The roman martyrs introduction translations and commentary michael lapidge

The Roman Martyrs: Introduction, Translations, and Commentary Michael Lapidge

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The Consolation ofBoethiusasPoeticLiturgy StephenBlackwood(2015)

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TheRomanMartyrs

Introduction,Translations,andCommentary

MICHAELLAPIDGE

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Preface

Thepresentvolumecontainstranslationsofandcommentariesonforty passiones ofRomanmartyrs,composedbetweenroughly AD 400and AD 700; itdoesnotcontaintheLatintextsofthe passiones inquestion.Thereare reasonswhy,atthisstageofourresearch,itwouldnotbepossibletoprovide theLatintextsalongsidetheEnglishtranslations:oftheforty passiones,only oneisavailableinanythingresemblingacriticaledition;theremainder existmostlyin fifteenth-,sixteenth-andseventeenth-centuryeditions(see pp.40–1).Becausemostoftheseearlyeditionsarenoteasilyaccessible,the passiones havebeenneglectedasaliterarygenre.Itismyviewthatannotated translationsrepresentthe firststageinmakingthesetextsaccessibletoawider scholarlypublic.

The passiones areworksof fiction.Thestoriestheyrelateconcerningthe martyrdomsofRomanmartyrsarewhollyinvented,andareutterlyunreliable ashistoricalevidence.Nevertheless,the passiones,almostincidentally,cast fascinatinglightonmanyaspectsoflateantiqueRome itstopography,administration,socialhierarchy,andlegalmachinery.Aboveall,theyhelpto illuminatethemanyRoman titulus-churchesandcemeterieswhichduringthe centuriesinquestion(fifthtoseventh)begantoattractincreasinglylarge numbersofpilgrimsandvisitors.Tosomeextent,the passiones arealiterary responsetothisupsurgeinpilgrimactivity.Inanycase,theseaspectsofRoman lifecan,Ithink,bestudiedaswellintranslationasintheoriginalLatintexts.

Myinterestinthese passiones beganwhenIwasteachingattheUniversity ofNotreDame(1999–2004),wheretheHesburghLibraryhasexceptionally richholdingsinpatristicliteratureandpalaeo-Christianarchaeology,and whereIhadtheprivilegeofteachingagroupofenthusiasticyoungLatinists inannualseminarsonthe passiones oftheRomanmartyrs.My firstdebtisto thoseNotreDamestudents,particularlyLeslieLockett,whoasmydesignated researchassistantassembledahugecollectionofphotocopiesofrelevanttexts andstudies,andPaulPatterson,whokey-boardedthetextsofthe passiones so astoconstituteamachine-readabledatabase.SincereturningtotheUK,Ihave beenabletodrawontheadviceofJimAdamsandMichaelReeveinmattersof LateLatinphilology.IoweagreatdebttotheBollandists,whoforoverfour centurieshavebeenstudyingandeditingthesetexts,andwhosepublications aretheindispensablefoundationforallworkinthe fieldofLateLatin hagiography.Thepresent-dayBollandists,inparticulartheirDirector,Robert GoddingS.J.,verykindlyplacedtheresourcesoftheBollandists’ greatlibrary atmydisposal,evenonoccasionacquiringbooksformypersonaluse.

GillianClarkverykindlyofferedawarmwelcometothisbookintheseries OxfordEarlyChristianStudies,ofwhichsheisageneraleditor.Iamespecially gratefultoMarkHumphries,who,astheOUP’sreferee,producedameticulouslydetailedreportwhichenabledmetocorrectnumerouserrors,andto improvetheargumentincountlessways.Althoughheactedanonymouslyas theOUP’sreferee,hekindlywaivedhisanonymitysothatwewereableto discussmanyoftheissueshehadraised;andIwouldliketoaddthatMarkhas beenanenthusiasticsupporterofthisprojectovermanyyears:indeed,itwas hisenthusiasmwhichpromptedmetodrawtogetherthemanyyears’ research andputtheworkintoits finalform.Finally,KarenRaith,thedesk-editorfor religionattheOUP,hasbeenwarmlysupportiveandsplendidlyefficientin everyway.So,too,theOUP’scopy-editor,LouiseLarchbourne,whoworked meticulouslythroughthetypescriptandhelpedtoclarifythetranslationsat manypoints,andtoidentifyerrorswhichIhadoverlooked.

MichaelLapidge

15February2017

1.Theintra-urbanchurchesdedicatedtoRomanmartyrs

2.SuburbancemeterieshousingshrinestoRomanmartyrs

I.StFelicitasandHerSevenSons45

II.SS.Anastasia,Chrysogonus,andCompanions54

VI.SS.Sixtus,Laurence,andHippolytus(PassioVetus)180 VII.PopeCornelius195

VIII.SS.NereusandAchilleusandCompanions201

IX.SS.Eugenia,Protus,andHyacinthus228

X.SS.ChrysanthusandDaria250

XIII.StEusebiusthePriest297 XIV.PopeFelixII303

XV.SS.PudentianaandPraxedis307

XVI.SS.PolychroniusandParmenius,AbdonandSennes, PopeSixtusII,Laurence,andHippolytus316

XVII.SS.AgnesandEmerentiana348

XVIII.SS.Gallicanus,John,andPaul363

XIX.SS.ProcessusandMartinianus381

XX.PopeMarcellusandCompanions390

XXI.SS.PrimusandFelicianus411

XXII.SS.Marius,Martha,Audifax,andAbacuc420

XXIII.SS.MarcellinusandPeter436

XXIV.TheFourCrownedMartyrs448

XXV.StPancratius468

XXVI.PopeStephenI477

XXVII.SS.GordianusandEpimachus494

XXVIII.TheGreekMartyrs500

XXIX.SS.EusebiusandPontianus517

XXX.PopeUrban526

XXXI.SS.RufinaandSecunda551

XXXII.SS.Alexander,Eventius,andTheodulus557

XXXIII.SS.CalogerusandParthenius573

XXXIV.SS.SerapiaandSabina582

XXXV.SS.FelixandAdauctus593

XXXVI.SS.Simplicius,Faustinus,andBeatrix598

XXXVII.StSymphorosaandHerSevenSons603

XXXVIII.StPigmenius608

XXXIX.StGetulius617

XL.StBasilides625

AppendixI:The Depositiomartyrum (AD 354)633

AppendixII:The Epigrammata ofDamasus637

AppendixIII:RomanMartyrsinthe MartyrologiumHieronymianum 649

AppendixIV:Seventh-centuryPilgrimItinerariestoRoman ChurchesandCemeteries659

AppendixV:TheCommemorationofRomanMartyrsinEarly RomanLiturgicalBooks667

Abbreviations

ABAnalectaBollandiana

ActaSS. ActaSanctorumquotquotorbecoluntur,ed.Bollandists,68vols. (Antwerp,Tongerloo,andBrussels,1643–1925)

BHG F.Halkin, BibliothecaHagiographicaGraeca,3rded.(Brussels, 1957)

BHL [Bollandists], BibliothecaHagiographicaLatina,2vols. (Brussels,1898–1901;with Supplementum (1986))

BlaiseA.Blaise, Dictionnairelatin–françaisdesauteurschrétiens (Turnhout,1954)

BSSBibliothecaSanctorum,13vols.(Rome,1961–70,withthree volumesofappendices,1987,2000,2013)

CCSLCorpusChristianorumSeriesLatina (Turnhout)

CGLCorpusGlossariorumLatinorum,ed.G.Goetz,7vols.(Leipzig, 1888–1923)

CILCorpusInscriptionumLatinarum (Berlin,1863–)

CPGClavisPatrumGraecorum,ed.M.Geerard,5vols.and Supplementum (Turnhout,1983–98)

CPLClavisPatrumLatinorum,ed.E.Dekkers,3rded.(Steenbrugge, 1995)

CSELCorpusScriptorumEcclesiasticorumLatinorum (Vienna)

DACLDictionnaired’archéologiechrétienneetdeliturgie,ed.F.Cabrol andH.Leclercq,15vols.in30(Paris,1907–53)

DuCangeC.DuFresneDuCange, Glossariumadscriptoresmediaeet infimaelatinitatis,3vols.(Paris,1678)

Dufourcq, Gesta A.Dufourcq, Étudesurles “Gestamartyrum” romains,5vols. (Paris,1900–7;2nded.,Paris,1988)

EECEncyclopediaoftheEarlyChurch,ed.A.DiBerardino,trans. A.Walford,2vols.(Cambridge,1992)

EPEnciclopediadeipapi,3vols.(Rome,2000)

FerruaandCarlettiFerrua,A.andC.Carletti, DamasoeimartiridiRoma (Vatican City,1985)

GCSDiegriechischenchristlichenSchriftstellerdererstendrei Jahrhunderte (LeipzigandBerlin,1897–)

ICURInscriptionesChristianaeUrbisRomaeseptimosaeculo antiquiores, ed.G.B.deRossi,2vols.(Rome,1857–88);and NovaSeries,10vols.(Rome,1922–92)

Jones, LRE A.H.M.Jones, TheLaterRomanEmpire,284–602,4vols. (Oxford,1964)

Krautheimer, CBCR R.Krautheimer etal., CorpusBasilicarumChristianarum Romae,5vols.(VaticanCityandNewYork,1937–77)

Lanéry, ‘Hagiographie’ C.Lanéry, ‘Hagiographied’Italie(300–550).I.LesPassions latinescomposéesenItalie’,in Hagiographies V,ed.G.Philippart, CorpusChristianorum(Turnhout,2010),pp.15–369

LP the Liberpontificalis:ed.T.Mommsen, Liberpontificalis(pars prior), MGH, GestaPontificumRomanorum (Berlin,1898);ed. L.Duchesne, LeLiberpontificalis:texte,introductionet commentaire,3vols.(Paris,1886–1957);trans.R.Davis, The BookofPontiffs(LiberPontificalis).TheAncientBiographiesof theFirstNinetyRomanBishopstoAD715,2nded.,TTH6 (Liverpool,2000)

LTURLexiconTopographicumUrbisRomae,ed.M.Steinby,6vols. (Rome,1993–2000)

LTUR. SuburbiumLexiconTopographicumUrbisRomae.Suburbium,ed.A.La Regina,5vols.(Rome,2000–8)

MGHMonumentaGermaniaeHistorica

MGH, AAMonumentaGermaniaeHistorica, AuctoresAntiquissimi

MGH, EpistolaeMonumentaGermaniaeHistorica,Epistolae(inquarto)

MombritiusB.Mombritius, Sanctuarium (Milan,1478;ed.monachi Solesmenses,2vols.(Paris,1910))

NiermeyerJ.F.Niermeyer, MediaeLatinitatisLexiconMinus (Leiden, 1976)

PGPatrologiaeGraecaecursuscompletus,ed.J.P.Migne,162vols. (Paris,1857–66)

PIR1

PIR2

ProsopographiaImperiiRomanisaec.I.II.III.,ed.E.Klebs, H.Dessau,andP.VonRohden,3vols.(Berlin1897–8)

ProsopographiaImperiiRomanisaec.I.II.III,ed.E.Groag, A.Stein etal.,2nded.,8vols.(BerlinandLeipzig,1933–2015)

PLPatrologiaeLatinaecursuscompletus,ed.J.P.Migne,221vols. (Paris,1844–64)

Platner–AshbyS.B.Platner, ATopographicalDictionaryofAncientRome,rev. T.Ashby(Oxford,1926)

PLRETheProsopographyoftheLaterRomanEmpire,I. A.D.260–395, ed.A.H.M.Jones,J.R.MartindaleandJ.Morris(Cambridge, 1971)

RACrRivistadiarcheologiacristiana

RichardsonL.Richardson,jr, ANewTopographicalDictionaryofAncient Rome (BaltimoreandLondon,1992)

Abbreviations

SHAScriptores [rectius Scriptor] HistoriaeAugustae,ed.andtrans. D.Magie,3vols.(Cambridge,MA,1932)

SouterA.Souter, AGlossaryofLaterLatinto600 AD (Oxford,1949)

Stotz, Handbuch P.Stotz, HandbuchzurlateinischenSprachedesMittelalters, 5vols.(Munich,1996–2004)

TLLThesaurusLinguaeLatinae (Munich,1896–)

TTHTranslatedTextsforHistorians(Liverpool)

Maps

ViaTriumphalis

Via Cornelia

St Peter

VATICAN

Naumachia

Mausoleum of Hadrian

Via Aurelia River

St Agnes in agone

Via Lata (Corso)

St Laurentius in Lucina

Campus Martius Circus of Domitian

Circus Flaminius Urbs Ravennatium

CAPITOLINE

Vecchia

St Marcellus

Gardens of Sallust Sallustian Palace

AltaSemita

QUIRINALVIMINAL

Via Salaria Nuova

ViaNomentana

Castra Praetoria

Baths of Diocletian

St Susanna Arx Urban prefecture

St Pudentiana

St Eusebius

ViaTiburtina(old)

ViaTiburtina(new)

St Praxedis

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus Carcer Mamertinus Forum

Tiber Island

CAELIAN St Chrysogonus

St Caecilia

Transfevere

St Sabina

AVENTINE

Via Ostiense

PALATINE St Anastasia

Forum of Trajan Circus Maximus

CaracallaBathsof

Baths of Trajan

St Bibiana

ViaLabicana

ESQUILINE Temple of Tellus Flavian Amphitheatre

St Clement

SS. Quattuor Coronati

SS. John and Paul

SS. Nereus and Achilleus

ViaAppia

Map1. Theintra-urbanchurchesdedicatedtoRomanmartyrs

V i a T r i onfal e

Via Cornelia

Calepodius ad duos Felices

St Peter

Via Aurelia

SS. Processus and Martinianus

RiverTiber R i ev r T i b e r N

ad Clivum Cucumeris

St Valentine

V i a Flamini a ViaSalariaVecch i a

ViaNomentana Via Sala r i a N avou

Priscilla

Hilaria

Thrason Giordani

Coemeterium maius

St Agnes

Bassilla Maximus

St Nicomedes

St Hippolytus

Via Tiburtina

St Laurence

ROME

St Pancratius

Pontianus

ViaPortuense

Generosa

SS. Marcus and Marcellianus

Commodilla

St Paul

ViaLabicana

SS. Gordianus and Epimachus

Apronianus

Callistus

Praetextatus St Sebastian Domitilla

inter duas lauros

ViaOstiense Via Ardeat i n a ViaLatina

ViaAppia

Map2. SuburbancemeterieshousingshrinestoRomanmartyrs

Introduction

Thepresentvolumecontainstranslations,withindividualintroductionsand commentaries,offorty passiones ofRomanmartyrs,composedforthe mostpartatRomeitself,duringaspanofsome250years,between AD c.425and c.675.Insumthese passiones constituteasubstantialbodyof literatureproducedataperiodwhentheliteratureofRomeitself apart fromthegreat figuresofBoethius,Cassiodorus,andGregorytheGreat is notwellrepresented;yetasacorpustheyarepoorlyunderstood.Theyusually donotmeritevenapassingmentioninliteraryhistoriesoftheperiod,suchas Schanz–Hosius,1 Wright–Sinclair,2 orConte.3 AsWalterBerschinobserved, theLatin passiones composedinItaly andafortioriinRome arelargelya questionmark.4 Noattempthaseverbeenmadetocompileareliablelistof the passiones inquestion.5 Thereare,ofcourse,validreasonsforthesilence ofliteraryhistorians.Withveryfewexceptions,thetextsareavailableonly ineditionsdatingfromthe fifteenth,sixteenth,andseventeenthcenturies.No attempthaseverbeenmadetogatherthemtogetherasacorpus,andonly sporadiceffortshavebeenmadeduringthepasttwocenturiestoproduce reliablescholarlyeditions.Furthermore,sincetheywerecomposedcenturies

1 M.Schanz, GeschichtederrömischenLitteraturbiszumGesetzgebungswerkdesKaisers Justinian,IV/2: DierömischeLitteraturvonConstantinbiszumGesetzgebungswerkJustinians, rev.C.HosiusandG.Krüger(Munich,1920).

2 F.A.WrightandT.A.Sinclair, AHistoryofLaterLatinLiteraturefromtheMiddleofthe FourthCenturytotheEndoftheSeventeenthCentury (London,1931).WrightandSinclairtreat namedauthorsonly,andprovidenodiscussionofthesubstantialamountofanonymous literaturefromtheLateLatinperiod.

3 G.B.Conte, LatinLiterature:AHistory,trans.J.B.Solodow,rev.D.FowlerandG.W.Most (Baltimore,MD,1999).Contebrieflymentionstheproconsular acta,andsuchearlytextsasthe PassioS.Perpetuae (pp.599–600),butprovidesnodiscussionofthe fictional passiones whichare thesubjectofthepresentvolume.

4 BiographieundEpochenstil,II,p.173: ‘DasgroßeFragezeichenderitalienischenBiographie desfrühenMittelaltersistdiePassionsliteratur.WievielePassionensindindiesemLand... geschriebenworden?’

5 ApointmadeforciblybyClaudioLeonardi, ‘L’agiografiaromananelsecoloIX’,in Hagiographie, cultureetsociétésIVe–XIIesiècle (Paris,1981),pp.471–90,at472.Thelistin CPL (nos.2156–247)isa helpfulbeginning,butisfarfromcomplete.

aftertheendingofpersecutionofChristians,theyareworthlessaswitnessesto theactualtrialandexecutionofChristiansinearliertimes,andarevitiatedby suchoutrageouserrorsofchronologythattheyhaveearnedthecontemptof modernhistoriansofthelaterRomanempire.Withfewexceptions the passiones ofStSebastian(III)andStCaecilia(IV),bothofwhichwerecomposedat RomebyArnobiustheYounger theyaretheworkofanonymousclericswho showlittlesignofadvancedtraininginLatinandwhowereseldomcapableof anythingmorethanpedestrianprose.Yetscholarshavelongrealizedthat,in spiteoftheirobvioushistoricalandstylisticdeficiencies, passiones couldhelpto throwlightontheconcernsandanxietiesoftheaverageRomanChristian duringthe250yearsduringwhichtheywerebeingcomposed ifonlythey couldbereliablydated.Inrecentyears,however,greatprogresshasbeen madeinunderstandingthechronologyofthese passiones,notablybyvirtueof thepioneeringlaboursofCécileLanéry,6 anditishopedthatthepresent volumewillcontributetoafurtherstageinourunderstandingofwhatwasa verypopularandveryinfluential,ifgrosslyneglected,genreofChristian–Latin literature.

WHOWERETHEROMANMARTYRS?

Manyofthe passiones translatedinthepresentvolumeconcern ‘martyrs’ whoseclaimstoauthenticityaredubiousintheextreme.Onemightconsider as ‘authentic’ martyrsthosewhosemartyrdomsarerecordedinthe Depositio martyrum,hencebefore c.336(AppendixI,below)orwerecommemoratedby ametrical titulus composedbyPopeDamasus,hencebefore384(AppendixII, below).Onthiscriterion,those passiones devotedtowhatmaybe ‘authentic’ martyrsarethefollowing:thesevensonsofStFelicitas,thoughnotStFelicitas herself(I);StSebastian(III),StTiburtius(III),SS.AbdonandSennes(VIand XVI),PopeSixtusII(VIandXVI),StLaurence(VIandXVI),StHippolytus (VIandXVI),PopeCornelius(VII),SS.NereusandAchilleus(VIII),SS.Protus andHyacinthus(IX),StBassilla(IX),PopeCallistus(XII),SS.Agapitusand Felicissimus(XVI),StAgnes(XVII),PopeMarcellus(XX),theFourCrowned Martyrs(XXIV),SS.MarcellinusandPeter(XXIII),StHermes(XXXII), SS.CalogerusandParthenius(XXXIII),SS.FelixandAdauctus(XXXV), andSS.Simplicius,FaustinusandBeatrix(XXXVI).Note,however,thatthe

6 Lanéry, ‘Hagiographie’,aswellashertwoimportantstudiesofArnobiustheYounger: ‘ArnobeleJeune’ and ‘Nouvellesrecherches’.Thereisahelpfulassessmentoftheimportanceof Lanéry’swork,andofthewaysinwhichthe passionesmartyrum werereflectedintheconstructionanddecorationof fifth-centuryRomanchurches,byHeid, ‘RomsSelbstfindunginbarbarischerZeit’ .

statementthatthese passiones treatwhatmaybe ‘authentic’ martyrsdoesnot implythatthenarrativeswhichdescribetheirmartyrdomsareanythingother thanpure fiction:althoughsomeonenamedSebastianmaywellhavebeen martyredbeforeorduringthe ‘GreatPersecution’,thereisnowayofproving thathewaschiefofstaffofDiocletian’spalaceguard,asheisdescribedinthe passio bearinghisname,letalonethathewasmartyredintheabsurdwaythatis describedinthistext.

However,many,perhapsall,oftheremaining passiones treatmartyrswhose martyrdomsarepatentfabricationsbytheauthorsof passiones.The passiones wereconfectedtocommemorateorpublicizethefounderseitherofintra-urban titulus-churches,suchasStChrysogonus(II),StAnastasia(II),StCaecilia(IV), PopeClement(V),StSusanna(XI),StEusebiusthepriest(XIII),StPudentiana (XV),StPraxedis(XV),SS.JohnandPaul(XVIII),StSabina(XXXIV),and StBibiana(XXXVIII),orofsanctuariesorhypogeanbasilicasinsuburban cemeteries,suchasStEugenia(IX),PopeFelixII(XIV),SS.Processusand Martinianus(XIX),SS.MariusandMartha(XXII),StPancratius(XXV),SS. RufinaandSecunda(XXXI),SS.Alexander,Eventius,andTheodulus(XXXII), StGetulius(XXXIX),andStBasilides(XL).

WhatfactorsguidedtheChristian–Latinauthorsintheirchoiceofsubjects fortreatmentina passio?Why,forexample,wasno passio evercomposedfor StIgnatius,agenuineRomanmartyrwhowasexecutedatRome c. AD 140?7 Or forPopeFabian(236–50),whowasexecutedduringthepersecutionofDecius in AD 250?8 InsteadofthesegenuineRomanmartyrs,weareprovidedwith passiones ofmanymartyrswhowere fictitiouscreationsandinmanycasescannot beprovedevertohaveexisted.Theanswerseemstobethat passiones wereonly composedtocommemoratethosemartyrswhowereveneratedinintra-urban, titulus-churches,orwhoseremainscouldbevisitedinaprominenttomborcrypt inasuburbancemetery;inotherwords,thatthereisaclearlinkbetweenthe compositionof passiones andtheexplosionofpilgriminterestinvisitingmartyrialsitesfromthelatefourthcenturyonwards.Thismuchemergesclearlyfroma surveyofthemartyrscommemoratedinsurviving passiones:

StFelicitas(I):commemoratedinanabove-groundbasilicainhername inthecemeteryofMaximus,offtheViaSalariaNuova;hersevensonswere commemoratedintombsinthevariouscemeterieswhichhousedthem: FelixandPhilipinthecemeteryofPriscilla(ViaSalariaNuova);Martial, VitalisandAlexanderinthecemeteryoftheGiordani(ViaSalariaNuova);

7 OnthemartyrdomofStIgnatius,seeBowersock, MartyrdomandRome,pp.6and77–81, andBarnes, EarlyChristianHagiography,pp.15–19(demonstratingthattheconventionally accepteddateof117forthemartyrdomofIgnatiusistooearly).

8 Fabianwascommemoratedtogetherwithothermartyredpopesinthefamous ‘PapalCrypt’ inthecemeteryofCallistus;butnochurchorindividualshrineinRomewaseverdedicated tohim.

SilvanusinthecemeteryofMaximus(ViaSalariaNuova);andIanuariusin thecemeteryofPraetextatus(ViaAppia).

SS.AnastasiaandChrysogonus(II):Anastasiawascommemoratedinthe titulus-churchofS.AnastasiaonthePalatine,Chrysogonusinthe tituluschurchofS.CrisogonoinTrastevere.

StSebastian(III):commemoratedintheConstantinianbasilica(originallydedicatedtotheApostlesPeterandPaul)ofS.SebastianoontheVia Appia;thetombofStTiburtiuswastobeseeninthecemetery interduas lauros ontheViaLabicana;andthatofSS.MarcusandMarcellianusinthe cemeteryofBasileusofftheViaArdeatina.

StCaecilia(IV):commemoratedinthe titulus-churchofS.CeciliainTrastevere;alsointhecryptofStCaeciliainthecemeteryofCallistusontheViaAppia.

PopeClement(V):commemoratedinthe titulus-churchofS.Clemente ontheCaelianHill.

SS.AbdonandSennes,PopeSixtusII,LaurenceandHippolytus(VI):the above-groundbasilicaofSS.AbdonandSennes,andthecryptwhich housedtheirremains,wasinthecemeteryofPontianusontheViaPortuense; thetombofPopeSixtusIIwasinthefamous ‘PapalCrypt’ inthecemeteryof CallistusontheViaAppia;theConstantinianbasilicaofStLaurencewason theViaTiburtina(S.Lorenzofuorilemura);andthecryptofStHippolytus couldbevisitedinanearbycemeteryontheViaTiburtina(therewasalso achurchinhisnameatPorto).

PopeCornelius(VII):thecryptofPopeCorneliuswaslocatednexttothe cemeteryofCallistusontheViaAppia.

SS.NereusandAchilleus(VIII):thehypogeanbasilicaofSS.Nereoed AchilleowasaprominentfeatureofthecemeteryofDomitillaontheVia Ardeatina;therewasalsoanintra-urban titulus-churchintheirnames (formerlycalledthe titulusFasciolae)neartheBathsofCaracalla.

SS.Eugenia,Protus,andHyacinthus(IX):StEugeniawascommemoratedinanabove-groundbasilicabuiltoverhertombinthecemeteryof ApronianusontheViaLatina;thetombsofSS.ProtusandHyacinthuswere aprominentfeatureofthecemeteryofBassilla(latercalledthecemeteryof Hermes)ontheViaSalariaVecchia.

SS.ChrysanthusandDaria(X):theirtombscouldbevisitedinacryptin thecemeteryofThrasonontheViaSalariaNuova.

StSusanna(XI):the titulus-churchofS.Susannawas(andis)locatedon theQuirinal.

PopeCallistus(XII):therewasachurchdedicatedtoPopeCallistus,lying overhistombinanidentifiablecrypt,inthecemeteryofCalepodiusonthe ViaAurelia.

StEusebiusthepriest(XIII):possiblytobeidenti fi edwiththe founderofthe titulus -churchofS.EusebioonthePiazzaVittorio Emmanuele.

PopeFelixII(XIV):thebasilicaofthisPopeFelixwaslocatedatthe secondmileoftheViaAurelia.

SS.PudentianaandPraxedis(XV):the titulus-churchofS.Pudenzianaon theViaUrbanaontheEsquiline;andthe titulus-churchofS.Prassedeonthe ViadiS.Martino(nearS.MariaMaggiore),alsoontheEsquiline.

SS.Polychroniusandothers(XVI):forthechurchescommemorating martyrscelebratedinthis passio,seeabove,no.VI.

StAgnes(XVII):commemoratedinthegreatConstantinianbasilicaof S.AgneseontheViaNomentana.

SS.Gallicanus,JohnandPaul(XVIII):thebasilicaofSS.GiovanniePaolo (formerlythe titulus-churchofPammachius)ontheCaelianHill.

SS.ProcessusandMartinianus(XIX):wereburiedinacryptbeneatha basilicaontheViaAurelia(siteunidentified).

PopeMarcellus(XX):thetombofPopeMarcelluswaslocatedinthe hypogeanbasilicaofPopeSilvesterinthecemeteryofPriscillaontheVia SalariaNuova;the titulus-churchofMarcellus(S.MarcellosullaViaLata) waslocatedincentralRome,justoffthepresentCorso.

SS.PrimusandFelicianus(XXI):weremartyrsof Nomentum (modern Mentana)ontheViaNomentana;theirrelicsweretransferredtotheintraurbanchurchofS.StefanoRotondoontheCaelianHillduringthepontificateofTheodore(642–9).

SS.MariusandMartha(XXII):themartyrstreatedinthis passio were commemoratedinseveralrelevantchurches,includingthebasilicaand cemeteryofStValentineontheViaFlaminia;thebasilicaofAsteriusin Ostia;andthesanctuaryofSS.Marius,Martha,Audifax,andAbacuconthe ViaCornelia(nearthepresent-dayhamletofBoccea).

SS.MarcellinusandPeter(XXIII):thecrypthousingtheremainsofthe twomartyrs,andtheadjacentbasilicaintheirnames(SS.Marcellinoe Pietro),waslocatedinthecemetery interduaslauros ontheViaLabicana.

TheFourCrownedMartyrs(XXIV):commemoratedintheintra-urban basilicaoftheSS.QuattroCoronationtheCaelianHill.

StPancratius(XXV):commemoratedinthebasilicaandcemeteryof S.PancrazioontheViaAurelia.

PopeStephenI(XXVI):wasburiedinthefamous ‘PapalCrypt’ inthe cemeteryofCallistusontheViaAppia.

SS.GordianusandEpimachus(XXVII):thechurchandcemeteryofthese twomartyrswaslocatednexttotheViaLatina.

TheGreekMartyrs(XXVIII):wereburiedinarecently-discoveredcemeterybeneaththeremainsofanambulatorybasilicaneartheViaArdeatina, identifiedasthatofPopeMarcus.

SS.EusebiusandPontianus(XXIX):wereburied ‘atthesixthmile’,ina cemeterylocatedbetweentheViaAureliaandtheViaTriumphalis,which hasneverbeenidentified.

PopeUrban(XXX):was firstburiedinthecemeteryofPraetextatuson theViaAppia,butsubsequentlytranslatedtothe domusMarmeniae amile orsofurtheroutontheViaAppia.

SS.RufinaandSecunda(XXXI):wereburiedinaprominentmausoleum attheninthmileoftheViaCornelia,thelocationofwhichhasnotbeen certainlyidentified.

SS.Alexander,Eventius,andTheodulus(XXXII):StCyrinuswasburied inacryptinthecemeteryofPraetextatus;StHermesinthecemeteryof Bassilla(laterknownbyhisownname)ontheViaSalariaVecchia;and

SS.Alexander,Eventius,andTheodulusindistinctivetombsinacemetery beneaththeabove-groundbasilicaintheirnamesattheseventhmileofthe ViaNomentana.

SS.CalogerusandParthenius(XXXIII):wereburiedinindividualtombs intheareaknownasthe ‘RegionofGaiusandEusebius’ inthevastand frequently-visitedcemeteryofCallistusontheViaAppia.

SS.SerapiaandSabina(XXXIV):thefamousbasilicaofS.Sabinaonthe Aventine.

SS.FelixandAdauctus(XXXV):wereburiedinaprominentandwelldecoratedhypogeanbasilicainGalleryBofthecemeteryofCommodillaon theViadelleSetteChiese,justofftheViaOstiense.

SS.Simplicius,FaustinusandBeatrix(XXXVI):wereburiedinthe cemeteryofGenerosa adSextumPhilippi,atthesixthmileoftheVia Portuense,inawell-decoratedcrypt.

StSymphorosaandhersevensons(XXXVII):wereburiedinawellmarkedcemetery, adSeptemFratres,attheninthmileoftheViaTiburtina.

StPigmenius(XXXVIII):wasburiedinthecemeteryofPontianusonthe ViaPortuense,andoneoftheprincipalactorsinthis passio,StBibiana,was veneratedinaprominent,intra-urbanbasilicanearthepresentStazione termini.

StGetulius(XXXIX):wasburiedinacemeterynearPonteSfondatoatthe twenty-ninthmileoftheViaSalaria,andcommemoratedinachurch(no longeridentifiable)inthevicinityofthecemetery.

StBasilides(XL):wascommemoratedinabasilicaat Lorium (modern CasteldiGuido),atthetwelfthmileoftheViaAurelia.

ItisclearfromthissurveythateveryRomanmartyrwho figuresinaLatin passio waseithercommemoratedinanintra-urban titulus-church,orelsewas buriedinaprominentanddecoratedcryptorhypogeanbasilicainasuburban cemetery.AllthesesitescouldconvenientlybevisitedbypilgrimswhotravelledtoRome,asisclearfromtheseventh-centuryitineraries(AppendixIV). Ontheotherhand,weknow,fromthe Depositiomartyrum (AppendixI)and the MartyrologiumHieronymianum (AppendixIII),thenamesofnumerous Romanmartyrsforwhomno passio wasevercomposed:forexample,

StIgnatiusandPopeFabian,bothmentionedabove,aswellasStTimothy (buriedontheViaOstiense);StGorgonius(ViaLabicana);SS.Quartusand Quintus(ViaLatina);StVictor(cemeteryofBassillaontheViaSalaria Vecchia);andStGenuinus(interduaslauros).Thereisnorecordthata churchorsanctuarywaseverconstructedforthesemartyrs.9 Theconclusion seemsobvious: passiones werecomposedonlyforRomanmartyrswhowere commemoratedinwell-knownandaccessibleRomanchurchesorsanctuaries. Theimplicationwouldthenseemtobethat,inresponsetotheever-growing numbersofpilgrimvisitors,theywerecomposedbyclericseitherofthe individual titulus-churches,orbyclericsofintra-urbanchurcheswhohad responsibilityforcuratingtheshrinesinsuburbancemeteries.10

MARTYRDOMATROME:THEHISTORICALCONTEXT

TheRoman passionesmartyrum portraytheconfrontationbetweentheimperialgovernment theemperorand/orhismagistrates andtheindividual Christian,whostrugglesheroicallytovindicatetheChristianfaith,butinthe endlosesthestruggleandundergoescapitalpunishmentandmartyrdom.The focusoftheconfrontationisthetrial;butthetrialisusuallyprecededbyan accountofhowtheChristianwasarrested,followedbyadescriptionofthe tortureinflictedduringthetrial,andthentheexecutionoftheChristianatthe endofthetrial.

ThepersecutionofChristians.AtanytimebetweentheprincipateofNero (54–68)andtheearlyfourthcentury,anindividualChristianinRomeorits environs(andelsewhereintheempire,ofcourse)mightbearrestedand broughtfortrialbeforeamagistrate,usuallyeithertheurbanprefectin Rome,orthepraetorianprefectofsuburbicarianItaly(orhisdeputy),orthe governorofoneoftheItalianprovincesinthevicinityofRome.Christians werebroughttotheattentionofmagistratesbytheprocessofdelation(delatio, ‘denunciation’);whenaChristianwasdenouncedinthismanner,themagistratewasobligedtoproceedwiththetrial(called cognitio).However,aguiding principleinthetrialofChristians,atleastintheperiodbefore250,was enunciatedinafamousrescriptbytheemperorTrajan,inresponsetoa querybytheYoungerPliny,whoatthattimewasgovernorofBithynia, namelythatifChristianswereformallydenouncedandthechargeagainst themwasupheld,theyweretobepunished,buttheywerenottobesoughtout

9 SeeHuelsen, Lechiese,s.vv.

10 Forexample,weknowfromafragmentaryinscriptionfoundbydeRossiinthecemeteryof Domitillathatitwascuratedbypriestsofthe titulusFasciolae (see ICUR I,p.124[no.262],and below,p.205n.12).

(conquirendinonsunt),andanonymousdenunciationswerenottobeacted on.11 Ifconvictedofacapitalcharge(seebelow),theChristianinquestion wouldbesentencedandexecuted.

ItissimplyimpossibletoknowhowmanyindividualChristiansweretried andexecutedatRomeasmartyrsaccordingtothisnormalprocessoflaw (called coercitio),butpresumablythenumberwasmuchsmallerthanwould besuspectedfromthe fictitious passiones translatedhere.Foronething,the informer(delator)whodenouncedaChristianranconsiderablepersonalrisk ifthechargeagainsttheChristianwasnotprovenandthecasewasdismissed: he[theinformer]couldbechargedwith calumnia (‘maliciousprosecution’), involvingconfiscationofhisownpropertyandseverepunishment,andmight himselfundergotortureinordertoestablishthetruthoftheclaimwhichhe hadmadeagainsttheChristian.12 Forthesereasons,legalhistoriansspeakof therepression(ratherthanthepersecution)ofChristiansintheperiodbefore 250.13 Buttherewerethreenotableoccasionsduringthiscenturies-longperiod oftimewhentheprincipleof conquirendinonsunt wasabandonedandall ChristianslivinginRomewereatriskofbeingarrested,triedandexecuted: namelytheempire-widepersecutions,promotedbytheemperorsDecius (249–51),andbyValerianandhissonGallienus(257–60),andtheso-called ‘GreatPersecution’ underDiocletianandMaximianwhichbeganinFebruary 303andcontinuedatRomeuntil306,whenitwassuspendedbyMaximian’ sson Maxentius(DiocletianandMaximianhavingabdicatedin305).14 Althoughthis

‘GreatPersecution’ continuedintheeasternprovincesunderGaleriusand Maximinus,thesuccessorsofDiocletianandMaximian,until312,Christian inhabitantsofRomeandthewesternprovinceswerenolongeratrisk.Because thesethreestate-sponsoredpersecutions figureinanumberofthe passiones (alongsideanumberofotherpersecutionswhicharepurelytheinventionofthe authors),theyneedtobedescribedbrieflyhere.

ThepersecutionunderDecius(249–51).15 Inmid-December249,anedict waspromulgatedwhichrequiredallinhabitantsoftheempiretosacrificeto

11 Pliny, Ep.xcvii.2: ‘Conquirendinonsunt;sideferanturetarguantur,puniendisunt....Sine auctoreveropropositilibelli<in>nullocriminelocumhaberedebent.’

12 SeeRobinson, TheCriminalLawofAncientRome,pp.100–1,andDeSte.Croix, Christian Persecution,p.120.

13 See,e.g.,Robinson, ‘TheRepressionofChristians’

14 ThereisavastbibliographyonthepersecutionofChristians;thefollowingstudiesseem(to me)tobemosthelpful: DACL XIV/1,cols.523–94[H.Leclercq],s.v. ‘Persécutions’;Jones, LRE, pp.71–6;DeSte.Croix, ‘WhyweretheEarlyChristiansPersecuted?’,inhis ChristianPersecution,pp.105–52;Barnes, Tertullian,pp.143–63;andMillar, TheEmperorintheRomanWorld, pp.556–85.

15 OnthepersecutionofDecius,seeEusebius, HE vi.39,vii.1,aswellas DACL IV/1,cols. 309–39[H.Leclercq],s.v. ‘Dèce(persécutionde)’;Frend, MartyrdomandPersecution, pp.405–13;Clarke, ‘SomeObservationsonthePersecutionofDecius’;Lanata, Gliattidei martiri,pp.75–6and83–5;Millar, TheEmperorintheRomanWorld,pp.567–8;LaneFox, PagansandChristians,pp.450–92and549–50;J.B.Rives, ‘TheDecreeofDeciusandthe ReligionofEmpire’ , JournalofRomanStudies 89(1999),135–54;R.Selinger, DieReligionspolitik

thegods.Theprecisewordingoftheedicthasnotbeenpreserved,andofits content,onlytheoneclause therequirementofallinhabitantstosacrifice isknown.Theedictwasperhapsnotintendedspecificallyto flushoutChristians,butitcertainlyhadthateffect:theearlierprincipleenunciatedbyTrajan, that ‘Christianswerenottobesoughtout’,wassuspended,andmanyChristiansweresoughtout,tried,andexecuted.Deciushimselfpresidedatthetrial ofPopeFabian,whowasexecutedon20January250.Theentirepopulace or perhapssimplythosewhoweresuspectedofbeingChristians16 wasrequired toobtaincertificatesfromtheauthoritiesstatingthattheyhadalwaysshown reverencetothegodsandhadeatensacrificialmeattoproveit.Theadministrativeburdenofissuingandrecordingthesecertificatesmusthavebeen horrendous,and,inspiteoftheRomanpassionforrecord-keeping,thetask eventuallyprovedinsuperable,andby251thepersecutionhadpeteredout. Inanyevent,Deciushimselfwaskilledinbattleat Abritus in MoesiaInferior (RazgadinmodernBulgaria)inJune251;hismemorywasformallydamned byhissuccessor,TrebonianusGallus,andpresumablytheedictofpersecution wasallowedtolapse.17

ThepersecutionunderValerianandGallienus(257–60).18 In257,four yearsafterhisaccession,ValerianresumedthepersecutionofChristians,but thistimeaimedhisattackattheupperechelonsoftheecclesiasticalhierarchy. Twoedictsareinquestionbut,onceagain,theirprecisewordinghasnotbeen preserved.The firstedict(257)apparentlyconcernedhigh-rankingmembers oftheecclesiasticalhierarchy,andrequiredthattheysacrificetothegods.The tenorofthesecond(258),whichtooktheformofarescript(possiblyin answertoaqueryraisedbythesenate),isknownfromaletterofCyprian, whichstatesthat ‘Valeriansentarescripttothesenate,orderingthatbishops andpriestsanddeaconsbesummarilyexecuted,andthatsenatorsandmembersoftheupperclasses[whowereChristians]weretolosetheirrankand eventohavetheirpropertyconfiscated.’19 InRome,PopeSixtusIIand Laurence,hisarchdeacon,weretriedandexecuted,on6and10August258

desKaisersDecius:AnatomieeinerChristenverfolgung (Frankfurt,1994),esp.pp.77–140,and idem, TheMid-ThirdCenturyPersecutionsofDeciusandValerian,pp.53–82.

16 ThisisthereasonablesuggestionofLaneFox, PagansandChristians,pp.453–5;cf. Selinger, TheMid-ThirdCenturyPersecutionsofDeciusandValerian,pp.59–63.

17 Cf.Clarke, ‘SomeObservationsonthePersecutionofDecius’,p.63,n.1: ‘Howthe persecutionendedisamystery thereisnohintofasudden,generalamnesty.Cyprian’ s wordingsuggestsitmerelypeteredout.’

18 GallienuswasValerian’ssonandco-emperor.OnthepersecutionofValerianandGallienus, seeEusebius, HE vii.11andCyprian, Ep.lxxx.1,withdiscussioninFrend, Martyrdomand Persecution,pp.423–7; Lanata, Gliattideimartiri,pp.76–9and85–91; LaneFox, Pagansand Christians,pp.302–3and550–1;Millar, TheEmperorintheRomanWorld,pp.568–73;Potter, ‘MartyrdomasSpectacle’,pp.56–63;Selinger, TheMid-ThirdCenturyPersecutionsofDeciusand Valerian,pp.83–94;andBarnes, EarlyChristianHagiography,pp.77–85.

19 Cyprian, Ep.lxxx.1.2: ‘ ...rescripsisseValerianumadsenatumutepiscopietpresbyteriet diaconesincontinentianimadvertantur,senatoresveroetegregiivirietequitesRomani, dignitateamissa,etiambonisspolientur’ (CCSL IIIC,p.626);cf.Eusebius, HE vii.11.

respectively,asweknowfromthecorrespondenceofCyprian(theirmartyrdomsaredescribedin passiones nos.VIandXVI,wheretheyareerroneously assignedtotheprincipateofDecius);andinCarthage,on14September, Cyprianhimselfwasexecuted.ItisimpossibletosayhowmanymoreChristians weremartyredatRomeduringtheValerianicpersecution.Inanycase,in258 ValerianhimselfwentonexpeditionagainstthePersians,wherehewas captured,probablyin260,anddiedincaptivity.AfterthedeathofValerian in260,thepersecutionofChristianswasterminatedbyGallienus(althoughit seemsunlikelythatheissuedaformaledictoftoleration),andproperty confiscatedfromChristianswasrestoredtothem.20 Duringtheremaining yearsofthethirdcentury,Christianswereleftinpeace,21 aperiodofpeace whichcametoanendonlywiththeoutbreakoftheso-called ‘GreatPersecution’ inFebruary303.

The ‘GreatPersecution’22 beganinFebruary303andlastedintheeastern empireuntil312or313,althoughintheWestithadbeensuspendedaftertwo years,by305orearly306.Thenatureofthispersecutionisclearfromthefour imperialedictswhichwerepromulgated:theFirstEdict(23February303) specifiedthatallChristianchurchesweretobedestroyed,allcopiesofthe scripturesweretobesurrendered,andallecclesiasticalfurniturewastobe confiscated;theSecondEdict,probablyissuedduringspringorsummer303, orderedthearrestofallChristianclergy(thereisnoevidencethatthisedict waseverpromulgatedintheWest);theThirdEdict,whichwasperhapsissued tocoincidewiththevicennaliaofDiocletianinNovember303,orderedan amnestyforChristianclergyonconditionthattheysacrificed;andtheFourth Edict,probablyissuedinJanuaryorFebruary304,requiredallinhabitantsof theempiretosacrificetothegods(thereislittleevidencethattheFourthEdict wasenforcedintheWest).23 ImmediatelyafterthepublicationoftheFirst Edict,the ‘GreatPersecution’ gotunderwayinNicomedia,whentheChristian churchoppositetheimperialpalacewasdemolished,andmanymartyrdoms followedduringthenextdecade.IntheWest,however,thepersecutionof Christiansseemstohavebeenpursuedmuchlessvigorouslyand,accordingto Eusebius,hadnotcompletelyexpiredintheWestaftertwoyears;thatistosay, itwasevidentlylosingitsimpetusintheWestby305.24 AfterbecomingCaesar

20 SeeL.deBlois, ThePolicyoftheEmperorGallienus (Leiden,1976),esp.pp.175–85.

21 SeeMillar, TheEmperorintheRomanWorld,pp.573–4,andLaneFox, Pagansand Christians,pp.553–6.

22 Theso-called ‘GreatPersecution’ hasbeenextensivelystudied:mostimportantarethe studiesbyFrend, MartyrdomandPersecution,pp.477–535;DeSte.Croix, ChristianPersecution, pp.35–78[‘Aspectsofthe “Great” Persecution’];LaneFox, PagansandChristians,pp.592–608; Davies, ‘TheOriginandPurposeofthePersecutionofA.D.303’;Barnes, EarlyChristian Hagiography,pp.97–150;andTwomeyandHumphries(eds.), TheGreatPersecution.

23 Corcoran, TheEmpireoftheTetrarchs,pp.179–82,andDeSte.Croix, ChristianPersecution, pp.35–8.

24 HE viii.13.10.

(in306),ConstantineallowedfullfreedomofworshiptoChristiansliving underhisauthorityinBritain,Gaul,andSpainandrestoredanychurch propertywhichhadbeenconfiscatedin303asaconsequenceoftheFirst Edict.Inmid-306MaxentiusformallyendedpersecutioninItalyandAfrica, butdidnotrestoreconfiscatedchurchproperty,whichwasnotrestoreduntil Miltiadesbecamepopein311.(IntheEast,persecutioncontinuedunder Galeriusuntilhisdeathin311,andthenunderMaximinusuntil313.)

TheanswertothequestionofhowmanyChristiansweremartyredatRome duringthe ‘GreatPersecution ’,thatis,between303and305,cannoteasilybe determined.25 Inthe Depositiomartyrum,twomartyrdomsarespecifically assignedtotheyearoftheninthconsulshipofDiocletianandtheeighthof Maximian,thatis, AD 304:thoseofCalogerusandParthenius(XXXIII),andof Bassilla(IX).26 Probablythereweremore;butthenumberswerenodoubt muchsmallerthanwhatmightbeinferredfrom passiones suchasthatof StSebastian(III).

Finally,several passiones refertoa ‘persecution’ undertheemperorJulian ‘theApostate’ (361–3):thoseofGallicanus,John,andPaul(XVIII),Gordianus andEpimachus(XXVII),andPigmenius(XXXVIII).Thisishistoricalnonsense.AlthoughJulianwasacommittedpagan,hetooknomeasuresagainst Christiansexceptforforbiddingthemtoholdchairsofrhetoricandphilosophy,andclosingthechurchinAntiochasameansofcalmingdisturbances (causedbyChristianmobs);certainlyhedidnotmountapersecutioninany meaningfulsenseoftheword.27

Whatisstrikingisthatrelativelyfewofthe passiones translatedhereare attributedtothesethreemajorepisodesofempire-widepersecution.Fiveare attributedtothepersecutionofDecius,butalltheseattributionsareerroneous:oneofthemmentionsthepersecutionofDecius,butthemartyrdomsin questionaredescribedashavingtakenplaceunderValerian(XXVIII); anotherconcernsPopeCornelius,whodiedin252,ayearafterthedeathof Decius(VII);twoothersconcernmartyrssuchasPopeSixtusIIandSt Laurence,whoareknownfromreliablehistoricalsources(thelettersof Cyprian)tohavediedin258duringthepersecutionofValerianandGallienus (VIandXVI); finally,onemartyrdomisassigned erroneously tothe

25 Cf.thecommentofDeSte.Croix, ChristianPersecution, p.68: ‘intheWest,wherethe persecutionceasedbeforeithadproperlydeveloped,weneednotbesurprisedto findveryfew martyrdomsindeed,exceptofvolunteersorofthosewhodefiedE[dict]1.’

26 Theauthorofthe passio ofStEugenia(IX),indescribingthemartyrdomofBassilla,was apparentlyunawareoftheentryinthe Depositiomartyrum;instead,heabsurdlyassigned Bassilla’smartyrdomtothereignofGallienus.

27 OnJulian’smeasuresagainstChristians,seeAmmianusMarcellinus, Resgestae xxii.10.7 andxxii.13.2;formodernstudiesofhisreign,seeRobertBrowning, TheEmperorJulian (London,1975),pp.159–86,esp.163: ‘Infacttherewasnopersecution’;andG.W.Bowersock, JuliantheApostate (London,1978),pp.79–83.

Decianpersecution,namelythatofCalogerusandParthenius(XXXIII);but,as wehaveseen,thesetwomartyrsarerecordedinthe Depositiomartyrum as havingbeenexecutedunderDiocletianandMaximianin AD 304.Themartyrdomsinonlytwo passiones areattributedtothepersecutionofValerian andGallienus:thoseofPopeStephenI(XXVI)andofSS.RufinaandSecunda (XXXI).Themartyrdomsinseven passiones areassignedtothe ‘GreatPersecution’ underDiocletianandMaximian:thoseofSebastian(III),Susanna(XI), PopeMarcellus(XX),PrimusandFelicianus(XXI),Pancratius(XXV),Felix andAdauctus(XXXV),andSimplicius,Faustinus,andBeatrix(XXXVI).In otherwords,onlytenoftheforty passiones assignthemartyrdomswhichthey describetohistorically-documentedperiodsofpersecution;theremainderare assignedtopersecutionswhich,quitesimply,are figmentsoftheirauthors’ imaginations.

ThechargesagainstChristians.AChristianmightinprinciplebearrested andchargedwithanyoneofanumberofcapitalcharges:28 maiestas (that is,essentially,treason,butalsoincludingslanderoftheemperorandhis family,i.e. lèse-majesté),29 flagitia (‘abominations ’),sorcery,divinationand prophecy,sacrilege(sacrilegium),atheism,andpossiblyillegalassociation (belongingtoasecretsociety). 30 However,themostfrequentlyattested charge,bothinhistoricalsourcesandinthe fictional passiones,isthatof the nomenChristianum.Theexactlegalstatusofthischargeisproblematic, andmuchdebated.A.N.Sherwin-Whitearguedthat,becauseofsuspected flagitia, ‘the nomen [Christianum],activemembershipofacriminalorganizationwithoutfurtherproofofindividualguiltisconstitutedacapitalcharge, bydirectmagisterialaction,thatis,byan edictum withorwithoutsupportof asenatorialdecree.Thechargeisenforcedby coercitio ,normallythroughthe proceduralformof cognitio .The nomen thenactsasapointertothemagistrate,indicatingamanwhomitisproperforhimtocoerceasamalefactor,if accused. ’31 Inotherwords,the nomenChristianum wasausefulpointerfor prosecutingmagistrates,butwasnotastatutoryprohibition;inthewordsof OliviaRobinson, ‘ the nomen simplydefinesaclassofpotentialsubversives.’32 Nevertheless,althoughthestatutorypositionofthe nomenChristianum in

28 Robinson, ‘TheRepressionofChristians’,p.285: ‘Itbeginstoseempossiblethattherewas nosinglelegalgroundforrepression,thatitfellunderdifferentoffencesatdifferenttimes.’

29 On maiestas,seeRobinson, TheCriminalLawofAncientRome,pp.74–8,andChilton, ‘TheRomanLawofTreason’,aswellastheearlierbutvaluablestudybyDeRegibus, ‘Storiae dirittoromanonegli “Actamartyrum” , ’ pp.145–9.

30 ThereisdebateamonglegalhistorianswhetherChristianswereeverchargedwithmembershipofanillegalsociety(collegiumillicitum);seeRobinson, ‘TheRepressionofChristians’ , pp.284–5,andDeSte.Croix, ChristianPersecution, pp.123–4.

31 Sherwin-White, TheLettersofPliny,p.781.

32 Robinson, ‘TheRepressionofChristians’,p.285.Shecontinues: ‘Wasthe nomen a conventional,acustomary,classification,awayofreferringtotheadherentsofsomething unspecifiedingeneral,butparticularizedwhenneedarose whichcouldbedangeroustothe

Romanlawisunclear,themostfrequentchargeagainstChristiansinthe fictional passiones isthatofthe nomenChristianum; 33 othercharges,notably maiestas, 34 magicaeartes, 35 and sacrilegium,36 canoftenbeinferred,although theyareneverspelledout.Thisisprobablyanotherrespectinwhichthe passiones departfromhistoricalreality.

Thetrial.Atrial(cognitio)mightbeconductedinthemagistrate’sprivate chambers(insecretario),orinpublic,atoneofthevenuesusedforpublic hearings,suchastheporticoofthetempleofMarsUltor;37 butwherever thetrialwasconducted,theexecutionofthecondemnedcriminaltookplace inpublic.Theauthorsofthe fictional passiones attemptedtorecreatethe atmosphereandproceduresofRomancriminaltrials.38 Unfortunately,they hadverylittleauthenticevidenceonwhichtobasetheiraccounts.Although theRomanswereanationofbureaucrats,andkeptdetailedcourtrecords (called ‘protocols’)ofallcriminaltrials,includingthoseofChristians,nota singleoneofthesecourtrecordshassurvived(inLatin)fromRomeitself:39

state?WhatdoweknowofthefactsoftherepressionofChristians?’ (ibid. pp.258–66).Cf.De Regibus, ‘Storiaedirittoromanonegli “Actamartyrum” , ’ pp.139–40.

33 Forexamples,seeIII.3,IV.2,IV.29,VI.3,XVI.7,XVII.5,XXIV.6,XXXIV.1,andXXXVI.1.

34 Examplesofwhatcouldhavebeenregardedas maiestas include:Caecilia’sstatementtothe prefectAlmachiusthathisemperorsareinerror: ‘Sicimperatoresvestrierrantsicutetnobilitas vestra.Sententia...testarisvossaevientes’ (IV.29);theresponseofPopeCorneliustothesoldiers arrestinghim, ‘PereantdiidaemoniorumsimulcumDecio’ (VII.3);theinsinuationofPolychroniustogetherwiththereplyofDecius, ‘Ergonosstercorasumus?’ (XVI.2);Diocletianand MaximiansayingtoPrimusandFelicianus, ‘Vosestis,quiiussanostracontemnitisetpronihilo computabis’ (XXI.2);thejudgeAlmachiusdescribingMarmeniaassomeone ‘quipraecepta deridetprincipuminvictissimorum’ (XXX.14);andthesentencepassedagainstStSabina: ‘Sabinam...dominosquoqueetAugustosnostrosblasphemantem,gladiopercutidecrevimus’ (XXXIV.14).

35 Thechargeofmagiccouldbeinferredfromtheurbanprefect’swordstoTiburtius, ‘Quis ignoratmagicamvosdocuisseChristumvestrum’ (III.82);anotherprefect’swordstoStEugenia, whoisdescribedasbeing ‘quasimagicisartibusplena’ (IX.20);NemesiusistriedbyValerianon thegrounds ‘etutconsulem...Maximuminterficerestuismagicisartibus’ (XXVI.6);theemperor JuliansaysofStIanuarius, ‘hunccognovimusmagumesse’ (XXVII.3);andVitelliusthejudge chargesSS.Eusebius,Pontianus,andtheotherswithmagic: ‘Isticonfiduntdemagia’ (XXIX.6).

36 ExamplesofsacrilegeincludethestatementofProbustheprefecttoAnastasia: ‘Hoc sacrilegiumnecauresmeaeadmitterequeunt’ (II.24)andhisfurtherstatementthatsheisto die ‘utdecetsacrilegam’ (II.25);theemperorTrajan’srescripttohisurbanprefectmentionsthat theRomanpopulaceisurgingthatPopeClementis ‘obcriminissacrilegiiaccusandum’ (V.6); whattheemperorDeciussaystoStPolychronius, ‘TuesPolychroniussacrilegus’ (XVI.2);and theemperorClaudius’ instructionstohisprefectconcerningStValentine, ‘facineumquodin sacrilegumlegespraedixerunt’ (XXII.8).

37 SeeDeRegibus, ‘Storiaedirittoromanonegli “Actamartyrum”’,pp.172–3(trial in secretario),173–5(trial inforo).

38 ThereisvaluablediscussionofthelegalaspectsofthetrialsofChristiansbyDeRegibus, ‘Storiaedirittoromanonegli “Actamartyrum”’;hisfocus,however,isonpre-Decian acta martyrum ratherthanonthe fictional passiones,withtheexceptionofthe PassioS.Clementis (myno.V),mentionedbrieflyatp.183inthecontextofcondemnation admetalla

39 Cf.DeSte.Croix, ChristianPersecution, p.58: ‘Thereisnotraceofanycontemporary attempttopreserverecordsofthedeedsoftheRomanandItalianmartyrs,andasearlyasthe

theyhadalreadybeenlostbythetimePrudentiusvisitedRome c.400,40 and GregorytheGreatstatesinalettertoEulogiusthatnoaccountsofRoman martyrdomsweretobefoundeitherintheLateranarchivesorinanylibraryin Rome.41 Theformofaprotocolortrialrecordis,however,knownfroma numberofpapyrusfragments(inGreek)survivingfromEgypt,42 andfrom thesefragmentsitispossibletodeducethataprotocolconsistedofthree principalparts:theintroduction(κεφάλαιον),whichprovidedthedate,the namesofthepersonsinvolvedinthetrial,andthenameofthepresiding magistrate;theinvestigationorbodyofthetrialitself(ἀνάγνωσις,correspondingto cognitio intheRoman passiones),consistingofthespeechesofthe magistrateandthedefendants,usuallyrecordedin oratiorecta,introducedby suchverbsas εἶπεν, ἀπεκρίνατο,etc.;and finallytheverdict(κρίσις)ofthe magistrate.43

ButalthoughnoauthenticrecordsofthetrialsofChristianmartyrsinthe LatinWesthavesurvived,therewerevariousliteraryaccountsinLatin based on,oratleastinspiredby,authenticbutlostprotocols whichappeartohave beencomposedbeforeorduringtheDecianandValerianicpersecutions,and whicharethoughtbymodernscholarstopreserveareliablerecordofmartyr trials.44 Theseliteraryaccountsarereferredtoas acta;and,incaseswherethe presidingmagistratewasaproconsul(inAfricatheseniormagistratewasa proconsul,correspondingtothegovernorinotherRomanprovinces),are called actaproconsularia.Twosuch actaproconsularia arerelevanthere:those oftheScillitanmartyrs[BHL 7527],andthoseofStCyprian[BHL 2037].The actaproconsularia oftheScillitanmartyrsrecordtheproceedingsofatrialof twelveChristians(sixmenandsixwomen)whoweretriedandexecuted inCarthageon17July180.45 Asintrialprotocols,the acta beginwitha

timeofPopeDamasus(366–84)theywerealreadymoreorlesslegendary figures,aboutwhom “traditions” circulated,basedonnowrittendocuments.’

40 SeeLanéry, ‘Hagiographie’,p.18,n.3.

41 Registrumepistularum viii.28[toEulogius,patriarchofAlexandria]: ‘nulla[sc.gesta]in archiuohuiusnostraeecclesiaeuelinRomanaeurbisbibliotecisessecognoui’ (CCSL CXLA, p.549).

42 AconvenientlistofsurvivingprotocolsisprovidedbyColes, ReportsofProceedings inPapyri,pp.55–63.

43 Fortheindividualpartsofaprotocol,seeColes, ibid. pp.29–38(introduction),38–49 (speeches),and49–52(verdict);seealsoDelehaye, LesPassionsdesmartyrsetlesgenres littéraires,pp.125–31;Musurillo, TheActsofthePaganMartyrs,pp.249–51;andBarnes, EarlyChristianHagiography,pp.54–66.IhavenotseenH.Niedermeyer, Überantike Protokoll-Literatur (diss.Göttingen,1918).

44 SeeLanata, Gliattideimartiri,pp.23–7,andBarnes, EarlyChristianHagiography, pp.64–82.Inanearlierstudy,Barnesobservedofthe acta oftheScillitanmartyrs,that ‘the Scillitaniweretried “insecretario”:hence,ifthe acta arenotpure fiction,theyoughttoderive fromanofficialrecord’ (‘Pre-Decian Actamartyrum’,p.528).

45 SincethemartyrswerebroughtfortrialtoCarthage,itisclearthattheirplaceoforigin Scilli (?) musthavebeensomewhereintheprovinceof Africaproconsularis;butitsprecise locationhasneverbeenidentified,anditisnotrecordedinTalbert, BarringtonAtlas.

statementthatthetrialwasheldintheyearinwhichPraesenswasconsulfor thesecondtimeandClaudianusforthe first(correspondingto AD 180),46 on 17July,inprivatechambers( insecretario),withSaturninustheproconsul presiding.TheinterrogationbySaturninusandtherepliesbytheChristians arereportedin oratiorecta (Saturninusdixit; Speratusdixit,etc.).After theinterrogation,duringwhichtheChristiansrefusetorecant,Saturninus remandsthemincustodyforthirtydays,toallowthemtocometotheir senses(moram.xxx.dierumhabeteetrecordemini);whentheyarebrought backfromprison,Speratus,speakingfortheothers,sayssimply ‘Christianus sum ’.Saturninusreadshisverdictfromatablet(decretumextabellarecitauit) that,sincetheyhaveconfessedtobeingChristiansandhaveobstinately refusedtoreturntoRomancustom(adRomanorummorem),theyaretobe executedbysword(gladioanimaduertiplacet);theverdictisthenreadoutby thecourtherald(Saturninusproconsulperpraeconemdiciiussit).47 Nearly eightyyearslaterCyprian,bishopofCarthage,wastriedatCarthagebefore Paternustheproconsul.The actaproconsularia ofCyprianarelongerand moreelaborate andnodoubtfurtherremovedfromtheoriginalbutlost protocols thanthoseoftheScillitanmartyrs,insofarasthe acta recordthe eventsoftwoseparatetrials,heldayearapart,undertwosuccessiveproconsuls;butinotherrespectsthestructurefollowsthatoftrialprotocols.The acta ofCyprianbeginwiththestatementthatthetrialwasheldintheyearin whichValerianwasconsulforthefourthtime,andGallienus(hissonandcoemperor)forthethird(thatis,in AD 257),on30August,inprivatechambers (insecretario),withPaternustheproconsulpresiding.Theinterrogationthen proceedsin oratiorecta (Cyprianusepiscopusdixit, Paternusproconsuldixit, etc.),asaresultofwhichPaternusbanishesCyprianto Curubis (Korbain modernTunisia),fromwhencehereturnsayearlater,apparentlyofhisown volition.Then,the acta goontoexplain,intheconsulshipofTuscusand Bassus(AD 258),twoofficersfromthestaffofGaleriusMaximus,whohad succeededPaternusasproconsul,broughtCyprianbeforeGaleriusfortrial, whichisstatedtohavetakenplaceon14Septemberofthesameyear.Galerius orderedCypriantosacri fice( caeremoniari),todemonstratethatheadhered toRomancustom,butherefused.Galeriusconsultedhislegaladvisersand

46 Itshouldbenotedthattheconsulardatinggiveninthetextisnotentirelyaccurate:the secondconsulof180wasSextusQuintiliusCondianus,notClaudianus:whichindicatesthatwe aredealingherewithaliteraryelaboration,notwithanauthentictrialprotocol.The firstconsul of180wascorrectlyC.BruttiusPraesens(PIR2,I,pp.372–3[no.165]),andtheproconsulof AfricainthatyearwasP.VigelliusSaturninus(PIR2 VIII/2,p.335[no.633]),whoisdescribedby Tertullianasthe firstAfricangovernortohaveputChristianstodeath(AdScapulam 3–4).

47 Lanata, Gliattideimartiri,pp.137–44;Musurillo, ActsoftheChristianMartyrs,pp.86–9; andBastiaensen, Attiepassionideimartiri,pp.100–4.SeediscussionbyDelehaye, LesPassions desmartyrs,pp.47–9,andbyBarnes, ‘Pre-Decian Actamartyrum’,pp.519–20,and idem, Early ChristianHagiography,pp.64–6.

thenreadhisverdictfromatablet(decretumextabellarecitauit),namelythat Cyprianthebishopwastobeexecutedbysword(gladioanimaduertiplacet). Cyprianwasledtotheplaceofexecutionanddulyexecuted;atnightfallhis bodywasrecovered(byChristians)andburiedtriumphantlyinthecemetery ofMacrobiusCandidianusontheMappalianway.48

Fromthese actaproconsularia,andperhapsfromsomeoftheearly passiones ofAfricanmartyrs49 andothersourcesaswell,50 theRomanauthorsof passiones derivedthestructureanddetailoftheirnarrativesoftrialproceedings.Butitisalsolikelythatsomeofthedetailderivedfromfamiliaritywith contemporarytrialprocedure:theformandprocedureofacriminaltrial beforeaprefectorgovernorprobablychangedverylittlebetweenthelate secondcentury(whentheScillitanmartyrsweretried),andthe fifthandsixth centuries,whenthemajorityofthe passiones werecomposed.51 Forthelater, asmuchasfortheearlierperiod,noauthentictrialprotocolssurvive;butthere isarevealingglimpseofacriminaltrialinaGreek–Latinschooldialogue, composedprobablyinthelatefourthcentury,toillustrate(andprovidethe vocabularyfor)thesortofsceneatravellertoaforeignprovincemight encounterinastrangeforum:

Beforedawn,theprefectandthegovernorandtheheadofimperial financesand thearmycommanderandtheprocuratorhavegoneonaheadtotheforum.You hearthevoiceoftheheraldsummoningthedecurionsandthecitizens...Itturns 9.00a.m.Incomethelegaladvisers,thelawyers,theadvocates,calledintothe chambersofthejudge(whoistopresideoverthecaseinwhichtheyare

48 Lanata, Gliattideimartiri,pp.184–93;Musurillo, ActsoftheChristianMartyrs, pp.168–75;andBastiaensen, Attiepassionideimartiri,pp.206–31.SeediscussionbyDelehaye, LesPassionsdesmartyrs,pp.62–9,andbyBarnes, EarlyChristianHagiography,pp.77–82,who suggeststhatthesecondpartofthetrial thatheldin258underGaleriusMaximus isnot basedonanauthenticprotocolbut,sincethe(second)trialandexecutionwereheldinpublic, maybethereportofaneyewitness(p.81).

49 Suchasthe PassioSS.PerpetuaeetFelicitatis (BHL 6633;ed.C.J.M.J.Beek, Passio SanctarumPerpetuaeetFelicitatis (Nijmegen,1936))andthe PassioSS.MontanietLucii (BHL 6009;ed.F.Dolbeau, ‘LaPassiondessaintsLuciusetMontanus:Histoireetéditiondutexte’ , Revuedesétudesaugustiniennes 18(1983),39–82).

50 Forexample,theso-called GestaapudZenophilum (cf. CPL 244 adcalc.)describethetrial ofoneVictorofCirta,adeaconoftheDonatistchurchbroughtbeforeZenophilus,thegovernor (consularis)ofNumidia,in327 AD;asdescribed,thetrialbeganwithquestionsdesignedto establishthenameandstatusofthedefendant(whether honestior or humilior): ‘quisuocaris?’ , ‘cuiuscondicionises?’,and ‘cuiusdignitatises?’ (CSEL XXVI,p.185;seediscussionby P.W.Hoogterp, ‘Deuxprocès-verbauxdonatistes’ , ArchivumLatinitatisMediiAevi 15(1940), 39–112,at48–50,108–12, etpassim);asimilarlineofquestioningisfoundinanumberofthe fictional passiones

51 Cf.thecommentsofDelehaye, ‘L’amphithéatreFlavien’,p.243: ‘Lesformesd’administration,laprocédurecriminelleenparticulier,n’avaientpointsubid’interruption...Aussi,la présencededétailstechniquesetdebonnesformulesjuridiquesdanslesActesdesmartyrsne révèle-t-ellenullementl’existenced’unesourceprimitive?’ (p.243); ‘ ...aumomentoùse rédigeaientlesActes,lapréfectureurbainesubsistaittoujours’ (p.246).

involved).Theypleadseveralcases,eachasbesthecanaccordingtohisverbal eloquence.Someofthecasesareintheir finalstages,whichIthinkaregoingtobe wounduptoday.Thenthegovernorcomesdown(fromhischambers)tositat thetribunaloftheoverseer.Thetribunalissetup.Thejudgemountsthetribunal and,throughthevoiceoftheherald,asksthepeopletostand.Theaccusedman,a thief,stands(beforethetribunal);heisquestionedashedeserves;heistortured; theinterrogator(quaestionarius)beatshim,hisbreastisinjured,heisstrungup, heisbeatenwithstaves,heis flogged,hegoesthroughtheentiresequenceof tortures,andstilldenies(hisguilt).Heistobepunished;heistodiebycapital punishment:heisledawaytobeexecutedbysword.52

Theauthorsof passiones didnotfollowtheearliertextsineveryrespect,and inmanycasesmusthavebeeninfluencedbytheirownfamiliaritywithtrial procedure,asillustratedinthequotedpassage.Thus,inplaceofthedatingby consularyearwhichwasanindispensablepartoftrialprotocolsandwas reproducedassuchin actaproconsularia,the fictionalRoman passiones usuallybeginwithalessprecisechronologicalreferencetotheprincipateor dominateduringwhichthemartyrdomissaidtohaveoccurred: ‘Inthedaysof theemperorDecius’ , ‘InthedaysofthewickedemperorsDiocletianand Maximian’ , velsim.:apparentlyconsulardatingswereconsideredtootechnical tobereadilyunderstoodbytheChristianlayaudiencesforwhomthe passiones werecomposed.Then,followingthearrestoftheChristian(s)concerned,andpresentationbeforethemagistrate,eitherinprivatechambers(in secretario)oratapublichearing,theinterrogationensues,asintheprotocols andthe actaproconsularia.Inthe passiones,theinterrogationisfrequently conductedundertorture;aswehaveseen,tortureisnotmentionedinthe protocolsandthe actaproconsularia,butisverymuchapartofthetrial depictedintheabove-quotedschoolbook.Frequently,too,asinthe acta of theScillitanmartyrs,themartyrisremandedincustodyforaperiod(sometimesamonth)inordertocometohissenses.Inthe passiones,themagistrate issometimesdescribedashavingrepeatedhisquestion,astowhetherthe defendantwasaChristian,threeseparatetimes.Althoughnosuchrepetitionsarefoundintheabove-cited actaproconsularia,weknowthatitwas

52 A.C.Dionisotti, ‘FromAusonius’ Schooldays?ASchoolbookanditsRelatives’ , Journalof RomanStudies 72(1982),83–125,at104–5: ‘adforumantelucem...quoniampraefectus, praeses,etrationalisetduxetprocuratorpraecesserant.Audisvocempraeconiscitantem decurionesetcives...Fithoratertia.Ingrediunturadvocati,causidici,scholasticievocatiin secretariumiudicissui.Aguntplurescausas,quisqueutpotestsecundumliterarumfacundiam. Suntetcausaeintemporum finem,quashodiecredoterminandas.Exindedescenditpraesesad tribunalcustodissessurus.Sterniturtribunal,conscenditiudextribunal,etsicvocepraeconis iubetsistipersonas.Reussistiturlatro;interrogatursecundummerita;torquetur,quaestionarius pulsat,eipectusvexatur,suspenditur, †crescit, flagellaturfustibus,vapulat,pertransitordinem tormentorum,etadhucnegat.Puniendusest;peritpoena;ducituradgladium’.Cf.MacMullen, ‘JudicialSavagery’,pp.155–6.