From threat to growth A regional development strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia. Thesis Johnny Tasc贸n Valencia Delft University of Technology MSc Urbanism
From threat to growth A regional development strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia. Thesis Johnny Tasc贸n Valencia Delft University of Technology MSc Urbanism
COLOPHON
From threat to growth: A regional development strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia. MSc thesis Johnny Tasc贸n Valencia johnnytascon@gmail.com Student number 4186702
Keywords Risk management, regional development, volcanic threat, piecemeal growth, participatory strategies, Galeras volcano Mentor team Prof. ir. H.C. Bekkering - Chair of Urban Design, department of Urbanism ir. E.Tan - Chair of Design as Politics, department of Urbanism Dr. D.A. Sepulveda - Chair of Spatial Planning & Strategy A.S. Alkan - external committee member Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology MSc Architecture, Urbanism and Building Sciences MSc track Urbanism Design as Politics Studio Prof.dr. Wouter Vanstiphout, Graduation studio leader This thesis is downloadable for free from the TU Delft library website: http://www.library.tudelft.nl/collecties/tu-delft-repository/ Delft, 2013-06-25 Cover image by David Serna, Revista Escala. Bogota, Colombia.
“We, with our ancestors’ memories, have lived with papa Galeras and we are originals of this land. Instead of inviting us to evacuate elsewhere (or to the city), come and invite us to strengthen our territory. Thus, instead of a ‘disaster area’, this land can keep being a life area and a development area“ Manifesto of May 23rd, by Urcunina’s sons, indigenous communities settled at the Galeras slopes. Genoy, May 23rd 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS SUMMARY THESIS STRUCTURE
7 8
PART ONE : RESEARCH BACKGROUND VOLCANIC RISK MANAGEMENT WORLD WIDE PROBLEM STATEMENT PROJECT DEFINITION METHODOLOGY
16 18 40 42 44
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
46
MAIN CONCEPTS A REVIEW OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING APPROACHES THE RISK MANAGEMENT APPROACH THE SELF ORGANIZING [ OR PIECEMEAL GROWTH ] PRINCIPLE
48 50 52 53
DIAGNOSIS
54
THE SOCIAL CONFLICT AT GALERAS’ SLOPES: A STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS REGIONAL DIAGNOSIS REGIONAL DIAGNOSIS DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY SPATIAL DIAGNOSIS: GENOY PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS: GENOY PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS: GENOY DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY’S SPATIAL + PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS SUPPORTING PROJECTS
58 64 66 76 78 80 81 82 83 90
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PART TWO : PROPOSAL FROM THREAT TO RISK: A NEW RISK REDUCTION FRAMEWORK
94
FROM THREAT TO RISK FROM THREAT TO RISK RISK ASSESSMENT ASSOCIATED WITH ESTIMATED ECONOMIC LOSSES.
96 98 102
FROM RISK TO REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
104
REGIONAL SPATIAL DIAGNOSIS REGIONAL SCHEME FROM RISK TO GROWTH
106 107 110
FROM REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO LOCAL GROWTH
112
PIECEMEAL GROWTH STRATEGY FOR RISK REDUCTION: GENOY STUDY CASE. FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS TO URBAN BLOCKS FROM TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION TO VOLCANIC RISK RESILIENT HOUSING FROM TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION TO VOLCANIC RISK RESILIENT HOUSING SUPPORTING PROJECT 1: WILD LIFE SANCTUARY STRATEGY SUPPORTING PROJECT 2: MIJITAYO RIVER STRATEGY
114 134 136 138 148 152
EVALUATION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND REFLECTIONS .
156
FROM CONFLICT TO EVALUATION MODEL RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
158 164
PART THREE : APPENDIX REFERENCES
182
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PREFACE As a Colombian abroad, I have kept close contact with the difficulties my country has faced in recent times as well as throughout history. As an architect, I have been interested in the socio-political phenomena that determine the physical environment in general. Risk management, disaster prevention, displacement and forced resettlement are some of the events that have occupied urban scientists and politicians in finding solutions suitable to our own reality. This document entitled “From Threat to Growth: A regional development strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia�, describes the situation of three rural communities settled over 300 years ago on the fertile slopes of Galeras volcano in the south-western region of Colombia, whose reactivation process has been under studies by scientists since 1997. The objective of this project therefore, is to develop a regional development strategy that collects the lessons learned from previous local risk strategies, municipality master plans and initiatives from the local communities, using these inputs as the basis for a number of urban and local scale proposals that bring a positive impact in the community at the same time reducing the risks associated to volcanic eruptions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible without the inputs of the people from Pasto, Genoy, Mapachico, Florida and NariĂąo, to whom I extend my gratitude and best wishes that a solution to their crisis can be found soon. I also want to express my gratitude to the people who made this thesis possible: My menthors, Henco Bekkering, Ekim Tan and Diego Sepulveda; the people who helped me out in Colombia, mainly Esperanza Agreda whom not only hosted me during my visit to San Juan de Pasto but also shared with me all her experiences of having dealt with the Galeras conflict most of her lifetime; local experts in Colombia such as Oswaldo Mesias, Ricardo Ortiz, Judith Martinez, Ivan Caicedo, Diego Gomez, Elsy Melo, Magda and Jorge, Mr. Ovidio, Mr. Alberto Guevara, Professor Luis Alberto Martinez and Henry Peralta. Especial thanks to the international experts in risk management and local development, Gustavo Wilches-Chaux, Samuel Jaramillo and Jose Bengoa. This thesis is dedicated to my wife, Ximena Garcia who is also a Colombian expert in risk management and resettlement, and encouraged me to get involved for the first time in this topic. My infinite gratitude goes to her. 6
SUMMARY work that can provide useful tools for this specific case. From these premises, two regional conclusions are key outcomes of this thesis: A preliminary risk analysis as a proposed further step from the current Volcanic Threat Map (INGEOMINAS 1997) and a regional development strategy for the Galeras Region (Pasto, Nariño and Florida). Furthermore, one project has been chosen to detail to evaluate the effectiveness of the regional development strategy: The proposal of a piecemeal growth strategy for the village of Genoy as an alternative to the human resettlement policy proposed by the government (part the emergency measures outlined in 2003). In this case, community blames the national government’s emergency measures as the main cause of social conflict and impoverishment at the local community. The methodology implemented combines the methodology suggested by the Design as Politics 2012-2013 studio, and urban planning techniques such as stakeholder analysis, spatial analysis and research by design. At the end, an evaluation model to assess these proposals, together with a reflection on how the goals set at the beginning of the project were achieved.
This thesis begins with a description of the social, political and natural phenomena related with the human settlements at the slopes of the Galeras Volcano. Subsequently, a stateof-the-art is provided in order to understand the relevance of addressing the underlying conflict at this point in time, from a regional planning perspective. Based on this preliminary analysis, a hypothesis regarding regional development as a risk management strategy for the community at the Galeras region is provided. With reference to this hypothesis, the general approach of this Master’s thesis is outlined by, integrating concepts of participation, risk management, regional planning and urban design. The regional strategy compresses several urban and regional projects at lower scales. These provide both safety in case of volcanic eruptions, and growth opportunities for the urban communities settled on this territory. Specifically, a set of four premises will be the core of the decisions: Land has a social value higher than its economic value; Life preservation is a shared goal for all parts involved; there is a local culture that has evolved in this specific territory and needs to be preserved; and there is a constitutional and democratic frame-
PREVIEW
Volcanologists declare 87.5 Km2 as high risk area
Volcanoes in Colombian-Ecuadorian Region
Mt. Redoubt Mt. St. Hellens 57 losses in 1980
INDIGENOUS ‘Resettlement strategy is a good business for the government’
INGEOMINAS
Caribean Region
1997 Andean Region
Mount Pelee 28000 losses in 1902
Bogota
Ruiz (COL) 23000 losses in 1985
Orinoquia Region
Mt. Ruiz 23000 losses in 1985 Pacific Region
Mt. Galeras 10 losses in 1993 Huaynaputina (PER) world catastrophe in 1600
Government declares state of emergency at 4 communities
Amazon Region
Quito
2005 Most deadly eruptions in history.
PEASANTS AND CIVILIANS ‘Investment is required the village might grow towardsthe shelter areas’
*516 resettled by 2013
Mt Tambora: 92000 losses in 1815 Krakatoa: 36000 losses in 1883
= 100 fatalities
Mount Pelee: 28000 losses in 1902
The Pacfic ring of fire is a 40.000 km horseshoe shape where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin of the Pacific Ocean
Mt. Ruiz: 23000 losses in 1985 Vesuvious: 19000 losses in AD 79
2008 - today
source: http://www.loveinfographics.com
Socio-Spatial Context
Background
Stakeholders and conflict
SPECIFIC TOPIC STUDY AREA
THREAT
EXPOSURE
#
G
VULNERABILITY
G
RISK MEASUREMENT
m
Theoretical Framework
From threat to Risk
From risk to development
7
From regional development to local Growth
GENERAL STRUCTURE Page 6
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Page 58
INTRODUCTION
Page 34
THESIS STRUCTURE
PARTIC
page 40
DIAGNOSIS
Page 64
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY
Page 70
LOCAL INTERVENTIONS
Page 104
RISK MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK
EVALUATION
RECOMMENDATIONS
8
C A
SPECIFIC TOPICS
CIPATORY APPROACH
CONCEPT APPROACH
RISK MANAGEMENT THEORY
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY*
COMMUNITY SCALE ACTIONS
SPATIAL PLANNING SCENARIOS
9
PIECEMEAL GROWTH
10
PART one Research
11
INTRODUCTION Over the past decades, academia and governments have engaged in reducing socio-economic vulnerability of individuals and communities to natural hazards, mostly focusing on disaster risk reduction, climate change adaption, environmental management and poverty reduction (Thomalla et al. 2006) However, these approaches have been mostly worked as isolated disciplines, and have also neglected to some extent the role of other fields of study such as Regional planning, participatory planning and vernacular knowledge. Even though volcanic risk management has learned worldwide lessons from experience and mainstream’s approach, a practical and adaptable volcanic risk assessment framework has not been achieved yet. This part describes the general approach of this graduation project. It begins with a social, spatial and historical background of the study area. Subsequently, a comparative analysis of volcanic risk management experiences worldwide is provided in order to understand the relevance of the studied situation. The background is complemented by a number of state-of-theart documents that were gathered from different sources to set out the bases of this project’s early stages. Based on this preliminary inventory, a hypothesis regarding regional development as a risk management strategy for the community at the Galeras region is provided. From this hypothesis, the general approach of this Master’s thesis is outlined by integrating concepts of participation, risk management, regional planning and urban design. The last part of the chapter outlines the main methodological tools utilized during the year, as well as the conceptual elements that define this master thesis document, such as problem statement, research question, sub research questions and disciplines involved. Finally, the overall structure of this graduation project is set out in a diagram.
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G
National Geological Service (formerly, Colombian Institute of Geology and Mining, INGEOMINAS), stated that the Galeras is considered one of most active volcanoes in the world and therefore in Colombia. “But it is not one of the most dangerous, compared with others in the world”. It is part of a large west-east trending volcanic complex with about one million years of formation, including 4500 years old Galeras.
aleras volcano reactivated in early 1988. From that point on, life of peasants and indigenous who had settled at its slopes changed dramatically, not as a consequence of a deadly eruption, but due to ten years of man-made decisions aiming to tackle a potential volcanic crisis.
The Galeras region is well known for its soil’s fertility, which makes it apt for agricultural purposes, the main source of income for about 5000 people settled in the area for over 300 years at the volcano’s slopes, right in the area identified as High Volcanic Threat Zone (abbreviated as ZAVA in Spanish) by the National Geological Service in 1997. Since that time, Galeras has experienced several eruptions, characterized by seismic movements, ash emissions, volcanic projectiles (small and sometimes big rocks the eruption ejects at high speeds). Fortunately, there were no major regional disasters as they are forecasted to occur sooner or later.
The case study selected for this thesis is located in the western metropolitan region of San Juan de Pasto (specifically the communities of Genoy, Mapachico, Briceño and others) together with two neighboring villages, Florida and Nariño, in the south west of Colombia. This is a temperate region near to the Colombian Pacific coast, few degrees above the equator and 2600 meters above sea level, right in the middle of Andean mountain range. Perhaps, the most important characteristic of these municipalities in terms of landscape is their shared backdrop, the sight of Galeras Volcano. According to Diego Gomez, General Coordinator at Colombia’s
Volcanoes in Colombian-Ecuadorian Region
Mt. Redoubt Mt. St. Hellens 57 losses in 1980
Caribean Region
Andean Region
Mount Pelee 28000 losses in 1902
Bogota
Ruiz (COL) 23000 losses in 1985
Orinoquia Region
Mt. Ruiz 23000 losses in 1985 Pacific Region
Mt. Galeras 10 losses in 1993 Huaynaputina (PER) world catastrophe in 1600
Quito
Most deadly eruptions in history. = 100 fatalities
The Pacfic ring of fire is a 40.000 km horseshoe shape where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in the basin of the Pacific Ocean
Amazon Region
Mt Tambora: 92000 losses in 1815 Krakatoa: 36000 losses in 1883 Mount Pelee: 28000 losses in 1902 Mt. Ruiz: 23000 losses in 1985 Vesuvious: 19000 losses in AD 79
source: http://www.loveinfographics.com
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Central square of Nariño, with the sight of Galeras volcano as background
According to the Colombian standards, San Juan de Pasto (or simply Pasto) is a medium size city with a population of 411.706. It is the most important city in the south border, and it is a hub for the international business connections with Ecuador. Nevertheless, it was only in the 1970’s that it upgraded its connectivity with the rest of the country thanks to the Pan-American Highway. Nationwide air transportation is provided by Antonio Nariño Airport, 35 km to the north of
Pasto. Tourism and business travels to Quito, (Ecuador), are also common among locals. The city of San Juan de Pasto and the villages of Nariño and Florida are located along a regional road known as Circunvalar del Galeras (Galeras Ring Road), a touristic circuit that connects several rural villages. Due to their indigenous heritage, most of the villagers and peasants have a deep at-
Caribean Region
Medellin Andean Region
Bogota Orinoquia Region
Cali Bogota Pasto Quito (ECU)
Amazon Region
Guayaquil (ECU)
The main city in the slopes of the volcano is Pasto with more than 400000 people which is a regional node at the border with Ecuador. 14
tachment to their lands, not only because the fertility of the volcanic soil, but also because their particular conception of landowning: “The land owns us, as we are part of it, we do belong to it”.
to be resettled by the government according to the Specific Action Plan for the emergency (IPC 2008). However, this is also where most of the clashes and social divisions during Galeras’ process history have taken place. To provide a spatial development strategy for Genoy as a detailed case study constitutes a specific goal for this graduation project.
Since 2009, an important social conflict takes place in Genoy, a village part of the municipality of Pasto. With 3358 population, Genoy concentrates the largest community scheduled
Sandona 50.000
Nariño 7.845 454
La Florida 11.151 2.118
Genoy 3.358
Galeras Volcano Consaca 12.693
and Wildlife sanctuary
Yacuanquer 10.012 Population in regional scale : 430.702 People to resettle (IPC 2008): 7.935
Pasto Genoy La Florida Nariño 15
Pasto 411.706 2.005
BACKGROUND
Briceño and others (639 people to resettle)
Mapachico - Pasto (1366 people to resettle)
Genoy - Pasto (3358 people to
I
lapsing of buildings. Hence, local governments ordained the villages’ preventive evacuation to a resettlement location chosen by the people among three options of plots during a democratic selection process. However, this measure provoked the displacement to a new town of a rural community accustomed to temperate-climate agriculture with the commercial activity provided by the closeness to a highway. Conversely, the new town is more elevated, therefore colder. Houses look the same, and it is far away from the activity of the closest highway. The people have expressed their dissatisfaction through local media, but there is a general agreement that preventive resettlement was the best option they had. Inded, San Cayetano is getting destroyed by slow mass movements after the resettlement took place. Somehow, resettlement is seen by the people as a necessary evil.
n 1989 the government of Colombia declared the state of emergency because of the Galeras’ reactivation. This measure completely paralyzed the regional economic activity” (Wilches, 2011)
According to Red Cross International, there currently are 15 million people displaced by the hazard and disasters (IFRC, 2012). Therefore, most of the victims of disasters who lost everything need to build a new life after the catastrophe. However, some other vulnerable communities settled in locations with high tendencies of being affected by these disasters, therefore as a response, their governments defined plans as a preventive measure to resettle these communities to safer urban, rural or suburban locations, either designed from scratch (namely new-towns), or by populating parts of existing guest-cities. Nevertheless, these solutions have been associated as causes of social disruptions, bringing consequences such as the failure of the new settlement or the impoverishment of the community.
To this point, a question to start from is: what are the spatial strategies that prevent the disruption of social and economic dynamics that have evolved along with the community when the preventive resettlement strategy is unavoidable given scientific evidence of risk? The case of the communities located at the slopes of the Galeras Volcano provides enough elements to address this question as a regional planning problem but considering at the same time its underlying social and political implications.
Preventive resettlement of communities has been defined as a risk reduction measure by several national governments around the world (Correa, 2011). However, when not addressed properly it often creates a major problem in terms of social and economic disruptions. An example of this phenomenon can be seen in the preventive resettlement of San Cayetano, a small village at Colombia’s central region, where mass movements had caused cracking of houses and col16
Florida (2118 people to resettle)
Nari単o (454 people to resettle)
o resettle)
Armero (Colombia) was a 24.000 urban community at the slopes of Nevado del Ruiz Volcano.
In 1985 the volcano erupted causing a mud flood that wiped out the complete municipality
Previous works have stressed the relevance of Galeras case for Colombia, due to a major disaster occurred there in 1985, only four years before the Galeras reactivated: The eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in the Central Andean mountains of the country, with more than 24.000 losses among which were those who died and those who were never found. However, I consider the [humanitarian] crisis produced
by this event completely different from the [social] crisis taking place in the slopes of Galeras nowadays. After Nevado del Ruiz erupted, there was no doubt for the few survivors that it was mandatory to evacuate the area. On the other hand, communities settled at the slopes of Galeras volcano have not experienced tangible catastrophic results that justify a disruption of their way of life that comes with the resettlement policy (Wilches, 2011). 17
VOLCANIC RISK MANAGEMENT WORLD WIDE
F
rom a Risk Management perspective, active volcanoes themselves do not represent volcanic risk in most of the cases. Risk is a human created condition when communities settle in areas where the probability of having deadly consequences for human life during a volcanic event is elevated. Lessons learned from past experiences worldwide give valuable insights and sets out the state of the art for this diagnosis. St. Hellens, 7919 affected
Knowledge on volcanic risk management has been under construction using international experiences that date back 1970’s. However, the social complexity and the multiplicity of volcanoes types around the world makes difficult to create general guidelines to implement as a formula for every case. However, it can be stated that risk management experiences range from a top down orientation (where government authorities make most of the decisions, and design ways to communicate the emergency protocols to the community), to bottom up (where the community has more control on tracking the threats and implanting procedures to react when the emergency comes). Even though there is neither perfect top down nor perfect bottom up case, the comparative analysis shows that there are some common points from each experience
Colima, 187 affected
La S
Cases from Colombia: Ruiz: 31.000 affected Huila: 45.000 affected
Tungurahua 25.00
100%
Galeras: 8.235 affected
Affected population
Dead victims
All the cases analyzed, are aimed to save peoples’ lives within the volcanic risk area. Having a consensus on the fact that neither government nor community members want fatalities when an eruption comes is a key premise to keep in mind when conflicts among stakeholders arise.
Injured / damaged Displaced / disappeared Permanent resettled Tempararily evacuated
Ongoing, Tungurahua Ongoing, Galeras
2002, Nyiragongo 2005, Colima 2008, Chaiten
1991, Unzen 1994, Nevado del Huila
1980, St Hellens 1982, Galunggung 1985, Nevado del Ruiz
1973, Heimaey 1976,La Soufriere 1977,Nyiragongo
0%
Not evacuated / in conflict
Images on top, from left to right: Local report on St Hellens’ eruption, 1980; logo from the organization against the human resettlement of communities at Colima volcano region; Image from 1973 Helmaey eruption; floodings as consequence of 1982 Galunggung, eruption; People cleaingn ash after 1991 Unzen eruption.
2013
2003
1993
1983
1973
Bottom images from left to right: Resettlement location for communities at the slopes of Tungurahua; damages at Chaiten after 2008 volcanic eruption; normality reported after La Soufriere’s volcanic activity, where people protested because the excesses of the measures taken by the government.; destruction in Zaire after Nyiragongo’s second deadly eruption in Zaire’s recent history. 18
Chaiten 4
Heimaey, 5300 affected
Unzen, 500 affected
oufriere 360.000 affected Nyiragongo, 1600 affected 1977 45000 affected 2002
00 affected Galunggung 200.000 affected
4.200 affected
19
20
1993
1983
1973
1991, Unzen 1994, Nevado del Huila
1980, St Hellens 1982, Galunggung 1985, Nevado del Ruiz
1973, Heimaey 1976,La Soufriere 1977,Nyiragongo
0%
Affected population
100%
Dead victims Injured / damaged Displaced / disappeared Permanent resettled Tempararily evacuated
Ongoing, Tungurahua Ongoing, Galeras 2013
2003
2002, Nyiragongo 2005, Colima 2008, Chaiten
Not evacuated / in conflict
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VOLCANIC RISK MANAGEMENT WORLD WIDE Some observations can be drawn from the previous analysis:
4. Life preservation is a shared goal: Most of the cases show differences in the point of view between the government and the community. However, the common aspect among them is usually not stressed in literature: both parties pursue life preservation of the affected community. Perhaps the most dramatic difference comes in developing countries where governments actions to protect life are mostly based in permanent resettlement strategies, while people emphasize that they can only survive in a known environment where they have strong social networks, they know how to grow food, etc. This has been the cases of Galeras, Tungurahua, Colima, La Soufriere, and Nyiragongo, at least within the compared cases.
1. Risk management is a political and spatial issue: Cases in Latin America and the Caribbean have presented more social resistance than cases in developed countries. The case of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia (where the tragedy might have been prevented is the one with the highest number of fatalities in recent history) is a close example of absence of risk management strategies, as well as lack of coordination between authorities and local community. Other analyzed cases of conflict among authorities and community are La Soufriere in Guadeloupe (French Antilles), Galeras itself, and specially the Colima communities in Mexico where clashes with authorities are also linked with the internal conflict. Weak governments tend to lose control during emergencies. Interestingly, minor riots have been documented in Tungurahua (Ecuador). They mainly occurred prior to the 16 August 2006 eruption that killed five people and destroyed infrastructure. The 1994 volcanic earthquake of Nevado del Huila in Colombia is another interesting exception to this point. Therefore, the indigenous community has strengthened their risk management capabilities mixing high tech tools for volcanic observation, with traditional forecasting strategies based on the analysis of animals and nature patters. (Indigenous leading this processes call themselves INDIOMINAS, parodying the former name of the National Geological Service, INGEOMINAS).
As a preliminary conclusion, it can be said that the most important elements to be considered on volcanic risk management are: the agreement on life preservation, the social value of land, and the pursuing of balance between strategies from government (top-down) and locals (bottom-up).
2. A strong social value of land as a constant: Lack of regional planning at the evacuated areas encourages resettlers to return. Nonetheless, this is also because the social value of land is stronger than the economic value itself, i.e. people generate tight bonds with their territory because of the fertility of the lands, their attachment to the landscape, the climate, and often times their indigenous heritage. This was specially seen in La Soufriere (Guadeloupe) and Nyiragongo (Zaire). In Indonesia, government’s policy aims towards the immediate relocation of communities to safer islands when an imminent risk is detected. 3. Local risk culture enhances risk management: Temporary evacuation has been an option, mainly in developed countries accustomed to living with volcanoes. Therefore, in these countries, depending on the level and type of risk, the disruptions of people have been minimized by implementing temporary evacuation. Examples of these are the Helimaey (erupted in Iceland, in1973), Mount Saint Hellens (in USA, in 1980) and Mountain Unzen (in Japan, in 1991), where people are evacuated and later all returns to normalcy. However, this might be consequent with the level of social and economic development of these countries, where communities have satisfactory levels of education, risk awareness, and governments have strong welfare systems. On the other hand, communities at risk from developing countries tend to present more complexities such as dubious property rights, informal settlements or mistrust to the authorities that make risk reduction measures hard to undertake. 22
TWO CLOSE EXAMPLES EXPERIENCES FROM TUNGURAHUA, ECUADOR
This example has been analyzed by local authorities and community members from Galeras region, with workshops and field visits. However, people from Galeras consider that “Tungurahua is Tungurahua and Galeras is Galeras”. This means that regardless the valuable experience from Ecuador, people from Galeras do not perceive any danger from their volcano, therefore, they still reject resettlement.
In 2008, Tungurahua erupted after nine years of ongoing reactivation. National authorities have taken several risk reduction measures. One of them is information. In restaurants of the various villages at Tungurahua’s slopes, tourists and locals used to be instructed by the waitress about how to react in case of eruption. But perhaps, the most discussed risk management measure implemented by the government is a preventive human resettlement, as a way to reduce human loss, damages in people’s life investments, respiratory illness, etc. A new town was planned and developed to resettle people to a safer territory, while at the same time they were allowed to keep their crops at high volcanic risk zone (Santos 2012).
Image by Borja Santos 2012
Ecuadorian news media have reported returns of people from Tungurahua resettlement locations to their original lands arguing the costs of traveling from the resettlement location to the former territory where they keep their agricultural lands.
Image by Borja Santos 2012
Image by Borja Santos 2012 To the left, Tungurahua region suffered mudsildes coming caused by a volcanic eruption. To the right, overview of the resettlement “La Paz”. The resettlement strategy included that peasants could keep their lands only for production
NEVADO DEL HUILA, COLOMBIA: INDIOMINAS AND COMMUNITY BASED EARLY ALERT SYSTEMS.
This combination of techniques is part of the Nasa Kiwe community’s early alert system, a complex set of rules and procedures oriented to safeguard the community. Early alert systems are an effective and inexpensive risk reduction tool, since it mainly relies on community organization. It has been observed that middle and low classes, as well as peasants and indigenous groups are more capable to developing highly efficient alert systems when they have strong social cohesion bonds (Wilches-Chaux 2011), which can get even tighter thanks to the social interactions required by this kind of community based systems.
In 1994, an earthquake at the slopes of the volcano caused a mudslide that killed 147 people. Perhaps, this is the nearest and most similar case to Galeras. However, very little has been learned between this experience and Galeras case. In Nevado del Huila, community members and scientific authorities are working together to tracking volcanic activity in real time. The experience is colloquially known as INDIOMINAS (a word-play in Spanish, meaning that indigenous people are playing the role of the National Geological System, formerly INGEOMINAS). Community members learned the use of advanced equipment and combine the outcomes from remote sensors with traditional observation methods such as moon’s cycles or animals behavior, in order to forecast potentially deadly volcanic activity.
According to the NGO OSSO, the experience from Nevado del Huila demonstrates that in Galeras there is a need for new knowledge on risk management strategies produced by and within the local communities in order to achieve a better understanding on the impacts of natural phenomenon in societies and the territory.
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PROJECT CONTEXT
I
n 1997, Colombia’s National Geological Service defined the Volcanic Threat Zones in a territory where volcanic evidence were found, more than 4500 years ago.
This finding has affected in different degrees the development of an 870 m2 area divided in three main zones: 82.8 km2 high volcanic threat zone, where deadly lava flows and pyroclasts flows, amongst other evidences of past eruptions (about 4500 years back in history) have been found; low threat zone, a 789.4 Km2 area prone to be reached by volcanic ashes; and there is also the medium threat zone, mainly defined as a security buffer zone for toxic gases, according to Diego Gomez from the National Geological Service. These three areas constitute the Galeras volcanic threat map (INGEOMINAS 1997), which is nowadays the main instrument for volcanic risk decisions making for the authorities at the Galeras region. As part of Design as Politics’ “We the people” thesis studio, this project has special focus on the social impact of the High Threat Zone, (also known as ZAVA for its Spanish short form) in the local communities. The ZAVA is a red spot in a map, which has had economic, political and social implications for the inhabitants of the three municipalities studied: San Juan de Pasto, Nariño and Florida. After ZAVA was defined in 1997, an emergency decree was therefore issued aimed to facilitate the permanent relocation of endangered families, but at the same time it prohibited any further development within the affected areas, paralyzing the social life of a former vibrant community. Furthermore, since the resettlement has not succeeded so far, most of the unstoppable local dynamics have persisted till today: Every year the villages celebrate their local religious parties, at each village’s central square, every afternoon youngsters meet at the multiple courts to play football, corner shops keep on attending to neighbors, and younger generations keep on making new families (although the state of emergency’s restrictions prohibit building new houses within the boundaries of villages at high threat).
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This is a satellite image by NASA (2007) showing the Galeras region from above. The active cone, with a small summit pit, is the red feature on the lower right edge of the caldera (crater) wall. Municipalities’ borders (in yellow) and roads (white) were added afterwards.
25
hazard
(
= 10 Km2 )
Total municipal area (urban +agricultural)
Urban area
La Florida
Nari単o
133.5 km2
49.1 km2
0.2 km2
0.3 km2
4x
117.1
Low volcanic threat 789,4 km2
San Juan de Pasto 1076 km2
30 km2
4x
36.0
143.0
(Or, low probability of high threat)
High volcanic threat 82,8 km2
16.6
13.2
30.8
high shocking-wave threat 195,7 km2
13.2
11.2
67.2
medium shocking W. threat 53.3 558.2 km2
37.1
162.1
People to be resettled: 8253
2642 0 2000 3000 4000 5000 26
518
5372
o ZAVB
La Florida
ZAVM
Nariño Genoy (Pasto)
ZAVA
Pasto
8km
GALERAS THREAT ZONES (INGEOMINAS 1997): This is a regional map including the three threat zones defined by INGEOMINAS (1997). It shows each municipality’s areas falling into Low (Yellow), Middle (Orange) and High (red) volcanic threat zone. The scheme uses a grid of 10 Km2 squares to represents each municipality’s total area (i.e. urban area plus countryside area), and show how much area is affected by each one of the threats: On the one hand there is volcanic threats which include pyroclasts, gas cloud, lava flows, ashes and mudslides (lahars). On the other hand, the shocking wave threats include the sonic wave that can break windows as well as the projectiles that can be shot from the crater at high speeds.
27
road network
Prudhoe bay (USA) Edmonton (CAN) Denver (USA) San Antonio (USA) Mexico DF (MEX) San Salvador (SAL) Panama (PAN) Galeras Region (COL) Quito (ECU) Lima (PER)
Galeras Ring roa 117.5 km
Valparaiso (CHI) Buenos Aires (ARG) Ushuaia (ARG)
“The Pan-American Highway is a network of roads measuring about 47,958 kilometres in total length” (wikipedia)
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723 Km to Bogota
Pan American Higway 385 Km to Cali
Galeras Region Esc: 1/150.000 = 1km2
Galeras rass Region R g (COL ( O OL) OL
Pasto (COL)
d
The Galeras region is connected to the rest of the country, and virtually to the rest of the continent through the 48.000 km long Pan-American Highway planned since 1923 and is still under construction. It goes along the Andean mountains from Chile to Alaska. The Highway complements the Galeras ring road at the segment between San Juan de Pasto and Yacuanquer, through the Low Volcanic Threat Zone. The segment that currently crosses the city of Pasto has been recently redesigned in order to reduce heavy weight traffic within the city, providing new development opportunities to the east of the region. .
Pan American Higway 277 Km to Quito, Ecuador 29
NATURAL AND MAN-MADE STRUCTURES
Florida Nariño Sandona Genoy (Pasto)
Crater Wildlife Sanctuary Pasto Consaca
Pan-American Highway New Pan-American Paved Galeras ring road Tertiary roads Horse paths
Yacuanquer
1 km More in detail, the road network is integrated by a number of different paths. Leaving the Pan-American Highway at the village of Yacuanquer, in the south, one can take the Galeras Ring Road, a road with a strong identity, because of the Galeras sight that is present along the path. However, this ring road is paved only to the village of Consaca. Going further from this point to Sandona (the largest village around the volcano) the road becomes a dust path frequently used by motorcycles, one of the most popular ‘public transportation’ systems. Motorcyclists gather at the main squares waiting for travelers and Galeras’ visitors who want to commute between villages. To the north, the segment connecting Florida with San Juan de Pasto is paved again. Finally, bridle paths connect farms and smaller settlements with tertiary and secondary roads. Some of these bridle paths are also pedestrian walks towards the wildlife sanctuary and also to the main crater.
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Guaitara River Crater Wildlife Sanctuary
River covered by road Green structure Wildlife sanctuary Galearas
1 km2
Two environmental elements are key to understand the whole spatial context: The Guaitara River to the west, and the Galeras Wildlife sanctuary. The former has a historical and societal relevance because it was the western limit of the indigenous territory before the Spanish settlements were established. Nowadays it is still a reference point to the people. Most of its tributary rivers come from the Galeras wildlife sanctuary, a natural reservoir declared in 1985, which also has historical and cultural meaning for indigenous’ descendants (nature as mother and Galeras as father), as well as environmental relevance as a water provider for local aqueducts, as an Eco-tourism destination and living laboratory for environmental and geological education. It finally provides the territory with environmental balance as it is extensively used for agricultural food production in addition to cattle outside the boundaries of the Sanctuary. (PNNC 2005 p.33)
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INPUTS FROM GOVERNMENT’S RESETTLEMENT AGENCY, CASA GALERAS
It can be read in the banners: “resettlement or displacement?” “Get out Casa Galeras”; “The volcano is generous, the government is a lier”; To live and to die here: Our standing decision. Stop resettlements”; and “stop the resettlement act” among others.
M
also increases individuals vulnerability in economic and social terms, since they disrupt their living conditions in their original territory to start from scratch in a new one, where new rules need to be learned and new social behaviors implemented. However, Proceso Galeras highlights the success of individual resettlers who have become leaders at their new locations.
y house cannot be insured, because it is at medium threat zone. However, buying my house is not priority for proceso Galeras”
One of the most important stakeholders on this process is Proceso Galeras, the regional office for preventive human resettlement of the communities within the threat zone, (also known as Casa Galeras), which represents the national government’s resettlement approach for risk reduction. Proceso Galeras’ main goal is to resettle 100% of the population located at High volcanic Threat areas. This resettlement plan, has been proposed to be achieved by two methods: Collective resettlement of the existing villages (namely newtown approach), and resettlement of single villagers who voluntarily accept to move via individual negotiations. So far, the former has not yet been planned, while the latter represents the main focus of Proceso Galeras’ endeavors.
As a matter of fact, several protests by local communities have been reported in news media and social networks. The main causes expressed by leaders and community members are mistrust towards Proceso Galeras since there is no clear communication with the community about their future plans. They also claim that this agency neither does understand the social value of land nor place attachment of locals with their territory. Therefore, an economic agreement about land has often not been reached between Proceso Galeras and community members. Finally, villagers claim they do not want to be resettled into urban areas. Contrarily, they stand for maintaining their status as peasants and villagers and definitely not being displaced to new-towns developments.
According to experts on risk management, Individual preventive resettlement should not be implemented with the Galeras situation. This measure weakens the incipient social networks of the affected communities (Genoy, Mapachico, Florida and Nariño), since their population is that little that the departure of one person removes without replacement his or her role in the community. Individual resettlement
Nowadays, Proceso Galeras keeps its focus on buying individual land, and little effort is been put on pursuing collective agreements. 32
Florida Nariño
Genoy (Pasto)
Pasto
Empty or already acquired plots pty or already acquired 78.5%
s 21.1%
Low density (rural) plots
0.7% iro onme High density (urban) plots
1 km(rural) 2 density plots
0kmn tle emen
10km
h density (urban) plots
m2
ncil 10km
This map (produced with Proceso Galeras’ data from February 2013) shows plots within the high threat zone that are left to be acquired by the Proceso Galeras in order to fulfill the resettlement strategy. As a proceso Galeras’ priority strategy, plots within medium threat zone are not currently part of the acquisition plan. However, this left aside a strip of urban plots along the Mijitayo Avenue (formerly Mijitayo river which was covered by this avenue around the 1970’s). The specific threat along this strip is the possibility of mudslides if an ashes eruption is combined with rainstorms. Because of its population density this strip has similar threat conditions than the urban areas of Genoy, Mapachico, Nariño and La Florida, and it must be included as part of the scope of a risk assessment for the Galeras region. According to the officers and community members interviewed, little strides have been achieved in the purchase agreements of strategic properties. Instead, the majority of already acquired plots by the government through proceso Galeras (78.5% of the target area) are agricultural lands without permanent occupants, or recreation properties with sporadic occupation during the year. 33
INPUTS FROM PREVIOUS WORKS IN THIS STUDY CASE
I
physical and functional vulnerabilities of objects located in the threat zone. These documents include precise maps that were released by OSSO for public access through GIS web map services, a practice by OSSO to encourage academics and researchers to contribute and get involved in the volcanic risk management debate and to generate new knowledge on this matter.
n 2010, Colombian NGO Osso developed the first probabilistic assessment of Galeras hazards implementing World Bank’s CAPRA methodology.
Since this vulnerability study concluded, no further risk assessment has been pursed by regional authorities due to several administrative difficulties. According to the NGO (OSSO 2010) the kinds of possibilities this study offers for further development are: Risk assessment, Hazard mathematics modeling, and Design of strategies oriented to reduce vulnerability
The most important physical vulnerability found by this study is the weakness of roof structures. The fact that most of the local homeowners leave a concrete deck as a temporary roof in order to facilitate the future growth of the house increases the vulnerability due to the fact that ashes accumulated out of most of volcanic activities may cause the collapse of this kind of structures. Other vulnerabilities rely on the traditional construction techniques and materials utilized by locals. The highest functional vulnerability is the lack of redundant systems of the most important utilities networks (Electricity, Aqueduct, Liquid and Solid Waste). The consultancy produced a thorough documentation of 2010 Osso’s slideshow presentation in Davos, Switzerland (OSSO 2010) sumarizes the vulnerability assessment’s findings.
Most of the physical vulnerabilities are connected with the vernacular architecture and the urban growth trends that are part of the local culture. These vulnerabilities were quantified according to risk probability functions. 34
Infraestructure at on risk
iro onme raestructure on risk Safe Infraestructure tle emen n 1 km fe Infraestructure
m
ncil
Specific threat Pyroclastic flows Lava flows Pyroclastic rainfall Mud flows Shocking wave Projectiles Toxic cloud Total km of roads Analyzed:
None 569.7 Km 621.54 Km 127.21 Km 597.94 Km 621.54 Km 615.33 Km 601.4 Km
Moderate 0 Km 0 Km 494.3 Km 0 Km 0 Km 6.2 Km 0 Km
Severe 54.75 Km 0 Km 0 Km 23.6 Km 0 Km 0 Km 20.14 Km
OSSO’s result can be analyzed in this map and the table where it comes from. They show the segments and kilometers of road affected by each specific volcanic event, and how would the damage be classified in a scale of None-Moderate -Severe. The event that would affect infrastructure the most is the rainfall of ashes (pyroclastic rainfall) that would stop traffic in 80% of the ring road and tributary roads. However, the most severe consequences would be the pyroclastic flows (currents of hot gas and rock moving at speed of up to 700 km/h), which would severely damage vulnerable segments of the roads network between Florida, Nariùo, Genoy and Pasto (Red segments in the map and 9% of the whole road network analyzed by OSSO) and other vital infrastructure like water sources around.
621.54 Km
35
REGIONAL BASE MAP
Guaitaro River
Florida
N
Sandona
Urcunina Crater
Pan-American Highway New Pan-American
Consaca Wildlife Sanctuary
Paved Galeras ring road Tertiary roads Horse paths Green environment Urban settlements Indigenous council 0km
6 km
Yacuanquer 36
Panam
Antonio Nari単o Airport
Nari単o
Genoy (Pasto)
Pasto
Road to Amazonian rain forest
merican Road to Quito
La cocha Lagoon and peasants wildlife reservoir 37
GENERAL APPROACH
A
dequate development will automatically reduce the levels of relative or total risk.” (Lavell 2004) GENERAL AIM One starting point of this thesis is the general premise that Risk Management, (and therefore volcanic risk management) must be understood as a development strategy. (Lavell 2004) This concept was recently included in Colombian risk management legislation since 2012, enabling local authorities to generate synergies among municipalities that share similar risks, as in this case study. However, this tool has not yet been implemented at Galeras region. Currently, the role of integrating these shared needs is a responsibility of the public regional environmental corporations (the corporation involved in this case is CORPONARINO). Nevertheless, in cases as Galeras, national government’s efforts have more impact than local or regional authorities in making decisions with regard to risk management. This has triggered protests from the local communities who demand to be taken into account in the solutions, instead of being imposed with top down risk reduction measures from Bogota.
The objective of this graduation project is to develop a regional development strategy that collects the lessons learned from previous local risk strategies, municipal master plans and initiatives from the local communities. Moreover, it uses these inputs as a basis for a set of articulated urban and local scale projects that bring a positive impact in the community and reduce risk at the same time.
As a rule (and in accordance to the master plan law of 1999) municipalities end up implementing their individual master plans and local development plans that are evaluated by the above mentioned regional corporations in order to fulfill the overriding national regulations. Therefore, local communities only plan within their boundaries, resources and limitations, without considering the impacts or potential benefits of spatial planning as a regional venture with other municipalities. Not only scale economies, cultural exchange, and environmental shares and so on can be achieved, but also shared risk management strategies would be a great achievement for the Galeras region.
To bridge differences between ancestral understandings of volcanic risk and scientific approaches, under the mutual recognition of Galeras as a vital component of the territory that enhances the social value of land.
GOALS This proposal is intended to impact the local community in a positive way, so that if implemented it will enable locals: To develop their life plans as individuals and society in a low risk environment, since no further resettlements will be required and people’s right to life will be ensured.
To protect and enhance their local culture and ancestral heritage, by using this asset as a basis for the regional development strategy herein proposed. To transform the democratic framework, by proposing public policies that allow them to appropriate the territory safely.
HYPOTHESIS Considering the above mentioned, I state a general hypothesis to be tested with the spatial interventions herein proposed:
DATA SOURCES Primary Data: Open interviews with scholars, NGO’s and authorities at the National Level in Bogota, Cali and San Juan de Pasto; with regional authorities and scholars in San Juan de Pasto; and with local community members including local leaders at the communities to be resettled.
Overall risk of human settlements at Galeras high volcanic risk zones can be reduced by implementing a regional development strategy, (rather than municipal development strategies or national wide strategies) that enable communities to identify regional wide opportunities and large scale synergies for the urban and rural planning of the analyzed communities.
Secondary Data: Press review about Galeras activity between 1989 and 2013, activism reported on social media (facebook and blogs) academic literature review, official cartography produced by national and regional authorities, as well as NGO’s in the field of risk management. 38
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PROBLEM STATEMENT Four problems have been identified as core issues for the proposed case:
- Mistrust (Social origin): the community sees government’s efforts as attempts to dispose them from their homes, productive lands and ancestral territory. No government’s idea seems to compensate effectively the sacrifice for the countryside people would mean giving away their lands and starting from scratch at an unknown location. Lack of government investment in public works increases the mistrust (which is actually a reinforcing loop because public works cannot be performed either as long as the threat persists). Therefore, basic urban services have not been improved since the emergency act was declared even though the community has demanded the need of such facilities as enhanced health care centres (required in case of dangerous eruptions) or sports facilities. Additionally, while government prohibits the construction in the affected villages, at the same time the west sector of San Juan de Pasto is drastically growing towards the volcano in high densities and with little control from the same authorities.
1. Risk decisions, (including State of Emergency declaratory) are being taken based on a threat map. There is no risk map developed so far. 2. Existing legal framework (including State of Emergency declaration) has stopped local development for more than 10 years and prevented regional planning including shared risk management strategies. 3. Resettlement policy focuses on ensuring individuals livelihood, but it impacts existing social networks and cultural heritage. 4. Given the lack of a proper risk assessment for the region, most of the people are unaware of the risks they are exposed to within the High threat Zone (ZAVA). Moreover, these social and political conditions were identified by the analysis as the origins of the four problems: - Top-down approach (political origin): The planned and ongoing measures have been defined from national government agencies. People on the streets have no clear idea of what is going on in their homelands, in various aspects such as: “What is the priority or phasing for lands acquisition”, “what is going to happen with the acquired lands and constructions”, “where have my former neighbours gone and how are they doing at the new locations?” Interviewed people generally consider that their opinions in these matters have not been yet considered.
- Lack of land (Spatial origin): 200 years of parcellation and mini parcellation has increased the pressure over the land at the slopes of the volcano. Rural families used to own 1 to 3 Hectares before, and ancient practices such as vertical agriculture are getting lost. Newer generations can have access to plots of 500 to 700 m2 that can hardly produce the livelihood of an entire family. Young couples cannot build new houses at the villages within the High Threat Zone,
FINITION
LEM DE LED PROB
DETAI
3. Who is involved (Who): The high risk area affected near to 9000 people among villagers and peasant to the north of the ring-road. The strategies towards a resettlement have come from the side of the national and local government. Even though these processes have been participative by definition, the people still claim for a solution that minimizes the disruption of their lifestyle.
Following the Design as Politics’ method for detailed problem definition, these facts were identified: 1. Physical and social situation (What): After the definition of the Galeras’ high threat area by the National agency of mining and resources (INGEOMINAS) three municipalities resulted affected as they are located (or partly located) within this area. The national government declared the State of Emergency in order to facilitate the issuing of funds to resettle the three communities. However, the communities have mostly rejected the resettlement approach as it can be seen in news media, and in the fact that the collective resettlement has not been achieved yet.
4. What is the political system: In the Colombian democracy system, decisions are made in the central government seated at Bogota, miles away of this region. Most of the ruling parties are right wing and local governments have little ideological differences with the central authorities which generate reaction from communities with different ideas of government, such as indigenous communities of this zone. 5. What are the policies over the territory (The red tape): Besides the definition of the High risk area and the declaration of State of Emergency, several social and spatial plans have been proposed to mitigate the risk. However, these plans are far away to constitute a solution the people can trust. In sum, the Galeras problem is a problem of mistrust from the local community to the government’s risk reduction policies.
2. What are the spatial characteristics (Where): These communities are located along the Galeras Ring Road, which connects several rural villages. Due to their indigenous heritage, many of the villagers and peasants have a deep attachment to the land, not only because the fertility of the volcanic soil, but also because as they say “The land owns us. As we are part of it, we belong to it”. 40
Therefore...
RISK CANNOT BE REDUCED BASED ON A THREAT MAP ONLY (Risk Management principle)
IT IS UNKNOWN THE LEVEL OF RISK TO PEOPLE’S LIFE (Recognized by authorities) at the same time. .. While
However...
RISK REGULATIONS HAVE STOPPED 10 YEARS OF LOCAL DEVELOPMENT (People demands)
RESETTLEMENT POLICY DISRUPTS LOCAL CULTURE AND SOCIAL NETWORKS (Scholars concern) A n d. . .
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PROJECT DEFINITION RESEARCH QUESTION:
Given a community that has been forced to stop their normal development process at their territory, how can they be supported in creating local development strategies that reduce both infrastructure and human vulnerability with regard to volcanic risk to a tolerable level?
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SUB-RESEARCH QUESTIONS
that implement this as preventive measure. This legal void makes it difficult to generate effective social processes when resettlement is imperative. Instead, national regional and local governments are applying emergency measures with apparently no coordination among them, increasing the division among community members.
CULTURE- What are the cultural characteristics of the Galeras region society that can trigger a participatory process within the region? LIFE: - What are the set of actions that the community is willing to support, and that can be used in the construction of a participatory Galeras regional project in which their right to life is safeguarded?
KEYWORDS Risk management, regional development, volcanic threat, piecemeal growth, participatory strategies, Galeras volcano
DEMOCRACY: - What set of theories and approaches about community participation in spatial decisions can be applied to the specific case of the communities on risk at the slopes of Galeras Volcano in Colombia?
DISCIPLINES Regional planning, urban design, resettlement studies, New town studies, risk management, Local development studies
TERRITORY:- What are the spatial strategies that can prevent the disruption of social and economic dynamics that have evolved along with the community when the preventive resettlement strategy is implemented?
RELEVANCE As stated above, the Galeras case study has been discussed nationwide, after being defined as a high-risk zone back in 1997. Three different presidents have tried to come up with a feasible plan to permanently move the people to a safer place with no evident success. The above mentioned makes this project relevant in at least three aspects: Societal relevance: The communities located in the slopes of the volcano are constantly demanding for governmental attention to their main complaints: There is an increasing impoverishment process related with the official declaratory of the high risk area. Touristic activity has diminished, local scale businesses have left the area and once the people who have agreed with the call for individual resettlement have left the area, the loss cannot be replaced by law (the houses must be demolished), severely damaging the fragile local social network. Furthermore, The recent growing influence of indigenous groups adds new complexities to the discussion, such as the indivisibility of people and land according to indigenous beliefs. Scientific relevance: There are considerable scientific researches done in the field of participatory approaches. However, these works have been more focused on enabling communities to create innovative means of production or organization. Few examples of how to transform the initiatives from an organized community into spatial transformations of the region and the built environment have been broadly analyzed. Political relevance: There is no policy that regulates resettlement in Colombia as there are in other countries 43
METHODOLOGY The research question will be answered by addressing the sub-research questions, and pursuing the achievement of the goals above mentioned. The process followed included the following methods:
people blame the creation of a state of emergency law, also known as Ley Galeras (2003) as the actual cause of the social crisis at the community, by identifying elements of this law that harms the social life of the community. Further legal acts have been analyzed, starting from the Colombian National Constitution (1991), Territory organization law (1997), Risk management policies to be implemented at the Galeras volcanic threat situation (2007) or the Risk Management national Law (2012) which modifies the former one and opens an opportunity to create regional development strategies as risk management strategies.
PRESS REVIEW Press about Galeras’ volcanic activity between 1989 and 2013 were reviewed at the beginning of the process, to support the topic’s national and international relevance. Furthermore, key points of analysis from opinion leaders to be included in the project’s scope were identified by this method. News media corporations consulted included BBC, REUTERS and AFP among other international sources such as EL COMERCIO from Ecuador; Colombian top news corporations such as EL TIEMPO and EL ESPECTADOR were mainly consulted seeking for nationwide coverage on the topic; finally for regional coverage, local news papers and blogs from local citizens were reviewed in order to identify highlighted facts and media trends.
SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND MAPPING OF FINDINGS In order to understand different scales involved in this Master’s thesis project, a series of maps have been developed on three scales: the scale of the region, the scale of the village and the scale of the community. Cartography gathered and produced aims to support diagnosis, design and evaluation at these three scales. Main sources of cartography for this project were the Colombian Geographic Institute Agustín Codazzi, as well as the independent NGO OSSO who performed a complete vulnerability analysis in 2010. Other maps were as a result of the spatial analysis performed as part of this project and are proposed as new cartography that can constitute inputs for future decisions.
FOLLOWING TO SOCIAL MEDIA ACTIVISM As experienced in November 2012’s Design as Politics workshop in the AEDES network campus Berlin, an important source of opinions from individuals before going into the field, was to review what these individuals have expressed in social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, people’s blogs, and discussion forums (also available in press review). Two of the affected communities have active presence in social media: Genoy with 101 followers and Mapachico with 234 followers up to May 2013. Galeras process’ stakeholders have also been active in social media about this topic in the last two years, such as the National Ministry of Housing German Vargas Lleras, and the independent consultant and writer on risk management issues, Colombian Gustavo Wilches-Chaux
OPEN INTERVIEWS Open interviews were performed among scholars, NGO’s and authorities at the National Level in Bogotá, Cali and San Juan de Pasto; with regional authorities and scholars in San Juan de Pasto; and with local community members including local leaders at the communities to be resettled. All the interviews were done in Spanish. 11 Interviews were approved to be recorded and transcribed. One more was recorded and not approved to be used as part of the document. In total, more than 20 interviews were performed along the whole process, constituting an essential input in building the conclusions, proposals, and positions expressed in this graduation project.
ACADEMIC LITERATURE REVIEW As a TUDelft Master’s in urbanism thesis, a literature review is required to structure an informed position about the underlying conflicts of this case by providing a theoretical framework. One paper has been written for this graduation project about participatory approaches for spatial planning processes. Further documents were analyzed to identify scholars’ positions on risk management, regional development, and self-organizational urban processes.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS AND CASE STUDIES As it was discussed before, volcanic risk management experiences, (involving or not involving a disaster), have been analyzed since 1973. Most of them were selected because of the success or failure in terms of risk management, rather than the media relevance in terms of number of fatalities or damages. Besides, cases with geographical and social similarities were included as part of the comparative analysis. Conclusions on the effectiveness of the measures in terms of reduction of potential losses have been drawn and are included in the general conclusions of the study at the end of the document.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK REVIEW One motivation to propose this specific case as a Design as Politics project was the opportunity to identify how political decisions have strong impact in spatial decisions. In the case of Galeras communities, a core issue is to understand why 44
STRUCTURE OF GRADUATION PROJECT BACKGROUND
Government of Colombia declared the state of emergency at the Galeras region in 1989
SPATIAL CONTEXT REGIONAL SCALE GALERAS REGION
TOWN SCALE MUNICIPALITIES OF: -PASTO -NARIñO -FLORIDA
HYPOTHESIS
DIAGNOSIS
PROBLEM STATEMENT
COMMUNITY SCALE COMMUNITY OF GENOY
Volcanic risk can be reduced by implementing a regional development strategy
Top down approach, mistrust from community to authorities and lack of land have mixed into a socio-spatial complex problem at Galeras region
REGIONAL DEV. STRATEGY
GENERAL AIM
To develop a region wide development strategy that improves community’s development and reduce volcanic risk at the same time
RESEARCH QUESTION
Given the galeras community, how can they be supported in self developing local growth strategies that reduce volcanic risk?
LOCAL INTERVENTIONS
EVALUATION
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 45
-Participatory approach -Risk management -Piecemeal growth
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This part covers the theoretical background that supports this Master’s thesis. It clarifies most used concepts and terms in this document. Furthermore, it concentrates on the three main theoretical approaches underpinning the overall proposal. Most of the concepts are a further elaboration from the literature review paper done as part of the requirements for the Master’s course Theory of Urbanism in 2012. The complete paper can be found as part f the appendix at the end of the document. As a conclusion, an overview of the concepts and approaches discussed in this section will be provided, in order to clarify how this research supported this one year academic exercise.
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47
MAIN CONCEPTS Most of the project’s key concepts can be taken from its literal definition and further explained for this specific context.
this is likely to be damaged. Risk: “The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences” (Correa et al. 2011). Namely, Risk is a probability that results from combining the probability of a phenomenon to take place, together with the probability of a exposed element to get damaged by this phenomenon and its side effects.
SPATIAL PLANNING CONCEPTS Region: A broad geographic area that supports a characteristic fauna or human society (Merriam-Webster 2013). For this specific case, the entire Galeras region includes the Galeras Wildlife sanctuary, the city of San Juan de Pasto and the Villages along the Galeras ring Road (Genoy, Nariño, Florida, Sandona, Consaca and Yacuanquer). The specific study area is a sub region that includes the Galeras Wildlife Sanctuary, the city of San Juan de Pasto and villages of Genoy, Nariño and Florida.
Risk Management: “The systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss” (Correa et al. 2011).
PARTICIPATORY APPROACH CONCEPTS Village: “A settlement usually larger than a hamlet and smaller than a town”. (Merriam-Webster 2013) As stated before, the analyzed villages are Florida, Nariño, and although Genoy is an administrative part of Pasto, it is taken as a separate village by this definition.
Participation: “It is the redistribution of power that enables the have-not citizens (...) to be deliberately included in the future” (Arnstein 1969). Collaborative Planning: It is an approach to participation that recognizes that “planning activity involves some interactive relation, and some kind of governance process” and that aims to balance power between actors. (Healey 2003).
City: “An inhabited place of greater size, population or importance than a town or village” (Merriam-Webster 2013). This study includes the city of Pasto (more than 400.000 people).
Rural Participatory Appraisal (PRA): It is a “growing family of approaches and methods to en able local (rural or urban) people to express, enhance, share and analyze their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and to act” (Chambers 1994).
Resettlement: According to World Bank, it can be defined in two ways: as a measure at the post disaster reconstruction stage, and as a disaster risk reduction measure. In both cases “the Bank has a mandatory policy to ensure that the living conditions of resettled populations are improved or at least restored.” (Correa et al. 2011).
PIECEMEAL GROWTH APPROACH CONCEPTS
Regional planning: Regional planning focuses on the interrelationship between the various settlements of the region and between the settlements and the rural area (UN Habitat 1976).
Growth: “When we say that something grows as a whole, we mean that its own wholeness is the birthplace, the origin, and the continuous creator of its ongoing growth. That its new growth emerges from the specific, peculiar structural nature of its past. That it is an autonomous whole, whose internal laws, and whose emergence, govern its continuation, govern what emerges next” (Alexander 1987).
RISK MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS Threat: “An indication of something impending” (MerriamWebster 2013). Specifically, according to the Colombian Geological Service, SCG, volcanic threat is defined by studying the volcanic phenomenon in its geological history. Therefore, a volcanic threat assessment provides information on impact of eruptions along volcano’s geological history, and where in the region can these evidences be found, which can be summarized in a threat map.
Piecemeal growth: “Growth that goes forward in small steps, where each project spreads out and adapts itself to the twists and turns of function and site” (Alexander 1975).
Exposed: “Not shielded or protected” (Merriam-Webster 2013). For risk management purposes, an element (person or infrastructure) is exposed when it is located within a disaster threat zone. Vulnerability: According to SGC, Vulnerability is a condition of exposed elements. An element is vulnerable to the threat it is exposed if in case the threaten phenomenon takes place, 48
“THE VOLCANO IS MY NEIGHBOR“. Painting by children from the Tungurahua region , as part of the workshops directed by Jorge Jaen in Ecuador. A participatory process with these communities is taking place in 2013 with the collaboration of British STREVA project.
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A REVIEW OF PARTICIPATORY PLANNING APPROACHES Human resettlement has been proposed as a risk reduction strategy for communities affected by natural disasters around the world, and specifically in developing countries (Correa et al. 2011). Formerly, resettlements have been implemented as pre-disaster planned developments (namely new-towns) aiming to preserve human communities that are exposed to high natural risk. Due to international regulations in human rights, governments and resettlement practitioners have been recently encouraged (often by multilateral organizations such as World Bank and IBD) to include community participation as a key component for these processes.
liberative participatory process is the shared knowledge and the resolution of evident and tacit conflicts that arise during the planning process of spatial transformations. COLLABORATIVE PLANNING (CP) APPROACH The work of Healey (1998) focuses on the collaborative nature of community participation. Collaborative planning can be defined as an interactive place-making strategy that goes beyond the generation of spaces for stakeholders to share visions of how the city could be: ‘In the collaborative approach to place-making, the regulatory object is the way people think about a place and the meanings they give to it’ (Healey, 1998). Furthermore, in a collaborative approach, the goal of place-making is a result of the collaboration between stakeholders (Healey 1998). Instead of negotiating as in the deliberative approach, in the collaborative approach planners, community and government are encouraged to work as a team in the construction of urban space.
Literature on community participation has been summarized in three approaches for this research: first, the deliberative approach in which deliberate planning process leads to a negotiated production of public welfare through social mobilization (Adaman & Devine 2001); secondly, in the collaborative approach, the decisions on place-making are outcomes of the collaboration between stakeholders (Healey 1998); finally, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) recognize that the knowledge of territory underlies in people with different levels of education, therefore attention is focused on methods to enable planners to learn from communities their knowledge about territory (Chambers 1994) as a way to develop participatory diagnosis on rural areas.
In practical terms, it can be said that collaborative approach to people’s participation, positions the role of a planner as a participant with no particular interests in the outcome but focuses on ensuring an effective communication process. Collaborative approach is nourished by the multiple perspectives of spatial and social reality that can be found in the participants and aims for establishing a common ground in which everyone involved has equal access to the available knowledge. At the end, the social outcome of collaborative participation is an agreement that represents most of the participants’ interests. However, attention must be set at the capacity of participants to actually understand their needs and transmit their knowledge; otherwise these agreements might produce unjust spatial results (Fainstein 1999).
PARTICIPATION AS A DELIBERATIVE PROCESS Forrester (1999) proposes a spatial planning oriented approach to the concept of participation. According to him, deliberation is the practice to ‘work and learn with others’ (1999: p. 2). Moreover, the deliberative practice constitutes a tool for mediation that is especially helpful in the design professions. Involving citizens in spatial decision making may delay the achievement of goals. Nevertheless, it represents a unique opportunity to identify and detail what the key elements are from the users point of view in a spatial planning process: ‘How we can learn not only about technique but about value; how we can change our minds about what is important, (…) and, more, change our practical sense about what we can do together’ (Forester, 1999: p. 62). In sum, deliberative approach seeks to enhance the knowledge of what a developer has about a place, by the contributions of the community that inhabits the place and about what really matters to them.
PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL AS A FIELD RESEARCH APPROACH In PRA, local people are encouraged to share, enhance and analyze their own knowledge of territory and society so they can benefit better in the planning processes (Chambers 1994). The underpinning premise of this approach is that territorial knowledge can be collected by local people using participatory social mapping and community generated statistics, among other mapping, modeling and report techniques that involve communities regardless of their literacy levels.
In this direction, deliberative processes can be understood as those in which planners act as mediators between spatial developers and communities affected with the development, in which the developer complements the previous knowledge about community’s issues with the direct input of people involved in a dialogic space induced by the deliberative practitioner. Nevertheless, the planner’s role can shift from mediator to external observer, and attention must be paid to the spontaneous results that can come up from the interaction between actors. The expected output of the de-
PRA is a participatory research technique based on the premise that the poor and marginalized are capable of analyzing their spatial and social reality. The role of planner is as mediator between local community and policy makers, stressing the importance of the former over the latter (Chambers 1997: p. 234). The outcomes are primary data that avoids scientific biases that are often induced in other data collection techniques. 50
In PRA, local people are encouraged to share, enhance and analyze their own knowledge of territory and society so they can benefit better of planning processes (Chambers 1994). Image “Participatory rural Appraisal� from http://youthdevelopmentvoice.wordpress.com 51
THE RISK MANAGEMENT APPROACH
R
isk management is a broad field of expertise in disaster studies. It was introduced to the Colombian legislation (act 812 of 2003) as a new approach replacing the disaster’s prevention and reaction approach ruling since 1985 after Mt. Nevado del Ruiz erupted killing more than 23.000 people (see page 13),
STUDY AREA
The general premise in risk management is that risks are created by societies when they are unaware of the threatens they are prone to, and how vulnerable are they to these threats. Therefore, risks are the consequences derived by the combination of these factors. Individuals can increase or decrease vulnerabilities when they are properly informed about the threat.
THREAT
According to the Colombian legislation, threats of disaster are evaluated and measured by governmental organizations. However this can be done by NGO’s or by other organizations with scientific capabilities, trained personnel and equipments. On the other hand, law also states that risks related with those threats must be assessed by the municipalities or regional governments. In the Galeras case the role of measuring the threat of volcanic eruption has been properly done by the Colombian Geological Service (SGC). However, the municipalities within the threat zone have done little achievements in clearly defining the risks they are prone to and the measures to reduce them.
EXPOSURE
In order to understand risk, a comprehensive risk assessment is required. The Central America Probabilistic Risk Assessment - CAPRA methodology provides a risk assessment framework that has been implemented in Latin American countries after Hurricane Mitch in 1998 aiming to understand specific risks so that local capabilities to reduce them can be developed. “It consists of a GIS-based platform for risk analysis, where probabilistic techniques are applied to the analysis of earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, landslides and volcanoes. Hazard information is combined with exposure and vulnerability data, allowing the user to determine risk simultaneously on an inter-related multi-hazard basis, distinguishing the platform from previous single hazard analyses” (GFDRR 2013)
VULNERABILITY
The output of a risk assessment like CAPRA is expressed in percentage of damage to human lives and goods in a risk scenario that might occur once in a number of years. CAPRA uses the following equation for risk modeling.
RISK MEASUREMENT
R=TxVxC Where risk is a percent product of the consequences (C) vulnerabilities (V) and threats (T) associated with a given phenomenon (Bilal 2011).
CAPRA methodology identifies the steps required to achieve a probabilistic definition of risk in a given territory, considering the threat, the level of exposure of infrastructure, and the vulnerability of these elements to the different threats. 52
THE SELF ORGANIZING [ OR PIECEMEAL GROWTH ] PRINCIPLE In “A New theory of urban design”, piecemeal growth is defined as “a necessary precondition if wholeness. (…) The rule is necessary simply because wholeness is too complicated to be built up in large lumps, The grain of development must be small enough, so that there Is room, and time, for wholeness to develop” (Alexander 1987). This principle explains the spontaneous ways most of the human settlements around the world have emerged in history. Indeed, human settlements located in high volcanic threat areas originally grew as Alexander explains, bit by bit. Even more, it is acknowledged that the Spanish grid of most post colonial Latin American settlements (as it is this case of study) have been imposed on top of former indigenous settlements as a part of the conqueror’s strategy to push away the native settlers.
However, Alexander proposes a middle term that might be helpful in participatory defining a set of risk reduction actions. A more adaptive version of the rule states that an urban design should include “equal number of large, medium and small projects” (Alexander 1987). Even though it might sound obvious, this alternative has been unexplored in the resettlement development field, in which the entire new settlement constitutes one or few large lump projects (often divided in subprojects or phases that are easier to manage, but essentially large ones) Piecemeal growth is a term that exemplifies the way Colombian villages have grown, and keep on growing nowadays. As a strength that is there (i.e. does not need to be taught to the local communities), it can be implemented as a way to involve communities in the regional development strategy oriented to create new safer urban areas. Further construction techniques can be induced to increase resilience if needed, always as an addition instead of replacement of traditional construction methods.
Human resettlement as a risk reduction measure (Correa et al 2011) does not consider piecemeal growth as a development strategy. Instead, it is more related with large lumps development (namely new towns development) as a way to create new resettlement areas to safeguard communities at risk. However, this nature of resettlement has been often rejected by the affected communities who have inhabited in a given region by generations and find themselves suddenly forced to move to a new town development without a history or possibilities to keep growing the spontaneous way they have been used to grow.
These images from the field visit show the piecemeal evolution process along a regional road. From left to right, first the land is appropriated by a basic hut with rudimentary access to services. Then it evolves by adding facade materials to the building, and finally it became a housing unit, self developed by its inhabitants.
A similar process can be evidenced within the village. Row houses are constantly growing from rudimenatary constructions, into solid houses for one or more families. The flat roof allows subsequent piecemeal growth stages. 53
DIAGNOSIS This chapter has a twofold purpose: to present from an academic point of view the social conflict that has been documented by news media and other scholars; and to provide a spatial inventory of regional, urban and rural elements at the three different scales that matter for this graduation studio (region, settlement, and community). Firstly, a stakeholder analysis is presented, aimed to recognize actors involved, relationships among them, and broken links. Thus, the societal relevance presented in chapter 1 is developed and conclusions in this aspect can be drawn. The second part of the chapter shows the mapping of events that constitute the groundwork for the regional plan and for the detailed project as well, from a participatory diagnosis approach as a way to understand the territory, not only as a set of urban systems (road, buildings, plots, green...) but as a complex whole that includes the local community’s knowledge of territory.
54
Typical semi-rural house in Genoy. People at countryside replaced the traditional pitched roof, with a flat concrete deck that enables them to build further stories if the family requires more floor space. However, flat roofs within volcanic zones increases the risk of collapse since ash rainfalls can accumulate easier on these structures, which increases dead loads. 55
Volcanic events (1989-2012) eruption
smoke+ ash +inminent explosion
Urban sprawl towards volcano sopes seismic activity
Micro seismic activity
Regional demographics (1989-2012)
1993
1997
High Vulnerabilty Zone is defined
scientifics confirm reactivation process
1989
15 people died in volcanic eruption
no activity
10000
RURAL POPULATION
5000
URBAN POPULATION
56
1993
1997
High Vulnerabilty Zone is defined
scientifics confirm reactivation process
1988
15 people died in volcanic eruption
0
2005
2006
2008
2010
2012
12 Million â‚Ź released for resettlement
Riots: People burn risk mangemnt plan
ponzi scheme crisis
Universities reaction: design competition
people still divided 2013
Regional economic crisis.
2009
indigenous council created communities divided
12 Million â‚Ź released for individual resettlements
2005
57
The most important events on the Galeras communities have been related with volcanic cycles after 1989 reactivation. These events have also had an impact in the population decrease of peasants who has migrated as part of the resettlement plan.
THE SOCIAL CONFLICT AT GALERAS’ SLOPES: A STAKEHOLDER ANALYSIS
P
can be divided into two groups: Indigenous communities claiming their recognition as ancestral culture with special civil rights and territorial autonomy; and peasants’ communities that stand for working the fertile volcanic lands as it has been done through generations. Therefore, whatever spatial strategy to be proposed in the region needs to consider that not only are there different points of view among community members, but also that these differences have turned into social conflicts.
apa Galeras is part of us, part of our families. “This is our father and our mother” (Quillacinga’s indigenous manifesto, May 2009) After Galeras’ High Threat Zone was defined by National Geology Service (SGN) three municipalities became affected as they were totally or mostly located inside the Zone. The national government declared a State of Emergency in order to facilitate the issuing of funds aimed to resettle local communities from the three municipalities. However, news media and previous academic work (Mesias 2011) show how the communities have rejected the resettlement approach.
In comparative terms, there are differences in economic development among the communities scheduled for resettlement and those who are not. Take Sandona, a municipality located out of the high threat area, which presents a healthy economic development from handcrafts, tourism and agriculture. Something similar happens with Yacuanquer to the south of Galeras Ring road. On the other hand, Florida, Nariño and Genoy have experienced difficulties in sustaining their local economy, mainly because the State of Emergency (2003) prohibits further urban development in the high threat areas where the people refuse to leave.
One core characteristic of Galeras communities (as well as most of the people in the south-western region of Colombia) is their strong indigenous heritage. Not only peasants, but people from every social condition define themselves as idiosyncratically different from people in the rest of the country, specifically with regards to land attachment. That is why the resettlement policy for 8235 people settled in the High Threat Zone of Galeras volcano has had little impact, i.e. since the resettlement program started most of the people have refused official plans to be moved out their lands.
A final observation documented for this analysis is the social fragmentation that has taken place among the local community. This is the specific case of Genoy and Florida, where there are active processes from community members to declare part of them as indigenous councils. Those who do not consider themselves an indigenous community will not benefit from these processes.
Two specific social groups have been resettled so far: rich people located in urban or semi urban areas within the high volcanic threat zone; and owners of unproductive or uninhabited lands near to the crater. The core populations to be resettled, i.e., peasant communities from Genoy, Mapachico (villages that are part of the city of San Juan de Pasto), Florida and Nariño have systematically rejected any resettlement plan since 2003. However, the underlying reasons for protesting are not the same for all the affected people. Excluding rich landowners (whom have mostly been resettled during the early stages of the process) the local community
Sandona’s community achieved economic prosperity being settled at the Galeras region. Located at fertile volcanic lands, it has not been at state of emergency due to its remoteness.
58
Florida:
NariĂąo Community cooperating with the major in a positive way Genoy: Pasto:
SandonĂĄ: Prosperous community that profits from tourism, handcrafts and agriculture.
High income communities were easily resettled
iro onme
Yacuanquer: Growing community based on commerce and agriculture.
Urban and economic development stopped
Healthy socio-economic development evidenced
Social networks dissolved by individual resettlements
Social segregation evidenced 59
THE SOCIAL CONFLICT The importance and severity of the conflict between community and local authorities was confirmed by actors from both parts. During the interviews, internal conflicts between community groups were detected increasing the complexity of the stakeholders analysis. Something similar happened on the side of the authorities. Scientific authorities disagree with some strategic decisions made by national, regional and local authorities, specifically in how the risk decisions have been supported by a threat analysis, rather than a thorough risk assessment. Conflicting decisions were also identified between national authorities and regional authorities that have weaken the government’s image towards the community. Three main divisions can be witnessed among the actors of this conflict situation
•
•
1. State vs. Community: After the declaration of a estate of emergency in 2003, the community suffered the impacts of the main measures: Prohibition on issuing construction permits, economic development and local growth stopped, Decrease in tourism due to the fear spread by news media. These differences have been stressed during electoral campaigns by local candidates who want to be elected promising that they will bring development and stop resettlement policies. However, once they got elected these promises were unattended and the crisis continued. 2. Community vs. Community: One triggering factor for this division occurred in 2009, when the Ministry of State declared legal the existence of the Quillacinga’s indigenous council at Genoy. This measure constituted a political achievement for this community. However, it also brought consequences to the social structure of the village: •
Breakage with regional authorities (Casa Galeras): Since the declaration came from the Ministry of State (the same authority pushing for the resettlement) governmental weaknesses on internal coordination were identified by the community. This situation reduced the government’s capability to negotiate a resettlement with the community. Increase of risk: After the recreation of the Quillacinga council, the indigenous have strengthened the position of staying in their homes. However, since the risk has not been measured yet, and the threat map shows evidence of volcanic activity in geological history, there still is a potentially high risk of staying, as they want. According to Martinez Sierra (2013) the indigenous peoples have lost reaction capabilities to volcanic activities, since they have been more focused on the several clashes with the government. In the same direction as Genoy, the indigenous people from Florida are looking forward to being declared as indigenous councils as well. Genoy and Florida have also requested their lands to be declared indigenous reservoirs, which would make it impossible for the government’s objective to resettle the entire community, due to the existing legislation on indigenous territories, which gives them a sacred status.
3. Scientific authorities vs. Politicians: This is less evident but it represents an important weakness within the authorities. The main discord relies in the fact that mayors and regional politicians are in charge of taking risky decisions based on the information produced by scientific authorities. In this specific case, geologists have expressed the need for making risk decisions based on a thorough Risk assessment, which has not been developed yet. Instead, the idea that the threat map is a risk measurement has been set up in people’s minds that people actually joke with the idea that an eruption will wipe out everything within the High threat zone, but everything outside will remain intact, even when there are houses half inside and half out.
Breakage within the community: The recreation of an indigenous council has generated conflicts among the indigenous and peasants because the law protects the former in many aspects and also because peasants do not support the indigenous in their claims, thereby increasing the differences among these two groups.
Quillacinga’s indigenous council headquarters at Genoy 60
The conflict can be summarized in the graphic below:
mainly because these are their ancestral territories, and also because the land has a social value that cannot be replaced in a resettlement process. However, The fact that the indigenous have achieved a legal status that gives them legal benefits over peasants and other civilians has generated an atmosphere of division among the community that needs to be bridged.
National authorities (left) stand for resettling the local community by means of a state of emergency declared in 2003. This act was based on a threat map produced by scientific authorities in 1997. However, geologists from this institution recognize that the threat map is not the most accurate tool for making decisions in this case, and a thorough risk analysis needs to be performed. Local communities (right) stand for staying on their land,
SCIENTIFIC INSITUTIONS
INDIGENOUS ‘Resettlement strategy is a good business for the government’
Volcanologists declare 87.5 Km2 as high risk area
INGEOMINAS 1997
PEASANTS AND CIVILIANS ‘Investment is required the village might grow towardsthe shelter areas’
Government declares state of emergency at 4 communities
STATE 2005
*516 resettled by 2013
REGIONAL INSITUTIONS 2008 - today
61
STAKEHOLDERS DIAGNOSIS A stakeholders diagnosis unveils a complex relationships map between the four groups of actors analyzed: Scientific Institutions (government institutions, NGO, universities), Government (National, regional and local level) and society divided in indigenous community and the rest of civilians. Groups from the community were consulted by Mesias (2011) and identified critical points of conflict: Lack of clarity with regard to the concept of threat, lack of top-down communication, lack of participation, the threat map itself, lack of recognition of ethnic diversity, mistrust towards scientific authorities, Casa Galeras’ methods, lack of coherence in government’s plans, among others.
NATIONAL LEVEL ACADEMIA
O
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS
NARIñO UNIVERSI
GEOLOGICAL SERVI
Conflict situation Indentified stakeholder
ARMY
Pontential possitive influence
PROCESO
A
High influence actor
A
Regular influence actor
A
Low influence actor
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
Scientific institutions
DISASTERS AUTHO POLICE
Government
REGIONA
Indigenous communities Civil society Barely involved
Highly involved
MINISTRY OF HOUSING - FREE HOUSING POLICY
62
OTHER INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN SIMILAR CONDITIONS
OSSO - NGO
ITY
INDIGENOUS COUNCIL
ICE INDIGENOUS LEADERS
OTHER CIVILIANS: RETAILERS YOUNGSTERS TEACHERS ELDERLY NEWCOMERS CHILDHOOD
VOLCANIC THREAT THREAT OF EVICTION
O GALERAS
LOCAL COMMUNITY COMMITTEE
LOCAL NEWS MEDIA
ORITIES
AL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZED LANDOWNERS AROUND “LA COCHA” LAGOON RESERVOIR
CITY/VILLAGE MAYORS
63
REGIONAL DIAGNOSIS A specific region was selected in order to frame the regional diagnosis. The yellow area below is a 341 km2 with a variety of land functions, such as agriculture, cattle, or wildlife sanctuary. The complete urban agglomeration of San Juan de Pasto has been included as well as countryside plots along the new pan-American Highway to the east. The villages of Genoy, Nari単o and Florida are also included. Main criterion to pick this area are to include the High and Medium volcanic threat zone, to include the complete Galeras Wildlife Sanctuary, the three larger municipalities involved in the resettlement agenda (Pasto, Nari単o and Florida) and a buffer zone beyond the medium threat zone in order to include the shelter areas of each municipality. The area is composed by about 14700 plots, including public lands such as the wildlife sanctuary or the plots that have been already acquired as part of Proceso Galeras.
Pan-American Highway New Pan-American Paved Galeras ring road Tertiary roads Horse paths
Regional Diagnosis Green environment Urban settlements Indigenous council 0km
6 km
64
restricted areas
Roads and Highways
65
REGIONAL DIAGNOSIS
Pan-Americ New Pan-A A Paved Gale e Tertiary roads Horse paths Green enviro envviro onment settle emen Indigenous council c 0km
6 km
66
In the regional scale is easier to understand the national government’s resettlement agenda. Three villages to the north are required to be evacuated permantly as a way for the government to achieve their goals in terms of volcanic risk reduction in the zone. However, by 2013, no resettlement location has yet been selected, At same time, down in Pasto an interesting phenomenon draws attention. Most of city’s new urban developments are taking place in recently enabled urban areas towards the volcano. One of the complains by the people at the villages is why the government insists that hard in moving them away while at the same time allows new high density buildings in areas that might suffer direct coinsequences from a volcanic eruption?
Growth trend Resettlement agenda Threat Zone 6 67
68
Rural housing and landscape at the areas to be resettled 69
70
Urban environment at Florida 71
72
Traditional low density row houses at the Galeras ring road region. 73
74
shelter locations at Nari単o 75
DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY
Galeras Ring Road Secondary road Tertiary road 20 mts
100 mts 76
shelter Vergel
ROADS NETWORK AT THE VILLAGE SCALE Genoy is the village selected as detailed case study. It is a 34 Hectares (0.34 km2 ) human settlement founded more than 210 years as a spanish grid (100m x 100m) integrated to the Galeras ring road. Two roads connect with other agricultural lands and the shelter areas. This roads are frequently used by motorcyclers to transport villagers from and to the town.
shelter La Loma
Motorcycles are the most used public transport commuting areas outside the village. A travel to the evacuation areas costs less than 1 EUR and it is a 20 minutes trip in most of the cases. 77
DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY
Built Private Public 100 X 100 (1 Ha) 78
SHELTER AREAS AS PUBLIC SPACE shelter Vergel One interesting finding from this diagnosis is the pattern of public space in communities at risk. Since the town area is located within the High threat zone, shelters for evacuation are required by law outside this zone, i.e. at safe areas. Therefore, roads connecting these shelters with the community also need to be provided and well maintained by emergency managers. As a result, this characteristic creates a unique pattern of public space that can be seen in the map, where the system is composed by the town’s main public space network, the shelter’s areas outside the village, and the roads connecting to the shelters. Nevertheless, citizens have not claimed these areas as public spaces. They only use them a few times a year for evacuation purposes. The only alternative function proposed by the community for one of these areas was in 2013, about turning into a communal corn field. The proposal had not been studied by the authorities by 2013.
shelter La Loma
--VERGEL. EVACUATION MEETING POINT FOR VOLCANIC ERUPTION---FORBIDDEN ACCESS TO INDIVIDUALS---PLEASE BRING SIGNED PERMIT TO GET IN---FOR YOUR SAFETY AND OUR TRANQUILITY, YOU ARE BEING RECORDED-Evacuation areas are by definition spaces for public use. However, its use is restricted by the risk management authorities for security reasons. The community has not proposed alternatives uses of these areas as public space either. 79
SPATIAL DIAGNOSIS: GENOY The diagnosis shows the current situation of land use in Genoy. It clearly shows the agricultural orientation of its inhabitants, spatially represented in the amount of private open space mainly dedicated to crops or raising animals. One of the most important sources of criticism and fears people feel about resettlement is the possibility of not finding a resettlement location large enough to replicate these conditions they have preserved over generations.
72%
1% 9% 17%
For example, Mr. Guevara lives in a row-house in front of the main square. By the day of this visit, he had a crop in his backyard with cabbages, onions and medicinal plants. And at the end of the backyard, there is a small construction for pigs. Pig’s feces work as natural fertilizer for the crops. Mr. Guevara does not want to be resettled from his way of life.
Private open, mainly agriculture
Local Institutions Mixed use Public Space
Mr. Guevara’s house, heading to the crop 80
PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS: GENOY Traditional urban diagnosis techniques do not provide a complete picture of needs and desires of the inhabitants of a community. As discussed in the theoretical framework, Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) methodology can provide unlimited tools to understand a community from its inhabitants’ inputs. Although workshops were not part of the scope of this thesis, a general idea of unsatisfied urban requirements can be drawn using discourse analysis of open interviews to community leaders and selected community members.
The exercise proved how 10 years of a state of emergency has prevented the urban development of Genoy, specifically in two fields: The lack of public facilities such as handcraft’s ateliers and sports facilities. It is noticeable the lack of a health center with enough capacity and technology to provide first assistance during a volcanic incidence with injuries. People also complain on the inappropriateness of the security shelters, reason why people seldom evacuate when Galeras alarms are triggered.
“We need workshops, health center, multiple court”
“Shelters are unsafe and in bad conditions”
“Now, elder guys don’t let us play football at the court”
Local Institutions: 1. Health center 2. Indigenous Major 3. School 4, Church 5. Grocery 6. Village Major 7. Police station 8. Indigenous house 9. Football court 10. Restaurant
2
1
3
5
6 7 8
4
9 10
Residential / Farming Commercial activity 20 mts
“We are often visited by an university professor. She is organizing the artisans”
“there are people moving to religions other than catholicism”
100 mts
How many people would benefit from: Artisans atelier Soccer Field Health center Common crops
Genoy’s Health center. 81
PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS: GENOY THE ALTERNATIVE OF ‘ARRIMADOS’ (FREERIDERS)
gether with the original house owners. Genoy and Mapachico are two communities where this phenomenon was clearly identified during the field trip, but it is not limited to those. According to Casa Galeras and the locals interviewed, some years ago local community members proposed to focus the resettlement endeavors into building new houses for these young couples and families. The proposal was not considered at the national level (even though the regional authorities expressed their interest in trying this option) and since then, the idea had no further development.
One interesting element identified during the field visit was the phenomenon of ‘Los Arrimados’ (which is similar to the concept of freeriders). Arrimados are young couples that want to stay at the High threat zone villages, but because of the existing emergency regulations, they cannot build a house as a new family within the zone, therefore they chose to live with their parents or in-laws. Therefore, one dwelling can house more than one couple (family) of arrimados, to-
Why don’t they use all that money to build houses for our ‘ARRIMADOS’ since they can’t build in the village ”
Local Institutions: 1. Health center 2. Indigenous Major 3. School 4, Church 5. Grocery 6. Village Major 7. Police station 8. Indigenous house 9. Football court 10. Restaurant
3
5
6 7 8
4
9 10
“They might send our ARRIMADOS near to the shelters, give them a house... that way we might consider evacuating”
Residential / Farming Commercial activity 20 mts
2
1
100 mts
82
DETAILED STUDY CASE: GENOY’S SPATIAL + PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS
Genoy’s Figures:
33.98 Has
Total Area at High threat Total Area at Medium Threat
25.56 Has (77.3%) 8.70 Has (22.7&)
Total public areas Total built Total private open space
5.85 Has (17.6%) 3.27 Has (9.9%) 25.13 Has (76.0&)
Urban agricultural land Mixed use Civic institutions
24.78 Has (75.0%) 3.12 Has (9.4%) 0.51 Has (1.54%)
Total population: 3358
2
1
Total Gross Area:
3
5
6
What are the critical missing facilities, and what percentage of the community would they benefit if developed?:
7 8
4
9 10
“Ateliers for artisans” “One more soccer field” “Better health center” “Common corn crops” 83
25% 50% 100% 74.%
84
Central park at Genoy 85
86
Evacuation route at Genoy 87
88
Private plots neighboring the shelter areas. 89
SUPPORTING PROJECTS Two more projects were sketched, however not detailed as part of the thesis. On the one hand the idea of improving the Galeras Wild life sanctuary (below) which has already half of its area within high threat zone. Extending the sanctuary can have a positive impact in buffering some of the volcanic eruption’s consequences, as well as brings closer the local community with alternative ways to monitor the volcanic activity such as the observation of animal behavior. On the other hand, there is also a necessity to propose an alternative solution for the Mijitayo Avenue (next page), a road that runs on top of a river which had carried mud slides along its geological history. This represents an unmeasured flooding risk for the urban communities settled along this road since their density is many times larger than the density at the villages requested to evacuate. However, no resettlement plans for people along Mijitayo Avenue have been considered. Instead, more development is scheduled for this road, since there is already an enhancement for the road as a response to its increase of traffic and density.
Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2
Wildlife covered by volcanic ash at the Galeras Wildlife sanctuary 90
Case 1: Flooding threat zone along covered river. 1
Av. Panamericana R. Mijitayo (covered)
2
Volcanic threat 100 X 100 (1 Ha) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8
4
Mariana University Arts Museum Culture museum New shopping mall Public tech school High School Filipense School Sports Area (non built stadium)
3
5
Risk area defined on a land ownership basis
7
6
8 Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, US
Floodings at Mijitayo avenue 91
92
From threat PART two to growth A regional development The proposal strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia.
93
FROM THREAT TO RISK: A NEW RISK REDUCTION FRAMEWORK As it has been presented so far, one of the core issues identified is the fact that risk decisions are being made on the basis of a threat map. This failure has been recognized by authorities at all levels, and also among the community, which expresses awareness about this lack. However, during the period 2003 to 2013 efforts to develop a risk map, has not been achieved by the national, regional or local authorities or any other external actor. In order to support this thesis on a trustworthy basis, a risk map that comes out from a recognized risk assessment methodology is proposed as main conclusion of the chapter. The methodology selected is the Central American probabilistic assessment CAPRA, and it has been successfully implemented by consultants at several locations. It has been recently implemented by the national NGO OSSO, as a method to quantify risks in flood prone areas in Colombia. CAPRA methodology was implemented using the information available for this Thesis process. However, further revisions and implementation with more accurate information will be required for a comprehensive risk assessment.
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FROM THREAT TO RISK 1. The starting point of the methodology is to identify the threat. In this case this is the map that is also known as La ZAVA. All the plots falling within the red area were given a value of 3; those of medium threat received a value of 2 and the rest of the plots (Low threat) value of 1.
I
n order to understand risk, a comprehensive risk assessment is required. The Central America Probabilistic Risk Assessment - CAPRA methodology provides a risk assessment framework that has been implemented in Latin American countries after Hurricane Mitch in 1998 aiming to understand specific risks so that local capabilities to reduce them can be developed.
2. Secondly, the vulnerability layer was added. All the plots neighboring with infrastructure that will be severely affected in most of the volcanic events received a value of 2. For all the rest of the plots the value was 1. 3. Thirdly, a distance parameter was added. Taking as center the Galeras’ crater, the furthest plot received a value of 0% and a hypothetical plot inside the crater received a value of 100%. The rest of the plots received a percentage related with its lineal distance to the crater. Finally all the values were weighted in a 0 to 1 scale in order to obtain the risk value. This modifies the original CAPRA methodology implemented by OSSO for flood risk assessment. However this adaptation provides more accurate results for this thesis’ purposes.
As it was said in the theoretical framework, CAPRA consists of “a GIS-based platform for risk analysis, where probabilistic techniques are applied to the analysis of earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, landslides and volcanoes. Hazard information is combined with exposure and vulnerability data, allowing the user to determine risk simultaneously on an inter-related multi-hazard basis, distinguishing the platform from previous single hazard analyses” (GFDRR 2013) The output of a risk assessment like CAPRA is expressed in percentage of damage to human lives and goods in a risk scenario that might occur once in a number of years. CAPRA uses the following equation for risk modeling.
4. Finally, the map of inhabited plots provided by Casa Galeras was added. Most of the plots within the High threat zone (white areas) can be either empty plots, or only productive land without human occupation, or already bought by Casa Galeras, these plots can be removed from the model; therefore, they received a value of 0. The occupied plots, including all the urban plots within high or medium threat zones, received a value of 1.
R=TxVxC
In which risk (R) is a percent product of the consequences (C), multiplied by the vulnerabilities (V) and threats (T), that are associated with a given phenomenon (Bilal 2011).
5. The resulting map shows the potential damage that a property is more likely to suffer in one strong volcanic event or several ones of medium intensity. The output of the mathematical model is expressed in percentage, instead of high-medium-low (as the threat map is). However, the percentage itself may have no meaning. For this reason, it is important to include a further potential damage scenario where economic costs related with these percentages may provide an idea of the real implications of a volcanic event.
In order to clarify the implementation of this methodology in the specific site, a layered explanation can be seen in the next pages, with the step by step process followed as part of this thesis process in order to obtain an approach to a risk map that may be used as a basis for the rest of the proposal:
Florida (2118 people in risk)
Briceño and others (639 people in risk)
Mapachico (1366 people in risk)
Nariño (454 people in risk)
Genoy (3358 people in risk) Visual representation of the area covered by the High Threat Zone (ZAVA) , seen from the Shelter La Loma, Genoy. 96
1. High Threat Zone. Source: Colombian Geological Service, (INGEOMINAS 1997)
2. Vulnerable infrastructure. Source: OSSO NGO (OSSO 2010)
#
3. Linear distance radios Source: this work
4. Inhabited plots by February 2013. Source: Proceso Galeras
#
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5 Risk map proposed. Source: this work
R=TxVxC
FROM THREAT TO RISK
Plot within threat zone: T=1
Vulnerability: Flat roofs and closeness to vulnerable roads: V=0.80
5000 m straight distance from the crater f.Dist=0.63
Consequences: inhabited plot with moderate density: D=0.39
Risk evaluation = TxVxC= 1x(0.75/0.63)x0.39 =0.495 This means, 49.5% probability of being affected by one or several volcanic events. 98
#
#
99
Galareas’ active cone
High Threat
High Threat
Medium Threat
Medium Threat
Low Threat
Low Threat
km
1 km
The threat map has been the main tool for making risk decisions since it was released in 1997. However, there is consensus amongst interviewed scientists that this is not enough input for a comprehensive decision making process. According to CAPRA methodology, historical information of volcanic events (i.e. evidence of eruptions in geological times) is only the starting point for risk assessment.
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# Galareas’ active cone Risk Index
nt output.
Risk Assessment output.
F-Risk (%)
n 1%
Less than 1%
%
1%-11,0%
21,1 %
11,1% - 21,1 %
31,2%
21,2% - 31,2%
41,3%
31,3% - 41,3%
51,49%
41,4% - 51,49%
61,51%
51,5% - 61,51%
71,6%
61,52% - 71,6%
81,8%
71,7% - 81,8%
an 81,9 %
More than 81,9 %
ulnerability.Assess. OSSO Infra. vulnerability.Assess. Severe
#
_crater
1 km 2
In order to move towards a risk assessment map, cartographic information on vulnerable infrastructure was contrasted with the official threat map from 1997 and the location of vulnerable communities. The risk map above is result of overlaying this information following World Bank’s CAPRA methodology. This map is a core outcome of the academic work presented in this thesis, and it is the basis for the regional strategy herein proposed. It might also represent a matter of further study, provided that it needs to be complemented with more accurate information in order to fulfill World Bank’s guidelines on risk assessment.
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RISK ASSESSMENT ASSOCIATED WITH ESTIMATED ECONOMIC LOSSES. The risk map proposed represents a step further from the threat map of 1997, since it provides the landowners with a specific risk factor between 0% to 100%. However, this number as well as the threat map does not fully explain to a landowner the real impact of a volcanic event to his or her properties. To estimate potential damages in economic terms, a value of COP$ 50.000 per m2 (20 EUR) was given to all the agricultural plots. For the value of houses, it was calculated as of COP $ 20.000.000 (7960 EUR) per inhabitant per plot (the number of inhabitants per plot was estimated as well in previous steps according to population density data). An estimated value for each property is the sum of these two values. Finally, the potential damage in a probable volcanic eruption will result of multiplying the property value by the percentage of risk. With real and accurate data, it would be possible to calculate more accurately the potential damage to each landowner, which would improve the decisions making with regards to volcanic risk in the Galeras region.
The m2 of land for each interval of risk
The m2 of land for each one of the 10 intervals of risk
Risk Index
Risk Assessment output.
Plots
F-Risk (%)
Less than 1%
Area (Km2) Economic loss
Population
2,862
58,641.22
€
432,348.20
68,355 3
1%-11,0%
895
1,571.50
€
6,545,121.10
10,863
11,1% - 21,1 %
358
166.72
€
4,584,149.01
3,432
21,2% - 31,2%
274
127.05
€
7,416,734.51
3,295
31,3% - 41,3%
182
20.88
€
3,269,318.56
1,092
41,4% - 51,49%
199
196.47
€ 20,120,119.19
4,636
51,5% - 61,51%
186
255.06
€ 27,741,811.80 0
5,720
61,52% - 71,6%
174
10.17
€
5,581,588.21
1,044
71,7% - 81,8%
38
2.18
€
1,388,303.77
228
More than 81,9 %
41
2.31
€
1,982,584.08
246
60,993.56 € 79,062,078.43
98,911
5,209 OSSO Infra. vulnerability.Assess. Severe
#
The highest losses are located in the interval 51.5% - 61.5%
_crater The total number of plots in
the risk assessment region
0 km
14 km 102
The last four intervals (51.5 - 100%) include the population of Proceso Galeras’ resettlement agenda.
Alberto Guevara’s house is at 50.1 % volcanic risk according to the proposed risk-scale. That means that in a large scale volcanic event (as it is expected to happen) damages in his property (which were estimated in ₏ 50826 with hypothetic m2 values multiplied by his land area) may ascend to ₏ 24.035, represented either on partial damages to his house, or economic loses associated to disruptions in agricultural production.
#
1 10 103
FROM RISK TO REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY The proposal at the regional scale includes specific actions and defines projects to be performed in further stages. It constitutes the general strategy for the whole study area. The regional scale provides a holistic approach for an integrated planning strategy. It includes a proposal for Galeras’ wildlife sanctuary, a strategy to control the growth of San Juan de Pasto towards the volcano, and a piecemeal growth strategy for the endangered villages as an alternative to the government’s preventive human resettlement measure.
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REGIONAL SPATIAL DIAGNOSIS
New P
[1]
Paved Tertia Horse Green
Growth trend Resettlement agenda
Indigenous cou c km
Threat Zone
[1] at a plot within medium volcanic threat. After this decision, the plot was used as open space for passive recreation. No further development was approved in that area, which together with an active use of the new public space have created a solid border strategy preventing growth towards the volcano. However, this is an isolated case, given that master plans and real estate pressure typically encourage urban development towards these inexpensive lands.
Two important conclusions can be drawn from the regional scale diagnosis: Firstly, ten years of resettlement strategy have produced little impact in the urban morphology of Genoy, Florida and NariĂąo, the three largest villages of the resettlement agenda. And secondly, while all the efforts have been put on these resettlements, little attention has been paid to the fact that Pasto, the largest municipality threatened is growing (legally and illegally) towards the volcano. This growth has also been encouraged by local developers, politicians, investors and building corporations. About the latter, two main actions have been taken to tackle this trend. The most analyzed is the decision of ‘resettling’ the Pan-American Highway away from the volcano. This is expected to create growth to the east of Pasto, and probably will be enough to stop risky developments. The second is less known but it opens the discussion about the role of public space in risk management. In 2000, the existing regulation on disaster control did prevent the construction of a stadium 106
REGIONAL SCHEME
[3] [3] [5] [3]
[2]
Urban Life
Wildlife
Production
[1]
G [4] [3] G
Low Threat - NoRisk Low Threat - Low Risk Low Threat - High Risk High Threat - Low Risk High Threat - High Risk
Growth Areas: 0
3km 1km
Combining the risk map discussed in the previous chapter and the main functions of the region (Wildlife, urban life and countryside productivity) I have proposed this schematic plan for the regional strategy. In concordance with other works’ recommendations, (PNNC 2005, Mesias 2011) an expansion for the Wildlife sanctuary is proposed using the lands within the High Volcanic threat zone [1]. However, different areas need to be considered within this expansion. Regions where peasants remain with their plots will be turned into zones for collective farming [2], with special regulations for risk management. One of these areas can be designated as indigenous reservoir if approved, strengthening the governance of the sanctuary, one of its main difficulties (PNNC 2005). A large area for productivity combined with new wildlife areas are proposed as a new border between Pasto and the volcano [4]. Finally, urban growth pockets are proposed for the villages and the city towards safe areas.
[1] Wild life sanctuary [2] Common farming territory [3] Village’s safe growth [4] Agriculture as a border strategy for Pasto [5] Proposed indigenous reservoir
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Current restricted areas
Current roads
Current green structure
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[2]
[2]
[1] [1] [2]
[1] [2]
Restricted areas proposed . The new approach aims to prevent urban growth towards the threat area [1]. Instead new urban growth areas are proposed towards safe areas identified [2] such as shelters or lands along the New Pan-Amercian highway
[3]
[3]
Roads proposed . One important regional issue is the vulnerability of the Galeras Ring road. Two new paths [3] are proposed (red) connecting the new safe areas outside the threat zone.
[4]
[4] [4]
Green structure proposed: There is consensus among scholars on the idea of expanding the Wildlife sanctuary towards the lands acquired by Proceso Galeras [4] within the High threat zone (Mesias 2011). Thus, the volcano slopes will be mostly free of human occupation and no further urban expansions will be proposed.
r
[6]
rk
[5] [5]
Peasants and Indigenous reservoirs: Finally, for the northern parts of the expansion proposed for the Wildlife sanctuary there will be three large special peasants areas [5] for natural reservoirs preserving the current landownership pattern (partly owned by the current owners and partly owned by the state). One of these areas will be an indigenous reservoir [6] for the Quillacinga community in Genoy. 109
FROM RISK TO GROWTH The proposed approach to growth provides an alternative to the current trend of growth towards the volcano that can be seen in the urban evolution of San Juan de Pasto. New growth areas were defined for the city of Pasto, and the villages of Genoy, Florida and Nariño. These growth areas will have characteristics of expansion zones rather than resettlements or new towns and will continue the spatial qualities of the original village. Furthermore, new growth areas are proposed for the Wildlife sanctuary, including the area between itself and Pasto’s western border. This area constitutes a buffer zone that prevents urban expansion towards the volcano. The need for expansion areas is resolved towards the eastern border, making use of Pan-American Highway’s new path. Productive lands not to be occupied will be created at the high threat zone. New human settlements will implement clear building regulations to make them resilient to volcanic risk.
Area of study Panamerican Highway Secondary road Prohibited new construction Safe-growth area for villages High risk Medium risk Indigenous reservoir Peasants common land Wildlife sancturay new area Current wildlife sanctuary Urban unmodified Agricultural /productive 1 km
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FROM REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO LOCAL GROWTH This part describes the detailed case of this thesis: the proposal for the village of Genoy that aims to substitute the current resettlement strategy that is being done by the government through the regional office Proceso Galeras. It also describes the supporting projects that complement the regional strategy. The chapter begins with a description of the key elements studied so far and a summary of the proposal’s components. Then, a set of step by step phasing maps will explain the proposed piecemeal strategy to sequentially grow Genoy towards the safer territory where one of the shelters is currently located. This phasing includes an outline on how dwelling construction can combine local building knowledge with techniques that increases the resilience of houses in volcanic locations. It finally shows two scenarios on how the future of the villages might react, either if a deadly eruption comes how deadly victims can be avoided and how the village’s dynamics can go on afterwards; or if the expected eruption never happens, how the villages can keep growing safely without leaving the current location. This chapter also outlines two more detailed projects that were developed during the thesis process: a proposal for the Mijitayo avenue to turn it into an open floodable canal, and a growth proposal for the Galeras Wildlife sanctuary based on the conclusions of its existing general plan (PNNC 2005).
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PIECEMEAL GROWTH STRATEGY FOR RISK REDUCTION: GENOY STUDY CASE.
T
PROPOSAL
he main proposal is to turn one of the two existing shelter locations (which are located in safe land), into a new centrality that will be the center of a safe expansion process of the current village. This city center will include the facilities that are currently missing nowadays in the village in order to motivate the people to use it. Roads and local means of transportation to commute people between the city center and the new centrality will be improved. Landowners neighboring the centrality will be encouraged to turn part of their lands into housing plots according to the plotting pattern herein proposed.
The proposal of piecemeal growth for the villages at higher risk values will take into consideration the following rules: • • •
•
• PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
•
The proposal of safe growth in a step by step basis takes into consideration the fact that every village within the threat zone has been assigned to a shelter location by law. Therefore, these shelter locations are located in areas that accomplish at least the following rules that the National Geological Service supervises:
• •
The shelter location has considerably less risk than the evacuated village. The shelter location can be easily reached by the community in measurable times (minutes). The shelter location is suitable for housing citizens as long as the emergency levels remain high (days or weeks). Therefore, it is not a permanent housing location.
•
On the other hand, a location that is suitable for a new town or resettlement must accomplish the first criterion. The second is not mandatory, and rather than number three, the resettlement location must be at least as large as the current municipality. This combination makes it hard to find available plots within the territory that the community recognizes as theirs. Moving to a further location has several risks: • • • •
Weather and composition of soil is different. This makes more complicated the agricultural production. The relationship between inhabitants and their cultural territory may break. The social and economic dynamics of the community is disrupted and takes longer in heal. Economy falls into recession due to the limited access of people to raw materials, energy, marketplaces and manpower during early stages.
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Evacuation will not be affected if needed Building restriction in the high risk areas will be kept, according to existing regulations. Since the shelter has been identified as a safe area, the borders of the existing village will be allowed to expand in the shelter’s direction. Landowners neighboring with the shelter location will participate in a long term process (a piecemeal land redistribution process) that allow them to benefit from the whole process without prejudice of losing the economic value of their lands or being forced to give it away. Part of the shelter location will be turned out into a new public centrality integrated by facilities missing at the original village. People will not be forced to move to the new location. Instead, young couples without their own house will be facilitated to acquire a new plot around the new centrality. Therefore, the existing and the new location will coexist as a new larger municipality. New constructions around the new centrality (formerly, the shelter location) Evacuation processes in the future will be housed by the recently moved dwellers around the new centrality (formerly, the shelter location). The former village will only disappear because the people voluntarily accept to populate the new centrality, or because a volcanic event. This will not be pushed by the regional development process’ managers.
The evacuation process needs to be reconfigured from its original situation (top) at each stage of the piecemeal process. Once the shelter location is turned into a centrality, the evacuation process will be held, partially in the remaining shelters, and the rest in buildings of the new centralities designed with this purpose. In the final stages, people in the new location is organized to host their relatives at risk in their new houses when volcanic emergency is set.
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[1]
Year 0. Current conditions
[1]
Built 50 X 50 (1/2 Ha) 116
[2]
CURRENT SITUATION Genoy houses 3358 people among urban and rural population within its current administrative area. The urban population occupies a 9 Has city center [1] developed during Spanish colony (XIX c) whilst rural people mostly live in farms around this city center. During evacuations they use two shelters: La Loma [2] and El Vergel (out of this view). both located less than 3 km away from the city center.
[2]
117
Year 1-2. New Investments
Creek’s basin (dry) Built 50 X 50 (1/2 Ha) 118
[3]
STAGE 1 (YEAR 1) Half of the shelters will be demolished [1] to enable enough land to build the missing facilities identified by the community during participatory processes. These facilities will be designed as a new centrality complex that can also work as temporary shelter if needed. The other half of the shelter will be kept, so that evacuation are disrupted in a tolerable way during the construction process.
[3]
119
Year 1-2. New Investments
New Roads
Lands for new housing
Private - Agriculture
50 mts
120
[5]
[4]
STAGE 2 (YEARS 1-2) Once the facility is finished [4] new shorter paths are built [5] between the neighboring plots in order to better connect the centrality with the city center, where most of the people live nowadays.
[4] [5]
121
Year 1-2. New Housing strategy
New Roads
[6]
Lands for new housing
Risk evaluation
50 mts
122
STAGE 3: RISK ASSESSMENT INCLUDED (YEAR 1-2) Also during this stage, all the plots surrounding the new road will be affected in area, so that the room required to build the road is taken from plots in both sides of it, but also extra land is requested [6] to develop mixed use housing in the further stages. Here is when the risk assessment is introduced. Building density for the future mixed use housing in this lands will be determined according to the risk factor of these plots obtained during the risk assessment: The higher the risk, the lower the density, and conversely, the lower the risk, the higher the density. The low risk of the shelter area was also determined by OSSO NGO as part of their vulnerability assessment in 2010 (OSSO 2010)
[6]
123
Year 1-2. New Housing strategy
Roads
Lands for new housing
Private - Agriculture
50 mts
124
STAGE 3: PLOTTING (YEAR 1-2) There will be two housing typologies in accordance to the proposed housing densities, which are themselves result of the risk assessment: •
•
Plots with lower risk factor (mostly around the centrality) can be used for row houses with urban agriculture in the backyards due to their short size on front. Plots with high risk factor (towards the city center) will have more farming and detached houses can be developed.
Furthermore, a square [7] is proposed as public open space as part of the centrality, which also meets open space requirements for evacuation times.
[7]
125
Year 3-6. New Housing strategy
New Plots Roads
Lands for new housing
Private - Agriculture
50 mts
126
STAGE 4: POPULATING (YEAR 3-10) The population process for the proposed growth area is inspired in the piecemeal growth principle (Alexander 1987). According to this, the natural dynamics of people in the territory define the pace and form of the development. Therefore, there will not be large housing projects, but people will be enabled to self building their own houses, and also they will have freedom to develop their own agricultural crops. People will be able to chose one, two or three cells from the grid according to their family size and capacity to grow food in these lands. Another strategy is to encourage the Arrimados people to leave their relatives house in the risky area and get their own plot here. This way, densities are reduced in the city center and these people get an opportunity to have their own house.
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Year 6-10. New Housing strategy
128
COMPLETE MODEL AFTER 10 YEARS Once the growth area is fully populated, the need for shelters in the public square decreases, since aproximately 40% of the people from Genoy’s city center is already living in safe areas surrounding the shelter. Other part of the population remains in the city center as they have remained there since the resettlement policy started in 2003. However, these latter now have a better alternative for evacuation, since they will have more options to evacuate in relatives or friends houses already living in the new development. In that moment, People will decide whether to keep the shelters or enlarge the public square for other purposes (such as the public corn crops they proposed in 2013 for the shelter area).
129
[8]
[9]
[8]
130
FURTHER STEPS AFTER YEAR 10 The proposed development is planned to house 75 housing units, which means approximately 37.5% of the urban plots currently in Genoy’s city center(about 200, but this figure is an assumption). The same strategy can be proposed as a pattern for further growth towards safer directions [8]. The border between the new development and the city center will be a green area [9] that is also a path connecting with the Wildlife sanctuary. This green area physically divides the safe and the risky area. However, such public space is also a gathering point for communities in both sides of the green, which prevents social segregation between those in safe areas vs. those who are not.
[8]
[8]
131
Strategic changes in Genoy’s urban morphology can be compared with the current situation:
The state of emergency has prevented the village from expanding. Therefore, population increments during the last 10 years have taken place within the current borders, increasing density, but keeping the number and quality of services the same.
Public life concentrates in the central square, according to the traditional Spanish grid, which is a typical pattern in Latin American villages and cities.
There is one bus route connecting Genoy with Pasto. This route goes along the Galeras ring road. During volcanic events, the ring road is closed, both as prevention and also because of damage.
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Expanding instead of resettling allows the municipality to deconcentrate densities and provides housing alternatives for young couples nowadays living at their parents or in-laws houses.
The core of the new area is the public space, in which new centralities are proposed. The pattern of growth is not the Spanish grid but it follows the logic of existing parcells, creating new roads between plots when required by this plan. New green areas from the natural landscape can be integrated to the new area.
New alternative connection with Pasto is proposed, crossing areas outside risk. The new road will include safety recommendations for roads near to volcanic risk areas. If Galeras ring road is closed, the new road will be capable of doubling its traffic to allow inhabitants to commute with the city in regular conditions.
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FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS TO URBAN BLOCKS
S
tarting from the existing agricultural cadastrial subdivision, the following steps are proposed in order to turn these plots into mixed housing areas:
• •
•
•
• •
New roads are proposed between existing borders. These roads will affect the existing plots in two ways: directly by providing room for the new road, and indirectly by saving areas around the new plots for future urban and semi-urban housing. A preliminary division into a 25 x 25 grid (approximated) for semi-urban housing and 12x50 for urban housing (approximated). People from the original settlement have the opportunity to choose desired combination of cells within the grid according to what they can build and produce with urban agriculture. Houses built will implement safety rules for construction in volcanic areas, such as pitched roofs, materials and techniques for roofs, smaller and reinforced windows towards the volcano and reinforced structure. Other constructions inside the plot for agricultural purposes will be allowed as long as they accomplish the construction rules. Row houses will be located towards the new centrality in higher building density. The original landowner can stay as one more landlords at the block.
Step 1
Step 2 134
Step 6
Step 3
Step 4 135
Step 5
FROM TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION TO VOLCANIC RISK RESILIENT HOUSING PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT BUILDING TECHNIQUE According to OSSO NGO (2010) the most important physical vulnerability found at Galeras region is the weakness of roof structures. The fact that most of the local homeowners leave a concrete deck as a temporary roof in order to facilitate the future growth of the house (self buiilding with progressive development), increases the vulnerability because the accumulation of ashes in most of the volcanic activities, which may collapse this kind of structures. Other vulnerabilities rely on the traditional construction methods and materials utilized by locals.
The existing urban typology at the affected villages includes progressive growth by adding slabs to the original construction. Once the landowner reaches enough resources, a new slab is added and new spaces are added to the original house. That is why most of the roofs are flat, increasing the risk of collapsing by ash accumulations in these slabs.
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A PROPOSED VOLCANIC-RESILIENT WAY OF BUILDING By inducing some changes to the construction techniques, a house progressive development can be maintained. The main change is to train local builders and landowners in building a resilient shell. This is a structural unit with a pitched roof and resistant walls that can have little impact during most of the volcanic events (ash rainfall, sonic wave or hot gas emissions). This unit will be as tall as the future growth of the family requires, not higher than three stories high. Ground floor’s spaces can be firstly developed during the early stages of the house development.
A progressive development process takes place during the next stages, by adding new slabs until completed the number of floors required by the family or home business. Freedom of style is welcome, namely, landlords will be able to define their own architectural finishes, facades, and materials as long as security measures are kept.
From left to right: the house will be elevated to its final height and final roof in the first stage, regardless most of its space will remain unused. When family or business grows new areas can be added by using the first floor and adding a facade to the new area, which was already roofed from the previous stage. Further areas can be added by using the space under the roof as a second floor.
137
FROM TRADITIONAL CONSTRUCTION TO VOLCANIC RISK RESILIENT HOUSING
Year 0
Year 1
Year 2
Year 2.5
Year 3
Year 5
138
Year 7
139
140
141
Village’s new growth area will be built by the local people, combining their traditional building techniques with volcanic resilient building techniques that can be introduced by NGO’s and local universities.
Shelter functions can be reduced to a secondary function of a multiple space, for instance an arena only enabled when required. Building processes can be done via “Minga” or spontaneous associations of neighbors interested in the construction of the public realm.
142
During “Minga”, women from participating families collectively prepare food. Current transportation means can be organized by connecting the community with the new centrality.
By gathering people in “Minga” public spaces, can be used for common purposes such as growing food as indigenous leaders have proposed. 143
Potential scenario 1: Villages become towns Years 10 - 25
Pan-Americ New Pan-A A Paved Gale e Tertiary roads Horse paths Green enviro env onment settle emen Indigenous council c 0km
6 km
144
SCENARIO 1
T
he volcano has not made destructive eruptions so far. The villages have grown safely outside the threat area. People built new risk resistant houses and buildings. Daytime activities such as churches, offices and commerce remain at the original centrality. Some elderly people are still there, a couple of times a year, they move to their relative’s homes to avoid evacuation.
1 14 145
Potential scenario 2: Villages moved away Years 10 - 25
Pan-Americ New Pan-A A Paved Gale e Tertiary roads Horse paths Green enviro env onment settle emen Indigenous council c 0km
6 km
146
SCENARIO 2
T
he volcano erupted and destroyed one village. People evacuated preventively to the new centrality to live with relatives and friend’s houses experienced no fatalities. The new centralities kept on growing faster than they were doing before the emergency. People in other villages at the threat zone later voluntary sold to the government their high risk houses over the years.
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SUPPORTING PROJECT 1: WILD LIFE SANCTUARY STRATEGY
Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2
The Galeras Wildlife strategy brings the opportunity to keep a buffer zone between the inhabited lands and the volcano’s crater. The current boundary of the wildlife sanctuary encloses part of the safe area and part of high the threat area. There are also paths from the main villages and from Pasto with a crater. A complete inventory of animals and plants species was developed as part of the existing plan for the park. (PNNC 2005).
Rural inhabited Urban land Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2 As proposed by Mesias (2011), the existing High Threat Zone (ZAVA) can be added as an expansion for the Wildlife sanctuary. However some new considerations must be taken into account: the inhabited rural plots within the High Threat Zone need to be included in a category other than the void lands. The former will be included as an association of landowners, the same way they did in a nearby case, in La Cocha lagoon, where neighboring families created an organization for keeping the ecosystem without leaving the area. 148
Rural inhabited Civilians’ nat. reservoir Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2
With this scheme, three collective farming areas are proposed, two at the left wing and one at the right wing of the high threat zone. Within these areas, collective farming regulations can be applied according to Colombian National Constitution.
Indigenous territory Civilians’ nat. reservoir Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2
These associations can have the legal framework of peasants reserve zones (ZRC by its Spanish short form), which are currently being introduced as an alternative to peasants to organize themselves. They can also be spontaneous civilians’ natural sanctuaries such as La Cocha lagoon, where peasant neighbors organize themselves to preserve a given ecosystem.
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Indigenous territory Civilians’ nat. reservoir Wildlife Sanctuary Park Rural / Park Road 1 Km2
Wildlife unusual activity might alert about changes in volcanic activity
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SUPPORTING PROJECT 2: MIJITAYO RIVER STRATEGY
Case 1: Flooding threat zone along covered river. 1
Av. Panamericana R. Mijitayo (covered)
2
Volcanic threat 100 X 100 (1 Ha) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8
4
Mariana University Arts Museum Culture museum New shopping mall Public tech school High School Filipense School Sports Area (non built stadium) Risk area defined on a land ownership basis
3
5
7
6
Year 0. current conditions Public park Public-privat. facility Agricult. or unused
1400 mts. unde r bu ilding s
mix use 100 mts.
The original river path would be flooded in mudslide case r de un ts] m 00 17
Av.
M
ayo ijit
Year 5 - 6: community aware about floods
Year 1-3. Water road 1.Redesign 2.Reinforce 3.Keep unbuilt 4.Acquire/Remove 100 X 100 (1 Ha)
Sewage within the risk area will be improved.
Opening the river along the road reduces flood risk
The proposed approach to prevent growth towards the volcano and at the same time reducing risks prone for the inhabitants of the Mijitayo Avenue (formerly Mijitayo river) begins with the recognition of the current functions settled along the former river, which include three high schools and a museum. Some small parks are located along this axis and many mixed used dwellings are all along the road. The first step is to enhance the flood risk awareness of the local population, by enabling these landowners to gather, discuses and propose safety measures in flood cases. Next, the avenue will be turned into an open canal that floods when a mudslide comes, reducing the probability of economic losses in the
community. The canal constitutes an environmental axis that attracts visitors. Some properties right on top of the water course will be acquired as part of the project thus they will become public spaces as well. Finally, the sewage systems of all plots within the demarcated area will be enlarged. Cleaning and maintenance routines will be implemented in order to facilitate water evacuation when the floods come.
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MIJITAYO RIVER STRATEGY
Museums and schools can benefit from implementing risk management as part of their development strategies.
Acquired properties will be developed as public space capable of recovering from mudslides. Public buildings might be allowed as part of the park development
Existing owners will be encouraged to stay in place by implementing reduction risk measures, ranging from evacuation plans to reinforcement of existing constructions..
Existing parks help in building some segments of the river path.
Students will benefit from the new pedestrian path crossing the north-south of the city.
Agriculture and urban agriculture will be promoted in border plots to prevent new buildings in this area.
Sewage within the risk area will be improved.
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EVALUATION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND REFLECTIONS . This part evaluates processes and outcomes of the graduation project. It focuses on three parts. First of all, it develops the final outcome of the project, an ex-post evaluation model that involves the social conflict presented in the diagnosis, and how this conflict can be turned into an opportunity to build agreements among stakeholders. The question of how these proposals be measured will be addressed. Secondly, it presents recommendations on what aspects were not deeply addressed by this graduation project and therefore, can constitute a starting point for further works. Finally, the chapter presents a reflection of the methods and arguments underpinning the approach, oriented to identify, to what extent they helped to clarify the questions formulated at the beginning of the process. This will be done by focusing on what the original questions were and how they are related to the thesis’ outcomes, as well as identifying lessons learned from the entire thesis process, and how these lessons might help in further building up of knowledge about regional planning and design, volcanic risk management, and public policies.
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FROM CONFLICT TO EVALUATION MODEL
I
With this in mind, a matrix of principles that were identified as elements each part recognizes of the other is proposed. Moreover, since there is little or no disagreement on this elements, this new matrix can also be used as a way to evaluate every decision made in the territory and it is likely that these evaluation can lead to agreements among the parts. These principles can be summarized as follows:
n order to evaluate how the proposal can have a positive impact in the community, four principles have been defined as ruling premises for every spatial decision made during the design stages explained in earlier chapters: The principle of Life, the principle of territory, the principle of local culture and the principle of democracy.
Life: This will be the ruling principle. Everybody agrees that whatever is done, it will ensure the right of life of the communities.
These principles result from analyzing how the problem definition has a direct relation with the social conflict and the way stakeholders are grouped. The analysis below shows how divided is the society from the authorities in this specific case, and also how each side’s internal groups understand in different ways the volcanic threat: on the one hand as an environmental characteristic of the territory, and on the other as a potential disaster that requires some kind of action.
Culture: Everybody recognizes that the culture of these people is rich and different from other regions. Even people in government positions recognizes themselves as citizens of the territory, and they understand the strong relationship with their land, although they must enforce eviction laws. Democracy: Everybody recognizes the national constitution and Colombian legal system. This recognition has been key not only for the law enforcement strategies by the government during these years, but also by the civilians and indigenous communities, when for example they requested the creation of the Quillacinga indigenous council making good use of what is written in the National Constitution.
From this, a 2x2 matrix was used to represent the four predominant positions towards the volcanic threat: As a natural phenomenon, which is the position of the scientific authorities. As a potential disaster which is the position of government authorities. As a central part of the cultural identity, which is the position of most of the civil society. As a father, source of life and part of their life, which is the position of the indigenous communities. This analysis helped to conclude that the discourses of most of the people and authorities about conflict, actors, origin of the problems and so, can easily fit in that 2x2 scheme. This also might mean that the way to start a negotiated solution to the conflicts between parts should theoretically fit in that scheme.
FOCUS TOPICS
AUTHORITIES
SOCIETY
Environmental concerns
Legal Concerns
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The social conflict analysis is based on an initial reflection on how divided is the society from the authorities in this specific case, and also how each side has internal groups with different understanding about the volcanic threat: on the one hand as an environmental characteristic of the territory, and on the other as a potential disaster.
Therefore...
RISK CANNOT BE REDUCED BASED ON A THREAT MAP ONLY (Risk Management principle)
IT IS UNKNOWN THE LEVEL OF RISK TO PEOPLE’S LIFE (Recognized by authorities) at the same time. .. While
However...
RISK REGULATIONS HAVE STOPPED 10 YEARS OF LOCAL DEVELOPMENT (People demands)
RESETTLEMENT POLICY DISRUPTS LOCAL CULTURE AND SOCIAL NETWORKS (Scholars concern)
Problem definition as explained in chapter 1
A n d. . .
INDIGENOUS ‘Resettlement strategy is a good business for the government’
Volcanologists declare 87.5 Km2 as high risk area
SCIENTIFIC INSITUTIONS INGEOMINAS 1997
PEASANTS AND CIVILIANS ‘Investment is required the village might grow towardsthe shelter areas’
Government declares state of emergency at 4 communities
STATE *516 resettled by 2013
2005
REGIONAL INSITUTIONS
Socio spatial conflict as explained in chapter 1
2008 - today
OTHER INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES IN SIMILAR CONDITIONS
NATIONAL LEVEL ACADEMIA OSSO - NGO
INTERNATIONAL SCIENTISTS AND SCHOLARS
NARIñO UNIVERSITY
INDIGENOUS COUNCIL GEOLOGICAL SERVICE INDIGENOUS LEADERS
OTHER CIVILIANS:
VOLCANIC THREAT ARMY
THREAT OF EVICTION PROCESO GALERAS
RETAILERS YOUNGSTERS TEACHERS ELDERLY NEWCOMERS CHILDHOOD
LOCAL COMMUNITY COMMITTEE
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT LOCAL NEWS MEDIA
DISASTERS AUTHORITIES POLICE REGIONAL GOVERNMENT
MINISTRY OF HOUSING - FREE HOUSING POLICY
CITY/VILLAGE MAYORS
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ORGANIZED LANDOWNERS AROUND “LA COCHA” LAGOON RESERVOIR
Stakeholder analysis as explained in chapter 3.
PRINCIPLE OF TERRITORY Superior Right: People belong to the territory. Social changes are only possible within the territory that has been given by superior Right.
PRINCIPLE OF DEMOCRACY “To serve the community is an essential purpose of the State”. (Colombian Constitution, Article 2)
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PRINCIPLE OF LIFE Life preservation must be the overriding principle and the only motivation to transform the community’s way of life.
PRINCIPLE OF CULTURE Social transformations can only be originated by the community as part of their cultural development.
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CULTURE Self construction and traditional techniques will be preferred rather than large housing developments. The new settlement is part of the ancestral territory and as an expansion of the original village
TERRITORY Volcanic risk cannot be eliminated from the community in the territory they belong. People will enhance their capabilities of building a resilient living environment.
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LIFE The new place will be built within the territory, in areas with lower probabilities of being affected by a strong volcanic eruption.
DEMOCRACY Decisions on the function of public spaces will be made on a participatory basis.
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REFLECTIONS ON THE GENERAL METHODOLOGY
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nities of the case study (Genoy and Mapachico), from the Minister of Housing’s twitter account, from blogs of researchers and NGOs involved in the conflict, and from Facebook fan pages of local mayors of the affected municipalities.
his thesis implemented several methods according to each stage. The kinds of research and design outcomes and lessons learned that this reflection focuses on are listed below in connection with the method they come from:
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Press review: This method was implemented at the early stages of the process and was integrated as a discipline during the other steps. In general terms, press review helped me in the construction of a general argument based on what people expressed through media. However, when contrasting these findings with the reality on field, argument inaccuracies were also identified. In other words, although the press allows the researcher to get closer to the social conflict. In recent history, the quality of the argumentation might be affected by editorial biases and hidden forces behind news media.
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Literature review: One of the most powerful methods to structure the main argument of this thesis was the review and analysis of scholarly articles. Particularly, three approaches were studied during this stage of the project: participatory approach (Chambers 1994, Healey 1998, Forrester 1999), risk management theory, and self organization in urbanism (part of Alexander’s ‘A new theory on urban design’). As concluded in this report’s theoretical framework, the literature of these three approaches provide structured insight about flaws and successes of previous strategies carried out by local governments and NGOs. It also helps in understanding the pros and cons of the new government’s approach to risk, formerly focused on disaster attention and now shifting into risk management as a development strategy. In this case, a review of legal documents was also made in order to set out the existing legal framework in terms of risk management and contrast it with previous policies. Finally, the literature research backed up the design strategy by offering a scientific explanation to the vernacular construction methods and territory usage patterns from an urban design perspective. Specifically, urban design theories that have been proved in international contexts, such as the piecemeal growth approach proposed by Christopher Alexander in 1980’s were helpful in understanding how the spontaneous patterns of urban growth in the Galeras region were of positive input for further regional planning processes, as those proposed in my thesis.
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Social Media Review: As a complement to press review, the social media activism became a balanced source of information for this specific case. The technique applied for this process was to establish contact with different stakeholders via their social media platforms on line. For example, by implementing this method, I gathered real time information from Facebook groups of two commu164
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Open interviews during the study visit: All the three methods above mentioned were validated by open interviews with different stakeholders. This way, primary data was collected and analyzed, and a general hypothesis from the early stages of the master’s thesis process was contrasted. Firstly, the importance and severity of the conflict between community and local authorities was demonstrated by different actors. Furthermore, hidden conflicts within the government authorities, as well as profound differences between indigenous and peasant communities. Secondly, another checked hypothesis was that a regional development strategy would be supported by the community as a way to reduce past policies’ negative impacts in the community and the territory. Finally, the open interviews allowed me to discover the community’s past initiatives never implemented nor documented by the local authorities. This is the case of the people’s proposal of offering new housing for young couples at the resettlement locations. These young couples cannot build within the high threat zones because of the strict emergency regulations, and are forced to live at their parents or in laws houses if they want to stay in the community. Recovering this initiative as part of a new spatial strategy underpins this proposal’s design and phasing strategy.
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Spatial Analysis and mapping: The spatial setting of this thesis was only possible by collecting and systematizing geographic information from different sources. A general base map was built by integrating national scale datasets (roads, green, water sources, topography, etc) with more detailed maps from the municipality’s plans. This helped me in understanding the regional dynamics by analyzing land concentration and plot patterns. Furthermore, cartographic information on vulnerable infrastructure was contrasted with the official threat map from 1997 and the location of vulnerable communities. Overlaying this information according to World Bank’s CAPRA methodology allowed me to propose a regional risk map, which is a core outcome from this thesis. The resulting risk map is the basis for the regional strategy herein proposed, and it might represent a matter of further study, provided that it needs to be complemented with more accurate information in order to fulfill The World Bank’s guidelines on risk assessment.
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Comparative analysis and case studies: Finally, comparative analysis provided information that helped in the measurement of this proposal. The scale of measure proposed as conclusion of this analysis can be improved and used for further projects on volcanic risk contexts. Another specific lesson from this method is that social conflict situations need to be faced and reduced in order to achieve an effective risk management strategy.
In summary, this reflection describes the general outcome of implementing different methods that have been selected for each stage of the project. It shows how research methods provide direct input to the regional planning and design processes. Specifically, methods such as literature review, open interviews and spatial analysis, supported core design premises like: A new safer settlement will be conceived as an extension of the existing territory and will be performed by the local community in a piecemeal growth process (Literature review conclusion) The phasing strategy to encourage people to populate the new settlement will be based on providing housing to the young couples and families that cannot build by themselves at the high-risk areas. (Open interviews conclusion) A regional plan must be designed by implementing a risk map, rather than a threat map (Spatial analysis conclusion)
This approach sets out a positive relationship between the project and its social context, as it includes the original reasons of clashes between the society and the government regarding to volcanic risk and the emergency measures. This is especially relevant for the academic context that this project was part of. In fact, the development of this project as part of TU Delft’s Design as Politics studio, gave me the opportunity to understand the political background of a spatial problem like this, as well as to propose alternative solutions, differentiate between top-down approaches for regional planning, widely utilized by South American governments. The methodical line proposed by Design as Politics (Explore and decide, Analyze and position, and Design) sat out the roots for the detailed methodology this chapter describes, and serves as the guideline that facilitated the achievement of this master’s thesis outcomes.
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RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS There are several general recommendations that have come out of this project. Firstly, as stated in the hypothesis, risk management needs to be addressed as a regional development strategy in a wider framework. Specifically in volcanic contexts, a regional strategy might enable communities to identify regional wide opportunities to increase safety in their own territory. In a wider territory, there are more possibilities to reorganize the community if required.
munity has been mistreated in the past, they will not move. On the other hand, if the original settlement has been developing since its origins, it can grow organically again. The solution can have external guidance, lessons from similar cases and scientifically based inputs as those suggested here, but the decision on how to avoid risk is on the community and they must be provided with enough tools to make this decision.
By this analysis it can be concluded that in order to address the issue of risk reduction in rural and semi-urban communities, innovative alternatives need to be considered, such as:
DESIGN AS POLITICS: PARTICIPATORY DIAGNOSIS AS A TOOL FOR DEMOCRATIC REGIONAL PLANNING.
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Community participation is a necessary practice for the development of regional spatial strategies. The larger the region the more exhaustive the participatory processes must be. For this specific case study, people have expressed in number of times their dissatisfaction with the fact that government authorities have given little importance to their opinions.
Integrating the shelters areas as part of the solution: In Colombia as in many regions, human populations that settled (or partially settled) on territories identified as natural hazard zones are usually assigned to a shelter area for evacuation purposes. This shelter zone must be zones where the hazard cannot constitute high risk to human life. On the other hand, this zones are by definition part of the public space of the community, and they are also well connected to rest of the village by evacuation paths. This proposal puts these elements together, by encouraging the positive and frequent use of the shelters by the community. Hypothetically, this approach would enable the generation of urban dynamics at the neighboring agricultural plots (therefore, away from threat as well), which will make them available as potential lands for a better resettlement strategy, which can actually be now understood more as a growth of the endangered village to a safer direction.
The arrimados proposal illustrates this situation. As it has been said, arrimados is how they call those who have gotten married during the years of the state of emergency, and due to this law’s prohibitions for buying or building new houses within the threat zone, most of them have stayed at their parents or in-laws. That explains why many homes in the study area are composed by two or more families. According to community members interviewed and to Proceso Galeras staff, some years ago the community proposed to invest the resettlement project resources in helping these young couples or arrimados to get a house. However, this proposal was unsuccessfully addressed to the national government and the idea was rejected.
Creating large areas for food production instead of micro parcels: In rural areas, micro parcels (the result of having growing population in a highly fertile territory) have a higher risk of disrupting the productivity of land in case of a damaging volcanic eruption. The smaller the agricultural parcel, the higher the probability of having the whole parcel impacted. Nowadays, the Colombian national constitution provides enough tools to create associations of peasants with special requirements, such as Reservation Peasants Zones (also known as ZRC), Indigenous reservoirs and natural reservoirs of civil society (a successful case of the latter can be found in the nearby Cocha Lagoon, referenced in page 37).
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Working together with ancestral communities in understanding risk: In a community with a cultural heritage linked to the territory, risks can be better understood if scientific methods are mixed with the vernacular knowledge of the threat that has been built along generations. Lessons from the case of Nasa communities in Cauca, Colombia (explained in page 23) must be implemented.
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Letting the community decide their own growth: No matter how brilliant is the resettlement plan, if the com-
That proposal devised by the community (and dismissed by the authorities) can actually constitute a basis for a spatial strategy as the one described throughout this document. It can be therefore concluded that for a stagnated regional issue like this study case, the main issue might not be the lack of innovative proposals, but the lack of efficient mechanisms to discuss in a table with the administrative authorities, the several ideas of the community. With implementation strategies such as participatory diagnosis, community members can get positioned as planners of their own Territory. Methods such as participatory rural appraisal (Chambers 1994) may reinforce this by the use of tools such as community-mapping of risk or definition of needs as a community (e.g. definition of needs by locals was the main input for the detailed design program of this thesis). Theoretically, a combination of this approaches (as suggested in the diagnosis chapter) may help planners and authorities to evaluate and consider more efficiently ideas that constantly originate within the community.
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ROLE OF THE PLANNER • During chapter 2, three different approaches to participation were discussed. These approaches vary on the position of the planner with regard to the community that wants to be involved. However, in the three approaches, the main discussion is where should the planner be positioned. Even though this is a core issue, in cases such as Galeras further discussions are required about how to empower the community as a planning actor itself, i.e. reducing their dependence on external planners to make better spatial decisions.
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Democratic systems bring tools to communities to organize themselves and make large scale decisions, with appropriate professional assistance. However, more information is required in terms of creating awareness on how to make better use of the democratic tools available right now. The creation of an indigenous council is an example of the community using the democratic tools in a proper way to achieve community goals.
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THE SOCIAL VALUE OF LAND Government authorities approach to this case study commonly focuses on the issue of people who do not want to sell their properties to Proceso galeras. Furthermore, this authorities try to find formulas to convince people of the benefits of selling to the government (the only one authorized to buy a property within the threat zone). This perspective gives low relevance to the fact that for these communities the value of land surpluses its economic value. We have named this as the social value of land, the social and cosmological importance that locals and specially indigenous assign to the territory they inhabit. The sentence “We do not own the land. The land own us” illustrate this point.
threat and their differences. Thus, real risks to life can be defined by the people themselves, rather than basing this decisions only in external assessments. Connect vernacular knowledge about risk with scientific risk assessments. A close example of how this can be done is the case of Nasa communities in Cauca, Colombia whom combine their traditional methods to interpret the behavior of the volcano, with the use of advanced equipment. Documentation of similar experiences in an impartial way. Experiences should not only be used to emphasize the point of view of a given stakeholder. Documentation must include what elements are required to evaluate a good practice as ‘good’. To improve the investments on the territory by the local authorities as a way to improve the trust of locals towards the government. Encourage local governments to join and orient efforts towards the construction of regional risk management strategies, rather than local-scale development strategies. Enhance the role of Academia (e.g. Universidad de Nariño) as an actor that can train locals in activities that improve their comprehension of risk. One action that can be performed is a vulnerability assessment based on the kinds of roofs in the villages at volcanic threat, as it was started by Osso NGO as a pilot in 2010.
FURTHER RESEARCH QUESTIONS Studying this case within an academic framework allows to explore innovative alternatives that might be inconceivable otherwise. As well as this work recognizes the conclusions of previous endeavors, future theses can take some of the questionings that arose throughout the document and that were not developed deeply: How to direct to an opposite (safer) direction the urban growth of a 400.000 people city such as Pasto? (Question for the discipline of urban design)
This thesis states that the economic value of the land might constitute an informative feature, for instance to communicate the outcome of a risk assessment as it was herein proposed (see page 103). However, the value of land involves cosmological complexities for members of this specific community. This must be respected by planners and authorities.
How to encourage people to combine their traditional piecemeal-growth construction techniques with foreign techniques that perform better during volcanic eruptions? (Question for the discipline of Architecture)
NEXT STEPS How to turn a volcanic environment / wildlife sanctuary into the core of a regional scale public space network, i.e. that serves to a metropolitan region and its neighboring villages such as the cities along the Galeras ring road? (Question for the discipline of urban planning and design).
Throughout this work it can be recognized that the changes required to move forward from the existing stagnated situation towards a development require long time frames and further discussion on regional strategies as part of volcanic risk management. Specifically, more efforts are required in at least these points: •
Provide information to the community in an open, public and efficient way about the concepts of risk and 167
REFERENCES •
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Adaman, F. & Devine, P. (2001). Participatory planning as a deliberative democratic process: A response to Hodgson’s critique. Economic and Society, Vol 30 (2): 229-239 Arnstein, S. (1969) A ladder of citizen participation. AIP Journal July 1969: 216-224 Alexander, C. et al. (1975) The Oregon Experiment. New York: Oxford University Press. Alexander, C. et al. (1987) A new theory of Urban design. New York: Oxford University Press. Bilal, M. et al. 2011. Development of spatial risks of cargo rail systems. In: Bilal, M., Vulnerability, uncertainty, and risk. Analysis, modeling and management. Proceedings of the ICVRAM2011 and ISUMA 2011 conferences Hyattsville, Maryland 11-13 April 2011. Hyattsville: Council on Disaster Risk Management Chambers, R (1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Challenges, potentials and paradigm. World development, Vol. 22 (10): 1437-1454 Chambers, R (1997). Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last Intermediate Technology Publications, London. Correa et al. (2011) Population at risk of disaster. A resettlement Guide, Washington DC: World Bank, GFDRR. Fainstein, S (1999) New Directions in Planning Theory, Urban Affairs Review vol. 35 (4): 451-478 Forrester , J. (1999). The Deliberative Practitioner. Cambridge: The MIT Press Forester, J. (1987). Planning in the face of conflict. Journal of American Planning Association 53, 303-314. GFDRR (2013) GFDRR Case Study: Central American Probabilistic Risk Assessment (CAPRA). [pdf ] Washington DC: Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. Available at http://gfdrr.org/docs/Snapshot_CAPRA.pdf. [Accessed 6 June 2013] Healey, P (1998) Collaborative planning in a stakeholder society, The Town Planning Review, Vol. 69, (1) 1-21. Healey, P (1992) A planner’s day: knowledge and action in communicative practice, APA Journal (Winter 1992) 9-20. Healey, P (2003) Collaborative planning in perspective. Planning Theory, Vol 2. (2), 101-123. INGEOMINAS (1997) Mapa de Amenaza volcanica del Galeras, tercera version. Special publication by INGEOMINAS. Bogota: Ingeominas. Mesias, O (2011) Estudio para la determinación de los ejes etructurantes de la planificación integrada del hábitat de las áreas liberadas y áreas suburbanas aledañas, en el proeceso de reasentamiento Galeras. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Merriam-Webster (2013) M-w.com [online] London: Encyclopedia Britannica (UK) Available through http://www. merriam-webster.com/ [Accessed 6 June 2013]. Provost M (2010) New towns for the 21st Century; the planned and the unplanned city, New towns for the 21st Century: 8 -27. Sharma, A (2012) Population and Society, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur. Series of lectures available online
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at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uTdb3Zws_eo Scudder, T (2009) Resettlement Theory and the Kariba Case: An Anthropology of Resettlement. Development and Dispossession, edited by Anthony Oliver-Smith. School for Advanced Research Press Santa fe. New Mexico. Tan, E & Portugali J (2012) The responsive city design game. Complexity theories of cities have come of age. Berlin: Springer-Verlag Thomalla, F et al. (2006) Reducing hazard vulnerability: towards a common approach between disaster risk reduction and climate adaption. Disasters 30 (I), 39-48. Portugali (2012) Complexity theories of cities: Implications to urban planning. Complexity theories of cities have come of age. Berlin: Springer-Verlag World Bank (2011) Involuntary Resettlement, Available online http://go.worldbank.org/MRNITY6XN0 (visited 1 October 2012).
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This document entitled “From Threat to Growth: A regional development strategy for volcanic risk management at the Galeras region, Colombia�, describes the situation of three rural communities settled over 300 years ago on the fertile slopes of Galeras volcano in the south-western region of Colombia, whose reactivation process has been under studies by scientists since 1997. The objective of this project therefore, is to develop a regional development strategy that collects the lessons learned from previous local risk strategies, municipality master plans and initiatives from the local communities, using these inputs as the basis for a number of urban and local scale proposals that bring a positive impact in the community at the same time reducing the risks associated to volcanic eruptions.
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