Sociology in our times 9th edition kendall test bank

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Chapter 8

CHAPTER 8: CLASS AND STRATIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES Category

Chapter 8: Learning Objectives

KNOWLEDGE: Remembering previously learned material

1. Define income and wealth and describe their relation to social class.

2. Describe Marx’s perspective on class position and class relationships.

3. Describe current statistics about the poor in the U.S.

COMPREHENSION: The ability to grasp the meaning of the material

4. Compare socioeconomic status and social class.

APPLICATION: The ability to use material in new and concrete situations

6. Compare functionalist and conflict approaches to measuring class.

5. Describe the ways that income is distributed in the U.S.

7. Distinguish between absolute and relative poverty and describe the characteristics and lifestyle of those who live in poverty in the U.S. 8. Describe the contributions of the symbolic interactionist perspective to understanding social inequality.

ANALYSIS: The ability to 9. Outline Weber’s multidimensional approach to social stratification and explain how people are ranked on all three dimensions. break down material into its component parts so that 10. Discuss slavery and its relationship to global poverty. its organizational structure 11. Distinguish between functionalist and conflict explanations of may be understood social inequality.

SYNTHESIS: The ability to put parts together to form a new whole

12. Summarize the most important consequences of inequality in the U.S. 13. Describe the ways that SES has shaped the life choices of members of your own family.

MULTIPLE CHOICE SECTION 1.

__________ is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on the control over basic resources. a. b. c. d.

Social distinction Individual distinctiveness Social stratification Social layering

ANS: c

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

363

DIF: concept

Class and Stratification in the United States 2.

Sociologist Max Weber’s term, __________, addresses how much access individuals have to important societal resources such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and health care. a. b. c. d.

life chances cultural opportunity social opportunity social prospects

ANS: a 3.

DIF: concept

Assets Resources Prospects Opportunities

ANS: b

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

One of the most important characteristics of systems of stratification is their degree of flexibility. In an open system of stratification: a. b. c. d.

there is no social mobility people’s positions are influenced by achieved statuses the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are rigid people’s positions are determined by ascribed statuses alone

ANS: b 5.

OBJ: 8.9

__________ are anything valued in a society, ranging from money and property to medical care and education. They are considered to be scarce because of unequal distribution among social categories. a. b. c. d.

4.

REF: page 216

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

__________ is the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. This movement can be either upward or downward. a. b. c. d.

Social movement Unilateral generational mobility Open system movement Social mobility

ANS: d

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

364

DIF: concept

Chapter 8 6.

Social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next is: a. structural mobility b. intergenerational mobility c. intragenerational mobility d. exchange mobility ANS: b

7.

DIF: concept

downward horizontal upward progressive

ANS: c

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: application

The social movement of individuals within their own lifetime is called: a. b. c. d.

intergenerational mobility structural mobility exchange mobility intragenerational mobility

ANS: d 9.

OBJ: 8.9

Sarah’s father is a carpenter who makes good wages in good economic times, but is unemployed when the construction industry slows to a standstill. Sarah becomes a neurologist, earning $345,000 a year, and moves from the working class to the upper-middle class.

Between her father’s generation and her own, Sarah has experienced __________ social mobility. a. b. c. d.

8.

REF: page 216

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

RaShandra began her career as a high-tech factory worker. Through increased experience and by taking specialized courses in her field, she became an entrepreneur and started her own highly successful “dot-com” business. RaShandra’s advancement is an example of ________ mobility. a. b. c. d.

exchange intergenerational structural intragenerational

ANS: d

REF: page 216

OBJ: 8.1

365

DIF: application

Class and Stratification in the United States 10.

One of the most important characteristics of systems of stratification is their degree of flexibility. In a closed system of stratification: a. b. c. d.

people’s positions are set by achieved statuses there is little or no social mobility the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are relatively fluid many opportunities exist for people who are willing to work hard

ANS: b 11.

REF: page 216-217

OBJ: 8.10

DIF: fact

The __________ system is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. It is a closed system in which people are treated as property and have little or no control over their lives. a. b. c. d.

union slavery class caste

ANS: b

REF: page 217

OBJ: 8.10

DIF: concept

As practiced in the United States, which of the following was NOT a characteristic of slavery? a. b. c. d.

It was for life and was inherited.

Slaves were considered to be human beings as well as property.

Slaves were denied rights.

Coercion was used to keep slaves “in their place.”

ANS: b 14.

DIF: concept

slavery caste class profile

ANS: d

13.

OBJ: 8.1

Systems of stratification are characterized by different hierarchical structures and varying degrees of mobility. All of the following are systems of stratification EXCEPT: a. b. c. d.

12.

REF: pages 216-217

REF: page 217

OBJ: 8.10

DIF: fact

A __________ is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parent’s ascribed status. It is a closed system of stratification.

366

Chapter 8

a. b. c. d.

class system slavery system profile system caste system

ANS: d 15.

racial classification; occupation religious affiliation; economic classification occupation; racial classification wealth; racial classification

ANS: c

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: fact

apartheid closed racial system emancipation horizontal declassification

ANS: a

REF: page 218

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: fact

In a __________, marriage is endogamous, meaning that people are allowed to marry only within their own group. a. b. c. d.

stratified system profile system caste system class system

ANS: c 18.

REF: pages 218-222

The separation of the races refers to: a. b. c. d.

17.

DIF: concept

According to the text, India’s caste system is based in part on _________, while the caste system of South Africa was based on __________. a. b. c. d.

16.

REF: pages 218-222 OBJ: 8.10

REF: page 220

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: fact

The __________ system is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. a. b. c. d.

caste slavery profile class

ANS: d

REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.9

367

DIF: concept

Class and Stratification in the United States

19.

When people experience a gain or loss in position and/or income that does not produce a change in their place in the class structure, this is referred to as: a. horizontal mobility b. situational mobility c. vertical mobility d. structural mobility ANS: a

20.

DIF: concept

situational vertical horizontal structural

ANS: b

REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: application

__________ occurs when people experience movement either up or down the class structure. a. b. c. d.

Structural mobility Vertical mobility Situational mobility Horizontal mobility

ANS: b 22.

OBJ: 8.9

A university professor is promoted from the rank of assistant to associate professor. This results in her being granted tenure and she receives a significant increase in salary. This person has experienced __________ mobility. a. b. c. d.

21.

REF: page 222

REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

_________ argued that class position and the extent of our income and wealth are determined by our work situation, or our relationship to the means of production. a. b. c. d.

Georg Simmel Max Weber Emile Durkheim Karl Marx

ANS: d

REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.2

368

DIF: fact

Chapter 8 23.

Both social scientists Karl Marx and Max Weber identified ___________ as an important determinant of social inequality and social change. a. religion b. class c. gender d. race ANS: b REF: pages 222-224

24.

entrepreneurs proletariat rentiers bourgeoisie

ANS: d

OBJ: 8.2

DIF: concept

proletariat rentiers bourgeoisie entrepreneurs

ANS: a

REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.2

DIF: concept

Sociologist Karl Marx acknowledged that classes may have: a. b. c. d.

many important overlapping socioeconomic interests primarily similar economic interests opposing (rather than complementary) interests complementary (rather than opposing) interests

ANS: c 27.

REF: page 222

According to sociologist Karl Marx, the __________ (working class) consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. a. b. c. d.

26.

DIF: concept

According to sociologist Karl Marx, the __________ (capitalist class) consists of those who own the means of production—the land and capital necessary for factories and mines. a. b. c. d.

25.

OBJ: 8.2

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.2

DIF: concept application

According to Karl Marx, continual exploitation results in workers’ __________—a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. It develops as workers manufacture goods that embody their creative talents, but the goods do not belong to them. a.

class conflict

369

Class and Stratification in the United States b. c. d.

meritocracy classism alienation

ANS: d 28.

DIF: application

substructure superstructure ecostructure basic structure

ANS: b

REF: page 223

OBJ: 8.2

DIF: concept

According to sociologist Karl Marx, when the workers realized that capitalists were the source of their oppression, they would overthrow the capitalists and their agents of social control, leading to the end of capitalism. The workers would then take over the government and create a(n) __________ society. a. b. c. d.

class caste egalitarian stratified

ANS: c 30.

OBJ: 8.2

According to sociologist Karl Marx, the capitalist class maintains its position at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s __________, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions. a. b. c. d.

29.

REF: pages 222-223

REF: page 223

OBJ: 8.2

DIF: application

According to sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf, which of the following is NOT a reason why workers have not overthrown capitalism as sociologist Karl Marx had predicted? a. b. c. d.

Many workers have experienced a rising standard of living.

Workers have gained more legal protection in the form of rights and benefits.

Individual capitalists still own and control factories and other means of production.

Many people have become so engrossed in the process of consumption that they are less likely to engage in workers’ rebellion.

ANS: c

REF: page 223

OBJ: 8.2

370

DIF: concept

Chapter 8 31.

The value of all of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property is referred to as: a. b. c. d.

power prestige income wealth

ANS: d 32.

DIF: concept

entrepreneurs rentiers independents consumers

ANS: a

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

Sociologist Max Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a class of __________—wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work. a. b. c. d.

entrepreneurs rentiers independents consumers

ANS: b 34.

OBJ: 8.9

Sociologist Max Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a privileged commercial class of __________—wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources. a. b. c. d.

33.

REF: page 224

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

According to Max Weber, the __________ consists of white-collar workers, public officials, managers, and professionals. a. b. c. d.

divisional class working class tertiary class middle class

ANS: d

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

371

DIF: concept

Class and Stratification in the United States 35.

Sociologist Max Weber divided those who work for wages into two classes. The __________ class consists of skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers. a. b. c. d.

working middle divisional tertiary

ANS: a 36.

DIF: concept

Wealth Power Status Prestige

ANS: d

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: application

Sociologist Max Weber suggested that a person who has a high level of prestige is assumed to receive deferential and respectful treatment from others. He noted all the following to be true EXCEPT that: a. b. c. d.

they tend to socialize with one another they tend to marry outside their own group of social equals they tend to spend their leisure time together they tend to safeguard their status by restricting outsiders’ opportunities to join their ranks

ANS: b 38.

OBJ: 8.9

__________ is the respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others: it includes fame, respect, honor, and esteem. a. b. c. d.

37.

REF: page 224

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

DIF: concept

__________ is the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others. a. b. c. d.

Wealth Power Status Prestige

ANS: b

REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

372

DIF: concept

Chapter 8 39.

Sociologists often use the term __________ to refer to a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location. a. power status b. socioeconomic status c. prestige status d. wealth status ANS: b REF: page 225 OBJ: 8.4

40.

According to Weber, bureaucracies hold social power in modern societies; individual power depends on a person’s _________ within the bureaucracy. a. b. c. d.

wealth education position occupational

ANS: c 41.

OBJ: 8.4

DIF: concept

inconsistent stagnant consistent dynamic

ANS: c

REF: page 225

OBJ: 8.4

DIF: fact

The text points out that, for many years, occupational ratings by prestige have been remarkably consistent. In 2007, which of the following occupations received the highest score in the United States? a. b. c. d.

college professor dentist attorney physician

ANS: d 43.

REF: page 224

For many years, occupational ratings by prestige have been remarkably _________ in the United States. a. b. c. d.

42.

DIF: concept

REF: page 226 table 8.1

OBJ: 8.4

DIF: fact

The text points out that for the past several years occupational ratings by prestige have been remarkably consistent. In 2007, which of the following occupations received the lowest score in the United States?

373

Class and Stratification in the United States

a. b. c. d.

mail carrier police officer maid secretary

ANS: c 44.

DIF: fact

education occupation of family head the family’s reputation in the community family income

ANS: c

REF: page 226

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, the __________ members (about one percent of the U. S. population) own substantial income-producing assets and operate on both the national and international levels. People in this class have an influence on the economy and society far beyond their numbers. a. b. c. d.

upper-middle class upper class middle-middle class middle class

ANS: b 46.

OBJ: 8.4

All of the following are elements in the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert EXCEPT: a. b. c. d.

45.

REF: page 226, table 8.1

REF: pages 226-227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: concept

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, members of the __________ class come from prominent families who possess great wealth that they have held for several generations.

Family names such as Rockefeller and Kennedy are well known and often held in high esteem. a. b. c. d.

lower-upper middle-upper upper-upper upper middle

ANS: c

REF: pages 226-227

374

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: concept

Chapter 8 47.

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, members of the __________ have earned most of their money in their own lifetime as entrepreneurs, presidents of major corporations, sports or entertainment celebrities, or top-level professionals. a. b. c. d.

middle-upper class upper-upper class upper-middle class lower-upper class

ANS: d 48.

DIF: concept

upper-upper lower-upper upper-middle middle

ANS: c

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: concept

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, the __________ is the one that is most shaped by formal education. a. b. c. d.

upper class upper-upper class upper-middle class middle class

ANS: c 50.

OBJ: 8.1

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, persons in the __________ class (about 14 percent of the U. S. population) are often highly educated professionals who have built careers as physicians, attorneys, stockbrokers, or corporate managers. a. b. c. d.

49.

REF: page 227

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

According to the social class model developed by sociologist Dennis Gilbert, two-year or four-year college degrees have replaced the high school diploma as an entry-level requirement for employment in many __________ occupations, including medical technicians and nurses. This social class represents an estimated 30 percent of the U. S. population. a. b. c. d.

middle-class upper class upper-upper class upper-middle class

375

Class and Stratification in the United States ANS: a 51.

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

7 14 32 44

ANS: b

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

Approximately _________ percent of the U.S. population are members of the working class. a. b. c. d.

30 40 50 60

ANS: a

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

Most Americans view themselves as __________ class. a. b. c. d.

working middle upper-middle upper

ANS: b 55.

REF: page 227

About __________ percent of the U.S. population are members of the upper-middle class. a. b. c. d.

54.

DIF: concept

escalating housing prices blocked mobility on the job the cost-of-living squeeze negative media exposure

ANS: d

53.

OBJ: 8.1

According to your text, all of the following are factors that have eroded the American Dream for the middle class EXCEPT: a. b. c. d.

52.

REF: page 227

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: concept

Relatively low-paying, non-manual, semiskilled positions primarily held by women, such as day care workers, checkout clerks, cashiers, and waitpersons are referred to as: a.

white-collar jobs

376

Chapter 8 b. c. d.

blue-collar jobs pink-collar jobs frayed collar jobs

ANS: c 56.

REF: page 229

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: fact

Contemporary Marxian (or conflict) theorists would examine class in terms of: a. b. c. d.

the ownership or non-ownership of the means of production people’s relationship to others in the production process wealth and status inequality a multidimensional approach of wealth, prestige and power

ANS: b

REF: page 229

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: concept

__________ attempt to determine what degree of control workers have over the decision-making process and the extent to which they are able to plan and implement their own work. a. b. c. d.

Postmodern theorists Functionalist theorists Symbolic interactionist theorists Conflict theorists

ANS: d 59.

DIF: concept

underclass working class middle class lower class

ANS: a

58.

OBJ: 8.1

Individuals that are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation that results from low levels of education and income and high rates of unemployment are part of the: a. b. c. d.

57.

REF: page 227

REF: page 229

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: application

According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, all of the following are criteria for placement in the class structure EXCEPT: a. b. c. d.

ownership of the means of production purchase of the labor of others inherited wealth sale of one’s own labor

377

Class and Stratification in the United States ANS: c 60.

REF: pages 229-230

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: fact

According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ is composed of individuals who have inherited fortunes, own major corporations, or are top corporate executives with extensive stock holdings or control of company investments. a. b. c. d.

capitalist class managerial class small-business class working class

ANS: a

REF: page 230

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: concept

According to Forbes magazine’s 2010 list of the richest people in the world, Bill Gates (co-founder of Microsoft Corporation) was the second wealthiest with a fortune of nearly $53 billion. According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, Bill Gates would be in the __________ class. a. b. c. d.

managerial capitalist proletariat working

ANS: b 63.

DIF: concept

capitalist class managerial class small-business class middle class

ANS: d

62.

OBJ: 8.6

All of the following classes were identified by sociologist Erik Wright in his Marxian model EXCEPT the: a. b. c. d.

61.

REF: pages 229-230

REF: page 230

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: application

According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, persons in the ___________ have substantial control over the means of production and over workers. However, these upper-level supervisors and professionals typically do not participate in key corporate decisions such as how to invest profit. a. b. c. d.

capitalist class small-business class working class managerial class

378

Chapter 8

ANS: d 64.

REF: page 231

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: concept

According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ is made up of a number of subgroups, one of which is blue-collar workers, some of whom are highly skilled and well paid and others of who are unskilled and poorly paid. a. b. c. d.

small-business class capitalist class working class managerial class

ANS: c

REF: page 232

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: concept

Based on the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ class is made up of skilled blue-collar workers, which include electricians, plumbers, and carpenters, and unskilled blue-collar workers, which include janitors and gardeners. a. b. c. d.

working managerial small-business capitalist

ANS: a 67.

DIF: concept

capitalist working managerial small-business

ANS: d

66.

OBJ: 8.6

According to the sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian model, the __________ class consists of business owners and craftspeople that may hire a small number of employees but largely do their own work. a. b. c. d.

65.

REF: page 231

REF: page 231

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: application

The economic gain derived from wages, salaries, income transfers (government aid), and ownership of property is: a. b. c. d.

wealth income power prestige

379

Class and Stratification in the United States ANS: b 68.

REF: page 233, fig. 8.5

OBJ: 8.5

DIF: fact

Sociologist Dennis Gilbert compares the distribution of income to a national pie that has been sliced into portions. In 2008, the poorest 20 percent of households received approximately __________ of the total income pie. a. b. c. d.

3 9 12 17

ANS: a

REF: page 233, fig. 8.5

OBJ: 8.5

DIF: fact

In 2008, the top one percent of households in the United States received income of more than 1.3 million per year, and the bottom 20 percent earned an average of: a. b. c. d.

$40,000 $17,700 $25,500 $45,000

ANS: b 71.

DIF: concept

25 50 75 90

ANS: b

70.

OBJ: 8.1

Sociologist Dennis Gilbert compares the distribution of income to a national pie that has been sliced into portions. In 2008, the wealthiest 20 percent of households received almost __________ percent of the total income pie. a. b. c. d.

69.

REF: page 233

REF: page 236

OBJ: 8.5

DIF: fact

In 2009 __________ households had the lowest median income ($32,584), as compared with __________ households, which had the highest median ($65,469). a. b. c. d.

Asian; Non-Hispanic white African American; Asian African American; Non-Hispanic white Hispanic; Non-Hispanic white

380

Chapter 8 ANS: b 72.

OBJ: 8.1

DIF: concept

income wages debt wealth

ANS: d

REF: page 237

OBJ: 8.5

DIF: concept

For many of the working poor, medical insurance is out of the question.

Approximately __________ million people in the United States were without health insurance coverage in 2009. a. b. c. d.

10 21 31 50.7

ANS: d

REF: page 238

OBJ: 8.14

DIF: fact

Of all age groups, persons aged __________ are the most likely to be uninsured. a. b. c. d.

under 18 18 to 34 35 to 44 65 and over

ANS: b 76.

REF: page 237

For the upper class, __________ often comes from interest, dividends, and inheritance. a. b. c. d.

75.

DIF: fact

Income Salary Wealth Inequality

ANS: c

74.

OBJ: 8.5

__________ is computed by subtracting all debt obligations and converting the remaining assets into cash. a. b. c. d.

73.

REF: page 236, fig. 8.6

REF: page 238

OBJ: 8.14

DIF: concept

The term ___________ housing refers to facilities that have inadequate heating, air conditioning, plumbing, electricity, or structural durability.

381

Class and Stratification in the United States a. b. c. d.

affordable suburban substandard tenet

ANS: c 77.

DIF: concept

Postmodern Conflict Functionalist Symbolic interactionist

ANS: c

REF: page 239

OBJ: 8.11

DIF: concept

__________ theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. Parents with limited income are not able to provide the same educational opportunities for their children as are families with greater financial resources. a. b. c. d.

Conflict Symbolic interactionist Postmodern Functionalist

ANS: a 79.

OBJ: 8.12

__________ theorists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility.

Improvements in the educational achievement levels (measured in number of years of schooling completed) of the poor, people of color, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender. a. b. c. d.

78.

REF: page 238

REF: page 239

OBJ: 8.11

DIF: concept

Today, great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources.

Because funding for education comes primarily from __________, school districts in wealthy suburban areas generally pay higher teachers’ salaries, have newer buildings, and provide state-of-the-art equipment. a. b. c. d.

federal government taxes local property taxes state taxes a combination of state and federal taxes

ANS: b

REF: pages 239-240

382

OBJ: 8.12

DIF: fact

Chapter 8 80.

The U.S. Social Security Administration has established an official poverty line. The poverty line is computed by: a. b. c. d.

intercorrelations with the cost-of-living index determining the cost of a minimally nutritious diet (short-term) and multiplying this figure by three to allow for nonfood costs estimating the annual cost of living surveys to determine how much people spend on basic necessities

ANS: b 81.

REF: page 240

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: fact

__________ poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. a. b. c. d.

Absolute Relative Official Subjective

ANS: a

REF: page 240

OBJ: 8.7

DIF: concept

__________ often has life-threatening consequences, such as when a homeless person freezes to death on a park bench. a. b. c. d.

Subjective poverty Relative poverty Absolute poverty Official poverty

ANS: c 84.

DIF: fact

16.3 43.6 64.3 84.3

ANS: b

83.

OBJ: 8.3

In 2009, more than __________ million people lived below the official government poverty level of $22,050 for a family of four. a. b. c. d.

82.

REF: page 240

REF: page 240

OBJ: 8.7

DIF: application

__________ poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. a. b.

Absolute Relative

383

Class and Stratification in the United States c. d.

Official Objective

ANS: b 85.

REF: page 242

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: fact

11.6 28 29.9 45

ANS: c

REF: page 242

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: fact

According to sociologist Diana Pearce, __________ refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. a. b. c. d.

the feminization of poverty matriarchal poverty pink-collar poverty gendered poverty

ANS: a 88.

DIF: concept

About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. In 2009, singleparent families headed by women had a __________ percent poverty rate as compared with a 5.8 percent poverty rate for two-parent families. a. b. c. d.

87.

OBJ: 8.7

Approximately __________ of white (non-Latino/a) children under age 18 in female-headed households lived below the poverty line, as sharply contrasted with over __________ of Latino/a and African American (black) children. a. one-tenth; half b. one-fifth; one-third c. one-quarter; half d. one-third; half ANS: d

86.

REF: page 240

REF: page 242

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: concept

Approximately __________ of those below the official poverty line are white Americans (non-Latino/as). a. b. c. d.

one-tenth one-half one-fourth two-thirds

384

Chapter 8 ANS: d 89.

REF: page 243

c. d.

DIF: fact

people’s unwillingness to work. governmental programs, such as welfare, that have kept families impoverished for generations. the low wages paid for many jobs. people’s desire for immediate gratification and overuse of credit cards.

ANS: c

REF: page 243

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: fact

The problems of unemployment, underemployment, and poverty-level wages are even greater for people of color and young people in large urban centers, where the unemployment rate for African Americans is __________ when compared to whites. a. b. c. d.

slightly higher almost double triple the same

ANS: b 92.

OBJ: 8.3

Social inequality and poverty have both economic and structural sources.

According to the text, a major source of poverty is: a. b.

91.

DIF: fact

__________ are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States with about one-third living below the poverty line. a.

African Americans b.

Latino/as c.

White Americans d.

Native Americans ANS: d REF: page 243

90.

OBJ: 8.3

REF: page 243

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: concept

__________ refers to a reduction in the proficiency needed to perform a specific job that leads to a corresponding reduction in the wages for that job. It has resulted from the introduction of computers and other technology. a. b. c. d.

Job deskilling Occupational disengagement Decredentialization Occupational compromise

ANS: a

REF: page 243

OBJ: 8.3

385

DIF: concept

Class and Stratification in the United States

93.

The shift from manufacturing to service occupations in the U.S. economy has contributed to: a. b. c. d.

higher rates of employment the loss of higher-paying positions more job security for workers new employment opportunities for central-city residents

ANS: b 94.

DIF: fact

50 percent 67 percent 80 percent 95 percent

ANS: c

REF: page 244

OBJ: 8.3

DIF: fact

According to functionalist sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore: a.

b.

c. d.

people with economic and political power are able to shape and distribute the rewards, resources, privileges, and opportunities in society positions that are most important for the survival of society must be filled by the most qualified people who are highly rewarded for their scarce talent, extensive training, or both the presence of inequality in a society does not serve as a motivating force for people the core values of society support social inequality

ANS: b 96.

OBJ: 8.3

The primary beneficiaries of social welfare programs are not poor. Some analysts estimate that approximately __________ of all social welfare benefits are paid to people who do not qualify as “poor.” a. b. c. d.

95.

REF: page 243

REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.6

DIF: concept

The Davis-Moore thesis assumes that social stratification results in __________—a hierarchy in which all positions are rewarded based on people’s ability and credentials. a. b. c. d.

bureaucracy plutocracy meritocracy democracy

ANS: c

REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.6

386

DIF: concept

Chapter 8

97.

From a __________ perspective, people with economic and political power are able to shape and distribute the rewards, resources, privileges, and opportunities in society for their own benefit. a. conflict b. symbolic interactionist c. functionalist d. postmodern ANS: a REF: page 245 OBJ: 8.6

98.

__________ focus on microlevel concerns and usually do not analyze larger structural factors that contribute to inequality and poverty. a. b. c. d.

Postmodernists Functionalists Symbolic interactionists Conflict theorists

ANS: c 99.

REF: page 246

OBJ: 8.8

DIF: concept

Based on in-depth interviews and participant observation, sociologist Judith Rollins examined rituals of __________ that were often demanded by elite white women of their domestic workers, who were frequently women of color. a. b. c. d.

detachment deference disengagement deviance

ANS: b 100.

DIF: concept

REF: page 246

OBJ: 8.8

DIF: fact

Which of the following is NOT a reason why social inequality may increase in the United States in the twenty-first century? a. b.

c. d.

The purchasing power of the dollar has stagnated or declined since the early 1970s.

Federal tax laws in recent years have benefited corporations and wealthy families at the expense of middle- and lower-income families.

People living in poverty are demanding a larger share of the U.S. budget.

Structural sources of upward mobility are shrinking while the rate of downward mobility has increased.

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Class and Stratification in the United States ANS: c

REF: pages 246-248

OBJ: 8.12

DIF: concept

TRUE-FALSE SECTION 1.

Intergenerational mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. Intergenerational mobility may be downward as well as upward.

ANS: True

2.

REF: page 217

OBJ: 8.10

Slavery began in the United States in the 1600s as a form of cheap labor.

ANS: True

4.

OBJ: 8.1

According to some social analysts, throughout recorded history only five societies have been slave societies—those in which the social and economic impact of slavery was extensive: ancient Greece, the Roman Empire, the United States, the Caribbean, and Brazil.

ANS: True

3.

REF: page 216

REF: page 217

OBJ: 8.10

Sociologist Karl Marx stated that capitalistic societies consist of two classes—the proletariat class that consists of those who own the means of production and the bourgeoisie class that consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive.

ANS: False REF: page 222

OBJ: 8.2

Rejoinder: Marx stated that the bourgeoisie (capitalist) class consists of those who own the means of production (the land and capital necessary for factories), and the proletariat (working) class consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive.

5.

According to sociologist Karl Marx, the capitalist class maintains its position at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s superstructure, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions that produce and disseminate ideas perpetuating the existing system of exploitation.

ANS: True

6.

REF: page 222-223

OBJ: 8.2

In discussing wealth, sociologist Max Weber identified entrepreneurs as a class of wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work.

388

Chapter 8

ANS: False REF: page 224

OBJ: 8.9

Rejoinder: The correct term is rentiers. Entrepreneurs are a privileged commercial class of wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources.

7.

Sociologists often use the term socioeconomic status (SES) to refer to a combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of factors such as income, occupation, and education to determine class location.

ANS: True

8.

OBJ: 8.4

A few studies provide insight into the social interactions between people from vastly divergent class locations. Sociologist Judith Rollins’s (1985) study of the relationship between household workers and their employers is one example. Based on in-depth interviews and participant observation, Rollins examined rituals of deference that were often demanded by elite white women of their domestic workers, who were frequently women of color.

ANS: True

9.

REF: page 225

REF: page 246

OBJ: 8.8

Based on prestige ratings for selected occupations in the United States, in 2007, the occupation of college professor received the highest prestige score.

ANS: False REF: page 226, table 8.1

OBJ: 8.4

Rejoinder: Based on information presented in 2007, the occupation of physician received the highest prestige score.

10.

Sociologists Dennis Gilbert developed a widely used model of social classes based on three elements: religion, occupation of family head, and family income.

ANS: False REF: page 226

OBJ: 8.4

Rejoinder: Gilbert identified education, occupation of family head, and family income as three elements that determine position in the United States social class structure.

11.

For some members of the lower-upper class, the American Dream has become a reality. Others still desire the respect of members of the upper-upper class.

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Class and Stratification in the United States

ANS: True 12.

REF: page 228

OBJ: 8.3

An estimated 30 percent of the U.S. population is in the working class. The core of this class is made up of semiskilled machine operators who work in factories and elsewhere.

ANS: True

14.

OBJ: 8.1

The working poor account for about 20 percent of the U.S. population.

ANS: True

13.

REF: page 226

REF: page 227

OBJ: 8.3

The term “underclass” is another word for the upper-middle class because it refers to those people found just below the wealthiest Americans.

ANS: False REF: page 229

OBJ: 8.7

Rejoinder: According to Dennis Gilbert, people in the underclass are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation that results from low levels of education and income and high rates of unemployment.

Some are unable to work because of age or disability; others experience discrimination based on race/ethnicity.

15.

For functionalists, the class structure is the result of production process.

ANS: False REF: page 229

OBJ: 8.6

Rejoinder: In actuality, contemporary Marxian (or conflict) models examine class in terms of people’s relationship to others in the production process. For example, conflict theorists attempt to determine the degree of control that workers have over the decision-making process and the extent to which they are able to plan and implement their own work.

16.

People who are wealthy and well educated and who have high-paying jobs are much more likely to be healthy than are poor people.

ANS: True

17.

REF: page 237

OBJ: 8.5

Lack of affordable housing is one central problem brought about by economic inequality. Another concern is substandard housing, which refers to facilities that have inadequate heating, air conditioning, plumbing, electricity, or structural durability.

ANS: True

REF: page 238

OBJ: 8.12

390

Chapter 8 18.

Educational opportunities and life chances are directly linked. Symbolic interactionists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility.

Improvements in the educational achievement levels of the poor, people of color, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender.

ANS: False REF: page 239

OBJ: 8.11

Rejoinder: This is a functionalist perspective, not a symbolic interactionist one.

19.

Conflict theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. Great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources because funding for education primarily comes from local property taxes.

ANS: True

20.

REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.11

When sociologists define poverty, they define absolute poverty as a state that exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living.

ANS: False REF: page 240

OBJ: 8.7

Rejoinder: Absolute poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. By contrast, relative poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living.

21.

About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. Sociologist Diana Pearce coined the term “feminization of poverty” which refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty.

ANS: True

22.

REF: page 242

OBJ: 8.3

Native Americans are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States. Some analysts estimate Native American poverty rates to be as high as 33 percent.

ANS: True

REF: page 243

OBJ: 8.3

391

Class and Stratification in the United States 23.

According to functionalist sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, all societies have important tasks that must be accomplished and certain positions that must be filled. In addition, some positions are more important for the survival of society than others and the most important positions must be filled by the most qualified people.

ANS: True

24.

REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.3

Why is inequality growing in the United States? According to symbolic interactionists, the answer lies in the concept of surplus value—the value produced, or the profit created, when the cost of labor is less than the cost of the goods or services that are produced by the workers.

ANS: False REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.6

Rejoinder: This is actually a critical conflict (Marxist) perspective. Surplus value is created by the workers’ labor power, which is bought and employed by members of the capitalist class. When profits are made, they are either reinvested in the business or used for the enrichment of members of the capitalist class.

SHORT RESPONSE SECTION 1.

Describe what is meant by the American Dream.

ANS: The American Dream is the belief that if people work hard and play by the rules, they will have a chance to get ahead. Moreover, each generation will be able to have a higher standard of living than that of its parents. The American Dream is based on the assumption that people in the United States have equality of opportunity regardless of their race, creed, color, national origin, gender, or religion. For middle- and upperincome people, the American Dream typically means that each subsequent generation will be able to acquire more material possessions and wealth than people in the preceding generations. To some people, achieving the American Dream means having a secure job, owning a home, and getting a good education for their children. To others, it is the promise that anyone may rise from poverty to wealth (from “rags to riches”) if he or she works hard enough.

REF: page 214-215

2.

OBJ: 8.14

Describe the concept of global systems of stratification.

392

Chapter 8 ANS: Around the globe, one of the most important characteristics of systems of stratification is their degree of flexibility. Sociologists distinguish among such systems based on the extent to which they are open or closed. In an open system, the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies are more flexible and may be influenced (positively or negatively) by people’s achieved statuses. Open systems are assumed to have some degree of social mobility. Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another.

This movement can be either upward or downward. Intergenerational mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. By contrast, intragenerational mobility is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. In a closed system, the boundaries between levels in the hierarchies of social stratification are rigid, and people’s positions are set by ascribed status. Open and closed systems are ideal-type constructs; no actual stratification system is completely open or closed.

REF: pages 216-217 3.

OBJ: 8.9

Outline the three major systems of stratification.

ANS: Slavery is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. It is a closed system in which people designated as “slaves” are treated as property and have little or no control over their lives. As practiced in the United States, slavery had four primary characteristics: (1) it was for life and was inherited (children of slaves were considered to be slaves); (2) slaves were considered property, not human beings; (3) slaves were denied rights; and (4) coercion was used to keep slaves “in their place.” Despite the fact that slavery in this country officially ended many years ago, sociologists believe that its legacy is deeply embedded in current patterns of prejudice and discrimination against African Americans. The caste system is also a closed system of social stratification. A caste system is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics. In India, caste is based in part on occupation. By contrast, the caste system in South Africa was based on racial classifications and the belief of white South Africans that they were morally superior to the black majority. Until the 1990s, the white South Africans controlled the government, the police, and the military by enforcing apartheid (the separation of the races). The class system is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. At least theoretically, a class system is more open than a caste system because the boundaries between classes are less distinct than the boundaries between castes. In a class system, status comes at least partly through achievement rather than entirely by ascription.

393

Class and Stratification in the United States

REF: pages 216-222 4.

OBJ: 8.1

Explain sociologist Karl Marx’s perspective on class position and class relationships.

ANS: According to sociologist Karl Marx, class position and the extent of our income and wealth are determined by our work situation, or our relationship to the means of production. Marx stated that capitalistic societies consist of two classes—the capitalists and the workers. The capitalist class (bourgeoisie) consists of those who own the means of production—the land and capital necessary for factories and mines. The working class (proletariat) consists of those who must sell their labor to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. According to Marx, class relationships involve inequality and exploitation. The workers are exploited as capitalists maximize their profits by paying workers less than the resale value of what they produce but do not own. Marx suggests exploitation involves ongoing interactions between the two antagonistic classes that are structured by a set of social relations that binds the exploiter and the exploited together. Continual exploitation results in workers’ alienation—a feeling of powerlessness and estrangement from other people and from oneself. According to Marx, the capitalists maintains its positions at the top of the class structure by control of the society’s superstructure, which is composed of the government, schools, churches, and other social institutions that produce and disseminate ideas perpetuating the existing system of exploitation. Marx predicted that the exploitation of workers by the capitalist class would ultimately lead to class conflict—the struggle between the capitalist class and the working class.

According to Marx, when the workers realized that capitalists were the source of their oppression, they would overthrow the capitalists and their agents of social control, leading to the end of capitalism. The workers would then take over the government and create a more egalitarian society.

REF: pages 222-224

5.

OBJ: 8.2

Outline sociologist Max Weber’s multidimensional approach to social stratification and explain how people are ranked on all three dimensions.

ANS: According to sociologist Max Weber, no single factor (such as economic divisions between capitalists and workers) was sufficient for defining the location of categories of people within the class structure.

Weber stated that the access that people have to important societal resources (such as economic, social, and political power) is crucial in determining life chances.

394

Chapter 8 Weber developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power. Wealth is the value of all of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income-producing property. Weber placed categories of people who have a similar level of wealth and income in the same class. He identified a privileged commercial class of entrepreneurs—wealthy bankers, ship owners, professionals, and merchants who possess similar financial resources. He also described a class of rentiers—wealthy individuals who live off their investments and do not have to work. According to Weber, entrepreneurs and rentiers have much in common. Both are able to purchase expensive consumer goods, control other people’s opportunities to acquire wealth and property, and monopolize costly status privileges (such as education) that provide contacts and skills for their children. Weber divided those who work for wages into two classes: the middle class and the working class. The middle class consists of white-collar workers, public officials, managers, and professionals. The working class consists of skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers. The second dimension of Weber’s system of stratification is prestige—the respect or regard with which a person or status position is regarded by others. Fame, respect, honor, and esteem are the most common forms of prestige. A person who has a high level of prestige is assumed to receive deferential and respectful treatment fro others. Weber suggested that individuals who share a common level of social prestige belong to the same status group regardless of their level of wealth. They tend to socialize with one another, marry within their own group of social equals, spend their leisure time together, and safeguard their status by restricting outsiders’ opportunities to join their ranks. Style of life, formal education, and occupation are often significant factors in establishing and maintaining prestige in industrial and postindustrial societies. The other dimension of Weber’s system is power—the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite opposition from others.

The powerful can shape society in accordance with their own interests and direct the actions of others. Weber stated that wealth, prestige, and power are separate continuums on which people can be ranked from high to low.

Individuals may be high on one dimension while being low on another. In Weber’s multidimensional approach, people are ranked on all three dimensions.

REF: pages 224-226 6.

OBJ: 8.9

Describe sociologists Dennis Gilbert’s class structure in the United States.

ANS: Sociologists Dennis Gilbert developed a widely used model of social classes based on three elements: (1) education, (2) occupation of family head, and (3) family income. They identified six different categories. The upper (capitalist) class—which is the wealthiest and most powerful in the

395

Class and Stratification in the United States United States—includes about one percent of the population whose members own substantial income-producing assets and operate on both the national and international levels. The upper-middle class—persons in this class are often highly educated professionals who have built their careers as physicians, attorneys, etc. About 14 percent of the population is in this category. A combination of three factors qualifies people for the upper-middle class: university degrees, authority and independence on the job, and high income. Of all the class categories, the upper-middle class is the one that is most shaped by formal education. In the middle class of today, two-year and four-year college degrees are necessary for entry-level requirements for employment in any middle-class occupations, including medical technicians, nurses, etc. An estimated 30 percent of the population is in this category. The working class is an estimated 30 percent of the population. The core of this class is made up of semiskilled machine operators who work in factories. Working class families not only earn less than middle-class families, but they also have less financial security, particularly because of high rates of layoffs and plant closings.

Few people in this class have more than a high school diploma, and many have less, which makes job opportunities scarce for them in a “high-tech” society. The working poor account for about 20 percent of the population.

Members of this class live from just above to just below the poverty line; they typically hold unskilled jobs, seasonal migrant jobs in agriculture, lower-paid factory jobs, and service jobs (such as counter help at restaurants). Employed single mothers often belong to this class. For this category, living from paycheck to paycheck makes it impossible to save money for emergencies. The underclass—people in this category are poor, seldom employed, and caught in long-term deprivation that results from low levels of education and income and high rates of unemployment.

Single mothers are overrepresented in this class because of the lack of jobs, the lack of affordable child care, and many other impediments to the mother’s future and that of her children. About 3 to 5 percent of the population is in this category.

REF: pages 226-229 7.

OBJ: 8.1

Discuss sociologist Erik Wright’s Marxian Model of the U.S. class structure.

ANS: Sociologist Erik Wright outlined four criteria for placement in the class structure: (1) ownership of the means of production, (2) purchase of the labor of others (employing others), (3) control of the labor of others (supervising others on the job), and (4) sale of one’s own labor (being employed by someone else). Wright assumes that these criteria can be used to determine the class placement of all workers, regardless of race/ethnicity in a capitalist society.

396

Chapter 8 Wright identified four classes. The capitalist class holds most of the wealth and power in society through ownership of capital—banks, corporations, factories, etc. The “ruling elites” or “ruling class” within this category hold political power and are often elected or appointed to influential political positions. The capitalist class is composed of individuals who have inherited fortunes, own major corporations, or are top corporate executives with extensive stock holdings or control of company investments. The major sources of income for the capitalist class are profits, interest, and very high salaries. Members of this class make important decisions about the workplace, including which products and services to make available to consumers and how many workers to hire or fire.

The managerial class has substantial control over the means of production and over workers. However, these upper-level managers, supervisors, and professionals typically do not participate in key corporate decisions such as how to invest profits. Top professionals may control the structure of their own work; however, they typically do not own the means of production and may not have supervisory authority over more than a few people. Members of the managerial class occupy a contradictory class location between the capitalist and working classes. The smallbusiness class consists of small-business owners and craftspeople that may hire a small number of employees but largely do their own work. It is in the small-business class that we find many people’s hopes of achieving the American Dream. Recent economic trends, including corporate downsizing, telecommuting, and the movement of jobs to other countries, have encouraged more people to think about starting their own business.

As a result, more people today are self-employed or own a small business than at any time in the past. The working class is made up of a number of subgroups, one of which is blue-collar workers, some of whom are highly skilled and well paid, and others of whom are unskilled and poorly paid.

Skilled blue-collar workers include electricians and plumbers; unskilled blue-collar workers include janitors and gardeners. White-collar workers are another subgroup of the working class; they include secretaries, other clerical workers, and sales workers. These workers are at the bottom of the class structure in terms of domination and control in the workplace.

The working class contains about half of all employees in the United States.

REF: pages 229-232 8.

OBJ: 8.6

Compare the distribution of income and wealth (inequality) in the United States, providing statistical information to illustrate the inequality.

ANS: Money in the form of both income and wealth is very unevenly distributed in the United States. Money is essential for acquiring goods and services.

397

Class and Stratification in the United States People without money cannot purchase food, shelter, clothing, medical care, legal aid, education, and the other things they need or desire.

Median household income varies widely from one state to another. Among the prosperous nations, the United States is number one in inequality of income distribution. In regard to income inequality in the United States, sociologist Dennis Gilbert identified that in 2009, the wealthiest 20 percent of households received almost 50 percent of the total income, while the poorest 20 percent of households received less than 3 percent of all income. Income distribution varies by race/ethnicity as well as class.

REF: pages 232-237 9.

OBJ: 8.1

Describe consequences of inequality in relation to physical and mental health and nutrition.

ANS: People who are wealthy and well educated and who have highpaying jobs are much more likely to be healthy than are poor people. As people’s economic status increases, so does their health status. The poor have shorter life expectancies and are at greater risk for chronic illnesses such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer, as well as infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. Children born into poor families are at much greater risk of dying during their first year of life. Most of the poor do not receive preventive medical and dental check-ups; many do not receive adequate medical care after they experience illness or injury. Many highpoverty areas lack an adequate supply of doctors and medical facilities.

Some “charity” clinics and hospitals may provide indigent patients (those who cannot pay) with minimal emergency care but make them feel stigmatized in the process. For many of the working poor, medical insurance is out of the question. Good health is basic to good life chances; in turn, adequate nutrition is essential for good health. Hunger is related to class position and income inequality. Lack of adequate nutrition has been linked to children’s problems in school.

REF: pages 237-238

10.

OBJ: 8.14

Discuss consequences of inequality in relation to housing.

ANS: Homelessness is a major problem in the United States. The lack of affordable housing is a pressing concern for many low-income individuals and families. With the economic prosperity of the 1990s, low-cost housing units in many cities were replaced with expensive condominiums and luxury single-family residences for affluent people. Since then, housing costs have remained high compared to many families’ ability to pay for food, shelter, clothing, and other necessities. The economic crisis of the 2000s contributed to increased numbers of foreclosures that have placed more families in danger of becoming homeless.

398

Chapter 8 Lack of affordable housing is one consequence. Another concern is substandard housing.

REF: pages 238-239 11.

OBJ: 8.12

In relation to consequences of inequality in education, compare functionalist and conflict perspectives.

ANS: Educational opportunities and life chances are directly linked. Some functionalist theorists view education as the “elevator” to social mobility.

Improvements in the educational achievement levels (measured in number of years school completed) of the poor, people of color, and white women have been cited as evidence that students’ abilities are now more important than their class, race, or gender. From this perspective, inequality in education is declining and students have an opportunity to achieve upward mobility through achievements at school. Functionalists generally see the education system as flexible, allowing most students the opportunity to attend college if they apply themselves. In contrast, most conflict theorists stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. From this perspective, education perpetuates poverty. Parents with limited income are not able to provide the same educational opportunities for their children as are families with greater financial resources. Today, great disparities exist in the distribution of educational resources. Because funding for education primarily comes from local property taxes, school district in suburban areas generally pay higher teachers’ salaries, have newer buildings, and provide state-of-the-art equipment. By contrast, schools in poorer areas have a limited funding base.

REF: pages 239-240 12.

OBJ: 8.11

Define the official poverty line and differentiate between absolute poverty and relative poverty.

ANS: The U.S. Social Security Administration has established an official poverty line, which is based on what is considered to be the minimum amount of money required for living at a subsistence level. The poverty line is computed by determining the cost of a minimally nutritious diet (a low-cost food budget on which a family could survive nutritionally on a short-term, emergency basis) and multiplying this figure by three to allow for nonfood costs. Absolute poverty exists when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life. Absolute poverty often has life-threatening consequences, such as when a homeless person freezes to death on a park bench. By comparison, relative poverty exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living.

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Class and Stratification in the United States

REF: pages 240 13.

OBJ: 8.3

Describe the poor in the United States, referencing age, gender, and race/ethnicity elements.

ANS: Poverty in the United States is highly concentrated according to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Today, children are at a much greater risk of living in poverty than are older persons. The age category most vulnerable to poverty today is the very young. One out of every three persons below the poverty line is under 18 years of age. The precarious position of African American and Latino/a children is even more striking. In 2003, about 30 percent of all African Americans under the age of 18 lived in poverty; 28 percent of Latino/a children were also poor, as compared to less than 10 percent of non-Latino/a white children. Children as a group are poorer now than they were at the beginning of the 1980s, whether they live in one- or two-parent families. The majority live in two-parent families in which one or both parents are employed. However, children in single-parent households headed by women have a much greater likelihood of living in poverty. In 2003, approximately 29 percent of white (non-Latino/a) children under age 18 in female-headed households lived below the poverty line, as sharply contrasted with about 50 percent of Latino/a and 49 percent of African American children in the same category.

About two-thirds of all adults living in poverty are women. In 2003, single-parent families headed by women had a 35 percent poverty rate as compared with a 10 percent rate for two-parent families. Sociologist Diana Pearce coined a term to describe this problem. The feminization of poverty refers to the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. According to Pearce, women have a higher risk of being poor because they bear the major economic and emotional burdens of raising children when they are single heads of households, but earn between 70 and 80 cents for every dollar a male worker earns.

According to some stereotypes, most of the poor and virtually all welfare recipients are people of color. However, this stereotype is false; white Americans (non-Latinos/as) account for approximately two-thirds of those below the official poverty line. Native Americans are among the most severely disadvantaged persons in the United States. About onethird are below the poverty line, and some of these individuals live in conditions of extreme poverty.

REF: pages 240-243

OBJ: 8.3

400

Chapter 8 14.

Distinguish between functionalist perspectives and conflict perspectives in regards to explaining social inequality in the U.S. ANS: According to sociologists Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, inequality is not only inevitable but also necessary for the smooth functioning of society.

The Davis-Moore thesis is summarized as follows: (1) all societies have important tasks that must be accomplished and certain positions that must be filled; (2) some positions are more important for the survival of society than others; (3) the most important positions must be filled by the most qualified people; (4) the positions that are the most important for society and that require scarce talent, extensive training, or both, must be the most highly rewarded; and (5) the most highly rewarded positions should be those that are functionally unique (no other position can perform the same function) and on which other positions rely for expertise, direction, or financing. The Davis-Moore thesis assumes that social stratification results in meritocracy—a hierarchy in which all positions are rewarded based on people’s ability and credentials. From a conflict perspective, people with economic and political power are able to shape and distribute the rewards, resources, privileges, and opportunities in society for their own benefit. Conflict theorists do not believe that inequality serves as a motivating force for people; they argue that powerful individuals and groups use ideology to maintain their favored positions at the expense of others. According to conflict theorists, certain stereotypes suggest that wealthy people might be smarter than others. Conflict theorists also note that laws and informal social norms support inequality in the United States. According to conflict theorists, the reason inequality is growing in the United States partially lies in the concept of surplus value—the value produced, or the profit created when the cost of labor is less than the cost of the goods or services that are produced by the workers. Thus, surplus value is created by the workers’ labor power, which is bought and employed by members of the capitalist and managerial classes, who work on behalf of the capitalist class. When profits are made, they are either reinvested in the business or used for the enrichment of members of the capitalist class, which includes wealthy shareholders.

REF: page 245

15.

OBJ: 8.6

Discuss U.S. stratification in the future.

ANS: Many social scientists believe that existing trends point to an increase in social inequality in the United States. The purchasing power of the dollar has stagnated or declined since the early 1970s.

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Class and Stratification in the United States As families started to lose ground financially, more family members (especially women) entered the labor force in an attempt to support themselves and their families. Wealth continues to become more concentrated at the top of the U. S. class structure. As the rich have grown richer, many people have found themselves among the ranks of the poor.

Federal tax laws in recent years have benefited corporations and wealthy families at the expense of middle- and lower-income families. Structural sources of upward mobility are shrinking whereas the rate of downward mobility has increased.

It has been said that a chain is no stronger than its weakest link. It is to our advantage to see that those who cannot find work or do not have a job that provides a living wage receive adequate training and employment. Innovative programs can combine job training with producing something useful to meet the immediate needs of people living in poverty.

Children today (the adults of tomorrow) need nutrition, education, health care, and safety as they grow up. Some social scientists believe that the United States will become a better nation if it attempts to regain the American Dream by attacking poverty.

REF: pages 246-248

OBJ: 8.12

ESSAY SECTION 1.

Discuss your personal perspective of the American Dream.

REF: pages 214-215

OBJ: 8.14

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Describe what living the American Dream would entail for you Discuss whether or not you think the American Dream is a reality for most people today 2.

Summarize global systems of stratification.

REF: pages 216-217

OBJ: 8.1

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Describe an open system and provide an example Describe a closed system and provide an example Define “social mobility”

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Chapter 8

Discuss intergenerational mobility and provide an example Discuss intragenerational mobility and provide an example Encourage students to include any personal experience with global systems of stratification, such as intergenerational/intragenerational mobility, in their responses 3.

Outline sociologist Karl Marx’s theory on the relationship to the means of production and apply the theory to contemporary America.

REF: pages 222-224

OBJ: 8.2

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Define the means of production Describe the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) Describe the proletariat (working class) Explain alienation Provide a contemporary application of Marx’s theory to America Encourage students to include any personal experience with Marx’s means of production in their responses; for example, if they are employed—what class are they and do they experience alienation 4.

Imagine you were walking along the beach and found a bottle. You rubbed the bottle and a genie appeared. The genie could grant you any one of the following elements: wealth, power, or prestige. Which would you choose?

Explain.

REF: pages 224-226

OBJ: 8.9

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Provide a personal definition of wealth, power, and prestige Identify which of the three elements you would choose to have and explain why you selected it over the others Describe what you would do with the selected element

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Class and Stratification in the United States Discuss how you could use the selected element to acquire the other two elements Encourage students to include any personal experience, in regards to acquiring wealth, power, or prestige in their life, in their responses 5.

Describe the ways that SES has shaped the life choices of members of your own family.

REF: pages 224-226

OBJ: 8.4

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Describe what sociologists mean by the term “socioeconomic status” (SES) Explain how your parents’ income level has assisted or hampered your pursuit of attending college Analyze your parents’ role in encouraging you to attend college Reflect on your parents’ ability to provide material and nonmaterial goods and services Discuss the ways your life choices would have been increased by greater family income and wealth as well as the ways your life choices would have been changed if your family had lower income and wealth 6.

Utilizing sociologists Dennis Gilbert’s model of the United States class system, locate where your parents are on the ladder and discuss.

REF: pages 226-229

OBJ: 8.1

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Identify the specific class your parents are in Describe their education level Discuss their occupation Indicate their income level Summarize how your parents got to their social class standing 7.

Utilizing sociologists Dennis Gilbert’s model of the United States class system, locate where you are currently or locate where you aspire to be.

REF: pages 226-229

OBJ: 8.1

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Chapter 8

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Identify the specific class you are currently in Describe your current education level Discuss your current occupation Indicate your current income level Summarize how you got to your current social class standing Identify the specific class you aspire to be in Describe your education goals Discuss your occupational goals Summarize how you plan to get to your aspired social class standing 8.

In relation to consequences of inequality, discuss how your family’s social class influenced the following areas of your life when growing up: physical health, mental health, and education.

REF: pages 237-240

OBJ: 8.14

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Discuss the type of health care that was available Describe how good health and nutrition are tied to income and wealth Describe the type of housing/neighborhood that you were raised in and how it influenced your life Identify the type of education that you received (public/private and quality of the schooling) and how it influenced your life 9.

Imagine you have recently been appointed to the United States Commission Against Poverty. Discuss what specific reforms and strategies (assume that you have a blank check at your disposal) you would attempt to implement in order to reduce or alleviate poverty in America.

REF: pages 243-245

OBJ: 8.3

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Class and Stratification in the United States

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Identify what you believe is the primary reason for poverty in America Define “absolute poverty” and provide an example Define “relative poverty” and provide an example Outline strategies that you would employ to reduce child poverty Summarize strategies that you would employ to reduce female poverty Describe strategies that you would employ to reduce racial minority poverty Encourage students to discuss any personal experience, with poverty, in their responses 10.

Analyze the legitimacy of Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore’s functionalist perspective on social inequality in the United States.

REF: page 245

OBJ: 8.6

The following are suggested areas for students to address in their essays: Describe five distinctive aspects of the Davis-Moore thesis Analyze the validity of the meritocracy system Discuss the criticisms of the Davis-Moore thesis Encourage students to suggest their own alternatives to combating social inequality in the United States

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