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Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

The Geology, Plate Tectonics and Climate of Middle‐Earth

Profielwerkstuk

Supervisor: B.H. Anbeek

Dockinga College Dokkum, 3 July 2015

Durk‐Jan de Vries

Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Table of Contents Introduction Naming and Terms Concerning Naming Explanations of Terms used in this Paper General Concerning the scale of Middle‐Earth Concerning Arda (Middle Earth in Context) Concerning the Europe Comparison Concerning Tolkien’s visions of the history of Middle‐Earth The Myth of Creation (The Music of the Ainur) Later Geological Changes Tectonics Concerning the tectonic beginnings of Middle‐Earth A Timeline of Middle‐Earth tectonics Geology Erebor Monadnocks The Formation of Erebor and its implications Orodruin Hotspots Subduction Climate Concerning Climate in Middle‐Earth Concerning Climate in Eriador The Region The Gulfstream of Middle Earth Concerning Climate in Rhovanion The Region The Eastern Draft Concerning Climate in Gondor The Region Concerning Climate in Mordor The region The Effects of the Eastern Draft Concerning Climate in regions outside of Middle‐Earth Harad Rhûn Conclusion Source Material Books Web Articles Pictures Enclosures

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Introduction The pursuit of science is to explain the world, the universe and everything above and beyond. However occasionally it can feel as if everything has already been explained or is too far beyond what a layperson could possibly understand. This is of course not true, but still a valid concern. And after we had explained most of our history, written down most of our myths and categorised most of our languages was when Tolkien must’ve felt like there should be more, more options explored, more problems developed, the scope in which we communicate expanded. He developed a marvelous world, with seemingly endless possibility, teeming with live in ways we hadn’t quite thought of before.

Let this same yearning for explanation of something new and different be the reason I wrote this paper. Exploring and documenting the geology, plate‐tectonics and climate of Middle‐Earth, however non‐physical this world is, is a way of finding and exploring the core of scientific research. Extrapolation of phenomenon with limited available data is the core of science. Just as we can never exactly measure the formation of stars in the early universe, we can look at the radiation that took billions of years to reach us and use what we know of our current universe and our local area to make incredibly accurate guesses as to what happened such a long time ago.

The words of an old linguist and writer will be my billion‐year‐old photons and the our understanding of our world will be my reference point and I will attempt as accurately (or inaccurately if that is the only option) to explain the world of the Hobbits, Rohirrim, Wizards and Elves that Tolkien created. It might not be as real, accurate, or even useful, but by trying to explain it, it might just become a bit more real.

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Naming and Terms Concerning Naming I will strictly use the Sindarin names for the mountain ranges and regions within Middle‐Earth. The reasoning behind this being that Sindarin is seldom translated across the different versions of the books, therefore using them should avoid confusion. Therefore it will be:​ ‘Hithaeglir’,​ instead of: ​‘Misty Mountains’​. An exception to this will be ​'Middle Earth'​, and locations within The Shire.

For quotations the original version of The Lord of the Rings will be used, in English. This is to stay as close as possible to the original source material.

Explanations of Terms used in this Paper (c.) ‐ canon, terms from Tolkien's original works (n.c.) ‐ non canon, made up/composite terms to aid reading or reinforce comparisons.

Arda​ (​ c.)

The all encompassing term to refer to the planet on which Middle‐Earth is situated. It is in many ways similar to Earth. It should be clarified that Middle‐Earth is no more than a continent, not the entire planet.

Eastern Draft​ (​ n.c.)

A proposed climatological phenomenon providing warmth and moisture to the (otherwise assumedly dry) areas of Rhovanion and Mordor.

Eru Plate​ (​ n.c.)

Term used for the plate that would later break up to form the Rhovanion and Eriador Plates.

Harad​ (​ c.)​ (​ Sindarin: 'South') The region/continent south of Middle‐Earth, it shows many similarities (in both culture and inhabitants) to Africa, albeit it is mostly unknown to the reader.

Illúvatar Plate​ (​ n.c.)

Term used for the plate that would later break up to form the Valinor and Eru Plates.

Middle‐Earth​ (​ c.)

The continent on which most of Tolkien's famous stories take place. It shows many similarities with Europe.

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Panarda​ (​ n.c.)

Composite term similar to Pangea, referring to the hypothesized former supercontinent from which Middle‐Earth broke off.

Rhûn​ (​ c.) (Sindarin: 'East') Mostly unexplored area to the east of Middle‐Earth, little is known about this continent/region.

It has similarities with Asia.

Valinor​ (​ c.) (Sindarin: Land of the Valar)

Name for the continent to the west of Middle‐Earth (in the LoTR mostly referred to simply as 'The West'). In the mythology of Middle‐Earth it is the land of the Valar (=The Gods).

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General Concerning the scale of Middle‐Earth

In the books the protagonists walk, take boats, go underground and travel on horseback, diluting the vague sense of scale you might have of Middle‐Earth. Whilst, especially when dealing with geology and climatology, it can be very important to have a good sense of the scale of a given location. So how big is Middle Earth exactly?

In a letter to Charlotte and Denis Plimer, journalists at the Daily Telegraph Magazine, Tolkien not only criticizes the comparison of Middle‐Earth to ‘Nordic Europe’ because of the racist connotations of the term, but he also provides some vital hints in figuring out the size of Middle‐Earth. He mentions that if Hobbiton and Rivendell were to be at the same latitude as Oxford, Minas Tirith would at the same latitude as Florence, about 600 miles apart (Humphrey, Tolkien, ​The Letters, 1981)​.

We can use this information to calculate distances in Middle‐Earth. So as Oxford is at 51° northern latitude, and Florence at 41° N, the distance between these two latitudes is about 1100 kilometers. The same as it would be in Middle‐Earth. Using a clever visualisation made by Brandon Rhodes it is also possible to make a map of Middle‐Earth over Europe (as seen below) (Rhodes, ​Google Earth​, 2009). Especially with some of the locations in Middle‐Earth shown it becomes quite clear what Tolkien’s sense of scale was during his writing.

With all this information it becomes quite clear that Middle‐Earth shares it’s size with contemporary Europe. This offers a framework to base my comparisons with mountain ranges and other geological phenomena in Europe with similar ones in Middle‐Earth.

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Concerning Arda (Middle Earth in Context) Whilst it can easily be assumed that the entirety of Tolkien´s world just consists of Middle‐Earth, one would be wrong to think that. Middle‐Earth is of course the main continent on which this paper focusses, yet it hardly the only continent on Arda.

A lot of the stories, in especially the Silmarillion, are set on the continent of Valinor.

Which according to the mythology is only connected to Arda via a small sea‐bridge, but assumedly really just situated to the west of Middle‐Earth. This would make it similar to North‐America. However as with the Americas there probably isn´t a great deal of contact between Valinor and Middle‐Earth, so it might just be mythical. But when studying the plate tectonics of Arda Valinor will be assumed to be a real continent similar to Middle‐Earth.

To the south of Middle‐Earth we have the lands of Harad. Whilst connected to Middle‐Earth, following the Europe comparison, still a continent of its own. Not a lot is known of its shape, just a small part is shown on the maps, but assumedly it is about as big as Africa.

Great armies who help Sauron came from this continent, and most of it is a large desert.

Then to the east of Middle‐Earth we have Rhûn. Which, whilst connected to Middle‐Earth, probably is a separate continent as well. Just as Harad not a lot is known of it.

Again it is probably as big as Asia, with a similar climate and collection of cultures. On all of the maps it is just shown as a large swathe of plain land. But later in the paper, in the climate chapter, I pose the existence of a large warm tropical sea to the southeast of Mordor, in Rhûn.

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Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Concerning the Europe Comparison The stories of Middle‐Earth can easily be assumed to be on another planet altogether, as the world Tolkien describes is very different from ours. So it might seem strange to try and make comparisons with our world, as Middle‐Earth might just be a completely alien planet.

Perhaps with laws of physics that do not apply to our world, or similar strange possibilities.

Of course Tolkien thought of this as well, and in a letter to one of his fans he actually very elequently gives his view of the matter. He reacts to the possibility that the stories he wrote might be some kind of pre‐historic history of our Earth:

"All I can say is that, if it were 'history', it would be difficult to fit the lands and events (or 'cultures') into such evidence as we possess, archaeological or geological, concerning the nearer or remoter part of what is now called Europe; though the Shire, for instance, is expressly stated to have been in this region versimilitude, if the story had not become too far developed, before the question ever occurred to me. I doubt if there would have been much gain; and I hope the, evidently long but undefined, gap* in time between the Fall of Barad‐dûr and our Days is sufficient for 'literary credibility', even for readers acquainted with what is known or surmised of 'pre‐history'. I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother‐earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking remote globes in 'space'. However curious, they are alien, and not lovable with the love of blood‐kin."

* “I imagine the gap to be about 6000 years : that is we are now at the end of the Fifth Age, if the Ages were of about the same length as S.A. and T.A. But they have, I think, quickened; and I imagine we are actually at the end of the Sixth Age, or in the Seventh.”

What Tolkien in essence says is: Even though Middle‐Earth, and Arda for that matter, could not be a real forebear to contemporary Europe, because of the multitude of archeological and geological evidence to the contrary. Middle‐Earth is not situated on an alien planet, it is situated on Earth, but in a mythological sense.

This is of course useful to anyone who wants to explain Tolkien’s Middle‐Earth. That however strange it may seem it is not unlike our own world and valid comparisons can be made. To put it in a perspective relevant to this paper: mountains do not grow from trees, and assumedly they have similar origins as our own mountains. Meaning that contemporary laws and findings on geology can be used to draw conclusions.

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Of course this doesn’t fully answer the question of why Middle‐Earth should be compared to Europe. And an answer can be found in one the first stories Tolkien wrote and in the commentary his son gives about this story. This story is called 'The Cottage of Lost Play' and it tells the legend of man named Eriol who explores the island of the Gnomes, and finds many strange places. The story was later dropped and not used again in other writings of Tolkien's.

But it is significant because it is the birthplace of Middle‐Earth and the legendarium.

Why does this connect Middle‐Earth with Europe? Because Eriol, the explorer, in later notes of Tolkien is explained to be linked to the Old Anglo‐Saxons that went to England. The land of the Gnomes (or elves) is later said to be a representation of England. A tower which Eriol found on the island is explicitly mentioned to be the forebear to the tower of Warwick and the land Eriol explores Warwickshire. Tolkien wrote the story because he was in essence annoyed there was no proper English mythology, like the Scandinavians and the French have.

So this story about a lonely explorer coming to what should be England would be the basis of the world of the Lord of the Rings and the Hobbit and all the other stories Tolkien wrote. Firmly connecting Middle‐Earth with Europe.

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Concerning Tolkien’s visions of the history of Middle‐Earth Tolkien’s universe is an incredibly extensive one. It contains not only the popular stories of the Lord of the Rings and the Hobbit, but also many side stories, scrapped stories and histories, and even fully developed languages and writing systems. Tolkien did not write the universe around The Hobbit or The Lord of the Rings; He set these stories inside of a universe that already contained a plethora of other histories. And among many stories about brave warriors and battles he also wrote his own myths around the creation of Middle‐Earth.

It should be noted that these stories revolve around a more religious view of the world: Tolkien himself was a devout Catholic. Yet the stories are not Christian in any way, as Tolkien specifically wanted to avoid this. Still they do not conform to a more scientific view of the history of Middle‐Earth. They are however relevant to the outlook Tolkien himself had on his stories.

The Myth of Creation (The Music of the Ainur) As set out in the Book of Ainulindalë in the SIlmarillion

In the beginning there was only Eru, The One, also called Illúvatar, who created with his thought the Ainur. Each of them understood part of his thought. Even though they didn’t fully understand each other, they learned to sing together, guided by Illúvatar. Who eventually called them together to sing a great symphony, and when they all started singing the void was filled with the sounds of their music and was no longer empty. Eru listened only and was content.

However after a little while of perfect harmonious music, Melkor came to form melodies of his own, disturbing the symphony. He had been given a part of each of the other Ainur’s knowledge and he himself embodied knowledge. However he had grown faithless of Eru, and wasn’t content with just knowledge. He also wanted the power to create life himself, a power only Eru possessed. In his voyages into the void searching for this power, he began to grow thoughts unlike the other Ainur. The melodies he played and sang embodied these ideas as he tried to weave them into the Symphony.

Many Ainur were of course disturbed in their playing and either stopped or started playing with Melkor. Slowly but surely both melodies started competing so much that everything turned into chaos, an endless storm of sound. Eventually Illúvatar rose and started a new melody, beautiful but different from the first one, but the music of Melkor became too strong for this melody as well. Then Illúvatar arose again and he started yet another melody, whilst Melkor’s tune became a loud monotone violent voice, trying to drown out all other music. Until Illúvatar arose a third time and with one clamorous chord silenced the music.

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Then he gave the Valar a vision of the world they had shaped with their music, with their individual knowledge. He showed the coming of the Children of Illúvatar, the Elves and the Humans, and how they would live in this world. Then he told them they could go to this world, and many of them did, even Melkor. They were however surprised to find it empty for they had to build it still. And they did, taking the form of the Children. Whilst Melkor took the shape of doom. He tried to stop everything the Valar did, destroying most of it. However slowly but surely the world formed until the coming of the Firstborn, the Children of Illúvatar.

Later Geological Changes The Music of the Ainur offers the story of the formation of Arda until the arrival of Mankind and The Elves and generally sets the basis for the rest of the stories. It reveals the Continent of Valinor and Middle‐Earth, which is actually a lot larger in the first ages. Later it is written that a large battle between the Valar and Melkor and his servants eventually destroys large parts of Middle‐Earth, sweeping away entire mountain ranges and large swathes of land.

Until eventually everything settled down to form the current Middle‐Earth.

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Tectonics Concerning the tectonic beginnings of Middle‐Earth Any geological explanation needs a thorough look at the geological history of an area.

Most of the geological formation in current‐day Europe formed through the various interactions of continents since the breaking of the ancient supercontinent of Pangea.

Middle‐Earth, sharing a lot of similarities with Europe, can be assumed to also have broken free from a similar landmass which we will call Panarda. This supercontinent would consist of all of the known continents on Arda (and perhaps some more unknown landmasses): Valinor, Middle‐Earth, Rhûn and Harad.

A Timeline of Middle‐Earth tectonics The names and definitions of the various plates can be found in the chapter Concerning Naming.

Pre‐Panarda

‒ The Forodwaith Plate converges with the Eru plate creating the Ered Mithrin. ‒ The Eru plate converges with the Valinor plate creating the Ered Luin.

Panarda

‒ Panarda splits between the new Harad continent and the Illúvatar continent creating the Belfalas Sea. ‒ The Valinor Plate diverges away from the Eru Plate again, creating the Great Sea. ‒ The Harad Plate starts to move towards the Eru Plate again, subducting the Belfalas Sea's oceanic shelf. ‒ The ridgepush of the formation of the Great Sea starts convergent plate movement on the Rhovanion‐Eriador Vault line, creating the Hithaeglir. ‒ The Subcontinents of Mordor and Belfalas start moving against each other and the Harad Plate, Overlapping over the Belfalas plate parts of the Harad Plate form the Ered Nimrais, whilst the convergent movement between the Mordor, Rhovanion and Harad Plate form the Mordor Mountain Ranges (Ered Lithui and Ephel Dúath).

The above is best visualised on the Plate Tectonics Map of Middle‐Earth, as found in the enclosures.

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Geology Erebor The Lonely Mountain, or Erebor is one of the main locations in story of the Hobbit and a very peculiar part of Middle‐Earth. It housed a major dwarven civilisation and must have been quite a striking feature of the area. A single solitary peak in a relatively flat surrounding area, far away from any of the other mountain ranges of Middle‐Earth. Oftentimes solitary mountains are volcanoes, but Erebor houses an entire civilization deep inside it, which probably not would have survived a volcanic eruption. So how could such a strange mountain, which such a strange civilization, come to be?

Monadnocks 'Monadnock, isolated hill of bedrock standing conspicuously above the general level of the surrounding area. Monadnocks are left as erosional remnants because of their more resistant rock composition; commonly they consist of quartzite or less jointed massive volcanic rocks.' ​(Encyclopædia Brittanica Online)

This particular kind of mountain is named after Mount Monadnock in New Hampshire, USA. Which mostly consists of highly metamorphized schist with a folding structure, with some granite intrusions (Perry, Geology of Monadnock, 1902). Both of these point towards the rock of Mount Monadnock forming deep inside the earth's crust leading to granite sticking to metamorphizing sedimentary rocks. Subsequent plate tectonics pushed this band of strong rock upwards whilst the other softer rock above it eroded leaving a great peak in an otherwise strikingly flat area.

Especially the last part of that paragraph must sound incredibly familiar to people who have read or even only seen The Hobbit. It should therefore be clear that Erebor is a monadnock. The formation of Erebor must therefore have followed a similar process to that of Mount Monadnock.

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Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

The Formation of Erebor and its implications Firstly old sedimentary soil is folded deep into the earth’s crust by pre‐Panarda convergent plate‐tectonics. Then the rock metamorphizes through the immense heat and pressure, making it very tough. After which, probably together with the formation of the Ered Mithrin, the though rock is pushed upwards from its source. The erosion of the softer rock above and around this bedrock exposes it to the surface, forming Erebor.

Not only does Erebor being a monadnock offer an elegant formation history to the mountain, it also corresponds to settling of dwarves in the mountain (for however much an underground dwarven civilization is realistic). Typically solitary peaks are volcanoes, but volcanoes do not contain many accessible ore deposits and it is often highly disadvised to start drilling into a volcano. But a large slab of highly metaphorized rock does not periodically erupt and is also a good, albeit slightly difficult to drill into, source of ores. As well as a great place to build the famously large underground halls of the dwarves.

Orodruin The Orodruin or Mount Doom is a large volcano in Mordor on the plains of Gorgoroth. It plays an instrumental role in the Lord of the Rings, being the only place the Ring of Power could be destroyed. At the time of the Lord of the Rings no other active volcanoes are explicitly stated to exist in Middle‐Earth. The Orodruin could have two sources both of which will be explored in this chapter.

Hotspots There are multiple ways volcanoes can form, But most solitary volcanoes, as the Orodruin seems to be, are volcanoes situated on so‐called hotspots. Hotspots are parts of the earth's crust where magma from a large plume, close to the earth's surface, can escape, forming volcanoes. So the hotspot theory seems to be quite likely, because the Orodruin is stated to be quite solitary and generally hotspot volcanoes are also singular.

However most hotspot volcanoes are effusive, meaning they do not typically erupt explosively. A hotspot volcano's eruption typically only consists of an outpouring of magma, together with ashes. Not exactly the violent eruptions one might associated with a volcano called Mount Doom. Still it is a very valid theory.

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Subduction Most volcanoes on our world are situated around convergent fault lines with subduction, which causes the subducting plate to eventually melt and form a particular form of magma which can cause incredibly devastating volcanic activity: explosive volcanism. As this form of volcanism is strongly tied to plate tectonics, we need to look into this to tie it to the Orodruin, as another formation theory.

The formation of the bay of Belfalas, the Ered Nimrais, and the Ered Lithui are all tied to the convergent plate movement between the Harad plate, the Eriador and the Rhovanion plates, after the disappearance of a large sea we called the Belfalas Sea. This sea formed after the Harad plate moved away from the Pangea supercontinent a long time ago. This is also tied to the formation and subsequent disappearance of the Tethys Sea on Earth.

On Middle Earth when the Harad Plate started moving again towards the Eriador and Rhovanion plate it must have started subducting a part of oceanic crust that was the Belfalas sea. This part of the old Belfalas Sea could therefore now power the explosive eruptions on the plains of Gorgoroth in the form of the Orodruin.

This offers, in my opinion, a very elegant explanation for the power of the Orodruin. It also beautifully ties into a comparison with Europe, with for example Mount Vesuvius in Italy, whose power is also tied to the old Tethys sea. However this theory would suggest that there are more Volcanoes than just the Orodruin, none of which are ever mentioned.

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Climate Concerning Climate in Middle‐Earth Middle‐Earth has a differing distribution of land and sea from Europe. This distribution of course causes differing climatological forces on Middle‐Earth. These best visible on the climatological maps of Middle‐Earth as found in the enclosures. The distribution of the high and low air pressure areas on Middle‐Earth are especially important for understanding the Köppen classification of Middle Earth.

One of the main difference between European and Middle‐Earthan Climate is the differing distribution of precipitation across the seasons in the south of Middle‐Earth. This is caused by a large area of low air pressure that forms above the large land mass of Rhovanion in the summer, similar to the monsoon on Earth. Therefore in Gondor and Rhovanion the summers are wet and the winters are dry, instead of the other way round in the Mediterranean, as would seem logical following the Europe‐comparison.

Concerning Climate in Eriador The Region Eriador is the name for the area between the Great Sea in the west, the Hithaeglir to the North and East and the Ered Nimrais in the South. It encompasses The Shire, Buckland, Bree, Rivendell and the Gray Havens, as the most notable areas in the Lord of the Rings. The map depicts two major mountain ranges in Eriador: the Ered Luin along the western coastline and the Hithaeglir (Misty Mountains) to the East separating Eriador from Rhovanion. Major rivers within Eriador are the Baranduin (Brandywine), which sources in Arnor; the Gwathló (Greyflood), which sources from the Hithaeglir through the Mitheithel (Hoarwell), the Bruinen (Loudwater) and the Glanduin; the Angren (Isen) river, with the Adorn as branch, and finally the Lhûn river which sources in the Ered Luin and Arnor. The flow of these rivers and depictions of minor mountainous areas north of The Shire, suggest a rise in elevation of the land Arnor, thereby contrasting the much flatter lands to the south of The Shire.

The Shire is described as 'rich and kindly' and Hobbits are described as well‐off farmers.

Also following the Europe‐comparison therefore it seems logical to deem as temperate sea climate (Köppen Cfb) just as the United Kingdom. To the north and east of the Shire the climate would tend more towards a continental climate (Köppen Dfb).

The Gulfstream of Middle Earth One of the major influencing factors in Western‐Europe is the Gulf Stream, the North Atlantic current, which is a branch of the thermohaline current that spans across the earth. It provides the Europe’s temperate climate for its latitude. In Eriador, at the same latitude and 16

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with a similar climate, therefore a similar current should exist. Whilst it is nearly impossible to guess at the rest of the geography in Arda in detail, the known geography does allow for a Gulf Stream‐like current. This would mean that a warm current flows against the coast of Eriador, allowing for its temperate climate at the latitude of Earth's Canada and Siberia.

Following the geography of Eriador, with the Ered Luin and the Hithaeglir, the predominant winds would carry moist, warm air into the mainland, allowing for precipitation and a temperate maritime climate near the flatlands to the south‐west, including The Shire, Buckland and Bree. The more east or north one would go, together with the rising altitude, one would see a more continental climate as the winds start becoming less moist and cool down.

Concerning Climate in Rhovanion The Region Rhovanion is the area between the Hitheaglír to the west, the Ered Mithrin to the north and the Ered Nimrais and the Ered Lithui to the south. The Eastern borders are not very well defined, but Rhûn eventually starts somewhere across the Brown Lands (east of the Lonely Mountain). Major rivers within Rhovanion are the Anduin, sourcing in the Hithaeglír and the Ered Mithrin, with the branches: Entwash, Limlight, Nimrodel and Celebrant, Sîr Ninglor, Langwell and Greylin; Celduin (River Running) (with the Forest river as a branch) and Carnen (Redwater). Notable is the Mirkwood, a large forest spanning most of Rhovanion between the Anduin and the Celduin rivers, as well, as the lonely mountain, a single solitary peak in the north‐east of Rhovanion.

Climate in Rhovanion is much less described than Eriador, but the large flat grassy highlands of Rohan, giving rise to a horseback culture, as well as the absence of a large nearby sea, suggest a more continental climate than Eriador, probably the warmer Köppen Dwb in the more southern regions and the colder Dwc in more northern regions.

The Eastern Draft Eriadorian climate could easily be explained using Europe's insofar as the existence of a Gulf Stream‐like current, however a problem arises at the Hithaeglir range. It blocks most of the moisture from reaching Rhovanion, as it is on the lee side of this mountain range. However the existence of major forests and the climate described in the books don't depict a barren, dry wasteland to be Rhovanion. So moisture would have to come from a source other than the Great Sea, however besides the small isolated sea of Rhûn in the east, no major (connected) bodies of water are depicted to the east of Rhovanion. This leaves us guess at the existence of these.

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The existence of a major westward warm and moist windflow supplying Rhovanion is needed. These winds would flow from the Sea of Rhûn across the Brown Lands towards the Hitheaglir and the Ered Mithrin, supplying moisture to the forests, countries and the rivers Anduin, and Celduin. The Sea of Rhûn would also be supplied by this draft. The source of these winds can only be guessed at. But considering that warriors from Rhûn that form part of Sauron's army, are clad in exotic and rich clothing and are described as brownskinned, in line with Middle‐Eastern and Indian cultures. It would not seem impossible to think of a tropical sea as the source, similar to the Indian Ocean on Earth. However as this sea is not depicted on the official maps of Middle‐Earth, it is not shown on the maps in the enclosures.

In the Silmarillion it is described that both men and elves came to be in the east. This could be linked to the proposed Eastern draft, if cultures notice warm, moisturous air coming from unexplored and mysterious lands to the east. They might link this to a religious creation myth.

Concerning Climate in Gondor The Region Gondor is treated separately as a region because of its unique situation between the Ered Nimrais, Ephel Duath and the Bay of Belfalas. Gondor is in this paper the region, not the Kingdom, defined as the area between the Ered Nimrais to the west and north, until the cape of Andrast, the bay of Belfalas and Harnen river to the south and the Ephel Dúath to the east.

Distinction between the region Gondor and the Kingdom of Gondor is needed, because the borders of the Kingdom Gondor have changed dramatically through the ages. The largest river within Gondor is the Anduin river, which has a delta in the south of Gondor, it sources in the Hithaeglír in Rhovanion. Rivers that source in Gondor at the Ered Nimrais are the Lefnui, Morthond, Ciril, Ringló, Gilrain, Celos, Sirith from west to east. Two rivers source in the Ephel Dúath: the Poros and the Harnen. The areas north of Minas Tirith, could probably be counted to be in Rhovanion, but it will be included to Gondor because it shares some climatological factors with Gondor, more so than Rhovanion.

Following the Europe comparison and the latitude that Tolkien proposes in one of his letters, it seems logical that Gondor, especially in its southern regions, would have a mediterranean climate. This would mean moist winters and dry summers. However because of a monsoon‐like climatological peculiarity that forms above Rhovanion, this would seem incorrect. The summers should therefore be moist and the winters dry: a China climate.

Köppen: Cwa.

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Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Concerning Climate in Mordor The region Mordor is the areas between the Ephel Dúath to the south and west, the Ered Lithui to the north, and an undefined border to the Rhûn to the east. Within the land of Nurn you have the Sea of Núrnen in which flow the rivers sourcing in the surrounding Ephel Dúath and the Ered Lithui. Notable locations within Mordor are the Plateau of Gorgoroth and the Orodruin (Mount Doom) volcano on top of it. The climate within Mordor is described as dry and barren on the Plain of Gorgoroth, and around the Sea of Núrnen humid enough to produce massive amounts of food for the armies.

The Effects of the Eastern Draft In the chapter of Rhovanion the subject of the strange humidity of Rhovanion, considering it is on the lee side of the Hitheaglír is already covered. But just as Rhovanion Mordor does not have a direct connection to the Great Sea via the Bay of Belfalas because of the position of the Ephel Dúath. Therefore the proposed Eastern Draft would also flow through Mordor, as is mentioned in the books that most of Mordor’s armies are supplied via crops grown near the Sea of Núrnen. The Climate within the south of Mordor would have to be Köppen Cwa, a summer‐dry (mediterranean) warm climate.

Not only would the Eastern Draft explain how Mordor could be even remotely arable, it could also pose an explanation for the aridness of the Plain of Gorgoroth. Not only is the area constantly covered in a blanket of ash from the Orodruin. It is also both higher and the farthest away from the source of the draft, and closed off by a minor mountain range. Leading to an exceptionally low humidity. Köppen: BSk, meaning a middle latitude steppe climate.

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Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Concerning Climate in regions outside of Middle‐Earth

Harad The region and continent that is south of Middle‐Earth. In the books it is hardly described, except for the people that are from it. These people serve in the armies of Mordor using thelarge, elephant‐like Múmakil . Again if we follow the Europe comparison its real‐world equivalent would be Africa and the Middle‐East. A dry, barren and 'underdeveloped’ area, a large desert in essence. Köppen: BWn and BSk, meaning a middle‐latitude desert and steppe climate.

Rhûn Rhûn is the continent east of Middle‐Earth, little is know about these strange lands. It would seem logical to assume that the northern part of Rhûn, would continue the trend of eastern Middle‐Earth, a temperate land climate. However the south of Rhûn would have to be very humid and warm following the Eastern Draft hypothesis. Probably approaching more of a tropical climate, Köppen: Af.

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Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Conclusion This entire paper is of course a hypothesis, I can not ask Tolkien to validate my posings.

And I doubt he would actually want to solidify anything I’ve written here. Especially because of his own thoughts about the origins of Middle‐Earth, as set out in some of the earlier chapters of this paper.

And of course in the writing of this paper many problems arose. Many of them in the east of Middle‐Earth. On a Plate‐Tectonics level Mordor does have incredibly strangely shaped mountain ranges, and the absence of other volcanoes in Mordor and Gondor only complicates the matter of Mount Doom being a volcano formed through subduction, which to me seems a lot more logical. Especially if we follow the Europe comparison Just as how strange it is that the Anduin river can continue towards the bay of Belfalas without major obstructions, seemingly cutting through the Ered Nimrais. This could possibly be explained through the Anórien Sub‐plate, but it does not have any real life counterparts as many of the other places in Middle‐Earth have. Making it a lot less grounded of an explanation as other parts of this paper, such as the Gulfstream of Middle‐Earth.

Of course one of the biggest problems is the absence of a large South‐Eastern sea in Rhûn, as I hypothesise with the Eastern Draft. With it of course, the humidity of Rhovanion lies much moreso than the rest within the realm of guesswork. Still it is a possibility.

Most of the hypotheses in this paper can be found on the maps in enclosures, they form the backbone of most of what is written this paper. They should provide ample visual material to visualize the things posed in this paper.

Hopefully someday another person might give better explanations for the aforementioned problems I have encountered whilst writing this paper. Interesting to do might be to simulate parts of the climate system or the tectonics I have posed. Sadly these great things fall beyond my personal abilities.

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Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Source Material Books Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel, ​The Lord of the Rings. ​Harper Collins Publishers, Great Britain, 1968 Tolkien, John Ronald Reuel, ​The Hobbit. ​Harper Collins Publishers, Great Britain, 1937 Tolkien, J. R. R. & Christopher R., ​The Silmarillion. ​Harper Collins Publishers, Great Britain, 1977 Tolkien, J. R. R. & Christopher R., ​The Unfinished Tales. ​Harper Collins Publishers, Great Britain, 1980 Tolkien, J. R. R. & Christopher R., ​The Lost Tales 1 & 2. ​Unwin Paperbacks, Great Britain, 1984 Carpenter, Humphrey; Tolkien, Christopher R.. ​The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. ​George Allen and Unwin, London, 1981 Michel, François. ​Krachten op de Aardkorst. ​Pour la Science, Belin, 2005

Web Rhodes, Brandon. ​Google Earth and Middle Earth.​ Brandon Rhodes. N.p., 30 Sept. 2009.

Retrieved 2 Nov. 2014 from http://rhodesmill.org/brandon/2009/google‐earth‐and‐middle‐earth/ Monadnock. 2015. ​Encyclopædia Britannica Online​. Retrieved 30 May, 2015, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388796/monadnock

Articles Plant, J.A.. Whittaker, A, Demetriades, A. De Vivo, B, Lexa, J. ​The Geological and Tectonic Framework of Europe. ​FOREGSatlas, 19 Nov. 2015 Perry J. H.​ Geology of Monadnock Mountain, New Hampshire​, The Journal of Geology, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Jan. ‐ Feb., 1904), pp. 1‐14

Pictures Tolkien, Cristopher R., Map of the Realm of Middle Earth [illustration], The United Kingdom Baynes, Pauline, A Map of Middle‐Earth [illustration], Hove, Sussex, 1969

Picture of Mount Monadnock from: http://www.monadnockmama.com/wp‐content/uploads/2012/04/mount‐monadnock.jpg

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Durk‐Jan de Vries

Tolkien's Middle‐Earth from a Geophysical and Climatological Perspective

Enclosures

The Maps of Middle Earth

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