L'Shem Shamayim - Spring 2023

‫לשם שמיים‬ Community Discourse on International Relations

Every dispute that is for the sake of heaven will be constructive.

Pirkei Avot 5:20

In This Issue

ETHNIC STRIFE LeShem Shamayim is a periodic opinion journal featuring the writing of Barrack students, alumni, and faculty. Our goal is to provide interested individuals with a forum in which to express their diverse views, while fostering greater understanding in the community of the critical issues that face us as Americans, as Jews, and as supporters of Israel.

Spring 2023

‫בית ספר ברק‬ JACK M. BARRACK HEBREW ACADEMY

Ethiopian activists protest the deaths of 23 people during an outbreak of ethnic violence.

Maheder Haileselassie Tadese/AFP via Getty Images, via Los Angeles Times

Ethnic Strife Niva Cohen & Benjamin Zelnick, Editors-in-Chief Mikaela Garber, Executive Editor Rachel Loeb, Executive Editor Lilach Taichman, Faculty Advisor Layout by Benjamin Zelnick and Andrew Jacoby

In honor of the victims of persecution everywhere

You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt.

Exodus 22:20

The editors of ‫ לשם שמיים‬would like to thank Mrs. Lilach Taichman for her tireless work to bring this publication to fruition.

In This Issue

The Ethiopian Civil War: Why It Demands American Action...........................................................6 Niva Cohen, ’23 Behind the Scenes of the Russo-Ukrainian War: Cultural Tensions and a Complex History.........8 Benjamin Zelnick, ’23 Growing Polarization: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict....................................................................10 Mikaela Garber, ’24 Unpeeling the Layers of American Intervention in Latin America..................................................12 Rachel Loeb, ’24 Woman, Life, Freedom.........................................................................................................................14 Andrew Jacoby, ’24

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Spring 2023

The Ethiopian Civil War: Why It Demands American Action

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podium to root out his political enemies. The first democratic alarm bell sounded when Ahmed delayed elections and extended his term in June 2020.7 When the Tigrayans violated federal orders and held elections, Ahmed ordered Niva Cohen, ’23 the Makelle Offensive attack in Tigray in November 2020.8 The constancy of wars in Africa is a fact Under the pretense that Tigrayans had attacked a national that the West has grown to accept. As a military base, Ahmed sent troops into the region. Ahmed result, most African conflicts fly under further infringed on democracy by obstructing freedom of the radar in the United States, to the press, closing down communication throughout Tigray. citizens, but also to leadership. The Supposedly, the TPLF leaders were Ahmed’s only targets. civil war in Ethiopia, for example, But his characterization of the TPLF as “cancer” and “weeds” displaced millions of people and expanded to include all Tigrayans.9 Ethiopian people shared killed hundreds of thousands.1 It is Ahmed’s resentment that a minority had controlled them for no “ordinary” war, as the American so long – they readily got on board with his rhetoric and public would likely assume (if it knew the war. Ahmed’s embrace of internal conflict negated his of the conflict to begin with). Ethiopia is work to secure peace with Eritrea. Indeed, he used his new on the other side of the world, but it is in the interest of the relationship with Eritrea to enlist Eritreans in his crusade United States to nurture its democracy. The Horn of Africa against the Tigrayans.10 Ahmed sowed division among his (the region surrounding Ethiopia) depends on it, and by own people and jumped at the opportunity for violence and extension, so does the whole world if it is to protect against bloodshed. Such a leader should no longer be in American terrorism. The man responsible, at least in part, for Ethiopia’s good graces. war is prime minister Abbiy Ahmed Ali. Once the darling Ahmed’s war has unleashed a torrent of inhumanity and of the West, Ahmed made a 180-degree turn after gaining violence toward the Tigrayan ethnic group, which he has power. The United States must deal harshly with Ahmed enabled by turning a blind eye. The Amharans, the second to stabilize Ethiopia. Despite Abbiy Ahmed Ali’s initial largest ethnic group in Ethiopia,11 have long begrudged the appeal to American goals, the subsequent Tigrayans for subsuming Amharan Ethiopian civil war has proven that the US If the US wants to contain land (what is now West Tigray) into must break ties with Ahmed and interfere violent extremism and the Tigrayan state in the early 1990s.12 in the region to condemn ethnic violence Amharans tried to gain power in the encourage democracy, it and promote democratic interests.

Western Tigrayan government, but the Abbiy Ahmed replaced an has an interest in stability Tigrayans ignored them and suppressed undemocratic government that did not in the Horn of Africa, and by their protests. Motivated by this anger, expound democratic values, bringing the Amharans joined Ethiopian forces hope for a more Western-aligned Ethiopia. extension, in Ethiopia. during the war. The Amharan Special The Tigrayan people had monopolized Forces and Amhara militias have the Ethiopian government through the Tigrayan People’s perpetuated vigilante justice against Tigrayans, executing Liberation Front (TPLF) before Ahmid gained power, despite them without trials. They and other Ahmed-allied forces have their minority status. The TPLF leaders were unrepresentative gang-raped Tigrayan women and girls and looted Tigrayan elites who retained power through repression, arresting homes. According to one rape survivor, an Amharan militant journalists and silencing political dissidents.2 Tigrayan rule said, “You Tigrayans should disappear from the land” seemed unending to the Ethiopian people subjected to it. A – vitriolic ethnic strife underlies the violence.13 Rape is a single leader (Meles Zenawi) held the Prime Ministership recognized tool of genocide, as one group seeks to dominate for more than twenty years (1991-2012).3 Zenawi escalated another. Tigrayans have faced massacre and starvation, regional instability by stirring up conflict with neighboring arguably as tools of ethnic cleansing.14 Although the Eritrea. The oligarchical, repressive, and turbulent nature of Amharans have led much of this violence, Ahmed’s forces Tigrayan leadership rendered it unpalatable to the United have either looked the other way or actively participated.15 States and its allies. When protests forced Zenawi to resign After all, he is the prime minister and the one ultimately in 2018, Abbiy Ahmed capitalized on the power vacuum, responsible for the war he started. By clinging to Ahmed’s sending waves of optimism throughout the Western World.4 past image, the United States neglects the reality of just how Ahmed’s emergence on the political stage epitomized far Ahmed has strayed from any semblance of democracy.

US ideals of self-determination and international coexistence.

Despite press obstruction, there are signs that the violence With youth and charisma, he rallied popular support. People in the Ethiopian civil war aims to wipe out ethnic Tigrayans, believed he could bring change and stability to Ethiopia.5 the most repugnant and antithetical goal to American values They wanted him as their leader like they had never wanted of multiculturalism and coexistence. Ahmed’s government the Tigrayan minority to rule over them. Shortly after his shut down the Tigrayan internet, an offense to democracy rise to power, Ahmed seemed to be living up to Western in and of itself, which has made journalism difficult.16 But expectations. He won the Nobel Peace Prize for brokering what is known about the conflict, mostly through satellites, peace at the border with Eritrea. Domestically, Ahmed had indicates ethnic cleansing. Since January 2022, Amharans rolled back restrictions on liberties, bringing Ethiopia nearer have kept hundreds to thousands of Tigrayans in Western to democracy.6 His reforms validated American optimism – Tigrayan prisons, where they are subjected to crowding, thanks to Ahmed’s leadership, Ethiopia was turning a corner. hunger, starvation, and torture.17 Such conditions possibly As conflict brewed between Ahmed’s government and the fulfill the definition of extermination, defined by the Rome Tigrayan people, he shifted away from democracy, using his Statute of the International Criminal Court as the “intentional

‫לשם שמיים‬

Ethnic Strife

infliction of conditions of life… calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population.”18 Whether or not these prisons meet the standard of extermination, they violate all that the United States claims to defend – the right to trials, liberties, life’s basic necessities, and freedom from cruel and unusual punishment. There is no separating Ahmed from these cruelties. The Tigrayans certainly cannot afford such compartmentalization.

There is now a ceasefire in place, but tensions remain and demand United States mediation, not only to foster democracy in Ethiopia but also stability in the Horn of Africa. Luckily, Ahmed pulled back his troops in December 2022 after agreeing to a ceasefire.19 Tigrayan forces agreed to disarm in a month while Ethiopian forces would take over their airports and other facilities.20 Ahmed’s victory will only perpetuate the ethnic and political issues that provoked the war in the first place, as the Tigrayan ethnic minority is now disempowered and resentful. But there is hope for Ethiopian democracy: the country has a history of avoiding colonization. Its military prowess and relative stability (civil war notwithstanding) make it a possible bastion of security in the unstable Horn of Africa, where most countries are in flux.21 Somalia faces a constitutional crisis;22 conflict erupts in Sudan between the army and a paramilitary group.23 The region needs Ethiopian support. If the US wants to contain violent extremism and encourage democracy, it has an interest in stability in the Horn of Africa, and by extension, in Ethiopia. The US’s position as a global superpower relies on other countries trying to imitate its democratic system – this is what justifies American paternalism, which in turn, compels other countries to look up to America. Furthermore, the United States should mediate Ethiopian and Horn of Africa conflicts to manage refugees. As people spill over into the US, Europe, and other less stable parts of Africa, so do tensions. For self-interest as well as humanitarian reasons, the United States must get involved.

That is not to say that the US has stood idly by – it has taken some action thus far, but each body must go further. Secretary of State Antony Blinken condemned events in Tigray as ethnic cleansing following 2021 reports of rape and civilian displacement.24 His remarks did nothing.

Amharan troops continued to torture, murder, displace, and unlawfully imprison Tigrayans while Ahmed reinforced the communication wall. The US and its allies have tried to send humanitarian aid to Tigray but have not done enough to combat ethnic violence.25 Instead of addressing the pain Ahmed-allied forces inflict, America must try to prevent it by using its influence to disincentivize Ahmed from violence.

The most effective stick, as well as the most effective carrot, is money. Words were insufficient, so the United States must give teeth to its condemnation, imposing sanctions or harming Ahmed in another tangible way. The US did raise sanctions on Eritrea in August 2021 for its involvement in Tigray. US President Joe Biden passed an executive order that imposed sanctions on any individual complicit in Ethiopian atrocities.26 What he needs to do, though, is target Ahmed – explicitly and forcefully. Otherwise, Biden is merely addressing symptoms and cronies.

In addition to sanctions, the United States must lead the UN to hold Ethiopia accountable. The United Nations should put Amharan military leaders on trial as a cautionary tale to both Tigrayan and Ahmed-allied forces: the international community should not tolerate such crimes against humanity

Page 7

in any retaliatory endeavors on either side. Ethiopia belongs on UN agendas: the African Union’s Peace and Security Council and the UN Security Council, for example.27 By putting pressure on Ahmed, the UN can influence the path on which he takes his country. If he feels like he is walking on eggshells, the West is doing something right. Ahmed, too, should be the subject of investigations and trials, if necessary. His Nobel Peace Prize does not immunize him from accountability.

Globalization has revolutionized trade, media, and innovation, but it also comes at the cost of an increasingly interdependent world. Instability anywhere is a threat to stability everywhere (in the spirit of Dr. Martin Luther King Junior). The United States cannot risk writing off African conflicts as part of the status quo. They might seem remote, but they are not. To retain its place as a global superpower and to promote its values, the US must hold Ahmed accountable and guarantee that aid arrives at Tigrayan shores – American best-interest and American morals depend on it.

1 Lauren Jackson, “Ending a Civil War: A Cease-Fire in Ethiopia Could Bring an End to Years of Violence,” (The New York Times, December 11, 2022) https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/11/briefing/ethiopia-war-tigray.html.

2 Ibid.

3 War in Ethiopia,” (The Center for Preventive Action, February 7, 2023) https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-ethiopia.

4 Jackson.

5 “War in Ethiopia.”

6 Ibid.

7 Ibid.

8 Ibid.

9 Jackson.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Kenneth Roth, “Ethiopia’s Invisible Ethnic Cleansing: The World Can’t Afford to Ignore Tigray,” (Human Rights Watch, June 6, 2022) https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/06/16/ethiopias-invisible-ethnic-cleansing.

13 Ibid.

14 Jackson.

15 Roth.

16 Jackson.

17 Roth.

18 Ibid.

19 Jackson.

20 Ibid.

21 “War in Ethiopia.”.

22 Michelle Gavin, “The Conflict in Ethiopia’s Tigray Region: What to Know,” (Council on Foreign Relations, February 10, 2021) https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/conflict-ethiopias-tigray-region-what-know.

23 Kate Bartlett and Michele Kelemen, “Sudan Conflict Explained,” (NPR, April 27, 2023) https://www.npr. org/2023/04/27/1172123699/sudan-conflict-explained.

24 Roth.

25 Ibid.

26 “War in Ethiopia.”

27 Roth.

‫לשם שמיים‬

Spring 2023

Page 8

a strong Russian belief that “Ukrainian identity is not a Behind the Scenes of the Russo- inviable concept, and that sooner or later Ukraine should return Ukrainian War: Cultural Tensions to Russia.” Scholars examining the motivations behind the annexation of Crimea in 2014 have identified five major types and a Complex History of Russian nationalism: union identity, ethnonationalism, 9

Benjamin Zelnick, ’23

linguistic nationalism, racial nationalism, and civic 10 February 24, 2022 marked the identity. Putin, in fact, demonstrated his commitment to beginning of the latest outbreak these ideals in an article published over seven months before of hostilities between Russia the invasion of Ukraine. In it, he claimed a “[firm] belie[f]” and Ukraine, a conflict that in the Russian nationalist idea that “Russians and Ukrainians has deteriorated into Europe’s were one people,” bound together by a common ethnicity, deadliest military struggle since language, economy, and religion. “The incorporation of the World War II.1 From the Kremlin western Russian lands into the single state” as early as the at 6:00 AM, Russian president eighteenth century, Putin stressed, “was underlain by the shared cultural traditions, and … language Vladimir Putin announced “a special common faith, 11 similarity.”

In contrast to the President’s assertions that military operation… to demilitarise 2 “anti-Russia [sentiment] has been rejected by millions of [sic] and denazify” Ukraine. As Russian Ukrainians,” which imply that most Ukrainians accept the troops launched attacks on its cities, Ukrainian president Russian identity that their neighbor attempts to impose on Volodymyr Zelenskyy responded minutes later with a them, a 2017 public opinion poll found that the majority declaration that “Ukrainians will never give up their freedom 3 of Ukrainians have negative feelings about Russia and that and independence to anyone.” Although most of the world 12 only a small minority support it. believed in the early press reports from the ground—which As Ukraine seeks to defend itself from Russian stated that prospects were “quite bleak for the Ukrainians”— aggression, its citizens have begun to voice discomfort with the war has continued for much longer than anticipated 4 the level of cultural connection to their because of Russian strategic failures.

Beneath the overt violence of the Russo- As Russia claims that its goal attacker. The shared aspects of language and history have heightened tensions Ukrainian War lies a tangled network of is to “denazify” its neighbor, off the battlefield. Many Ukrainians, for cultural and ethnic tensions: lingering Ukraine is attempting to instance, are attempting to replace the animosity from past conflicts, unease “derussify” its own culture.

Russian texts on their bookshelves with about the societal and even linguistic Ukrainian books. One library in Kyiv connections between Russia and has collected and recycled 150,000 Russian-language books Ukraine, and mutual allegations of human rights violations. from residents.

Russian occupiers attempt to do the opposite, The modern conflict between Russia and Ukraine began discarding Ukrainian books in schools and replacing them during the Russian Revolution, when communist leader 13 with Russian texts.

The result is a secondary struggle Vladimir Lenin decried the tsar’s attempts to “throttle …

5 between the two nations on the homefront: as Russia Ukraine.” In contrast to the imperialist leaders who followed claims that its goal is to “denazify” its neighbor, Ukraine him, Lenin commiserated with the Ukrainians as—like the is attempting to “derussify” its own culture.

In a movement Russian proletariat—victims of a tyrannical empire. His solution to the plight of the Ukrainians, however, was not to that bears resemblance to the United States’s long-overdue grant them independence. Rather, he wanted to fulfill his own removals of Confederate monuments, Ukrainian leaders have vision for the spread of communism by transforming Ukraine begun dismantling historical monuments to their country’s Russia and renaming roads that into a Soviet republic, endowed with de jure equality to intertwined history with 14 honor Russian figures.

Although all of these actions may Russia but ruled de facto by the Bolsheviks. To the dismay of seem symbolic at best, Ukrainians insist that they represent Ukrainians, even this facade of equality vanished altogether an important response to Russia’s aggression.

“I’m disgusted in 1919, when Soviet leaders began attempting to unify the 6 with the Russian language,” one student asserted in an ABC territories of the USSR into a single Russian state. For more News interview, “because I’ve lost many relatives in this than one century since the Russian Revolution, Ukraine and 15 war.

I want to throw it all away.”

Ukrainian President Russia have continued to struggle against one another. When the former declared its independence from the Soviet Union Volodymyr Zelenskyy emphasizes the renunciation of in the early 1990s, the conflict was renewed, centered this Russian influence as a blow to the Federation’s conception time around fuel resources.7 And just a few years before of its own power. The responsibility for the separation of Russia began its “special military operation” in 2022, the the two nation’s cultures, according to Zelenskyy, is Russia’s Soviet Union’s successor, the Russian Federation, elicited own fault: he told Russia that the war has associated “the international outcry by occupying the Ukrainian territory of Russian language … With your crimes,” and thus “do[ne] everything to ensure that de-russification takes place on the Crimea.8 16 According to Ukrainian historian Yaroslav Hrytsak, the territory of our state.”

Russia has faced international backlash for its human constant territorial dispute between the two nations is rooted

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Ethnic Strife

rights violations in Ukraine, but a less-known facet of the conflict is that the Russian Federation has accused Ukraine of misconduct. President Putin, in fact, claimed in his speech announcing the invasion of Ukraine that he sought to “protect” residents of Ukraine from atrocities “perpetrated by the Kiev regime,” including “humiliation… genocide… [and] numerous bloody crimes against civilians.”17 Although these statements have been widely dismissed as pure fabrication, Russia is not entirely incorrect about Ukraine’s human rights climate. According to a 2019 report by the United Nations Human Rights Council, the Ukrainian government was responsible for 126 serious violations over a 91-day period (about one violation every 17 hours).18 But this figure pales in comparison to Russia’s actions: the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reported that in three regions alone during the first six weeks of the invasion, Russian troops killed 441 innocent civilians, including 28 children.19 The non-governmental organization Amnesty International has also sounded the alarm on Russian war crimes, which range from executing a civilian who refused to give a soldier cigarettes to targeting aid workers delivering essential supplies.20 The allegations have culminated in the issuance of arrest warrants for President Putin and the Russian children’s rights commissioner Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova.21 Although Russia has refused to recognize the Court’s decision, Ukrainian leaders hold that it marks an important turning point in securing Russian accountability.22 “On the morning of February 24,” President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said during his Easter address to the nation, “a dark night began.”23 To Americans and others looking on from overseas, it is essential to understand how simmering tensions—deeply embedded in the very fabric of Ukrainian and Russian culture—led to the first of many “dark nights” in eastern Europe over one year ago. Armed with an understanding of how this conflict began, it is everyone’s responsibility—as global citizens—to speak out against the unjustified Russian aggression and educate its proponents.

As President Zelenskyy stated years before the war began, “it’s a victory when the weapons fall silent and people speak up.”24 1 Guy Faulconbridge, “Putin Says Russia Ready to Negotiate over Ukraine, Kyiv Says Moscow Doesn’t Want Talks,” Reuters, last modified December 25, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/putin-says-russia-readynegotiate-over-ukraine-2022-12-25/.

2 Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, “Address by the President of the Russian Federation,” address presented in The Kremlin, Moscow, February 24, 2022, President of Russia, last modified February 24, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, http://en.kremlin.ru/ events/president/news/67843.

3 Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy, “Russia Has Launched a New Military Operation against Our State, Martial Law Is Being Imposed throughout Ukraine,” news release, February 24, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.president.gov. ua/en/news/rosiya-rozpochala-novu-vijskovu-operaciyu-proti-nashoyi-derz-73105.

4 Morning Edition, “As Russia Keeps Up Its Attack, How Long Can Ukraine Hold the Capital City?,” hosted by George Louis Martínez, narrated by Tim Mak, aired February 25, 2022, on

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National Public Radio, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.npr. org/1083003231.

5 Roman Szporluk, “Lenin, ‘Great Russia,’ and Ukraine,” in “Essays Presented in Honor of Michael S. Flier on His Sixty-Fifth Birthday,” special issue, Harvard Ukrainian Studies 28, no. 1/4 (2006): 612–613, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41036986.

6 Szporluk, “Lenin, ‘Great Russia,’ and Ukraine” 618–619.

7 Oles M. Smolansky, “Ukraine’s Quest for Independence: The Fuel Factor,” Europe-Asia Studies 47, no. 1 (1995): 68, http:// www.jstor.org/stable/153194.

8 Yaroslav Hrytsak, “Rethinking Ukraine,” in What Does Ukraine Think?, ed. Andrew Wilson (n.p.: European Council on Foreign Relations, 2015), 42, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21660.7.

9 Hrytsak, “Rethinking Ukraine,” 39–40.

10 Bundeswehr Bundesakademie für Sicherheitspolitik, Russian National Identity and the Russia-Ukraine Crisis, by Taras Kuzio, research report no. 20/2016 (Berlin: Federal Academy for Security Policy, 2016), 3–4, https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep22141.

11 Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin, “On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians,” President of Russia, last modified July 12, 2021, accessed April 26, 2023, http://en.kremlin.ru/events/ president/news/66181.

12 Steven Pifer, “How Ukraine Views Russia and the West,” American Ambassadors Review, Fall 2017, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.americanambassadors.org/publications/ambassadors-review/fall-2017/how-ukraine-views-russia-and-the-west.

13 Guy Davies et al., “How the Russia-Ukraine Conflict Became a Cultural War,” ABC News, last modified February 23, 2023, accessed April 26, 2023, https://abcnews.go.com/International/ story?id=97332345.

14 Ievgen Afanasiev et al., “Ukraine Agonizes over Russian Culture and Language in Its Social Fabric,” National Public Radio, last modified June 2, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www. npr.org/1101712731.

15 Davies et al., “Russia-Ukraine Conflict Became Cultural War,” ABC News.

16 Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy, “Russian Troops Are Destroying Everything That Makes Us a Nation, but They Will Be Held Accountable for That,” address, March 26, 2022, President of Ukraine, last modified March 26, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/rosijski-vijska-znishuyut-use-sho-robit-nas-narodom-ale-za-c-73873.

17 Putin, “Address by the President,” address, President of Russia.

18 United Nations Human Rights Council, Report on the Human Rights Situation in Ukraine 16 November 2018 to 15 February 2019, report no. A/HRC/40/CRP.3 (Geneva: United Nations, 2019), 4, https://www.undocs.org/en/A/HRC/40/CRP.3.

19 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Killings of Civilians: Summary Executions and Attacks on Individual Civilians in Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Sumy Regions in the Context of the Russian Federation’s Armed Attack against Ukraine, 6, accessed April 26, 2023, https://ukraine.un.org/en/ download/122952/210727.

20 Amnesty International, “Ukraine: Russian Forces Extrajudicially Executing Civilians in Apparent War Crimes — New Testimony,” news release, April 7, 2022, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/04/ukraine-russian-forces-extrajudicially-executing-civilians-in-apparent-war-crimes-new-testimony/.

21 International Criminal Court, “Situation in Ukraine: ICC Judges Issue Arrest Warrants against Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin and Maria Alekseyevna Lvova-Belova,” news release, March 17, 2023, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/ situation-ukraine-icc-judges-issue-arrest-warrants-against-vladimir-vladimirovich-putin-and.

22 James O’Donnell, “Citing War Crimes in Ukraine, International Criminal Court Issues Arrest Warrant for Putin,” PBS

‫לשם שמיים‬

Spring 2023

Frontline, last modified March 17, 2023, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/putin-icc-arrest-warrant-war-crimes-ukraine/.

23 Volodymyr Oleksandrovych Zelenskyy, “Easter Greetings from the President of Ukraine,” speech, April 16, 2023, President of Ukraine, last modified April 16, 2023, accessed April 26, 2023, https://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/privitannya-prezidenta-ukrayini-z-velikodnem-82293.

24 Simon Shuster, “’I Don’t Trust Anyone at All.’ Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky Speaks Out on Trump, Putin and a Divided Europe,” TIME, last modified December 2, 2019, accessed April 26, 2023, https://time.com/5742108.

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Growing Polarization: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Mikaela Garber, ’24

While the prolonged and multidimensional Israeli-Palestinean conflict has made it difficult to achieve a compromise, peace is in fact possible if work is done to decrease the tensions so that both groups can work constructively together. Misconceptions about the conflict have affected both sides of the conflict. The intense polarization has made shrinking the solution the only possible path to a compromise because it would work to increase understanding and clear up existing apprehension.

From the Palestinian side, the Israeli War of Independence was the beginning of Naqba. Naqba, or “the catastrophe,” is seen as a premeditated plan to ethnically cleanse the land of Arabs.1 They feel as though the War of Independence was just a way to mass evict them.2 As of today, approximately 6 million Palestinians are refugees, many of whom live in refugee camps.3 None of the neighboring countries are willing to take them in, so they remain in the West Bank, Gaza, and Jordan.4 Camps are crowded and lack proper infrastructure.5 There are security checkpoints and curfews enforced by the Israeli Defense Forces, all signs that are perceived as Israeli oppression.6 Now, the Palestinians are striving to take back what they embrace as rightfully theirs.

They insist that Palestinians should be able to take back land they held before the Naqba. This demand, called the “right of return,” gets its name from an Israeli founding principle (“The Law of Return”) granting citizenship to any person with one Jewish grandparent.7 However, the Israeli point of view varies greatly; Israeli citizens feel that they did all that they could to end the conflict and now have to deal with security measures to keep Israelis safe. They recognize that while the Palestinians rejected partition plan after partition plan, they accepted every one.8 In addition, Israelis claim that waves of violence have proven that Palestinians pose safety concerns to Israel.9 The First Intifada was in the late 1980s and was composed of attacks and non-violent demonstrations. The start of the Second Intifada, which occurred in the early 2000s, had a conflicted start; Jews blame Arafat while Palestinians turn to Ariel Sharon’s visit to the Temple Mount as the beginning of the conflict. It was more violent, with suicide bombers, rocket attacks, and sniper fire. In particular, the Second Intifada signaled the end of the process to negotiate peace.10 At this point, security measures such as curfews are necessary for the safety of Israeli citizens.11 The increased need for security and defense has caused many Israelis to question whether a solution is wise and safe for Israel.

As the conflict continues, Jews and Arabs must find a resolution, but the two sides are currently at a stalemate.

Currently, there are 4 proposed solutions to the conflict. One

‫לשם שמיים‬

Ethnic Strife

variation is the “Greater Israel” one-state solution, which would apply Israeli law to the West Bank and give the option of citizenship or residency to non-Israelis living in that area, leaving the Gaza Strip as its own entity. This would maintain a strategic advantage and Jewish identity for Israel, and would prevent Palestinians and Israelis alike from having to relocate; however, it could complicate the majority in Israel or make Israel an apartheid state if they choose not to give immediate citizenship to Palestinians.

The other one-state solution, a “bi-national state” or “Palestine,” would combine Israel, the Gaza Strip, and the West Bank into one state with a Palestinian majority.

Potential benefits include equal rights for all, including access to all shared holy sites, but could become problematic for Jews who would no longer have their own state.

Probably the most known solution, the two-state solution, proposes two countries with Jerusalem as a shared capital. While this could end terrorism due to a lack of a need to fight for a Palestinian state, holy sites could have restricted access, affecting both Jews and Palestinians. In addition, the current Palestinian Authority has a history of corruption, making Israel hesitant to give away its strategic advantage.

Finally, the “shrinking the conflict” model seeks to improve Palestinian lives by adding infrastructure such as roads connecting Palestinian cities, and improving the economy and civilian autonomy by decreasing Palestinian interaction with the IDF and increasing mobility while maintaining Israel’s security in the hopes of someday negotiating peace. Although this option takes realistic steps towards a more constructive environment by gradually adding improvements, it effectively ignores many crucial issues that must be resolved, including the rights of Palestinian refugees and extreme Israeli security measures.

Unfortunately, as Palestinians continue to desire their right to sovereignty and independence, Israelis move further away from the idea of a two-state solution.12 As shown in figures 1 and 2, many Palestinians, Jewish Israelis, and Arab Israelis no longer feel that the two-state solution is viable.

Due to the current polarization, shrinking the conflict is the only way to continue paving the road to peace. For decades, Israeli citizens have argued about the pros and cons of each solution with little movement Although shrinking the conflict will not solve the towards resolution.

As such, the two problem, it will help to peoples have been at minimize it. a standstill. Although shrinking the conflict will not solve the problem, it will help to minimize it. For those who have lived in a refugee camp for generations, it is understandable that they would view Israel in a negative light. But helping their socioeconomic situations, along with their daily living conditions, might bring them to the table and make peace possible, or even plausible.

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1 “Plan Dalet: Blueprint for the Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine,” Institute for Middle East Understanding, March 8, 2013, https:// imeu.org/article/plan-dalet.

2 Zack Beauchamp, “What Is the Nakba?,” Vox (Vox, November 20, 2018), https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080030/israel-palestine-nakba.

3 “Palestine Refugees,” UNRWA, accessed April 1, 2023, https:// www.unrwa.org/palestine-refugees.

4 “Palestinian Refugees,” ADL, May 3, 2022, https://www.adl. org/resources/glossary-term/palestinian-refugees.

5 “Palestine Refugees.”

6 Daniel Miller Assoc. Prof. of Religion, “The History of ‘Israel’ and ‘Palestine’: Alternative Names, Competing Claims,” The Conversation, May 12, 2022, https://theconversation.com/ the-history-of-israel-and-palestine-alternative-names-competing-claims-163156.

7 Beauchamp.

8 “Palestine - History, Religion & Conflicts,” History.com (A&E Television Networks), accessed April 1, 2023, https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/palestine.

9 “Israeli-Palestinian Conflict | Global Conflict Tracker,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations), accessed April 1, 2023, https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/ israeli-palestinian-conflict.

10 Zack Beauchamp, “What Were the Intifadas?,” Vox (Vox, November 20, 2018), https://www.vox.com/2018/11/20/18080066/ israel-palestine-intifadas-first-second.

11 Miller.

12 Beauchamp.

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Page 12

of many industries.

Unpeeling the Layers of American monopolization The United States government acted on behalf of these companies, often militarily, to defend and expand their Intervention in Latin America

economic interests in Latin America. These America’s If you ever thought that the corruption military operations, collectively called the “Banana Wars”, Haiti, the and inequality in Latin America is took place in Guatemala, Panama, Nicaragua, 6 Dominican Republic, Honduras, and Mexico.

From 1903 bananas, you would be correct!

7 to 1925, the United States invaded Honduras seven times.

The connection between the also occupied the Dominican Republic banana and the woes of America’s The US government 8 for eight years.

The “banana wars” ended when President southern neighbors is a tale of Franklin Roosevelt announced the “Good Neighbour Policy” American greed and expansionism in 1933, which promoted trade and cooperation with Latin that dates back over a century. The American countries instead of military interventions.9 international banana trade has had a Despite Roosevelt’s new policy, the conflicts between significant and detrimental impact on the United States and Latin America resumed after World shaping modern-day Latin America. The War II in the guise of the fight against communism. During United States’ involvement in the poor governance of Latin the Cold War, accusing Latin American countries of American countries has sent many Hispanic refugees fleeing participating in a communist regime provided the pretext to the US, where they face discrimination, so the United for the American government to continue to meddle in States has a responsibility to protect these immigrants and 10 Latin American affairs.

For example, the US government make Latin American countries safer. assisted in the overthrowing of the Guatemalan government These countries are called “banana republics,” a term in favor of US-backed dictatorships in 1953.11 In theory, coined by the writer O. Henry, referring to a small country with an unstable or authoritarian government whose economy such interference ended with President Ford’s Executive relies heavily on a single export, usually dominated by a Order 11905 in 1976, which officially prohibited the United States government from conspiring in any foreign power. While Henry originally political assassinations.12 Nevertheless, Since the problems in used this to describe a fictional third-world the Reagan administration used secret country based on Honduras, his concept Latin America driving trades with Iran to fund CIA operations in has been applied to many real countries, people to leave are Nicaragua.13 Clearly, the American public including those in Central and South direct consequences of can not depend on its leaders to heed America1 like Costa Rica, Guatemala, American intervention, 2 the lessons of this history of American Panama, and Nicaragua. The banana military adventurism, so Americans must the US has a moral industry in Latin America started in 1870 when Lorenzo Dow Baker introduced imperative to better treat remain vigilant, lest the government return bananas to the United States, where their its Latino immigrants and to its old ways of treating Latin American countries as banana republics. popularity skyrocketed because of their low improve their countries’ 3 The impact of American interventions cost. To capitalize on increased demand, living conditions. echoes to this very day. Since the AmericanAmerican companies established banana backed governments across Latin America plantations all across Latin America in did not earn the support of their publics, they were unable order to export bananas to the United States. These companies to create strong foundations, and are still unable to maintain — United Fruit Company, Cuyamel Fruit Company, and control of their countries and contribute to further instability.

Standard Fruit — dominated the industry and owned over 4 Their governments face frequent coups and civil wars, and 3.5 million acres of land. Ultimately, the influence of these in some cases, are controlled by drug cartels and gangs.14 companies expanded beyond agriculture to the government.

In Honduras, for example, in 1910, Cuyamel Fruit Company Another impact that the banana trade has had on modern hired a mercenary army, and with former Honduran President Latin America, is the widening of the economic gap between Manuel Bonilla, they overthrew the government and gained the rich minority and the poor masses. The setup of Latin more power. They had their interests secured, but while American governments under American oversight allowed they profited, native Latin Americans suffered and their all of the power and wealth to go to American banana national debt grew. The companies developed the nation’s corporations and a select group of local elites. With their infrastructure — electricity, roads, railways, telegraphs — support of the banana corporations, these elites accumulated for their own benefit, thereby gaining monopolies over many significant wealth since they owned the land producing 15 local industries. In exchange for tax breaks and land grants, the bananas, and gained further political influence. This the three companies paid the rich minority, which contributed meant that the public was deprived of the benefits of banana to widespread poverty, and less access to to the growing economic disparity.5 The emergence of exports, leading 16 necessities.

Also, American corporations were so rigorous “banana republics” in Central and South America, from the in their banana growing that they depleted natural resources American banana corporations, led to the ill-treatment of and created immense pollution.

This has caused a major Latin Americans, the growing economic disparity, and the

Rachel Loeb, ’23

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Ethnic Strife

problem for Latin American countries, as their soil and water quality have declined.17 Thus, US intervention in Latin America continues to have negative ramifications that impact many aspects of the lives of Latinos.

Due to the current state of Latin American countries, which was enabled by US actions, many Latinos flee the poverty, violence, and extortion prevalent in their countries.18 While Latinos have trouble immigrating and are blamed for their plight and their intentions questioned, the true origins of their countries’ troubles stem from America’s involvement. Even Latinos lucky enough to gain admittance to America, face discrimination, and according to a Pew Research poll, are the second most discriminated ethnic group.19 They are often caricatured as criminals and rapists who all came to America illegally and are stealing American jobs. In his 2015 presidential announcement speech, Donald Trump claimed that “they’re [Latin American immigrants] bringing drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists.”20 This portrayal is inaccurate since the large majority of Latino immigrants came simply to escape poverty and violence and follow American laws diligently. In fact, immigrants have been found to be far less likely to commit a crime than their American counterparts.21 Undocumented immigrants contribute 18 billion dollars to Social Security and are ineligible for benefits. Without the contributions of these immigrants, Social Security would be in greater distress.22 Also, the jobs they get are, for the most part, jobs that Americans don’t want, for example, in the service and construction industries.23 Currently, people can steal from them, hire them for below minimum wage, force them into prostitution, and much more, knowing that the illegal immigrants will be afraid of deportation if they contact the local police.

Since the problems in Latin America driving people to leave are direct consequences of American intervention, the US has a moral imperative to better treat its Latino immigrants and improve their countries’ living conditions.

America should not interfere with the government of these countries, since this interventionist policy is what created trouble in the first place. Instead, Americans should focus on helping the people by donating to humanitarian NGOs, nongovernmental organizations that work to improve conditions for the people in these countries, and sending Peace Corps volunteers to build important infrastructure and provide training to help make the people self-sufficient. Such efforts will improve the standard of living and ultimately decrease the flow of migrants to the US. In the meantime, America should streamline the process of accepting refugees. All people who present themselves at the border should get a fair asylum hearing and families should remain intact during this process. Also, local police should concentrate more on protecting immigrants from exploitation than enforcing immigration laws. Individual Americans can help out by lobbying for these changes and supporting organizations that help welcome immigrants and combat xenophobia.

The United States’ involvement in Latin America has benefited American corporations at the cost of the Latin

Page 13

American people. America set up corrupt “banana republics” that have had lasting effects on their government, economy, and society. These problems have caused Latinos to flee to America, where they are maltreated and exploited. Even if we cannot completely undo a century of neglect, America should make changes and try to live up to its democratic ideals, as a place of refuge for the “huddled masses yearning to breathe free”.24 1 Mary Gormandy White, “What Is a Banana Republic? Explanation and Examples,” YourDictionary, August 23, 2022, https:// examples.yourdictionary.com/what-is-banana-republic-explanation-examples.

2 “Banana Republic Countries 2023,” World Population Review, accessed March 22, 2023, https://worldpopulationreview.com/ country-rankings/banana-republic-countries.

3 Olymar Oceguera, “Let’s Talk about the Banana,” ViaNolaVie, January 28, 2021, https://www.vianolavie.org/2021/01/28/consider-the-banana-alternative-journalism-fall-2020/.

4 Jen Phillips, “The Dangers of Bananas,” Fergus Falls Daily Journal, October 21, 2022, https://www.fergusfallsjournal.com/ opinion/the-dangers-of-bananas/article_7ad31c06-32c8-11ed934c-77b7d60212c8.html.

5 Gary Arndt, “The Origin of Banana Republics,” Everything Everywhere, December 30, 2021, https://everything-everywhere. com/the-origin-of-banana-republics/.

6 “Banana Wars,” Boundless, accessed March 22, 2023, https:// bluebox.creighton.edu/demo/modules/en-boundless-old/www. boundless.com/definition/banana-wars/index.html.

7 “The Banana Wars – 10 Quick Facts about America’s Military Interventions in the Caribbean & Latin America,” MilitaryHistoryNow, September 20, 2020, https://militaryhistorynow. com/2020/09/20/the-banana-wars-10-quick-facts-about-americas-early-military-interventions-in-the-caribbean-latin-america/.

8 Robert Estrada, “Banana Wars - Dominican Republic,” History of the Marine Corps, September 13, 2021, https://www.historyofthemarinecorps.com/episodes/2021/7/19/banana-wars-dominican-republic.

9 “The Banana Wars – 10 Quick Facts about America’s Military Interventions in the Caribbean & Latin America.”.

10 Lindsey Morey, “Blood For Bananas: United Fruit’s Central American Empire,” Washington State University, accessed March 22, 2023, https://history.wsu.edu/rci/sample-research-project/.

11 “June 27, 1954: Elected Guatemalan Leader Overthrown in CIA-Backed Coup,” Zinn Education Project, February 3, 2023, https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/jacobo-arbenz-guzman-deposed/.

12 “Executive Order 11905,” Encyclopædia Britannica, February 12, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/event/Executive-Order-11905.

13 Daniel W. Fisk et al., “Policy Roundtable: Reagan and Latin America,” Texas National Security Review, January 16, 2019, https://tnsr.org/roundtable/policy-roundtable-reagan-and-latin-america/.

14 Daniel Zovatto, “Latin America Political and Electoral Outlook 2023,” International IDEA, January 17, 2023, https://www. idea.int/news-media/news/latin-america-political-and-electoral-outlook-2023.

15 Nicholas D. Kristof, “KRISTOF: The Rich Prosper in Our Banana Republic,” The Press Democrat, June 27, 2014, https:// www.pressdemocrat.com/article/news/kristof-the-rich-prosper-inour-banana-republic/.

16 “Peeling Back the Truth on Bananas,” Food Empowerment Project, accessed April 26, 2023, https://foodispower.org/ourfood-choices/bananas/.

17 John Soluri, “Empire’s Footprint: The Ecological Dimensions of a Consumers’ Republic ,” Oxford Academic, October 1, 2011,

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Spring 2023

https://academic.oup.com/maghis/article/25/4/15/1037442.

18 Oceguera.

19 “11 Facts About Discrimination and Poverty in the Latino Community,” DoSomething, accessed March 22, 2023, https:// www.dosomething.org/us/facts/11-facts-about-discrimination-and-poverty-latino-community.

20 “Donald Trump’s Presidential Announcement Speech,” Time, June 16, 2015, https://time.com/3923128/donald-trump-announcement-speech/.

21 “Immigration Myths,” Latino Memphis, accessed March 22, 2023, https://www.latinomemphis.org/immigration-myths.

22 Nina Roberts, “Undocumented Immigrants Quietly Pay Billions into Social Security and Receive No Benefits,” Marketplace, January 28, 2019, https://www.marketplace.org/2019/01/28/ undocumented-immigrants-quietly-pay-billions-social-security-and-receive-no/.

23 Evin Millet and Jacquelyn Pavilon, “Demographic Profile of Undocumented Hispanic Immigrants in the United States,” The Center for Migration Studies, October 14, 2022, https://cmsny. org/publications/hispanic-undocumented-immigrants-millet-pavilon-101722/.

24 “The New Colossus,” National Parks Service, August 14, 2019, https://www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/colossus.htm.

Page 14

Woman, Life, Freedom Andrew Jacoby, ’24

September 13, 2022; Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old young woman, was arrested by the Iranian Morality police for wearing an ‘improper hijab.’ On the 16th of September, she died after falling into a coma, following what the Iranian government alleges was a heart attack.1 Several witnesses state that during Mahsa’s time in state custody, she was severely beaten and eventually suffered a stroke due to her extensive head injuries. While the Iranian regime denies that her death was a result of the Morality police’s actions, Amini’s family says she had no health condition that would have resulted in her death and that her limbs appeared covered in bruises.2 Mahsa’s suspected murder by police set off a wave of political dissidence protesting the growing power of the far right Morality police, loss of women’s basic rights, and generalized loss of individual freedom in Iran.3 Citizens of the world need to stand in solidarity with the people of Iran and support their fight for freedom as the Iranian protests represent more than country-specific atrocities but also a growing retraction of women’s rights and push towards authoritarianism.

The protests sparked by Mahsa’s death are ongoing and have resulted in increasing crackdowns by the Iranian government4 and sadly the deaths of several more young women. The extent of the protests demonstrates both a rising populist discontentment within the Islamic Republic of Iran and a continued fight for women’s rights. Since Mahsa’s death, the Iranian government has detained over 20,000 protestors, with hundreds being killed.5 In these protests, the protestors chanted “Woman, Life, Freedom” as a populist call, often given in both English and Farsi, that can be globally embraced in the push against authoritarianism.6 In conjunction with the detainment of protestors, the Iranian government’s trajection toward greater authoritarianism accelerated in other arenas. Iran began to push greater limitations on free speech - both expressed and written. They began to implement internet censorship by decreasing access to social media and methods of online communication.7 Officials hoped that the intensity of the demonstrations would decrease if the protesters no longer had an effective way to communicate and if there was less opportunity from scrutiny from the outside world. However, the extreme internet censorship had the opposite effect; the protests only increased. In response, under the cover of a communication blackout, the Iranian government cemented their commitment to being a fully authoritarian regime by executing a large number of protestors.8 Beginning in November 2022, orchestrated chemical attacks on schools, primarily those teaching girls, began.

Over 52 schools across 21 provinces have been affected by the poisonings.9 Hundreds of children have been sickened

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Ethnic Strife

as a result of the toxins.10 The targeted schools were ones that specifically educated girls and have resulted in parents across Iran removing their daughters from school for fear of an attack. The UN has suggested that schools were targeted in retaliation for the girls’ assumed involvement in the women’s movement and to limit the education of women.

The Iranian government’s draconian repression of women’s advancement by blocking girls’ education represents one more attempt to suppress the freedom of all Iranians and to eliminate the populist voice.11 In response to all of the atrocities committed against women in Iran, the UN removed Iran from the Commission on the Status of Women’s Rights.12 This resolution passed on December 14, 2022, with 29 votes in favor of removal, 8 against, and 16 abstentions.13 Yet, this action still had minimal effect. Iran has begun adopting a new approach towards catching violators of their compulsory dress code: cameras. Iranian authorities have begun installing cameras in public places to catch women who are violating the hijab law.14 People who are caught by this technology could face public rebuke, fines, or arrest.15 Despite this, there is still a large resistance to these government actions. Iranian women are posting images of themselves without hijabs or other mandatory articles of clothing in opposition to the government’s dress code laws. Many women choose to remain anonymous but some are posting pictures that include their faces or locations, thus challenging Iran’s social media blackout while also keeping the conversation around the “Women, Life Freedom” movement at the forefront of global consciousness. 16 While the murder of one woman for improperly wearing a hijab may seem like a small event, it represents a systematic attempt to control and repress the freedom of Iranian women by their government. As evidenced by the protests, the Iranian people are no longer While the murder of one content to accept the woman for improperly suppression, and the wearing a hijab may push for women’s seem like a small event, freedom grows. it represents a systematic Citizens of the world have a duty to fight for attempt to control and freedom everywhere, repress the freedom of as the curtailment of Iranian women by their freedom anywhere government. can cascade to the retraction of basic rights everywhere. People have a fundamental right to express themselves and their religion however they choose and no government should limit that. The world should use its collective power to pressure the Iranian government to expand women’s rights, decrease the intensity of punishments, and provide a space for freedom of expression.

1 “Events in Iran since Mahsa Amini’s Arrest and Death in Custody.” Reuters, October 5, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/ middle-east/events-iran-since-mahsa-aminis-arrest-death-custody-2022-10-05/.

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2 Hassan, Tirana. “World Report 2023: Iran.” Human Rights Watch. Accessed April 12, 2023. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/iran.

3 Hassan.

4 “Events in Iran since Mahsa Amini’s Arrest and Death in Custody.”

5 Gambrell, Jon. “WATCH: Women and girls are still protesting in Iran. Here’s why.” PBS. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/ watch-women-and-girls-are-still-protesting-in-iran-heres-why.

6 “Events in Iran since Mahsa Amini’s Arrest and Death in Custody.”

7 “Events in Iran since Mahsa Amini’s Arrest and Death in Custody.”

8 “Events in Iran since Mahsa Amini’s Arrest and Death in Custody.”

9 “Those Who Poisoned Iranian Schoolgirls Guilty of ‘Unforgivable Crime’, Supreme Leader Says.” PBS NewsHour. March 6, 2023. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/those-who-poisonediranian-schoolgirls-guilty-of-unforgivable-crime-supreme-leadersays.

10 “Those Who Poisoned Iranian Schoolgirls Guilty of ‘Unforgivable Crime’, Supreme Leader Says.”

11 “Iran: Deliberate Poisoning of Schoolgirls Further Evidence of Continuous Violence against Women and Girls.” United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. March 16, 2023. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/03/iran-deliberate-poisoning-schoolgirls-further-evidence-continuous-violence.

12 “Iran Removed from UN Commission on the Status of Women | UN News.” United Nations. December 12, 2022. https:// news.un.org/en/story/2022/12/1131722.

13 “Iran Removed from UN Commission on the Status of Women | UN News.”

14 “Iran to use cameras in public spaces to identify unveiled women | News.” Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/ news/2023/4/8/iran-to-use-cameras-to-identify-unveiled-women.

15 “Iran to use cameras in public spaces to identify unveiled women | News.”

16 Maziar Motamedi, “Iranian women post images without hijabs despite crackdown,” Al Jazeera, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/11/iranian-women-post-images-without-hijab-despite-crackdown.

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Spring 2023 Edition