The Arcades Project：Capital and Public Dimensions from Spatial Prototypes

The ArcAdes ProjecT:

Li Unit 12, Year 2, Undergraduate Architectural Association School of Architecture

Yimiao

Preface

Upon my first reading of The Arcade Street Project, I was most surprised by Walter Benjamin's surrealistic collage method. The work, spanning a thousand pages, is almost entirely composed of quotations, dazzling in its breadth of information. This style aligns with Benjamin's theoretical approach. He argued that a materialist presentation of history should offer more visual immediacy than traditional historiography. According to him, elucidating history should not rely on theoretical discourse but should unfold through tangible, perceptible realities. Benjamin presents primary materials directly to the reader, clearly categorized and ordered, with minimal logical interjections or transitions. This method not only ensures a high degree of objectivity but also serves as a rich mine, leaving ample room for extensive discussion.

Introduction

Benjamin's theories are inseparable from Baudelaire; in other words, Benjamin attempted to examine 19th-century Paris by adopting the persona of Baudelaire as a participant. From Baudelaire's Paris of the Second Empire, it is evident that Benjamin's materialist view of history evolved gradually during the later stages of his career. "From today's perspective, the era in which Baudelaire lived is less 'the golden age of capitalism' and more 'the takeoff stage of capitalism,' a period of modernization marked by market and urban transformations."1 Under the sustained influence of the Industrial Revolution, the emergence of new technologies and materials propelled the commodified economy towards a global climax. Subsequently, structures such as arcade streets and exposition halls emerged, epitomizing the capital illusion crafted to stimulate the penetration of the commodified economy into civic life. Walter Benjamin's writings reveal a pessimistic prophecy about the frenzy of commodification, a sentiment that pervades his work Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century. "However, the superficial glamour and illusory security pervading a society dominated by commodity production do not spare society from peril.The collapse of the Second Empire and the Paris Commune serve as reminders of this peril. ”2 The dangers are not merely in the moment when buildings are about to collapse, Walter Benjamin notes in his pessimistic forecast of capitalism, which is long-term and progressive. In Paris, Capital of the Nineteenth Century, the "capital characteristics" or "inhumanity" of arcade streets is unequivocally revealed. They are seen as massive machines that present illusions, behind which lies a Medusa-like numbing force. Today, two hundred years later, although arcade streets are still seen as epitomes of the commodified economy from the 19th to the early 20th century, their hidden "humanity" or "public" nature should be rediscovered.

Furthermore, this paper will focus on the theme of tangible existence as perceived by Benjamin, using a materialist methodology termed "from existence to perception." Through an analysis of 19th-century urban spaces, exemplified by arcade streets, it will examine the dynamics of "capital characteristics" and "publicness" in urban spaces, exploring their evolution and transformation throughout history.

1 Benjamin, Walter. Paris, Capital of the 19th Century [C]. Translated by Liu Beicheng. China: Commercial Press, 2012. Foreword by the translator, ix.

2 Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939). p. 14.

Paris Arcade. Viollet ,1890s / The Image Works Copyright Image provided by Musée Carnavalet / Roger-Viollet / The Image Works

1.Illusion

"This world is dominated by its phantasmagorias."1 Baudelaire views this as the essence of modernity. It's crucial to note that "modernization," characterized by new economies, technologies, and their resultant market demands, is essential for achieving "modernity." Modernity itself involves deeper, more complex changes in society like shifts in social psychology. Furthermore, it's not just cities that embody modernity, but also the people who live in them. In early 19th-century Paris, the city was engulfed in a commercial illusion, most visibly seen in the material overload where the supply of goods far exceeded demand. "The residents of the city no longer felt at home but began to recognize the inhuman nature of the metropolis."2 Benjamin argued that new architectural forms like arcades and exposition halls were massive machines designed to create illusions and bewitch citizens. They boldly declared their dominant role in civic life to such an extent that "the true framework of private citizen life needed to be sought in commercial centers."3 As early prototypes of department stores, arcade streets crafted illusions using an array of luxurious materials: "These passageways, topped with glass roofs and lined with marble wall panels, were among the first to employ gas lighting. The arcade street meanders amidst rows of endless houses. Homeowners pool their resources to operate them jointly. Illumination cascades from above, refracted by glass storefronts into every nook and cranny, visually expanding and enriching the entire expanse, leaving visitors mesmerized and enraptured. Graceful and opulent shops line the thoroughfare on either side. Thus, this arcade embodies a microcosm of urban life. Countless resources and commercial investments converge, transforming it into a beacon guiding new lifestyles and forging a fresh image – not only fulfilling desires but also instigating them, thereby enticing all into the cult of "commodity worship."

1 Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939). p. 26.

2 ibid. p. 23.

3 ibid. p. 22

2.Flâneur

The Flaneur and Arcades, as products of the same era, happen to match perfectly. As Benjamin mentioned: "The structure adopted by the city makes it and the shops and department stores in the city an ideal backdrop for the stroller."1 (The paper will later specifically discuss the relationship between urban structure and the arcades.) Benjamin regards the arcade street as an explicit product of textile trade and steel structure, while the Flaneur is an implicit product of early modernization. Baudelaire defines the Flaneur in The Painter of Modern Life as an amateur observer who passionately or melancholically observes the city and engages in urban activities. However, Benjamin "materialized." this concept, reducing its romantic connotations and emphasizing modernity. He states: "Collectors are faithful believers in commodity fetishism, burdened with a Sisyphean task: constantly stripping away the commodity nature of objects through possession."2

There's a certain segment of society: the middle class, caught between the lower and upper classes, are individuals devoid of identity, acting as rebellious outliers. "In early detective novels, the culprits are neither gentlemen nor rogues, but middle-class citizens."3 They're immersed in the illusion of the commodity economy but unable to fully possess any single item (i.e., monopolize it). Their economic uncertainty mirrors their political instability, compelling them to shed their roles as mere experiencers of the materialized city and transform into observers or even critics. This shift allows them to better reintegrate into the market economy from the standpoint of sellers. Benjamin, in "Baudelaire and the Paris of the Second Empire," mentions: "Intellectuals gradually familiarize themselves with the market as flâneurs. They surrender to the market, ostensibly just browsing, but actually seeking buyers... Their politically ambiguous function corresponds to their unstable economic status." 4

1 Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939). p. 19.

2 ibid. p. 20.

3 ibid.

4 ibid. p. 21.

As a result, they stroll among the crowd yet often maintain a psychological distance, consciously resisting the alienation imposed by highly developed capitalist cities. However, the reality is that they also succumb to the market; they observe with caution, all the while yearning earnestly for a sense of belonging. This indicates that they are not the only ones awake in the commodity illusion; in fact, they live in struggle. As Benjamin mentioned: "The flâneur seeks his refuge within the crowd."1

1 Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939). p. 21.

3.Capital and public dimensions of arcades from spatial prototypes

3.1 The velocity of pedestrian flow

Based on our earlier discussions, arcade streets inherently possessed capitalist characteristics from their inception. Regarding their typical patrons—the flâneurs— Benjamin and Baudelaire provide contrasting definitions; Benjamin, viewing them through a romantic lens, sees them as explorers of modernity. Yet, some of Benjamin’s texts suggest that both the arcades and their visitors reflect similar capitalist traits. Consequently, the spatial attributes of the arcades are also indirectly imbued with capitalist qualities. Nevertheless, it is essential to recognize that over the almost two centuries of its existence, capitalism has been subject to extensive reflection and restructuring. The arcade itself has redefined its role within urban renewal, revealing its authentic public essence, which stands apart from mere capitalist profit motives.

The proportion of space significantly influences whether an arcade street leans more toward capitalist or public characteristics. Auguste Blanqui, through the limited nature of material elements, expressed that progress itself is merely an illusion of history: "These resources, in their abundance, are capable of forming countless combinations, yet like the elements that compose them, the outcomes are inevitably finite. To occupy space, nature must perpetually recreate these original combinations or types."1 This profound theory ultimately reflects on the cyclical nature of the commodity economy, where the endless repetition of commodities and the recurring economic patterns find echoes in commercial spaces.

Arcade streets, often seen as precursors to department store layouts, have had their spatial designs widely duplicated in large department stores due to their significant commercial appeal. Using Paris's "Bon Marché" as an example, it closely reflects the "indoor pedestrian street" style characteristic of arcade streets.

1 Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939). p. 25.

Au Bon Marché department store in Paris. Woodcut, ca. 1880.

It features opulent, expansive glass skylights, symmetrically aligned spaces, and endless lofty atriums flanked by a repetitive sequence of shops — creating a perfect setting for a commodity illusion by saturating every space. As prime venues for consumer worship, the main distinction between department stores and arcade streets lies in their spatial proportions. For instance, the Bon Marché's ratio of interior width to height is around 1:1.5, which results in a horizontally more expansive space compared to the core areas of typical arcade streets, where the width to height ratio is closer to 1:2.5. Therefore, compared to the narrow arcade streets, the Bon Marché department store is far more significant as a space than as a mere passageway. This also means that in the Bon Marché, people are often stationary rather than in motion for much of the time. The vast atriums and aerial walkways in the Bon Marché are a perfect match, exposing a type of high-level, horizontal transportation to public view. The steel walkways of the Bon Marché were particularly captivating and prominent at the time; even if vertical transport was concealed, people would still actively seek ways to access these overhead passages. Shops on the second and third floors did not need to worry about their business because the aerial corridors acted as a talisman ensuring their attractiveness. Here, we see how the Bon Marché manipulates public behavior by redefining the spatial configuration of arcade streets. Without the need for excessive promotion, the space itself serves as a massive advertisement, attracting suburbanites and keeping them "tied" to the mall for an entire afternoon, even if they only purchase a coffee. Content with this arrangement, as the grand illusion can accommodate far more than just consumers of inexpensive goods. At that time, the Bon Marché functioned like a massive black hole, possessing the magical power to draw immense crowds.

The Passage de l'Opéra, 18221823. Courtesy of the Musée Carnavalet, Paris.

The "inhumanity" of shopping malls lies in using spaces that exceed human scale to restrict the flow rate of crowds. Regarding the dynamics of crowds in urban blocks, Gordon Cullen uses the term "Viscosity" in The Concise Townscape to symbolize the flow and blending of static and dynamic crowds. He mentions, "The mixture of static and dynamic people has 'viscosity'. This forms groups chatting, slow window shoppers, newspaper and flower sellers, etc. Hanging blinds, porches, and winding streets provide the appropriate setting, and the flexible interplay of different spaces offers various options for crowd behavior."1 Cullen presents two scenarios with starkly different urban interfaces. The image below depicts a street space that is not only pleasing to the eye but also scaled to human proportions, where the boundary between indoors and outdoors is subtly blurred. The café's outdoor seating and the circular public benches serve as welcoming symbols that invite pedestrians to pause and enjoy the space. On the left, the theory of pedestrian cohesion is visually interpreted, illustrating how human-centric designs utilize invisible spaces and a sense of "de-ordering" to facilitate the gathering and dispersion of crowds. Conversely, another image shows a standardized block with clear demarcations between inside and outside, where bold visual symbols proclaim its authority, making every pedestrian appear nonintrusive within this structured urban landscape.

The visual interpreteation of "viscosity", Yimiao Li

1 Cullen, Gordon. The Concise Townscape. Oxford ; Boston : Routledge/Architectural Press, 1971.

Even in identical spatial layouts, arcade streets exhibit more publicness compared to the deceptive democracy of department stores. For instance, the Vivienne Arcade in Paris, with its three-meter-wide pedestrian pathways, accentuates its intended role as a "passageway," ensuring a comfortable flow for the "flâneurs" meandering through it. Furthermore, its ceiling, nearly eight meters high, optimizes natural light and enhances comfort in the narrow space. Today, as the commodity economic model is overturned, the commercial appeal of the shops on either side of the arcade street has gradually diminished, serving more as a backdrop to the passage function, yet retaining a touch of classical charm that still invites passersby to linger. The political and economic significance once attributed to these passages has also been phased out over the course of history. The "flâneur" has donned the coat of Romanticism anew, no longer a speculator of capital. Instead, there is a pursuit of pure sensory experiences and a desire to "get lost." In the arcade streets, they can sit outside the shops to rest, stride across, or stroll leisurely. This elongated space does not encourage prolonged stays; the passing crowd propels you to walk along. The diversity of roaming behaviors reflects the respect this space holds for public behavioral intentions, offering multiple choices. While most commercial spaces fear the loss of crowds, but arcade streets exhibit a spirit of generosity: they prioritize public benefits over private interests, thus achieving wider advantages within the broader district context. Tracing back to the origins of arcade streets, many were transformed from public thoroughfares squeezed between buildings, giving them an inherently publicness. The carefully managed spatial proportions of these streets naturally moderate their commercialization. In contrast, as department stores expand to superhuman scales, people, despite having more room to move indoors, find their actions subtly controlled, ultimately transforming them into consumers.

Vivienne Arcade in Paris，1980s

3.2

3.2.1

The Revelation of Naples

"Benjamin and Asja Lacis, a Latvian avant-garde actress and Marxist children's theater director whom he met in Capri in 1924, appear to be among the first to use the term 'porous' in relation to the city."1 Benjamin and Lacis initially focused their study of "porosity" on Naples, "urging people to pay attention to caves, cellars, courtyards, arcades, stairways, windows, doors, and balconies, all of which foster momentary dramatic scenes."2 Such dramatized scenarios occur at every street corner in the old city of Naples. The image on the left presents a "pore" observed from a human perspective, where the arches of an overpass perfectly form the boundary between two blocks. The arch, in terms of its practical function, is very clear. But in the eyes of a "flâneur," it has an ambiguous identity: it possesses the nature of a boundary, yet visually and spatially, it is entirely open. This makes the ordinary arcade an important node for urban wandering: a dramatic, memorable element. Its dramatic nature is manifested in the randomness of its spatial properties, an unexpected surprise resulting from practical function.

The "porosity" of Naples isn't just a feature seen through the lens of human activity but extends to a broader perspective akin to a God's-eye view. The map below depicts Naples' southern region in the 1920s. Intriguingly, each neighborhood comprises an enclosed central courtyard area, seamlessly linked to the main thoroughfares. In certain areas, linear roads traverse multiple blocks in irregular patterns, forming a sort of "nervous system" connecting different parts. The "permeability" of the main buildings within the blocks is striking: they readily integrate with the urban streetscape, becoming integral parts of the open public space.

1 Sabine Haenni, Introduction: The Porous City, Mediapolis Journal, February 17, 2020.

2 ibid.

Via Sanità, Naples

The City of Naples, Map of the Duke of Noja, 1775, Giovanni Carafa

"Open

In Europe, certain quintessential arcades possess a "permeable" quality from both the "human perspective" and the "God's-eye view." In Benjamin's discourse, arcade streets are underscored as instruments of capitalism, yet their constructive public significance in urban settings is frequently disregarded. In truth, akin to certain urban features in Naples, arcades can also be perceived as a medium that binds neighboring districts, offering "transversal space" for flâneurs.

"The name of the Vero-Dodat passage [constructed between Rue de Bouloy and Rue Grenelle-SaintHonoré] originates from two wealthy pork butchers - Mr. Virot and Mr. Dauda, who, in 1823, built the passage along with adjacent buildings, marking a monumental endeavor. Hence, some described this arcade at the time as a delightful piece of art enclosed by two blocks."1 The permeability of the Virot-Dauda Passage primarily stems from its function as a thoroughfare, facilitating the movement of diverse populations. It links two major thoroughfares. Serving as a shortcut to the other district. So pedestrians can seamlessly traverse nearby blocks, facilitating a transition between the physical and visual realms. As depicted on the left, the Virot-Dauda Passage (80 meters in length), highlighted in yellow, links two major thoroughfares. Serving as a shortcut to the core area, it notably intersects a significant junction on its western side, serving as a nexus for multiple blocks. The spatial transversal enabled by the Virot-Dauda Passage not only enhances pedestrian traffic efficiency but also provides wanderers with a fantastical surprise in spatial exploration.

Specifically, the arcade's permeability is also visually evident. Arcade streets open on both sides offer a glimpse of another "world" for the flâneurs on the opposite side of the passage, presenting a confined yet enticing image. The process of traversing the passage is both an act of imagination and revelation. This "visual concealment" adds a theatrical element not found in ordinary open sidewalks. During a journey spanning multiple blocks, these semi-enclosed, semi-open arcades become effective clues for flâneurs, to connect a complete and cinematic trip.

1 Benjamin, Walter. Paris, Capital of the 19th Century [C]. Translated by Liu Beicheng. China: Commercial Press, 2012. Paris in the Second Empire Period Under the Pen of Baudelaire. p. 106.

Virot-Dodat passage, Paris,1823

Virot-Dodat passage, Paris

archways offer a glimpse of another "world" for the flâneurs on the opposite side of the passage, presenting a confined yet enticing image. "

3.2.2

The Continuity of Streets

Certainly, "unidirectional extension" isn't the sole option. The amalgamation of arcaded streets and multidirectional expansion yields not just spatial elongation but also an extension of human sensory perception akin to a "symphony". Studies on the "physiology of urban populations" emerged as early as the 19th century, initially focusing on the appearance and attire of city dwellers, thereby establishing typical reference images for various demographics. Gradually, this research broadened to encompass the diverse activities of urban populations, aiming to construct the intricate tapestry of urban life.

"Once a writer steps into the market, they look around as if entering a panoramic painting."1 This illustrates the inherent relationship between "panoramic painting" and "panoramic literature." "Panoramic painting" functions much like a camera equipped with a wide-angle lens, avidly seeking to encapsulate urban scenery in a single frame, probing the limits of human visual breadth. The oversaturation of the commodity economy is projected onto the panoramic image, and human vision begins to saturate as well. This exaggerated imagery eventually transmits to the nerve endings, forming an ingrained impression of the metropolis. However, relying solely on visual imagery falls short; "panoramic literature" adds multiple layers of filters to the metropolis once more. "After depicting various types of people, it was time for urban physiological studies. Hence emerged works like 'Paris at Night,' 'Paris on the Dining Table,' 'Paris Underwater,' 'Paris on Horseback'... When this series was exhausted, some began to venture into national physiological studies."2Just as a panoramic image can seem boundless, panoramic literature can even delve into the intricacies of urban square pigeon flocks. —— In the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, both "panoramic images" and "panoramic literature" served the commodity economy. The metropolis they constructed possessed a “surreal divinity".3

1 Benjamin, Walter. Paris, Capital of the 19th Century [C]. Translated by Liu Beicheng. China: Commercial Press, 2012. Paris in the Second Empire Period Under the Pen of Baudelaire, p. 97.

2 ibid. P. 98

3 Marx, Karl Heinrich. Das Kapital, Volume 1, Chapter 1.

When different arcaded streets interconnect and combine, they become the ideal canvas for "panoramic images" and "panoramic literature," pushing the boundaries of human sensory perception. Even two hundred years later, as physical retail stores have waned in importance, these multidirectional extending arcades still possess the enchanting ability to conjure "illusions." Like most spaces, arcades serve as vessels for events. However, the majority of unidirectional and shortdistance passages are spatially monotonous, limiting the diversity of spatial quality. This also implies that the interaction between passersby or pedestrians and shops is the crux of events. Conversely, "serpentine arcades" with intricate formations inherently embody "eventfulness." For instance, the melding of Galerie Vivienne and Galerie Colbert in itself constitutes an event—the "encounter" of two arcaded streets at the "corner," and the "transition from indoor to outdoor scenes." These spatial "narratives" serve as the prerequisite conditions for events to unfold organically.

The spatial eventfulness extends beyond just arcaded streets. In reality, the continuity displayed by 19th-century streets enriches the overall narrative of neighborhoods, making it complete and vibrant. Specifically, the term "porosity" is typically applied to an entire urban interface, and arcaded streets, as emblematic "porous spaces," are inherently linked to the urban context. This also implies that the surroundings of arcaded streets, exemplified by Galerie Vivienne and Galerie Colbert, share similar or identical scales (such as spatial height and width) with the arcaded streets themselves. It is within these contiguous architectural blocks that intersecting passages are carved out, offering flâneurs a seamless and intersecting roaming experience. These arcaded streets, with their multifaceted spatial dimensions, along with their associated districts, collectively define the scale of "walking" and exploration. The intricate spatial quality emanating from multiple spaces and ornate decorations is particularly valued in the era of skyscrapers. However, the escalating height of buildings comes at a cost - the mandatory widening of inter-building spaces, surpassing the human scale of comfort for both buildings and streets. Yet, these glaring issues have not elicited proactive responses, and people have not turned to historical districts to seek solutions.

The map of Galerie Vivienne and Galerie Colbert, Paris

The connection between Galerie Vivienne and Galerie Colbert, Paris

3 Getting Lost

Therefore, it is only after all buildings have entered an era of vertical development that we can rediscover the harmonious proportions of the Parisian districts. Particularly before the Haussmannization of Paris, the "non-landmark" nature and appropriate height of traditional districts created ample possibilities for horizontal extension and the formation of labyrinths. "Getting lost" has long been a goal for flâneurs in Europe. "In the city, being unable to find your way is likely dull and mundane. It requires only ignorance, nothing more. But to lose oneself in the city - just like getting lost in a forest - that requires an entirely different kind of education... Paris taught me the art of getting lost: it fulfilled a dream, a dream that first showed its traces in the ink-absorbing pages of my school exercise books."1 Benjamin here refers to "ignorance" as another state of being for the wanderer, who sets aside all utilitarian attitudes and allows themselves to wander without any guard. This gives rise to a literature of getting lost, where the maze-like descriptions of the city depict the loss of self-value for a generation. A prime example is the protagonist of Accident Nocturne, who lacks parents, education, or employment. His chaotic roaming traverses the clearly named streets of Paris, with memories awakened by the streets and various small restaurants. The authenticity of this fantastical story relies on the real names of streets and cafes, yet the protagonist's wandering remains as elusive as the city itself, like an unsolvable mystery... Paris is a city full of voids, with streets and passages intersecting between similarly scaled, adjacent blocks. These similar blocks may not leave a strong impression, but they possess a strong sense of openness. Flâneurs can freely navigate through these blocks but cannot identify specific locations - their repetition and porosity form the premise of getting lost...

Conclusion

The Arcades Project deeply examines the cultural and social importance of 19th-century Parisian arcades through Walter Benjamin’s distinctive writing style. The article retraces Benjamin's portrayal of the capitalist essence of the arcades and their influence on public spaces, focusing on two pivotal concepts: "phantasmagoria" and "flâneur." It illustrates how the arcades, as manifestations of capitalism, promoted commodity consumption and helped shape modern marketplaces through their architectural and spatial designs.

However, the article contends that after two centuries of transformative changes, the role of arcades warrants reassessment. Starting with the spatial prototypes of typical arcades and blending in urban street interfaces, the article explores "flow rate" and "permeability" to further uncover the "publicness" of arcades. It reveals how these spaces transitioned from mere instruments of capitalism to venues of lasting public value. This shift mirrors the evolution of capitalism and a renewed appreciation for urban spaces. Throughout history, the material and symbolic characteristics of arcades have been reshaped, moving from emblems of the commodity economy to centers of public life and cultural exchange.

Drawing from Walter Benjamin’s The Arcades Project and other sources, this analysis goes beyond economic or architectural aspects to delve into social psychology and cultural symbolism, examining the arcades’ impact on urban lifestyles and their relevance in modern urban culture. Through a nuanced interpretation of the arcades, the article shows how they have influenced and sculpted the identities and behaviors of urban dwellers, and how they have facilitated the dynamic interaction between capital and public spaces over time.

Bibliography

Benjamin, Walter. Paris, Capital of the 19th Century [C]. Translated by Liu Beicheng. China: Commercial Press, 2012. "Paris, Capital of the 19th Century" (Expose of 1939).

Benjamin, Walter. Paris, Capital of the 19th Century [C]. Translated by Liu Beicheng. China: Commercial Press, 2012. "Paris in the Second Empire Period Under the Pen of Baudelaire".

Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1999.

"Arcades", "The Arcades of Paris".

Cullen, Gordon. The Concise Townscape. Oxford ; Boston : Routledge/Architectural Press, 1971.

Sabine Haenni, Introduction: The Porous City, Mediapolis Journal, February 17, 2020.

Modiano, Patrick. Accident Nocturne. Translated by Phoebe Weston-Evans. Paris: Gallimard Education. 2005.

Koolhaas, Rem. 1978. Delirious New York: A Retroactive Manifesto for Manhattan. New York: The Monacelli Press.