CHAPTER 11 ASSESSING
LEARNING OUTCOME 1
Describe the phases of the nursing process.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The five phases of the nursing process are assessing, diagnosing, planning, implementing, and evaluating.
2. Assessing includes collecting, organizing, validating, and documenting data in order to establish a database about the client’s response to health concerns or illness and the ability to manage health care.
3. Diagnosing includes analyzing and synthesizing data in order to identify client strengths as well as health problems that can be prevented or resolved by collaborative and independent nursing interventions and to develop a list of nursing and collaborative problems.
4. Planning includes determining how to prevent, reduce, or resolve the identified priority client problems; how to support client strengths; and how to implement nursing interventions in an organized, individualized, and goal-directed manner in order to develop an individualized care plan that specifies client goals/desired outcomes, and related nursing interventions.
5. Implementing includes carrying out (or delegating) and documenting the planned nursing interventions in order to assist the client to meet desired goals/outcomes, promote wellness, prevent illness and disease, restore health, and facilitate coping with altered functioning.
6. Evaluating includes measuring the degree to which goals/ outcomes have been achieved and identifying factors that positively or negatively influence goal achievement in order to determine whether to continue, modify, or terminate the plan of care.
LEARNING OUTCOME 2
Identify major characteristics of the nursing process.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The nursing process has distinctive characteristics that enable the nurse to respond to the changing health status of the client. These characteristics include its cyclic and dynamic nature, client centeredness, a focus on problem solving and decision making, interpersonal and collaborative style, universal applicability, and use of critical thinking.
LEARNING OUTCOME 3
Identify the purpose of assessing.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The purpose of assessing is to establish a database about the client’s response to health concerns or illness and the ability to manage
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Provide the students with a list of activities representative of the various phases of the nursing process and ask them to classify each activity into the appropriate phase.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Have the students identify elements of the nursing process performed throughout their clinical day.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Give examples of how inadequate or inaccurate assessment data affect the other phases of the nursing process.
• Give examples of goals written as client goals and goals written as nursing goals. Ask the students to identify the patient-centered goals.
• Have the students discuss why the nursing process can be used in all types of health care agencies and with clients across the life span.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Have the students provide examples of problem solving, decision making, and critical thinking that they employed or observed other nurses employ while providing care using the nursing process.
© 2012, Pearson Education Inc. 50
Solution Manual for Kozier and Erbs Fundamentals of Nursing 9th Edition by Berman Visit TestBankBell.com to get complete for all chapters
health care needs and is a continuous process carried out during all phases of the nursing process.
2. There are four types of assessment: initial assessment, problemfocused assessment, emergency assessment, and time-lapsed reassessment. (See Table 11–3.)
3. Initial assessment is performed within a specified time after admission to a health care agency for the purpose of establishing a complete database for problem identification, reference, and future comparison.
4. Problem-focused assessment is an ongoing process integrated with nursing care to determine the status of a specific problem identified in an earlier assessment.
5. Emergency assessment occurs during any physiological or psychological crisis of the client to identify the life-threatening problems and to identify new or overlooked problems.
6. Time-lapsed reassessment occurs several months after the initial assessment to compare the client’s current status to baseline data previously obtained.
LEARNING OUTCOME 4
Identify the four major activities associated with the assessing phase.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The assessment process involves four closely related activities: collecting, organizing, validating, and documenting data. Collecting data is the process of gathering information about a client’s health status. Organizing data is categorizing data systematically using a specified format. Validating data is the act of “double-checking” or verifying data to confirm that it is accurate and factual. Documenting is accurately and factually recording data.
L
EARNING OUTCOME 5
Differentiate objective and subjective data and primary and secondary data.
Concepts for Lecture
1. Subjective data, also referred to as symptoms or covert data, are apparent only to the person affected and can be described only by that person. Subjective data include the client’s sensations, feelings, values, beliefs, attitudes, and perception of personal health status and life situations.
2. Objective data, also referred to as signs or overt data, are detectable by an observer or can be measured or tested against an accepted standard. Objective data can be seen, heard, felt, or smelled, and are obtained through observation or physical examination. (See Table 11–4.)
3. The primary source of data is the client.
4. All sources of data other than the client are considered secondary sources or indirect sources. These include family and other support people, other health care professionals, records and reports, laboratory and diagnostic analyses and relevant literature. All data from secondary sources should be validated, if possible.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Provide examples of the four types of assessment and have the students identify similarities and differences in these.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Have the students compare and contrast the initial, problem-focused, and emergency assessments of several clients.
• Review the assessment forms used in the institution.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Give the students a case study. Ask them to identify subjective and objective data as well as primary and secondary sources.
• Discuss methods of validating secondary sources.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Have each student discuss the assessment data for his or her client. Ask the students to identify subjective and objective data as well as primary and secondary sources.
CHAPTER 11 / Assessing 51 © 2012, Pearson
Inc.
Education
LEARNING OUTCOME 6
Identify three methods of data collection, and give examples of how each is useful.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The principal methods used to collect data are observing, interviewing, and examining.
2. To observe means to gather data by using the senses. Although nurses observe mainly through sight, most of the senses are engaged during careful observation.
Observation is useful for gathering data such as skin color or lesions (vision), body or breath odors (smell), lung or heart sounds (hearing), and skin temperature (touch).
3. Interviewing is a planned communication or a conversation with a purpose. Interviewing is useful to identify problems of mutual concern, evaluate change, teach, provide support, or provide counseling or therapy.
4. Examining, referred to as physical examination or physical assessment, is a systematic data collection method that uses observation (i.e., the senses of sight, hearing, smell, and touch) and techniques of inspection, auscultation, palpation, and percussion to detect health problems. Examining is useful for assessing all body parts and comparing findings on each side of the body.
LEARNING OUTCOME 7
Compare directive and nondirective approaches to interviewing.
Concepts for Lecture
1. The interviewing approach can be directive or nondirective.
2. A directive interview is highly structured and elicits specific information. The nurse establishes the purpose of the interview and controls the interview. Nurses frequently use directive interviews to gather and to give information when time is limited (e.g., in an emergency situation).
3. During a nondirective interview, or rapport-building interview, the nurse allows the client to control the purpose, subject matter, and pacing. A combination of directive and nondirective approaches is usually appropriate during the information-gathering interview.
LEARNING OUTCOME 8
Compare closed and open-ended questions, providing examples and listing advantages and disadvantages of each.
Concepts for Lecture
1. Questioning techniques for interviewing include both closed and open-ended questions.
2. Closed questions are restrictive and generally require only “yes” or “no” or short factual answers giving specific information. Closed questions often begin with “when,” “where,” “who,” “what,” “do,” or “is.” Examples of closed questions are “What medications did you take?” or “Are you having pain now?” Closed questions are more effectively controlled by interviewer, require less effort from the client, may be less threatening, obtain information more rapidly than if
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Set up a manikin in the nursing laboratory incorporating various types of equipment. Include in the setup several problems, such as a dressing that is partially unattached or the “client’s” hand hanging over the bed. Give the students 5 minutes to observe the scenario. Discuss observations made and the process used to make the observations.
• Discuss examples of how the sense of smell is used in client assessment.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Have the students develop a systematic assessment to use when assessing their clients on entry into the client’s room. The assessment should include observation, interviewing, and examining.
• Have the students employ the assessment process developed and report results. Ask the students to modify the process based on these results.
• Assign several students to interview staff nurses about the systematic assessment process they use in their clinical practice and report the findings to the group.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Role-play an admission interview with one student playing the role of the client, another the client’s family member, and another the nurse. Ask the other students to identify directive and nondirective components of the interview.
• Present several clinical situations and ask the students to identify which type of interviewing would best meet the needs of the client and why.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Ask the students to describe clinical situations where either a directive or nondirective interview was used. Discuss the outcomes of the interviews and ask students how they would modify the approach, if necessary, for future interviews.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Divide the students into groups. Assign each group a client scenario (e.g., a client with an injured ankle who enters an emergency department, or a client arriving for same-day surgery). Have each group demonstrate the use of openended and closed questions to obtain required data from the client.
• Provide examples of the advantages and disadvantages of open-ended and closed questions.
52 CHAPTER 11 / Assessing © 2012, Pearson Education Inc.
volunteered, are easily documented, and easier for the unskilled interviewer to use; however, closed questions may provide too little information, may not reveal how client feels, may inhibit volunteering of information by the client, may inhibit communication and convey lack of interest. (See Box 11–2).
3. Open-ended questions invite clients to discover and explore, elaborate, clarify, or illustrate their thoughts or feelings. An open-ended question specifies only the broad topic to be discussed, invites answers longer than one or two words, and gives clients the freedom to divulge only the information that they are ready to disclose. The open-ended question is useful at the beginning of an interview or to change topics and to elicit attitudes. Open-ended questions may begin with “what” or “how.” Examples of open-ended questions include “How have you been feeling lately?” or “What would you like to talk about today?” Box 11–2 lists selected advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions.
LEARNING OUTCOME 9
Describe important aspects of the interview setting.
Concepts for Lecture
1. Each interview is influenced by time, place, seating arrangement, distance, and language.
2. Nurses need to plan interviews for when clients are physically comfortable and interruptions are minimal. Schedule interviews in the home at a time selected by the client.
3. A well-lit, well-ventilated room that is relatively free of noise, movements, and distractions encourages communication. A place where others cannot overhear or see the client is necessary.
In the hospital, if the nurse stands and looks down on the client, the nurse risks intimidating the client. Sitting at a 45-degree angle to the bed is less formal than sitting behind a table or standing at the foot of the bed. The client may feel less confronted if there is an overbed table between the client and nurse during the initial interview. A seating arrangement with the nurse behind a desk and the client seated across suggests a formal, superior and subordinate setting. If both parties sit on chairs at right angles to a desk or table a few feet apart, a less formal atmosphere is created and the nurse and client feel on equal terms. In groups, a horseshoe or circular chair arrangement can avoid a superior or head-of-the-table position.
4 The distance between the interviewer and interviewee should be neither too small nor too great because people feel uncomfortable when talking to someone who is too close or too far away.
5 Failure to communicate in a language the client can understand is a form of discrimination. The nurse must convert medical terminology into common English usage. Interpreters or translators are needed if the client and the nurse do not speak the same language or dialect.
LEARNING OUTCOME 10
Contrast various frameworks used for nursing assessment.
Concepts for Lecture
1. Most schools of nursing and health care agencies have developed their own structured assessment format. Many are based on selected nursing models or frameworks. Examples include Gordon’s functional health patterns, Orem’s self-care model, and Roy’s adaptation
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Ask the students to present examples of openended and closed questions used with their clients during the clinical day. Discuss whether the answers provided to the questions elicited the information needed and how the students would modify the questions if necessary.
• Discuss situations the students have observed in the clinical setting when the type of question asked was inappropriate and how they would rephrase the question to obtain the needed information.
• Have the students list the types of questions asked during shift report. Identify whether the questions were closed or open-ended.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Demonstrate various seating arrangements and ask the students to identify the advantage or disadvantage of each.
• Demonstrate distance and its influence on the interview setting.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Discuss the institution’s availability of interpreters.
• Ask the students to discuss methods to arrange the interview setting in the clinical area to best facilitate an admission interview.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
• Discuss the nursing model or framework used by the school and how this influences nursing assessment.
CHAPTER 11 / Assessing 53 © 2012, Pearson Education Inc.
model. The assessment formats flow from the model or framework selected (See Boxes 11–4, 11–5, and 11–6 ) Wellness models are used to assist clients to identify health risks and to explore lifestyle and health behaviors, beliefs, values, and attitudes that influence levels of wellness.
2. Nonnursing models and frameworks from other disciplines may also be helpful for organizing data and are narrower than the model required in nursing; therefore, they usually must be used in combination with other approaches to obtain a complete history. Examples include body systems model, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and developmental theories.
SUGGESTIONS FOR CLINICAL ACTIVITIES
• Review the nursing assessment forms used in the institution. Discuss the model underlying these forms.
© 2012, Pearson Education Inc.
54 CHAPTER 11 / Assessing
Solution Manual for Kozier and Erbs Fundamentals of Nursing 9th Edition by Berman Visit TestBankBell.com to get complete for all chapters
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or King Alfred. I could not but smile, but Cousin Joslyn tells me, that though the unhappy Henry did really pass a night under this roof, there is a tradition that some sort of house stood here in Alfred's time, and that the royal fugitive was really here in some of his many wanderings. A part of the house is as old as the time of Edward the Confessor, and with its heavy, thick walls, low arches, and general massive roughness, makes me think of our shrine of St. Ethelburga, which I shall never see again.
[That was a mistake of mine. I saw all I desired and more of that famous shrine afterward.]
We have now been here four days, and I am beginning to feel at home. I have made friends with the old cat, who after considering me a while, went off and returned with a mouse, which mouse she deposited in my lap with an air of great satisfaction. Cousin Joslyn says it was a tender of service. I praised the old cat and took the mouse in my hand, and then delivered it over to the kits, at which their mother seemed quite satisfied. 'Twas an odd, but methought a mighty pretty trick of the poor brute, and I could see that Mistress Grace took it for a good omen.
I think Joyce is, however, the happiest of any one. As I said, we have arrayed her anew in a dress something suited to her quality, and with her tangled locks smoothed and covered, her face and hands washed, and her eyes growing less like a scared and beaten hound's, she is really a lovely child. She is sixteen years old, but is so small and slight she might easily pass for twelve, which my mother says is all the better, as she is so backward in her education. She has never learned to read, and has forgotten all she ever knew about her religion, save a Hail Mary and a fragment of her paternoster, which she says the chaplain at the hall taught her.
Finding my late aunt's spindle and distaff lying in my room, she begged that she might try to spin, saying that she had once learned of Mistress Earle, and after some trials, in which she showed great patience, she had the spindle dancing merrily on the floor, and drew out a very smooth even thread. She has asked me to teach her to read, and I am going to try. Untaught as she is in everything that it behooves a young lady to know, even in such every-day matters as eating and sitting properly, she is attentive to the slightest hint of my mother or Mistress Warner, who has taken the poor orphan into her kind heart at once, and is laying out great plans for teaching her white-seam, cutwork, and lace-making. Warner has the sense and wisdom to show great deference to Mistress Grace, as being so many years the elder, and they get on well together; and indeed Mistress Warner is a good Christian woman, as my mother says.
July 30.
XXXIII.
CHAPTER
THIS morning, coming into the hall, I found Joyce quite in ecstasies over a pair of young choughs that Harry had got for her at the risk of his neck. Harry, who is usually very shy of strange young ladies, takes wonderfully to Joyce. She on her part takes to everybody, and is growing so full of spirits that mother now and then has to check her a little. She is very good in general, I must say, though she now and then shows her want of training in a little outburst of temper, and yesterday was so rude to Grace that mother ordered her to beg pardon, and on her refusal sent her to her room. Going thither some hour or two after, I found her drowned in tears, because she had offended my mother.
"You can easily make matters right," said I. "Go and beg my mother's pardon and Grace's also, and all will be well."
"If it were anything but that," said she. "But to beg pardon of a servant!"
I could hardly control my smiles, remembering the state wherein we had found her not two weeks agone, but I said gravely:
"As to that, Joyce, Grace's father was as good as your own, and if he had been a hind, 'twould make no odds. 'Tis obedience my mother requires, and she is right. Besides, you have no right to despise servants. Don't you know that our Lord Himself came not to be ministered to, but to minister, and He says Himself, 'if any man will be great among you, let him be your servant.' Let me read you something about that in a book that tells all about Him."
So I fetched my Testament and read to her about our Lord's washing the apostles' feet. She was impressed, I could see, but her pride rose.
"If it were anything else," she said. "I would fast all day, or lie on the floor, or—"
"Or do anything else that you wished to do, but not your plain duty," said I, interrupting, for I began to be vexed with her. "What does my mother care for your fastings, or lying on the floor? Or what boots all these tears, so long as you are proud, and wilful, and disobedient to the friend who has rescued you from misery—perhaps from such a dreadful death as my Lady Carey threatened you with? One simple, honest act of obedience is worth all the tears, and fastings, and penances in the world."
And with that I left her. I think my words had their effect, for an hour after she came weeping to my mother, and knelt by her very humbly, saying that she had begged Grace's pardon and received it. My mother, on that, gave the child her hand to kiss, and bade her bring her work and sit on the stool beside her. So all was sunshine once more, and I think the lesson has done Joyce good.
I have been making acquaintance with the village folk, specially the women and children. They are very cordial to me, and make much of me wherever I go, but I can understand very little unless I have Grace or Cousin Joslyn as interpreter. I am trying to learn something of their language. Some of the younger people, and most of our own servants speak English, after a sort, but they are all much delighted whenever I muster confidence enough to air my few Cornish phrases. They seem a good, kindly, simpleminded set, very fond of Cousin Joslyn, who is their physician and counsellor in all their trouble, looking up to the priest with religious awe, and having as few vices as one could reasonably expect.
They seem fond of the memory of their old Lady, though one of the younger women whom I visited without Grace, and who speaks English fairly, told me her Lady was "mortal tiresome and meddlesome about cleaning and rearing of babies." I hope I shall not be mortal tiresome, but if ever I come here to live, 'tis a wonder if I don't have my say about the rearing of these same babes.
I have already talked with Cousin Joslyn and Father Paul about a plan for a dame school, where at least the maidens might be taught the use of their fingers, in spinning, knitting, and mending of their clothes. Mistress Warner demurs at the knitting, which she says is work for ladies, like embroidery and cut-work, and not for cottage maids. But since it makes good warm hosen, I see not why they should not learn it as well as spinning.
Our priest, Father Paul, as he likes to be called, instead of Sir Paul, is one of an hundred. I never saw a better, purer face than his, though 'tis wonderful thin and worn, and by times full of care. He preaches every Sunday to the people, and repeats whole chapters of the Gospels and Epistles. Last Sunday 'twas that same which the Bishop gave us in the convent, upon charity, though I did not know then whence it came. ('Tis strange how far away seem those old convent days. I can hardly think I am the same maid who was content to spend hours over a cut-work cope, and never had a thought beyond what my superiors told me, or a doubt but that all our endless litanies to the Saints and our Lady were true prayers. But this is by the way.) I am sure Father Paul reads the Scriptures a great deal, for he is always repeating them to the people, as I said, and makes the most clear and practical applications of them to the common matters of every-day life.
Then he visits a great deal from house to house, specially where there is sickness or any trouble and he has composed many quarrels, to which these Cornish folk are a good deal given. He has made acquaintance with many of the wild moormen, and even persuaded some of them to come to the church now and then, to be wedded, and to have their babes christened.
I saw one of these weddings one day, and gave the bride a kerchief, which I had put in my pocket for some one in the village. The whole party were greatly pleased, and this morning the old mother of the bride came and brought me a great basket of whortleberries, the finest I ever saw. She would have no pay, so I gave her a pair of scissors and some needles, and Mistress Grace added what the poor thing seemed to value more than anything, a great loaf of brown wheaten bread. She gave us to understand that her child (not the bride, but another) was very ill, and could eat little, but would like the bread. Thereupon Grace, always compassionate, added a pot of honey, and a bottle of some cordial medicine to her gift, and the poor woman went away very happy.
'Tis strange with what a mixture of awe and contempt the servants and villagers regard these wild folk, who do indeed seem of another race than themselves. Cousin Joslyn thinks the moor folk are remnants of the first race who inhabited the country. I wish something might be done for them. But indeed I might say the same for the whole land, not only of Cornwall, but of our own Devon, and of all England.
Under what a worse than Egyptian darkness it lies! But one can see the glimmering of dawn, and here and there a mountain top touched by the sun; and I cannot help hoping that better days are at hand. My mother, however, is not sanguine—that is, she believes the truth will prevail, but
