pollution. Moreover, the lightweight, thermally efficient properties of these blocks contribute to reducing energy consumption in buildings, aligning with global sustainability goals. By minimizing reliance on natural aggregates, the research promotes the conservation of resources and addresses ecological challenges posed by conventional construction practices. The relevance of these findings is particularly notable for regions where heat insulation is critical, such as tropical climates. Lightweight and thermally efficient blocks can significantly reduce energy use for cooling, thereby lowering carbon emissions. These benefits make the proposed materials not only an eco-friendly solution but also a strategic approach to mitigating climate change impacts in the construction industry.
This study demonstrates that concrete masonry blocks made with crushed clay waste bricks and plastic bottles are a viable alternative to traditional materials. They fulfill structural and thermal standards while contributing to environmental sustainability. By integrating such innovations, the construction sector can make strides toward a more sustainable future, reducing its environmental footprint and promoting energy efficiency.
The research highlights the development of high-strength, thin-walled, hollow concrete blocks as a sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. The focus lies in addressing critical challenges, including the environmental impact of concrete production and the efficiency of material usage. By adopting innovative methods, the study aims to reduce carbon emissions and enhance the structural and thermal performance of building blocks. A key objective of the research is the reduction of CO2 emissions associated with concrete production, a significant contributor to global greenhouse gases.
This is achieved by optimizing concrete usage per cubic meter of structure while ensuring structural integrity. Through high-strength, self-compacting concrete, the study demonstrates how enhanced grain composition and rheology control can improve material efficiency. This approach not only decreases cement consumption but also has the potential to cut CO2 emissions by up to 50 percent in specific applications, all while enhancing the durability of structures.
The research further innovates with the design of thin-walled hollow blocks made from fine-grained, micro-reinforced concrete. These blocks incorporate disposable 3D-printed formwork as void formers, enabling complex, multi-hollow structures that outperform conventional lightweight blocks in both structural strength and thermal insulation.
This novel approach addresses technological challenges in the production of thin-walled blocks, which traditionally suffer from overuse of materials and inefficiencies in design. The applications of these high-strength concrete blocks extend beyond conventional use. Digital modeling and factory-based production processes allow for wall structures of varying configurations and crosssections, providing a versatile and efficient solution for modern construction.
These blocks significantly enhance building energy efficiency by reducing thermal conductivity, which contributes to long-term reductions in carbon emissions.
This research offers a pathway to revolutionize construction materials with high-strength, eco-friendly concrete blocks. By reducing cement usage, improving material efficiency, and enhancing thermal properties, the study aligns with global efforts to promote decarbonization and sustainable building practices. This innovation holds promise for widespread application, supporting the transition to greener and more efficient construction methods.
3D concrete printing technology presents a transformative opportunity for Jamaica’s construction sector, offering solutions for affordable and sustainable housing.With concrete being the dominant material for residential construction due to its durability in tropical climates, 3DCP can enhance efficiency by reducing material waste and enabling the rapid construction of customized, complex structures. The technology allows for precise control over material use, which could reduce the environmental impact of concrete production, particularly by incorporating recycled aggregates and alternative mixtures. In Jamaica, where housing demands are growing and climate challenges such as storms and rising sea levels are increasing, 3DCP could be pivotal in creating resilient, costeffective homes. With proper training and infrastructure, 3DCP has the potential to empower local builders, reducing reliance on imported materials and labor.
The research investigates the production and application of concrete blocks made from recycled aggregates ,combined with polypropylene fibers . This innovative approach substitutes recycled fine aggregates , and recycled coarse aggregates ,for natural aggregates, offering a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution to traditional building materials. By using cement content ranging between 8 percent and 12 percent and incorporating PF dosages of up to 2 percent, the study aims to optimize the performance and sustainability of these concrete blocks.
One of the key findings highlights the optimal mix for compressive strength, achieved with 75 percent recycled fine aggregates and 25 percent recycled coarse aggregates, resulting in a compressive strength exceeding 3.8 MPa, suitable for low-rise construction applications. The inclusion of polypropylene fibers, particularly at a dosage between 0.5 percent and 1 percent, enhanced compressive strength by up to 20 percent, with diminishing returns at higher fiber content. Water absorption for all blocks remained below 10 percent, ensuring durability.
From an environmental and cost perspective, using recycled aggregates led to significant benefits, reducing embodied energy by 19 percent to 24 percent and production costs by 10 percent to 15 percent compared to conventional aggregates. Recycling concrete waste contributes to waste management and reduces dependence on natural resources, making it a sustainable alternative for the construction industry.
Despite these advantages, challenges such as lower strength compared to natural aggregate blocks were identified. The lower strength is primarily due to the variability and quality of recycled aggregates, which can affect the overall integrity of the blocks. However, modifications like optimized aggregate gradation and adjustments in cement and water ratios mitigated these issues. These adjustments helped to create a more stable and consistent mix, leading to improved strength and durability.
Additionally, the inclusion of polypropylene fibers reduced brittleness and improved the durability of the blocks, making them suitable for lowstrength applications like masonry units. The fibers also enhanced the block’s performance under stress, providing greater resistance to cracking.
Research.
Properties of Fiber Incorporated Concrete Blocks Manufactured Using Recycled Aggregates
The study underscores the potential of recycled aggregates and polypropylene fibers in producing sustainable concrete blocks that align with modern environmental goals. By addressing issues like landfill reliance and the carbon footprint of traditional construction materials, this innovative approach paves the way for more sustainable and cost-effective building practices. The use of recycled aggregates not only reduces the demand for virgin materials but also helps divert waste from landfills, contributing to a circular economy. Furthermore, incorporating polypropylene fibers enhances the durability and flexibility of the concrete, making it more resilient in the face of environmental stressors such as temperature fluctuations and moisture exposure. This approach can also lead to cost savings, as the use of recycled materials often proves to be more economical than sourcing new raw materials.
The integration of innovative concrete materials and technologies can bring transformative benefits to Jamaica, addressing both local and global challenges. These advancements align with sustainability goals, promote economic growth, and enhance energy efficiency while fostering social development.
The use of alternative concrete materials provides a costeffective solution for Jamaica’s construction industry. Recycled aggregates and fiberincorporated blocks significantly lower production costs by reducing the need for virgin materials and transportation expenses. Encouraging the local production of these materials can stimulate the Jamaican economy by creating job opportunities, fostering entrepreneurship, and developing a skilled workforce in sustainable construction techniques. Moreover, reduced material costs enable wider access to affordable housing, addressing social inequality and improving living conditions.
The use of alternative concrete materials provides a costeffective solution for Jamaica’s construction industry. Recycled aggregates and fiberincorporated blocks significantly lower production costs by reducing the need for virgin materials and transportation expenses. Encouraging the local production of these materials can stimulate the Jamaican economy by creating job opportunities, fostering entrepreneurship, and developing a skilled workforce in sustainable construction techniques. Moreover, reduced material costs enable wider access to affordable housing, addressing social inequality and improving living conditions.
Jamaica’s tropical climate demands energy-intensive cooling solutions to maintain comfortable indoor temperatures. The thermal insulation properties of alternative concrete materials, such as hollow high-strength blocks and blocks incorporating plastic waste, offer a practical solution. These materials help reduce indoor heat absorption, minimizing the need for air conditioning and lowering energy consumption. Over time, this leads to decreased utility costs for households and businesses while significantly reducing carbon emissions from energy production. This energy efficiency aligns with Jamaica’s long-term goals of promoting renewable energy and reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
Sustainable construction practices can foster community development and resilience. Establishing local production facilities for alternative materials encourages collaboration among community members and significantly increases social participation. Projects involving the manufacturing of concrete blocks with recycled materials can empower underserved communities, providing valuable skills training and long-term employment opportunities.
Furthermore, these initiatives enhance local infrastructure by supporting the construction of affordable, durable, and sustainable buildings, which are essential for disaster-prone regions like Jamaica.
the path forward for Jamaica
The adoption of innovative concrete technologies offers a strategic pathway for Jamaica to address its pressing challenges while positioning itself as a regional leader in sustainable construction. These alternatives not only promote environmental stewardship and economic growth but also improve energy efficiency and strengthen social cohesion. By investing in research, education, and policy support for sustainable construction practices, Jamaica can build a resilient future that balances development with environmental and social responsibility.
The adoption of innovative concrete technologies in a community like Petersfield, Jamaica, could bring substantial environmental, economic, and social benefits. Petersfield, with its practice of producing concrete blocks locally to support its economy and a communitybased approach to housing construction, is well-positioned to integrate sustainable building practices that align with its values and needs.
Petersfield faces challenges related to waste disposal, particularly plastic waste, which is a common issue in many communities. Incorporating plastic waste into concrete block production provides a practical and impactful solution. Technologies like those that use plastic bottles as aggregates in concrete can significantly reduce the volume of plastic waste while addressing the community’s building material needs. By doing so, Petersfield could transform a waste management problem into an opportunity for sustainable development, reducing landfill use and mitigating environmental harm caused by plastic pollution.
The community’s existing concrete block production efforts could be enhanced by adopting materials like crushed clay waste, recycled aggregates, and plasticbased concrete blocks. These alternatives are cost-effective, requiring less reliance on imported raw materials and reducing production costs. Additionally, incorporating these materials into local manufacturing processes would diversify Petersfield’s economy, creating new job opportunities in waste collection, material preparation, and innovative block production. These developments would further solidify the community’s economic resilience while promoting self-reliance.
Incorporating new materials like recycled aggregates and fiber-reinforced concrete blocks could improve the affordability and durability of housing in Petersfield. These blocks offer enhanced thermal insulation, reducing energy costs for cooling in the tropical climate, while their durability ensures longer-lasting structures that require less maintenance. For a community invested in building its own homes, these advancements could lead to more comfortable and sustainable living conditions, especially for lowincome families.
Producing concrete blocks using innovative materials would encourage greater community involvement and skill development. Training programs could be established to educate residents on the production and use of alternative materials, empowering them with knowledge about sustainable construction practices. This would foster a sense of ownership and pride within the community while equipping residents with valuable skills that could generate additional income.
By transitioning to sustainable concrete production methods, Petersfield could significantly reduce its carbon footprint. Using recycled materials like plastic and aggregates cuts down on the energyintensive processes associated with traditional concrete production. This would contribute to Jamaica’s broader sustainability goals, demonstrating how small communities can play a pivotal role in combating climate change.
drawing, photography and reference
01-02 By Yuanlong Yu and Mengmeng He; reprinted from figure 54 in [cite 1]
03 By Yuanlong Yu and Mengmeng He; reprinted from figure 57 in [cite 1]
04 By Yuanlong Yu and Mengmeng He; reprinted from figure 56 in [cite 1]
[cite 1] Grasser, Klaus, and Gernot Minke. Building with pumice. F. Vieweg, 1990.
05-up Image by Mengmeng He and Yuanlong Yu
05-down Photography by Yuanlong Yu
06-up Photography by Mengmeng He
06-udown Photography by Yuanlong Yu
07 Image by Edwards, E. Price
[cite 2] Edwards, Edward Price. Our seamarks: a plain account of the lighthouses, lightships, beacons, buoys, and fog-signals maintained on our coasts for the guidance of mariners. Longmans, Green, 1884.
08-up Image by Charles-Édouard Jeanneret (Le Corbusier)
08-down Image by Esch Sintzel Architekten
09-left Photography by Bureau of Reclamation photographer
09-right Photography by Mario Carrieri
10-left Photography by Seearch (*Instagram)
[cite 3] Forty, Adrian. Concrete and culture: a material history. Reaktion Books, 2013.
[cite 4] Macdonald, Susan, ed. Concrete: building pathology. John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
[cite 5] Mascarenhas-Mateus, João, ed. Changing Cultures: European Perspectives on the History of Portland Cement and Reinforced Concrete, 19th and 20th Centuries. CRC Press, 2023.
11 Photography by Mengmeng He
12-up Image by Yuanlong Yu
12-down Image by Yuanlong Yu
13-up Photography by Mengmeng He
13-down Image by Yuanlong Yu
14 Image by Gustavo Alfredo Pulido Del Castillo
15 Image by Yuanlong Yu
16-up Photography by Akiel Elijah Allen
16-down Image by Yuanlong Yu
[cite 6] Green, Patricia Elaine. Creole and vernacular architecture: embryonic syncretism in Caribbean cultural landscape. The Journal of Architecture 27, no. 1 (2022): 21-43.
[cite 7] Nelson, Louis P. Architecture and empire in Jamaica. Yale University Press, 2016.
[cite 8] Ross, Marion D. Caribbean colonial architecture in Jamaica. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 10, no. 3 (1951): 22-27.
17-up Photography by Heartnstatrust (*Instagram)
17-down Photography by Heartnstatrust (*Instagram)
18 Photography by Akiel Elijah Allen
19 Photography by Akiel Elijah Allen
19-down Photography by Akiel Elijah Allen
20-21 Images by Yuanlong Yu
22-6pcs Photography by Akiel Elijah Allen
23 Image by Yuanlong Yu
24-up Image by Mengmeng He
24-down Image by Yuanlong Yu
[cite 9] Nilsson, Josephine. A hurricane hit country: Construction, social structure and policy rwesponse in Jamaica. 2014.
27-left Photography by Russian Supreme
27-right Photography by Lakeisha Bennett
29-up Image by Yuanlong Yu
29-down, 30 Image from [cite 10]
[cite 10] Kougnigan, Abla Marie-Josée Nadège, John Mwero, and Raphael Mutuku. Modeling of Thermal Performance and Mechanical Properties of Concrete Blocks Incorporating Plastic Bottle Waste with Crushed Clay Bricks as Coarse Aggregates. Cogent Engineering 10, no. 2 (2023): 2283334.
31-up Void formers using a 3D printer, Photography by Authors in [cite 10]
31-down Concrete blocks, Photography by Authors in [cite 10]
32-left Molding and subsequent consolidation of hollow concrete blocks, Photography by Authors in [cite 11]
[cite 11] Elistratkin, Mikhail, Alena Salnikova, Nataliya Alfimova, Natalia Kozhukhova, and Elena Pospelova. Hollow Concrete Block Based on High-Strength Concrete as a Tool for Reducing the Carbon Footprint in Construction. Journal of Composites Science 8, no. 9 (2024): 358.
32-right Image by Yuanlong Yu
33up Image by Yuanlong Yu
33-down Image by Ayushi Suyash Toraskar
34-left Photography by Nian Peng Mechanical Equipment Company Limited
34-right Hollow Block, Vedio by Pradeep Map (*Youtube)
[cite 12] Prashanth, Kumar, N. Lohith, and S. M. Basutkar. Properties of fiber incorporated concrete blocks manufactured using recycled aggregates. Low-carbon Materials and Green Construction 2, no. 1 (2024): 3.
35-left Photography by Gustavo Alfredo Pulido Del Castillo
35-right Photography by Gustavo Alfredo Pulido Del Castillo
36 Photography by Jennifer Newsom
38 Image by Yuanlong Yu