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Introduction to Holidays and Celebrations
Holidays mark time. They occupy a space outside of ordinary events and give shape and meaning to our everyday existence. They also remind us of the passage of time as we reflect on Christmases, Passovers, or Ramadans past. Throughout human history, nations and peoples have marked their calendars with special days to celebrate, commemorate, and memorialize. We set aside times to reflect on the past and future, to rest and renew physically and spiritually, and to simply have fun.
In English we call these extraordinary moments “holidays,” a contraction of the term “holy day.” Sometimes holidays are truly holy days—the Sabbath, Easter, or Eid al-Fitr, for example—but they can also be nonreligious occasions that serve political purposes, address the social needs of communities and individuals, or focus on regional customs and games.
This series explores the meanings and celebrations of holidays across religions and cultures around the world. It groups the holidays into volumes according to theme (such as Lent, Yom Kippur, and Other Atonement Days ; Thanksgiving and Other Harvest Festivals ; Independence Days ; Easter, Passover, and Other Spring Festivals; Western and Chinese New Year’s Celebrations ; Religious New Year’s Celebrations ; Carnival ; Ramadan, and Halloween and Commemorations of the Dead ) or by their common human experience due to their closeness on the calendar (such as Christmas and Hanukkah ). Each volume is divided into two sections—the fi rst introduces readers to the origins, history, and common practices associated with the holidays; and the second section takes the reader on a worldwide tour that shows the regional variations and distinctive celebrations within specific countries. The reader will learn how these holidays started, what they mean to the people who celebrate them, and how different cultures celebrate them.
These volumes have an international focus, and thus readers will be able to learn about diversity both at home and throughout the world. We can learn a great deal about a people or nation by the holidays they celebrate. We can also learn from holidays how cultures and religions have interacted and mingled over time. We see in celebrations not just the past through tradition, but the principles and traits that people embrace and value today.
: vi Christmas and Hanukkah
The Chelsea House Holidays and Celebrations series surveys this rich and varied festive terrain. Its 10 volumes show the distinct ways that people all over the world infuse ordinary life with meaning, purpose, or joy. The series cannot be all-inclusive or the last word on so vast a subject, but it offers a vital fi rst step for those eager to learn more about the diverse, fascinating, and vibrant cultures of the world, through the festivities that give expression, order, and meaning to their lives.
Introduction to Holidays and Celebrations vii ;
Thousands of Filipino Catholics crowd outside a church lighted with Christmas lanterns and decorations as they attend the first of nine daily dawn masses before Christmas day in the Philippines. This centuries-old tradition was said to have been started by farmers who wanted to fulfill their religious obligation before their day’s work in the field.
Introduction a a a
In the modern era, and particularly in the Western world, Christmas and Hanukkah have become major events in the calendar. The Christian festival of Christmas celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ, while Hanukkah celebrates a miracle that took place during biblical times. Although the events recalled in these holidays are unconnected, Christianity and Judaism spring from common traditions and holy books; in fact, their origins are so closely linked that people often refer to a Judeo-Christian tradition or heritage.
Both Hanukkah and Christmas take place close to the winter (or December) solstice—the shortest day of the year. Many ancient cultures celebrated this annual turning point. At a time when people are anxiously awaiting the return of longer days, both Christmas and Hanukkah are closely associated with light. For example, the central ritual of Hanukkah involves lighting candles every day for eight days. During Hanukkah, electric menorahs decorate public places where open flame is not permitted and are also sometimes placed in the windows of Jewish homes. Other symbols, such as the Star of David, or the dreidel, frequently form part of light displays.
In the Christmas story, a star marks the stable where Jesus is born, and Christ himself was called “the light of the world.” Most Christians would consider Christmas incomplete without lights decorating both their homes and the public spaces around them, not to mention special events such as candlelight church services.
Jews and Christians both consider sacred the 39 books that make up the holy scripture, or holy text. The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, which is also known to Christians as the Old Testament, was composed before the birth of Jesus. Most of it was originally written in Hebrew, and it contains the history, prophecies, and knowledge of the ancient people of Israel. Judaism and Christianity both originated in the Middle East, and are Abrahamic—the term used to describe religions that honor Abraham, who was the leader of the tribes of Israel. For Jews, Abraham was the ancestor of all the Israelites.
Christian faithful pray in candlelight in a Catholic Church in Nairobi, Kenya. Both Christmas and Hanukkah are holidays associated with light.
Christmas
History of a Holy day
Christmas is one of the most widely celebrated holidays in the world. Observed since the fourth century, today both Christians and many nonChristians celebrate the festival on December 24 (Christmas Eve) and 25 (Christmas Day). The word Christmas comes from a combination of the words Christ’s mass. For Christians, Christmas is a time of joyful celebration as well as a time to express their faith, since the holiday commemorates the birth of Jesus. Most historians believe Jesus was a real person who grew up in Nazareth, a town in northern Israel. However the foundation of Christianity lies in the belief that Jesus was not just a person, but also the son of God—a divine being in human form. Among Christians, there are variations on this belief—some groups believe him to be one of three separate beings known as the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), whereas others believe him to be God in human shape.
The Hebrew Bible contains prophecies (predictions) about the future concerning a “Chosen One” (or Messiah in Hebrew) who will bring all the Jewish people to heaven. These prophecies also state that the Messiah will save all other people in the world by atoning for their sins and ridding the world of evil. Christians consider Jesus to be the Messiah, whereas most Jews believe that the Messiah is yet to come.
While the New Testament recounts the story of the Virgin Mary giving birth to Jesus in Bethlehem, it does not mention the actual date. Despite extensive research, historians still hold many confl icting opinions as to when Jesus was born. The early Christian church did not encourage celebration of the birthdays of people they considered saints or martyrs, including Jesus. At the time, pagans, or people who believed in several gods, observed the birthdays of their religious figures. In an effort to distance themselves from pagan practices, the church preferred to recognize the day a person was martyred (killed) instead of his or her birthday. As a result, Jesus’ birth was not treated as an important day on the religious calendar for nearly 200 years after the beginning of Christianity. Good Friday (which commemorates his crucifi xion and death) and Easter (which celebrates his resurrection) were considered much more important. It was not until the ninth century that the church assigned Christmas its own liturgy, or religious service, known today as Christmas Mass. For many years, Jesus’ birth was celebrated the same
day as his baptism, on January 6. The Armenian Church as well as other Eastern Churches still celebrate Christmas on this date.
By the year 221, Jesus’ birth was celebrated on December 25. This was due to the efforts of Sextus Julius Africanus, a Christian historian who wrote A History of the World. The first of its kind, A History of the World was an influential work that attempted to unite the account of the Bible with Greek and Roman history. In it Africanus introduced the idea that the world was created on March 21, and that on March 25, the fourth day of creation, God made light. He calculated that Jesus was conceived many thousands of years later on March 25. This is symbolically significant as Jesus is often referred to as “the light of the world.” Additionally,
: 4 Christmas and Hanukkah
A priest prays at the grotto, the site where Jesus Christ is traditionally believed to have been born, inside the Church of the Nativity in the West Bank town of Bethlehem.
The Story behind “Xmas”
some Christians are bothered by seeing Christmas written “Xmas,” believing that the writer is too lazy to write Christ’s name, or is trying to remove religious beliefs from Christmas. the abbreviation is actually at least 1,000 years old. it comes from the uppercase Greek letters X and p the letters are an ancient abbreviation for Christ’s name in Greek. in many orthodox, Protestant, and Catholic churches the two letters appear with one laid over the other in an icon.
nine months after March 25 is December 25, so the date became widely accepted as the date of Jesus’ birth. However, not everyone agrees on this explanation as to why December 25 was the date chosen. Some suggest it was because it is near the time of the winter (December) solstice. Solstices are the days six months apart in the year when the difference in length between day and night is greatest.
Christmas shares orientation and timing with the celebration of the ancient Roman holiday of Saturnalia, which took place from December 17 to December 24, in honor of the God Saturn. Saturn was associated with agriculture and bountiful crops. As a remedy for the dark, dreary days of winter, the Romans focused on the coming spring. They lit candles and lanterns to push back the darkness, and celebrated with dancing, feasting, and merrymaking. For a brief time rich and poor were treated as equals, slaves might be served by their masters, people took part in masquerades, and a mock king—The
A Greek Orthodox priest takes part in an Orthodox Christmas procession. Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas Day on January 7.
Christmas 5 ;
The Serbian Orthodox bishop is shown here with his followers gathered to watch the burning of the traditional Yule log of dried oak tree branches on Orthodox Christmas Eve, which is January 6 for Orthodox Christians.
Lord of Misrule—was crowned. Businesses, schools, and courts closed, and the citizens enjoyed life to the fullest.
Other pagan celebrations of the winter solstice continue to influence Christmas celebrations today. Since Celtic and Germanic tribes lived in the Northern Hemisphere, the Solstice was very important—it signaled the return of longer days and the warmth of the sun. To mark the turning of the seasons, ancient Scandinavians and Celts cut gigantic logs and dragged them through the forest to burn on their hearths. They called them “Yule logs.” If the log burned for 12 days, it was thought to bring good luck. These tribes generally held trees to be sacred, symbolic of life itself, and inhabited by spirits. For the Scandinavians, any tree that stayed green, i.e., “evergreen,” during their long and bitter winters must have magical properties. Mistletoe, which stays green throughout the year, was another plant the Celts considered sacred. The Celtic influence can be seen in the custom of hanging mistletoe, as well as in the evergreen and holly decorations often used at Christmas.
The people of ancient Rome also used holly in many of their celebrations. They even gave each other gifts of holly wreaths. Today holly has become a symbol of Christmas, and so has its colors: red and green.
The people of ancient Rome used holly as a decoration in many of their celebrations. Today holly has become a symbol of Christmas, and so have its colors: red and green.
Mistletoe, which stays green throughout the year, was considered sacred by the ancient Celts. The Celtic influence can be seen in the custom of hanging mistletoe during Christmas.
Customs
The Tree Transported
In the days before photography, television, telephones, and the Internet, it took longer for ideas to move from one place to another, and even longer for them to move from one country to another. For example, the idea of having a Christmas tree traveled slowly from Germany in the first half of the 700s to other European countries, and then finally to North America. In 1561, in northeastern France, the Forest Ordinance of Ammerschweier, Alsace stated, “No burgher shall have for Christmas more than one bush of more than eight shoes’ length.” (A burgher was a citizen of a city or town). From this rule it is known that people were putting up and probably decorating Christmas vegetation. The first time a tree is actually referred to as a Christmas tree also took place in Alsace, in 1604. For the next 200 years customs developed and spread through the increasingly interlinked world. By 1829 Christmas trees were very popular in England.
In 1835, a German immigrant and Harvard professor set up a tree for his son and two of his friends. He hung it with toys and placed wax candles on the branches. Harriet Martineau, a visiting writer from Britain, was there when the tree was revealed. (The early custom was to keep the tree hidden until fully decorated.) She wrote in her 1838 Retrospect of Western Travel that she had been “present at the introduction into the new country of the German Christmas-tree.” She predicted “the Christmas-tree will become one of the most flourishing exotics of New-England.” Though the tree she saw was not actually the first in the country, glowing descriptions such as hers helped increase the desire for having one.
In 1848 this illustration, drawn by J. L. Williams, appeared in the London Illustrated News, popularizing the Christmas tree in the United Kingdom and ultimately in North America.
By 1848, markets in Philadelphia had them for sale, but in much of North America they were still a rarity and sometimes even considered too pagan. It was an illustration that appeared in the London Illustrated News in that same year that truly launched the Christmas tree not only in the United Kingdom but also in North America, where an adaptation was later published. A full-page picture showed the British royal family around their tree at Windsor castle. It was a scene of domestic happiness and calm. The article that accompanied the picture described the tree in great detail, including the decorations, the gifts under the tree, and a description of when the tree was put up and taken down. Two years later, an almost identical picture showed up in the United States in Godey’s Lady’s Book . The artist had “Americanized” the original illustration by removing all the royal insignia and the Prince’s mustache. It captured the imagination of the public in the United States, just as it had in England, only of course, they thought it showed a typical American Christmas.
The original Christmas tree decorations were simple and made of materials such as sweets, fruits, berries, and gingerbread cookies. Candles were probably introduced as decorations in the late 18th century. By the 1850s, European decorations had already become quite elaborate. English author Charles Dickens described a tree covered not only with fruit and candy but also with dolls, miniature furniture, tiny musical instruments, and toy guns and swords. While the European decorations were becoming more and more ornate, North American Christmas trees were still
: 8 Christmas and Hanukkah
being decorated with natural materials such as popcorn, paper flowers, and homemade dolls. Today one may still find natural or homemade ornaments, but most North American families rely on stores for their decorations, visiting department stores that may feature a group of trees decorated according to different “themes” and adorned with sets of ornaments in colors selected to go together. Technology also plays a part, especially as outdoor decorations have become increasingly showy. On front lawns and on the exteriors of homes, fabulous, timed light displays create magical effects and entire neighborhoods can transform with holiday lights. Statuary and mechanized lawn gnomes in the form of favorite Christmas personalities are also popular, reflecting how the holiday changes according to time and place.
Artificial trees first appeared in Germany in the 1800s and were made of wire and feathers. Germany was also the country that for many years made the most spectacular Christmas ornaments. Using a special process of hand-blowing glass into molds, artists made the insides of the ornaments look silvery. At first this effect came from mercury or lead. Later ornaments got their mirror-like surface from a special compound of silver nitrate and sugar water. The reflection of candles or electric lights off the ornament multiplied the magical glimmer.
The decorations people use on the top of their Christmas trees can be very
Today, Christmas trees are popular decorations in many countries. Shown here is the Rockefeller Center Christmas tree in New York City.
symbolic. Some people choose an angel, in remembrance of the angel who appeared before Mary to tell her she would give birth to Jesus. A star is another popular symbol, representing the star seen by the three kings, as well as the idea of Christ as “the light of the world.”
Sing We All Noël
One of the oldest Christmas customs is the singing of carols. As one might expect, singing at festivals is a custom probably as old as the festivals themselves. The word carol or carole probably came from French or Anglo-Saxon—the language spoken by ancient tribes who entered Britain. Originally carols were meant to accompany dancing, and they usually
Tallying “The Twelve Days of Christmas”
Every year PnC Wealth Management figures out what it would cost to buy all the items mentioned in the song, “the twelve days of Christmas” (12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a leaping, nine ladies dancing, eight maids a milking, seven swans a swimming, six geese a laying, five golden rings, four calling birds, three French hens, two turtle doves, and a partridge in a pear tree). they check with jewelry stores, dance companies, pet stores, and other sources to come up with their results. according to their calculations, at 2007 prices, buying each item in the song once would cost $19,507. it would cost $78,100 to buy the number of objects accumulated after 12 days—a whopping 364—because of all the repeats. some things cost the same as they did the previous year (partridge: $15, seven swans a-swimming: $4,200, nine ladies dancing: $4,759). However, the milkmaids, who had not had a raise since 1997, went from $41 to almost $47 because of the minimum wage hike. and they will get more in 2009. Gold rings were up because of the increase in gold prices, and higher food costs pushed the six geese a-laying from $300 to $360. the index has been calculated since 1984.
: 10 Christmas and Hanukkah
In front of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin, Germany, a singer carries a Christmas star as she sings Christmas songs with her choral singers to collect money for children in need around the world. Traditionally Christmas carolers walk the streets in Germany, singing and collecting money for charitable causes, during the holiday season.
Christmas 11 ;
dealt with religious subjects. For about 200 years, carols enjoyed great popularity. Then, in the 1600s they almost disappeared. It was not until a revived interest in Christmas during the early 1800s, attributed to the popularity of written works such as Charles Dickens’s novel A Christmas Carol, Clement Clarke Moore’s poem “Twas the Night Before Christmas,” and Washington Irving’s short story “Old Christmas,” that carols finally came out of hibernation. In 1833 a book of more than 200 carols was published. In current times, most people consider a carol any song that celebrates Christmas, whether it has a religious theme or not.
In addition to certain beloved carols and the Christmas tree, the Advent calendar originated in Germany at least as early as the 19th century. In its simplest version, the calendar consists of two layers of paper glued together. Numbered doors are cut into the front piece of paper and colorful illustrations are placed on the page behind it. Each illustration has to line up in such a way that when the door in front of it is opened, the picture is clearly visible. Each number corresponds to a day in the “countdown” to Christmas. A child opens the door labeled “1” on the first day of December. Behind the door there is usually an illustration of something related to Christmas—such as a candle, a tree, or a toy. Although the idea is simple, advent calendars have delighted children for more than 150 years. The advent calendar probably began with a simple chalk mark used to count the days before Christmas. Later, people began to light a candle each night, or to put up a tiny religious picture each day.
German Gerhad Lang, who created the first printed advent calendars in 1908, got the idea from a childhood ritual begun by his mother. She attached tiny candles to a piece of cardboard and each day he would remove one as Christmas approached. Lang’s first advent calendars were printed with numbered pictures. Several years later he introduced calendars with 24 little doors like the ones children enjoy today.
During World War II (1939-45), advent calendars were discontinued, probably to save paper. Once the war was over, production of them resumed. Some clever three-dimensional calendars have taken the idea of the Advent calendar one step further. These calendars have numbered pockets and inside each pocket a treat or toy is hidden.
The Arrival of Santa Claus
Giving gifts is very much a part of modern Christmas festivities. The practice may have originated with Saturnalia, when it was common to exchange gifts. Christians also view gift-giving as an echo of the gifts given to Jesus : 12 Christmas and Hanukkah
by the three magi, the three wise men who traveled to Bethlehem in search of a newborn king. Originally Christmas gifts were much simpler than they are today. Children in 19th century Europe or North America typically received red rubber balls, boxes of colored pencils and perhaps a dollar or two from their grandparents. Many gifts were homemade, not only because mass-produced items did not exist, but few people could afford to spend much on them. Today, the commercial element of Christmas is a major driver of Western economies. For many in the United States, the day after Thanksgiving marks the beginning of Christmas shopping. It has been nicknamed “Black Friday” because retailers turn profitable for the year from sales made on this day, and black in accounting practice is used to show a positive balance (red denotes negative).
The identity of who is believed to bring the gifts varies by culture, as does the day on which gifts are received. In countries that are mostly Protestant, such as the United States, Canada, England, and Australia, children ask Santa Claus to fulfill their Christmas wishes. In countries in which most the Christians are Catholic, it is the three kings who bring the gifts to children, just as they brought gifts to the baby Jesus. In the European countries where populations follow Eastern Orthodox traditions, Saint Nicholas brings gifts on his feast day of December 6.
Santa Claus’s Christian origins are evident in his name as well as in the red and white costume he wears, which has similarities to the robes worn by a bishop of the church. The tradition of asking children about their behavior is also a custom associated with Saint Nicholas. (A child will only receive Christmas presents if he or she has been well behaved during the year.)
A child talks to Father Christmas in Johannesburg, South Africa.
The Historical Nicholas
the roman Catholic Church has permitted one scientific analysis of bones belonging to saint nicholas, which lie in the town of bari in southern italy. in the late 1950s, when the chapel was being restored, a special group of scientists was allowed to photograph and measure the contents of the grave. Using computer-generated facial reconstruction, X-rays, and precise measurements, a laboratory in England revealed new information about what saint nicholas actually looked like. the data showed that he was barely five feet tall (which was shorter than average, even for the time in which he lived), and had a broken nose.
Christian families in most European countries exchange gifts on December 24, often after attending mass. In North America, the morning of December 25 is the time for opening gifts, perhaps because of the strong influence of the poem “A Visit from St. Nicholas,” more popularly known as “The Night Before Christmas.” As a result, Christians in North America usually attend church services on Christmas Eve. “Midnight” masses are offered by a great number of churches, even though mass may not start at midnight.
There are several stories about the origins of Santa Claus, but some see an inspiration in a real-life bishop from the third century who lived in what is now Turkey. After he was credited for performing astonishing miracles, Saint Nicholas became known as Nicholas the Wonderworker. His popularity gradually spread throughout Europe. Unlike the plump, rosy-cheeked Santa Claus so familiar today, Saint Nicholas was usually shown as a tall, thin man, dressed in robes and wearing a pointed bishop’s mitre, or hat, on his head. In paintings he often appeared clasping a gospel book, assisted by one or more African pageboys known as Black Pete. He is the patron saint of children, orphans, and students, due to his love for them—as well as for his kindness and generosity. He is also the patron saint of sailors, fishermen, the falsely accused, and various people who have behaved badly but have asked for forgiveness. He is one of the most popular Christian saints in the world. In fact, he is the : 14 Christmas and Hanukkah
patron saint of numerous countries, including Greece, Russia, Germany, Austria, and Belgium.
The Christmas Story
For many people, celebrating Christmas means turning their attention to stories and reenactments of Jesus’ life. Four of Jesus’ followers wrote books in which they recorded events in his life, as well as his teachings. These are known as the gospels. The Christmas story as it is known today comes mostly from the gospels of Matthew and Luke. The gospels of Matthew and Luke were written years after Jesus’ death. They emphasize different aspects of the story and disagree on some of the details. The gospels of Mark and John include no mention of Jesus’ birth
Residents of Nazareth playing the roles of Mary, holding Jesus (center); and Joseph (right), reenact the nativity, the birth of Jesus Christ, scene in Nazareth Village, a model of a first-century Galilean village in the Arab town of Nazareth in northern Israel.
and childhood. Since there were no eyewitnesses who can confirm or deny the stories, many questions of historical accuracy remain unanswered. Luke’s version is the most popular, but it does not include the visit by the three wise men, later described as three kings. The story that is reenacted annually around the world combines elements from both Luke’s version and Matthew’s.
Like other religions, Christianity has angels. According to the gospel of Luke, the archangel Gabriel appeared to Mary, who was engaged to wed Joseph. Gabriel told Mary that she was carrying God’s child, even though she was a virgin. Joseph and Mary married soon afterward. Joseph was a carpenter from Nazareth, and descended from the line of the second king of Israel, David, both through his father, Jacob, and because he was the adopted son of Heli, who was also descended from David. Joseph and Mary traveled to Bethlehem to enroll in the census (a population count) that had been ordered by the Roman emperor Augustus. Since so many other people were in Bethlehem at the same time, Mary and Joseph could not find an inn in which to sleep. They took refuge in a stable, where Jesus was born.
In the gospel of Matthew, three magi, or wise men, came to Bethlehem guided by a bright star. “Where is he who has been born king of the Jews? For we have seen his star in the East, and have come to worship him.” (Matthew 2:2) It is not known how the magi traveled. They are often pictured riding camels, though they may have walked. The magi attracted the interest of King Herod I, who was king of Judaea (now southern Israel). As one might imagine, King Herod found their talk of a new king threatening.
The three magi, or three wise men, arrive riding their horses at the Vatican, the seat of the Roman Catholic Church, on January 6 to celebrate the feast of the Epiphany. The Christian feast of the Epiphany recalls the magi’s journey to visit the infant Jesus. : 16 Christmas and Hanukkah
He obtained from the magi information about where Jesus was to be found, but not the specific location. He asked them to discover the site and report back to him.
The three magi eventually arrived at the stable and presented Jesus with gifts of “frankincense, gold, and myrrh.” (Frankincense and myrrh are dried tree saps, or resins, that are burned as incense, often after being mixed with herbs and spices.) During the night, each magi dreamt that Herod wanted to murder the child to protect his kingship. As a result, they returned home without reporting to Herod the location of the stable.
Even though the kings appear only in Matthew’s version, their inclusion in the story quickly became popular. Over time, it was expanded on and made more elaborate. As early as the third century, the magi were considered kings instead of wise men, probably to fit with the prophecy in Psalms 72:11 “May all kings fall down before him.”
Saint Francis Assisi of Italy is given credit for turning the nativity, the birth of Jesus, into a three-dimensional scene on Christmas Eve 1223.
According to his biographer, the Franciscan friar Thomas of Celano (ca. 1200–ca. 1270) Saint Francis set up a real straw-filled manger between an ox and a donkey, then held Christmas mass on the manger.
During Christmas, many Christians set up a small replica of the nativity scene in their homes. In French-speaking countries, and in areas such as French Canada (Quebec) and the Creole sections of Louisiana, all churches and many homes display such a scene. They call it a crèche, which means manger—the trough that usually holds grains for horses or cows. In Spanish-speaking countries, it is known as the nacimiento, which means birth. In Mexico, as in many other countries, the figure of Baby Jesus is not placed in the scene until Christmas Eve.
Hanukkah
a Celebration of History
Since Hanukkah often takes place around December, some non-Jews assume that Hanukkah is similar to Christmas in the Christian Church. In fact, it is quite different.
Christmas began as a religious holiday, but Hanukkah is rooted in an event of historical and cultural importance for Jews. Hanukkah is probably the Jewish holiday best documented in historical sources, although it does not appear in the Torah, the Jewish holy scriptures.
After the Greek conqueror Alexander the Great took over Syria (which in ancient times was the whole fertile strip between the eastern Mediterranean and the desert of northern Arabia), Egypt, and Palestine, he allowed the people of the region to continue their religious practices. But Alexander died in 323 b.c.e. After Alexander’s death, his three generals— Antigonus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy—fought over his kingdom. Antigonus eventually ended up with Greece and Macedonia (on the northern border of Greece); Ptolemy got rulership of Israel and Egypt; and Seleucus took charge of Babylonia (now southern Iraq), Persia (today’s Iran), and Syria.
Ptolemy was in favor of Greek nationalism, which was also known as Hellenism, so he favored having everything done according to the Greek tradition. During Ptolemy’s rule, many Jews adopted Greek dress and the Greek language. Many Jews thought that the best way to succeed in Greek society was to blend in with the culture that surrounded them. Nevertheless, they maintained their religious identity. The Jews believed in one god, while the Greeks worshipped a number of gods.
Spelling a Hebrew Word in English
People around the world often wonder about the correct spelling of Hanukkah. Here are some of the spelling variations: Chanuka, Chanukkah, Hanukkah, Hanuka, Hanukka, Hanaka, Haneka, Hanika, Khanukkah. the variety arises from using the roman alphabet to spell a word from Hebrew, a language that has a completely different alphabet.
A rabbi holds a copy of the Torah, the Jewish holy book, at a synagogue in Nebraska. He stands behind a menorah that is used to help celebrate the eight days of Hanukkah.
The Jews’ religious freedom in Jerusalem continued into the next century. While other cities were encouraged to adopt Greek culture and politics, Jerusalem’s high priest continued to rule according to Jewish law. The military stationed in Jerusalem were the only non-Jews in the city. By 175 b.c.e., however, King Antiochus IV had become the ruler of Syria. In the Book of Daniel in the Tanakh, or Hebrew Bible, Antiochus is described as a conqueror and a man of great arrogance and pride. When he took over, he inherited a kingdom whose treasury had been drained by years of war and conquest. Like the previous king, he was desperate for money. Antiochus was also a great admirer of Greek culture, just as the previous king had been. He thought that the best way to expand his kingdom was to turn all the cities he conquered into Greek cities, and to force all conquered people to follow the Greek religion.
At that time in Jerusalem, there were two main parties of Jews: the Hasideans and a party that favored reform and Hellenistic ideas. Because the Hellenistic Jews were wealthier than the Hasideans, they had an easier time influencing the king. The high priest’s brother, Jason, belonged to the Hellenistic group. He offered to pay the king a large sum of money in exchange for being appointed high priest. He agreed to pay even more if Antiochus would let him set up “a gymnasium and a training place for the youth and to enroll the people of Jerusalem as citizens of Antioch.” (II Macc. 3:7) Antiochus agreed, and Jason’s brother was stripped of his title and arrested. Antiochus’s actions outraged the Jews who opposed Hellenization. Normally, someone only became high priest when the previous priest died. Also, they were furious that the king had interfered in their religious matters.
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No one knows if Jason planned for only his followers to become Greek citizens, or whether he wanted every Jew in Jerusalem to become a Greek citizen. What is known is that he had a gymnasium and school modeled on the Greek system built at the northern edge of the Jewish temple. It included a library and became a cultural meeting place. According to the account in the Book of Maccabees, the priests from the temple started to spend time at the wrestling school when they should have been in the temple performing their duties. Whereas before Jerusalem had maintained its Jewish character, under Jason it started to become like the other cities that had adopted Greek ways.
Civil War
For three years, Jason continued as high priest. During this time, the conflicts between the Hellenistic Jews and the conservative Hasideans continued to rise, resulting in what was essentially civil war. However, in 170 b.c.e., while Antiochus was off fighting in Egypt, Jason sent a priest named Menelaus to pay Antiochus the usual tribute (a payment made usually by a state or ruler to another, often as a sign of dependence). This was a big mistake. Menelaus was not only more radical about Hellenism than was Jason, he was willing to pay a bigger bribe to Antiochus in exchange for being high priest. Antiochus saw this as an offer too good to refuse, so Menelaus returned to Jerusalem and became high priest. Jason left the city in defeat, while Menelaus worked even harder to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city.
In 168 b.c.e. a false rumor spread to the people of Jerusalem. They heard that Antiochus had been killed during his second invasion of Egypt. They believed they were suddenly leaderless. Each side (both the
: 20 Christmas and Hanukkah
This frieze from the Arch of Titus in Rome prominently shows the principal symbol of Hanukkah, the seven-branched candelabra known as a menorah, in depicting Romans—the successors to the Greeks in Palestine—sacking the Second Temple of Jerusalem in 70 c e
Hasideans and the Hellenistic Jews) wanted to be sure that they would get control of the city, so they split into factions, or different groups, and began fighting in the streets. Jason, who had never accepted losing his position of high priest, saw this as a way to regain his post, even if he had to use force. He marched on Jerusalem with nearly 1,000 supporters. At first it looked as if he would win, but eventually he was forced to retreat, and fled to Egypt.
In the meantime, Antiochus was actually very much alive. He was not, however, in a peaceful mood. His first invasion of Egypt had been successful, but his second was not. When he tried to take over the city of Alexandria, the Romans stopped him. Though not directly involved, the Romans considered Egypt under their protection. They threatened to go
Hanukkah 21 ;
Members of the Hungarian Orthodox Jewish community dance with their children at the beginning of the Hanukkah festival in downtown Budapest, Hungary. The Hanukkah festival, also known as the Festival of Lights, lasts eight days and commemorates the rededication of the Jewish Second Temple in Jerusalem in 164 b c e after its destruction by Antiochus.
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ben Aderet, in causing a Hebrew translation of this important work to be prepared. In the Introduction, the author states that he has written a Commentary on the Babylonian Talmud treatise Ḥullin and on nearly three entire sections, viz., Moëd, Nashim, and Nezikin. Of all these Commentaries only the one on Roshha-shanahis known.
In the year 1172 Maimonides wrote the IggeretTeman, or Petaḥtiḳvah(“Letter to the Jews in Yemen,” or “Opening of hope”) in response to a letter addressed to him by Rabbi Jacob al-Fayumi on the critical condition of the Jews in Yemen. Some of these Jews had been forced into apostasy; others were made to believe that certain passages in the Bible alluded to the mission of Mohammed; others again had been misled by an impostor who pretended to be the Messiah. The character and style of Maimonides’ reply appear to have been adapted to the intellectual condition of the Jews in Yemen, for whom it was written. These probably read the Bible with Midrashic commentaries, and preferred the easy and attractive Agadahto the more earnest study of the Halakah. It is therefore not surprising that the letter contains remarks and interpretations which cannot be reconciled with the philosophical and logical method by which all the other works of Maimonides are distinguished. After a few complimentary words, in which the author modestly disputes the justice of the praises lavished upon him, he attempts to prove that the present sufferings of the Jews, together with the numerous instances of apostasy, were foretold by the prophets, especially by Daniel, and must not perplex the faithful. It must be borne in mind, he continues, that the attempts made in past times to do away with the Jewish religion, had invariably failed; the same would be the fate of the present attempts; for “religious persecutions are of but short duration.” The arguments which profess to demonstrate that in certain Biblical passages allusion is made to Mohammed, are based on interpretations which are totally opposed to common sense. He urges that the Jews, faithfully adhering to their religion, should
impress their children with the greatness of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, and of the miracles wrought through Moses; they also should remain firm in the belief that God will send the Messiah to deliver their nation, but they must abandon futile calculations of the Messianic period, and beware of impostors. Although there be signs which indicate the approach of the promised deliverance, and the times seem to be the period of the last and most cruel persecution mentioned in the visions of Daniel (xi. and xii.), the person in Yemen who pretends to be the Messiah [xxi]is an impostor, and if care be not taken, he is sure to do mischief. Similar impostors in Cordova, France, and Africa, have deceived the multitude and brought great troubles upon the Jews.—Yet, inconsistently with this sound advice the author gives a positive date of the Messianic time, on the basis of an old tradition; the inconsistency is so obvious that it is impossible to attribute this passage to Maimonides himself. It is probably spurious, and has, perhaps, been added by the translator. With the exception of the rhymed introduction, the letter was written in Arabic, “in order that all should be able to read and understand it”; for that purpose the author desires that copies should be made of it, and circulated among the Jews. Rabbi Naḥum, of the Maghreb, translated the letter into Hebrew.
The success in the first great undertaking of explaining the Mishnah encouraged Maimonides to propose to himself another task of a still more ambitious character. In the Commentary on the Mishnah, it was his object that those who were unable to read the Gemara should be made acquainted with the results obtained by the Amoraim in the course of their discussions on the Mishnah. But the Mishnah, with the Commentary, was not such a code of laws as might easily be consulted in cases of emergency; only the initiated would be able to find the section, the chapter, and the paragraph in which the desired information could be found. The halakahhad, besides, been further developed since the time when the Talmud was compiled. The
changed state of things had suggested new questions; these were discussed and settled by the Geonim, whose decisions, being contained in special letters or treatises, were not generally accessible. Maimonides therefore undertook to compile a complete code, which would contain, in the language and style of the Mishnah, and without discussion, the whole of the Written and the Oral Law, all the precepts recorded in the Talmud, Sifra, Sifre and Tosefta, and the decisions of the Geonim. According to the plan of the author, this work was to present a solution of every question touching the religious, moral, or social duties of the Jews. It was not in any way his object to discourage the study of the Talmud and the Midrash; he only sought to diffuse a knowledge of the Law amongst those who, through incapacity or other circumstances, were precluded from that study. In order to ensure the completeness of the code, the author drew up a list of the six hundred and thirteen precepts of the Pentateuch, divided them into fourteen groups, these again he subdivided, and thus showed how many positive and negative precepts were contained in each section of the Mishneh torah. The principles by which he was guided in this arrangement were laid down in a separate treatise, called Seferha-miẓvot. Works of a similar kind, written by his predecessors, as the Halakotgedolotof R. Shimon Kahira, and the several Azharotwere, according to Maimonides, full of errors, because their authors had not adopted any proper method. But an examination of the rules laid down by Maimonides and of their application leads to the conclusion that his results were not less arbitrary; as has, in fact, been shown by the criticisms of Naḥmanides. The Seferha-miẓvotwas written in Arabic, and thrice translated into Hebrew, namely, by Rabbi Abraham ben Ḥisdai, Rabbi Shelomoh ben Joseph ben Job, and Rabbi Moses Ibn Tibbon. Maimonides himself desired to translate the book into Hebrew, but to his disappointment he found no time. [xxii]
This Seferha-miẓvotwas executed as a preparation for his principal work, the MishnehTorah, or Yadha-ḥazakah, which consists of an Introduction and fourteen Books. In the Introduction the author first describes the chain of tradition from Moses to the close of the Talmud, and then he explains his method in compiling the work. He distinguishes between the dicta found in the Talmud, Sifre, Sifra, or Tosefta, on the one hand, and the dicta of the Geonim on the other; the former were binding on all Jews, the latter only as far as their necessity and their utility or the authority of their propounders was recognized. Having once for all stated the sources from which he compiled his work, he did not deem it necessary to name in each case the authority for his opinion or the particular passage from which he derived his dictum. Any addition of references to each paragraph he probably considered useless to the uninformed and superfluous to the learned. At a later time he discovered his error, he being himself unable to find again the sources of some of his decisions. Rabbi Joseph Caro, in his commentary on the Mishneh Torah, termed KesephMishneh, remedied this deficiency. The Introduction is followed by the enumeration of the six hundred and thirteen precepts and a description of the plan of the work, its division into fourteen books, and the division of the latter into sections, chapters, and paragraphs.
According to the author, the MishnehTorahis a mere compendium of the Talmud; but he found sufficient opportunities to display his real genius, his philosophical mind, and his ethical doctrines. For in stating what the traditional Law enjoined he had to exercise his own judgment, and to decide whether a certain dictum was meant to be taken literally or figuratively; whether it was the final decision of a majority or the rejected opinion of a minority; whether it was part of the Oral Law or a precept founded on the scientific views of a particular author; and whether it was of universal application or was only intended for a special period or a special locality. The first Book,
Seferha-maddaʻ, is the embodiment of his own ethical and theological theories, although he frequently refers to the Sayings of our Sages, and employs the phraseology of the Talmud. Similarly, the section on the Jewish Calendar, Hilkotha-ʻibur, may be considered as his original work. In each group of the halakot, its source, a certain passage of the Pentateuch, is first quoted, with its traditional interpretation, and then the detailed rules follow in systematic order. The MishnehTorahwas written by the author in pure Hebrew; when subsequently a friend asked him to translate it into Arabic, he said he would prefer to have his Arabic writings translated into Hebrew instead of the reverse. The style is an imitation of the Mishnah; he did not choose, the author says, the philosophical style, because that would be unintelligible to the common reader; nor did he select the prophetic style, because that would not harmonize with the subject.
Ten years of hard work by day and by night were spent in the compilation of this code, which had originally been undertaken for “his own benefit, to save him in his advanced age the trouble and the necessity of consulting the Talmud on every occasion.”
Maimonides knew very well that his work would meet with the opposition of those whose ignorance it would expose, also of those who were incapable of comprehending it, and of those who were inclined to condemn every deviation from their own preconceived notions. [xxiii]But he had the satisfaction to learn that it was well received in most of the congregations of Israel, and that there was a general desire to possess and study it. This success confirmed him in his hope that at a later time, when all cause for jealousy would have disappeared, the MishnehTorahwould be received by all Jews as an authoritative code. This hope has not been realized. The genius, earnestness, and zeal of Maimonides are generally recognized; but there is no absolute acceptance of his dicta. The more he insisted on his infallibility, the more did the Rabbinical authorities examine his words and point out errors wherever they believed that they could
discover any. It was not always from base motives, as contended by Maimonides and his followers, that his opinions were criticised and rejected. The language used by Rabbi Abraham ben David in his notes (hasagot) on the MishnehTorahappears harsh and disrespectful, if read together with the text of the criticised passage, but it seems tame and mild if compared with expressions used now and then by Maimonides about men who happened to hold opinions differing from his own.
Maimonides received many complimentary letters, congratulating him upon his success; but likewise letters with criticisms and questions respecting individual halakot. In most cases he had no difficulty in defending his position. From the replies it must, however, be inferred that Maimonides made some corrections and additions, which were subsequently embodied in his work. The letters addressed to him on the MishnehTorahand on other subjects were so numerous that he frequently complained of the time he had to spend in their perusal, and of the annoyance they caused him; but “he bore all this patiently, as he had learned in his youth to bear the yoke.” He was not surprised that many misunderstood his words, for even the simple words of the Pentateuch, “the Lord is one,” had met with the same fate. Some inferred from the fact that he treated fully of ʻOlam ha-ba, “the future state of the soul,” and neglected to expatiate on the resurrection of the dead, that he altogether rejected that principle of faith. They therefore asked Rabbi Samuel ha-levi of Bagdad to state his opinion; the Rabbi accordingly discussed the subject; but, according to Maimonides, he attempted to solve the problem in a very unsatisfactory manner. The latter thereupon likewise wrote a treatise “On the Resurrection of the Dead,” in which he protested his adherence to this article of faith. He repeated the opinion he had stated in the Commentary on the Mishnah and in the MishnehTorah, but “in more words; the same idea being reiterated
in various forms, as the treatise was only intended for women and for the common multitude.”
These theological studies engrossed his attention to a great extent, but it did not occupy him exclusively. In a letter addressed to R. Jonathan, of Lunel, he says: “Although from my birth the Torah was betrothed to me, and continues to be loved by me as the wife of my youth, in whose love I find a constant delight, strange women whom I at first took into my house as her handmaids have become her rivals and absorb a portion of my time.” He devoted himself especially to the study of medicine, in which he distinguished himself to such a degree, according to Alkifti, that “the King of the Franks in Ascalon wanted to appoint him as his physician.” Maimonides declined the honour. Alfadhel, the Vizier of Saladin king of Egypt, admired the genius of Maimonides, and bestowed upon him many distinctions. The [xxiv]name of Maimonides was entered on the roll of physicians, he received a pension, and was introduced to the court of Saladin. The method adopted in his professional practice he describes in a letter to his pupil, Ibn Aknin, as follows: “You know how difficult this profession is for a conscientious and exact person who only states what he can support by argument or authority.” This method is more fully described in a treatise on hygiene, composed for Alfadhel, son of Saladin, who was suffering from a severe illness and had applied to Maimonides for advice. In a letter to Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon he alludes to the amount of time spent in his medical practice, and says: “I reside in Egypt (or Fostat); the king resides in Cairo, which lies about two Sabbath-day journeys from the first-named place. My duties to the king are very heavy. I am obliged to visit him every day, early in the morning; and when he or any of his children or the inmates of his harem are indisposed, I dare not quit Cairo, but must stay during the greater part of the day in the palace. It also frequently happens that one or two of the royal officers fall sick, and then I have to attend them. As a rule, I go to
Cairo very early in the day, and even if nothing unusual happens I do not return before the afternoon, when I am almost dying with hunger; but I find the antechambers filled with Jews and Gentiles, with nobles and common people, awaiting my return,” etc.
Notwithstanding these heavy professional duties of court physician, Maimonides continued his theological studies. After having compiled a religious guide—MishnehTorah—based on Revelation and Tradition, he found it necessary to prove that the principles there set forth were confirmed by philosophy. This task he accomplished in his Dalalātal-ḥaïrin, “The Guide for the Perplexed,” of which an analysis will be given below. It was composed in Arabic, and written in Hebrew characters. Subsequently it was translated into Hebrew by Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon, in the lifetime of Maimonides, who was consulted by the translator on all difficult passages. The congregation in Lunel, ignorant of Ibn Tibbon’s undertaking, or desirous to possess the most correct translation of the Guide, addressed a very flattering letter to Maimonides, requesting him to translate the work into Hebrew. Maimonides replied that he could not do so, as he had not sufficient leisure for even more pressing work, and that a translation was being prepared by the ablest and fittest man, Rabbi Samuel Ibn Tibbon. A second translation was made later on by Jehudah Alḥarizi. The Guide delighted many, but it also met with much adverse criticism on account of the peculiar views held by Maimonides concerning angels, prophecy, and miracles, especially on account of his assertion that if the Aristotelian proof for the Eternity of the Universe had satisfied him, he would have found no difficulty in reconciling the Biblical account of the Creation with that doctrine. The controversy on the Guide continued long after the death of Maimonides to divide the community, and it is difficult to say how far the author’s hope to effect a reconciliation between reason and revelation was realized. His disciple, Joseph Ibn Aknin, to whom the work was dedicated, and who was expected to derive from it the
greatest benefit, appears to have been disappointed. His inability to reconcile the two antagonistic elements of faith and science, he describes allegorically in the form of a letter addressed to Maimonides, in which the following passage occurs: “Speak, for I desire that you be justified; [xxv]if you can, answer me. Some time ago your beloved daughter, the beautiful and charming Kimah, obtained grace and favour in my sight, and I betrothed her unto me in faithfulness, and married her in accordance with the Law, in the presence of two trustworthy witnesses, viz., our master, Abd-allah and Ibn Roshd. But she soon became faithless to me; she could not have found fault with me, yet she left me and departed from my tent. She does no longer let me behold her pleasant countenance or hear her melodious voice. You have not rebuked or punished her, and perhaps you are the cause of this misconduct. Now, ‘send the wife back to the man, for he is’—or might become—‘a prophet; he will pray for you that you may live,’ and also for her that she may be firm and steadfast. If, however, you do not send her back, the Lord will punish you. Therefore seek peace and pursue it; listen to what our Sages said: ‘Blessed be he who restores to the owner his lost property’; for this blessing applies in a higher degree to him who restores to a man his virtuous wife, the crown of her husband.” Maimonides replied in the same strain, and reproached his “son-inlaw” that he falsely accused his wife of faithlessness after he had neglected her; but he restored him his wife with the advice to be more cautious in future. In another letter Maimonides exhorts Ibn Aknin to study his works, adding, “apply yourself to the study of the Law of Moses; do not neglect it, but, on the contrary, devote to it the best and the most of your time, and if you tell me that you do so, I am satisfied that you are on the right way to eternal bliss.”
Of the letters written after the completion of the “Guide,” the one addressed to the wise men of Marseilles (1194) is especially noteworthy. Maimonides was asked to give his opinion on astrology.
He regretted in his reply that they were not yet in the possession of his MishnehTorah; they would have found in it the answer to their question. According to his opinion, man should only believe what he can grasp with his intellectual faculties, or perceive by his senses, or what he can accept on trustworthy authority. Beyond this nothing should be believed. Astrological statements, not being founded on any of these three sources of knowledge, must be rejected. He had himself studied astrology, and was convinced that it was no science at all. If some dicta be found in the Talmud which appear to represent astrology as a true source of knowledge, these may either be referred to the rejected opinion of a small minority, or may have an allegorical meaning, but they are by no means forcible enough to set aside principles based on logical proof.
The debility of which Maimonides so frequently complained in his correspondence, gradually increased, and he died, in his seventieth year, on the 20th Tebeth, 4965 (1204). His death was the cause of great mourning to all Jews. In Fostat a mourning of three days was kept; in Jerusalem a fast was appointed; a portion of the tochaḥah (Lev. xxvi. or Deut. xxix.) was read, and also the history of the capture of the Ark by the Philistines (1 Sam. iv.). His remains were brought to Tiberias. The general regard in which Maimonides was held, both by his contemporaries and by succeeding generations, has been expressed in the popular saying: “From Moses to Moses there was none like Moses.” [xxvii]
