ROBERTSCHUMANN THEBOOKOFSONGS
JonW.Finson
Cambridge,Massachusetts
London,England
Copyright©2007bythePresidentandFellowsofHarvardCollege Allrightsreserved PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Finson,JonW.
RobertSchumann:thebookofsongs/JonW.Finson. p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences(p.)andindex.
ISBN-13:978-0-674-02629-2(alk.paper)
ISBN-10:0-674-02629-2(alk.paper)
1.Schumann,Robert,1810–1856.Songs.2.Songs—Analysis, appreciation.3.Songs—Historyandcriticism.I.Title. ML410.S4F592007
782.42168092—dc222007008166
TothememoryofDorothyJaneFinson
Preface xi
PARTI
Schumann’sEarlySongs andtheLiederofHisFirstMaturity
Introduction:
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder 3
Schumann’sAestheticofSong 3
Schumann’sEarlySongs 8
1 SongsofMarriage 18
Myrthen, op.25 21
FrauenliebeundLeben, op.42 35
ZwölfGedichteausRückertsLiebesfrühling, op.37 43
2 IronyandtheHeineCycles 51
LiederkreisvonH.Heine, op.24 53
Dichterliebe, op.48 61
3 CyclesofWandering 71
ZwölfGedichtevonJustinusKerner, op.35 72
SechsGedichtevonReinick, op.36 79
LiederkreisvonEichendorff, op.39 83
viiiContents
4
Romances,Ballads,andthe ViaMedia 93
TheChamissoBallads,op.31 94
TheAndersenSongs,op.40 98
RomanzenundBalladen,HeftI, op.45 103
RomanzenundBalladen,HeftII, op.49 106
RomanzenundBalladen,HeftIII, op.53 109
RomanzenundBalladen,HeftIV, op.64 112 Belsatzar,BalladevonH.Heine, op.57 116
5 LyricalSchemes:CollectionsofEarlier LiederundGesänge 120 DreiGedichtevonEmanuelGeibel, op.30 120 LiederundGesänge,HeftI, op.27 125 LiederundGesänge,HeftII, op.51 131 LiederundGesänge, op.127 140 VierGesänge, op.142 145 Epiloguetothe“YearofSong” 150
PARTII
Schumann’sLaterSongs
6 TheAdventofthe“NewStyle”andtheLaterCycles 157 LiederfürdieJugend, op.79 160 Lieder,GesängeausGoethe’s WilhelmMeister,op.98a 175 VierHusarenliedervonNicolausLenau, op.117 182 GedichtederKöniginMariaStuart, op.135 185
7 PoetsinReviewduringtheLaterYears 191
DerHandschuhvonSchiller, op.87 192 SechsGesängevonWilfriedvonderNeun, op.89 195 SechsGedichtevonN.LenauundRequiem, op.90 200 DreiGesängeausLordByron’sHebräischenGesängen, op.95 208 SiebenLiedervonElisabethKulmann, op.104 214 DreiGedichteausdenWaldliedernvonG.Pfarrius, op.119 221
8 CollectionsintheNewStyle 226 LiederundGesänge,HeftIII, op.77 227 LiederundGesänge,HeftIV, op.96 235 DreiGesänge, op.83 241 SechsGesänge, op.107 245 FünfheitereGesänge, op.125 253
Epilogue: ReceptionoftheLateStyle 261
Abbreviations 273
Notes 275
EditionsofMusicConsultedandSelectedBibliography 295
IndexofSongTitlesandTextIncipits 302
GeneralIndex 311
Preface
Attheheartofthisbookliesapragmaticaimtosummarizeandrender availablethelatestresearchonSchumann’ssongstosingers,pianists,and theeducatedmusicalpublic.ScholarswhoarenotSchumannspecialistsmayalsofinditsencapsulateddescriptionsofindividualopusesand songsuseful,butIdonotprovidecomprehensiveorexhaustiveexplications,analyses,orcommentariesonanygivensong.AndwhileIhaveresearchedthisbookusingmanyoriginaldocuments,Ihavealsoreliedon theextensiveworknowunderwayforthenewSchumanneditionin whichIwillserveasaneditorforsomelieder Imeantosupplantherea booklongsinceoutofdate,EricSams’s TheSongsofRobertSchumann, whichappearedinitslasteditionoveradecadeagoandeventhendidnot reflectthemostrecentstateofscholarship.Singers,pianists,andwriters ofprogramnotesoftenciteSams,includingsomeofhisinaccuracies. Andgeneralaficionadosofliederalsoconsultthevolume,eventhoughit haschangedlittlesinceitsoriginalappearancein1969,whilethefieldof Schumannscholarshiphasalteredgreatly.
TheinformationinthepresentstudyreliesheavilyontwoextraordinarypublicationsinthenewcompleteeditionofSchumann’sworks, HelmutSchanzeandKrischanSchulte’s LiterarischeVorlagendereinundmehrstimmigenLieder,GesängeundDeklamationen andMargit McCorkle’s Thematisch-BibliographischesVerzeichnis. Ihavealsoavailed myselfofSchulte’s“... wasIhresZaubergriffelswürdigware!”Die TextbasisfürRobertSchumannsLiederfürSolostimmen, acompanion to Vorlagen. ThefirstofthesevolumesgivesallofthetextsforSchu-
mann’ssoloandpartsongsinparallelversions,theleftcolumnwiththe versionthatservedasthecomposer’sexemplarandtherightcolumnrecordinghisdeparturesfromtheoriginalcopy.SchanzeandSchultealso providebiographicaldataforallthepoetstheycouldidentifyanddetailsofhowtheyreachedtheirconclusionaboutwhichsourcesSchumannconsultedforhistexts(thisinformationappearsinparallelEnglish translation).ThebookisindispensableforanybodyworkingwithSchumann’ssongsinanycapacity,andwhileSchanzeandSchultehavenot trackeddowneverysourceoridentifiedeveryauthor,theyhavecome veryclose.McCorkle’sthematicindexprovidesnotonlyincipitsand datesofcompositionandpublicationbutalsoawealthofinformation aboutcorrespondence,reviews,extantmanuscripts,andsecondarybibliographicalinformation.ItexistsonlyinGerman,andsotransmittingits informationinEnglishhasconstitutedanimportanttask(andIhaveoftenlookedatthefirsteditionsorcopiesofcorrespondencetoaugment McCorkle’salreadyastonishingdetail).IcountthecollationofinformationaboutthecompositionandpublicationofSchumann’ssongsasa majorbenefitofthepresentvolume.Itwillnowbecomeavailableto thosewhodonotreadGermanorwhodonotspecializeinSchumann scholarship.
TheunderlyingpremiseofthisbookmaintainsthatSchumann’ssongs shouldbetreatedbyopus(unlikeSams’sstudy,whichproceededchronologicallybysong).Thismayseemself-evidentforthesongcycleswehave cometoregardasindivisible“works,”butitismuchlessobviousforthe manycollectionsthatgathersettingsofoneauthor’spoetrybutimplyno narrative,orforso-calledmiscellaniesthatsetloosecollectionsofvariouspoets.Schumanngaveagooddealofthoughttoorderingsongsfor publicationevenintheselasttwotypesofsongvolumes,oftengrouping thembykeyandsometimesbyapatternofcontent,whethersimilar orcontrasting.Byproceedinginthisway,Idonotmeantosuggestthat singersandpianistscannotremovesongsfromtheiropusforindividual performance.Duringhislifetime,Schumannpublishedindividualsongs outofcontext,evenremovingthemfromnarrativesongcycles,notto mentionmiscellanies.Andafterthecomposerdied,thewidowedClara Schumanncontinuedtoaccompanysongsdetachedinjustthiswayfrom theiropuses.Inwritingthisbook,Iwasconcernedwithwhatmoved Schumanntopublishcollectedsongstogetherunderoneopusnumber, especiallywherenoconnectionisreadilyapparent.Buthoweverhela-
Prefacexiii
boredtocreatelogicalopusesforpublication,thecomposerwouldhave foundacategoricalbanonexcerptingsongsfromtheircontextforperformanceoddandperhapsunacceptable.
Withintheframeworkofthebasicpremise,Ihavethenproceededin twolargechronologicalgroupings.Ihaveaddressedtheopuseswith songswrittenduringSchumann’sfirstefflorescenceinsongcomposition, 1840to1841,inthefirstsectionofthebook,whiletheopuseslargely containingsongsfromthesecondefflorescence,roughly1849to1851, appearinthesecondsection,devotedtothemarkedchangeinhisstyleof settingtext.Thiscausesafewminoranomalies,tobesure:opp.127and 142,publishedrespectivelyattheendofthecomposer’slifeandposthumously,consistlargelyorsolelyofsongswrittenin1840and1841,asdo opp.27and51,thefirsttwointheseriesof LiederundGesänge publishedinthelate1840s.Op.77,ontheotherhand,thoughitbeginswith onefamousnumberfrom1840,containsmostlylatersongs.Majority ruleisnotsobadaprincipleasitmightfirstappearinsuchcases,since Schumannhadtorationalizetheinclusionofsongsfromdisparateperiodsinonevolumetohispublishersandpublictosatisfyfinancialconsiderationsandcommercialhabits.Thecorrespondencewithpublishers aboutthevariousopusnumbersrevealsthatajustificationforthecontentofsongvolumesconstantlyoccupiedthecomposer’smind,asdid other,moretechnicalconsiderationssuchasoveralllengthandtheplacementofpageturns.
Withintheselargerchronologicalbounds,Ihaveconsideredsongsundervarioustopics,especiallyforSchumann’sfirstoutpouringoflied composition.CollectionsstronglyassociatedinsubjectmattertohismarriagewithClara,thetwoparallelHeinecycles,thewayfaringcycles,and thevariousgroupsofromancesandballadsallbelongtogetherlogicallyenough.Withinthesechapters,centralthesesarise,aboutbiographicalconnection,narrativeorsemanticcontent,genre,andstructure.The composer’ssecondburstofsongwritinglendsitselfmuchlesswelltothis approach,partlybecausethedistinctionbetween“cycles”and“collections”becomesmuchlesspronounced.ButfortheliederSchumanncomposedbetween1849and1852,thequestionofhisnewapproachtosettingtextbecomesmoreacute,andsothegroupingofcollectionsby contentorgenrerecedessomewhatinimportanceatthesametimethat culturalcontextcomestothefore.
Sincethisvolumepresentsasurvey,thespacedevotedtoanyoneopus
oranyonesongisnecessarilylimited.Ihaveofferedatrenchantcommentortwooneachsolosongincluded,andIhaveoftenspentsome timeonSchumann’schangestothetextsthatinspiredhissetting(hefelt entitledinmanyinstancestoaltertheverseevenofclassicauthors).But mostsongsreceiveverybriefconsiderationintheinterestofwidercoverage.OneonlyneedstoreadanarticlesuchasSusanYouens’sremarkable essayon“DiebeidenGrenadiere”(op.49,no.1)toseehowmuchtextualandculturalenterpriseandmeaningattachtojustoneSchumann song.ButapplyingthiswonderfuldepthofexpositiontoeverySchumannliedwouldhaveproducedastudyrunningtomany,manyvolumes, impracticableandundesirablehere.Bythesametoken,thosefamiliar withSchumann’soutputwillseethatIhavefocusedrelativelymoreattentiononhislatersongsthanonhisearlierones.Withmanyexcellent article-orbook-lengthstudiesoncyclessuchas Dichterliebe,Frauenliebe undLeben, theEichendorff Liederkreis, theKerner Liederreihe, and otherworksfromthecomposer’s1840and1841oeuvre,itseemedbest topointreadersinthedirectionofthecopiousliteraturealreadyathand afteroutliningthebasicfactsandofferingsomeinsight.Neglectedsongs deservedmoreattention.
Oneimportantcaveatexistsinmyselectionoflieder:Ihavefollowed theorganizationofthefirstcompleteeditionindeterminingwhichsolo songstoinclude.Thus,inspiteofsomereaders’urgings,Ihaveomitted the SpanischesLiederspiel, op.74,andthe Minnespiel, op.101,because theyconsistofpartsongs,trios,andduetsasmuchasormorethan solosongs.Ifweaccepttheintegrityoftheopusasagoverningpremise,thendifferentprinciplesdeterminedSchumann’sstructuringofthese collectionsfromthoseprimarilycontainingsolosongs.Bythesametoken,afewduetsfromworkssuchas Liebesfrühling, op.37,andevena trio(withtwoadditional adlibitum voices)from LiederfürdieJugend, op.79,sneakintothisbook.ButClaraSchumann’sandBrahms’sruleof thumbforthefirstcompleteedition(theonlyoneavailableasIwritethis) seemsthebestguide.Thiseditionalsoservedasthetextualbasisformusicalexamples.
AsananalyticalmodelandasaparadigmforthediscussionofGerman liederaltogether,Ihaveadoptedtheapproachformulatedbytheeditorof thesolosongsforthenewSchubertcompleteedition,WaltherDürr,in hisincisive DasdeutscheSololiedim19.Jahrhundert:Untersuchungzur SpracheundMusik. NootherbookextantineitherGermanorEnglish
Prefacexv
todayaddresseseithertheaestheticbackgroundoftheGermanliedinthe nineteenthcenturyorthecomplexinteractionsoftextandmusicinsongs oftheperiodaswellasDürr’s.Anyseriousstudentoftheliedfrom thelateeighteenthtotheearlytwentiethcenturymustacquainthimself orherselfwiththisstudy.IcannotpretendtoaknowledgeofGermanpoeticformasthoroughandprofoundasDürr’s,butIhavereliedonOtto PaulandIngeborgGlier’sclassic DeutscheMetrik forbasicguidance aboutversification.AndHeinrichSchwab’s Sangbarkeit,Popularitätund Kunstlied.StudienzuLiedundLiedästhetikdermittlerenGoethezeit 1770–1814 hasprovidedimmenselyusefulbackgroundinformation aboutnormsofgenreleadinguptotheepochofthe“polyrhythmiclied” (Dürr’sterm,adaptedfromthenineteenth-centurySwisscriticNägeli).
ThelargenumberofstudiesspecificallydevotedtoSchumann’ssongs, manyoftheminGerman,alsoinformedmuchofmydiscussion.Aside frombooksdevotedtoparticularopuses,therelativelyrecentseriesof SchumannForschungen and SchumannStudien containmanyhelpfularticles.Ihavecitedtheappropriatevolumesgenerallyinthebibliography, withspecificreferencesintheappropriatechapterstoparticulararticles inthecontextoftheworkstheydiscuss.ButIhavenotduplicatedentries foreacharticleinthebibliography,andreaderswillneedtoturntoparticularopusestofindthecontributionsofthoseauthors.
Anumberofscholarshaveofferedveryhelpfuladviceandsupport concerningthisstudy.Chiefamongthesearethemusicologistsatthe SchumannResearchCenterinDüsseldorf,BernhardAppel,Matthias Wendt,andparticularlyKazukoOzawa,whohasanalmostencyclopedic knowledgeofSchumann’ssongs.Withouttheirgracioushospitalityand generouslygrantedaccesstomaterials,Icouldnothavewrittenthis book.IhavealsoappreciatedthehelpofGerdNauhaus(nowretired) andUteBärattheRobertSchumannHouseinZwickau,aswellasthe willingnessofOttoBibaattheGesellschaftderMusikfreundeinVienna andHelmutHellattheMusicDivisionoftheStaatsbibliothekzuBerlin toletmeviewautographandprintedmaterial.Othershaveofferedvaluablecommentsonandevaluatedpartsofthebook,includingRufusHallmark,SusanYouens,Roe-minKok,andthelateJohnDaverio(whoseinsightsaresorelymissed).
Partsofthisbookoriginatedinmypreviousstudieslistedinthebibliography.Theseincludeessayson LiederfürdieJugend (1990),theEichendorff Liederkreis, op.39(1994),theAndersen Lieder, op.40(2002),
xviPreface
theReinick Lieder (2004),andthetwosetsof RomanzenundBalladen, opp.45and49(2005)inHelmutLoos’s RobertSchumann:InterpretationenseinerWerke. Inthenaturalcourseofevents,someoftheresearchandthoughtbehindthoseessaysappearsinthisbook,sometimes reconsidered,sometimesreasserted.SupportfortheresearchonthosearticlesandthisbookhavecomefromtheResearchCouncilattheUniversityofNorthCarolina,ChapelHill,andalsofromtheFacultyPartner’s FundintheCollegeofArtsandSciencesatthatsameinstitution.My thankstoDean(nowProvost)BernadetteGray-Littleforhersupportof researchforthisprojectwithmoniesfromthislast-namedfund. IshouldcreditmylifelonginterestinSchumann’ssongsspecificallyto BarbaraKinsey-Sable,atalentedsinger,instructor,andpoetwhohadthe abilitytograsptheinteractionofwordsandmusicinsongs.Herinterest intheliedbroughtSchumannsongstomyattentioninthefirstplace,beforeIknewmuchabouthisothermusic.
Finally,Idedicatethisbooktomymother.Whileshelived,sheencourageditsprogress;Ionlywishshehadnotpassedawaybeforeitappeared inprint.
Introduction:
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder
Schumann’sAestheticofSong
PartofourfascinationwithRobertSchumann’sartisticcareeroriginates inhisextensiveactivityasafounderofandmusiccriticforaprominent musicjournalstillflourishingtoday,the NeueZeitschriftfürMusik.He sharedthisjournalisticproclivitywithanumberofnineteenth-century composers,Weber,Berlioz,andWagneramongthem.Butperhapsno othercomposer-criticwroteaboutsomanyothermusiciansoraddressed suchabroadrangeoftopicsasSchumann.Wemightthinkthathiswiderangingliteraryeducation(thefamilybusinesspublishedinexpensiveeditionsofgreatauthors)andtherefinedmusicalsensibilitiesexhibitedin hiscriticismwouldinclinehimtowardfrequentcommentaryontheliederofhisday,butthisprovednottobethecase.Beforehebeganissuing hisownsongs,hecontributedonlyonesubstantialreviewofcontemporaryliedertothe NeueZeitschrift in1837,1 andafterhisextraordinary outputinthegenrebegantoappear,helimitedhimselftojustfivefurther articlesonthesubject.Inshort,Schumanndidnotrevealmuchabouthis thinkingonsongs,andifwewishtolearnsomethingabouthisartistic criteriaforliederfromhisreviews,wemustteasethemoutofratherslenderevidence.Still,theexerciseoffersaglimpseofSchumann’saesthetic ofsong,andabriefexaminationyieldssomedividends.
PerhapsSchumann’smostrevealingsingleappraisalofthesololied comesinaretrospectivecommentonmorethanadecadeofcriticism neartheendofhistenureaseditorofthe NeueZeitschrift. Herecounts inan1843reviewofRobertFranz’s Gesänge, op.1:
4RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
Oneknowsthatintheyears1830–34areactionaroseagainsttheprevailingtaste.Thebattlewasnotfundamentallydifficult;itwasoneagainstostentationinalmostallgenres,whichmanifesteditself,withtheadmittedexceptionofWeber,Loewe,andothers,mostlyinthegenreofpianomusic. Thefirstattackalsocommencedinpianomusic;filigreecompositionswere replacedbymorethoughtfulcreations,andtheinfluenceoftwomastersin particularmadeitselfnoticeableinthelatter,thatofBeethovenandBach. Thenumberofdisciplesgrew;thenewlifeforceditswayintoothervenues. FortheliedFranzSchubertpreparedtheway,butmoreintheBeethovenianmanner,whereastheinfluenceofBach’sspiritmanifesteditselfinthe achievementsoftheNorthGermans.Acceleratingthesedevelopments,a newGermanpoeticschoolevolved:RückertandEichendorff,although theyhadflourishedearlier,becamemorefamiliartomusicians,whoset mostlyUhlandandHeine.Thusarosethatmoreartisticandthoughtful kindofsong,whichformer[composers]naturallycouldnothaveknown, becausethenewpoeticartwasreflectedbackinmusic.2
Thisbriefasidedisclosesasurprisingnumberofimportantpoints aboutSchumann’sviewofGermansong.Underlyingthispassage,like therestofhiscriticism,isthecentralthemeofartisticprogress.InSchumann’sview,musicandmusicalstyleshoulddevelopinanorderlyway, andhealwayssoughtnotonlynoveltybutalso“improvement”thatlay indeepermeansofexpression,notinmeretriciousdisplay.Schubert,a worthymaster,neverthelessrepresentedanartisticpastsupersededby advancesinthegenre,andthiswasonlyfitting.Anoverridingconcern withthecontributionsofnewsongcomposersformsasalientfeatureof Schumann’sarticlesonthefield.Poetry,moreover,pointedthewaytothe futureinthegenreofthelied,somethingthatrevealsSchumann’sliterary training(whichwasmuchmoreextensivethanhisformalmusicaltraining)aswellasofferinganobliqueglimpseofhisapproachtocomposing songs.Finally,thecriticmentionstwoseparatetraditionsoftheliedas thebasisfortheartisticprogressheexpected,onestemmingfromwhat wemightlooselycharacterizeasthe“southern”Germanschool,the otherfroma“northern”Germanschool.Hedoesnotspecifythestylistic hallmarksofeachschool,butthisseparationhadtellingconsequences forhisownapproachtosettingtexts.
WemightbesurprisedthatSchumanndidnotregardSchubertasthe sole fonsetorigo ofthenineteenth-centuryGermansololied,andthe rootsofthisdiffidence(quiteunlikethecritic’secstaticreceptionoftheC MajorSymphony)layinseveralareas.Foronething,Schubert’sante-
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder5
riorityinSchumann’sviewentailedacertainuniformityinhispiano parts,aswereadinan1840reviewofposthumouslyreleasedSchubert songs:“OneencountersagainhereinthesesongsSchubert’sfamiliar mannerofholdingfasttoonerhythm,oneaccompanimentalfigurefrom beginningtoend.Onecanwellbelievethattheyarewrittenbeautifullyforthevoice,andtheyarenowheredifficulttosing.”3 Thistheme surfacesagaininareviewofTheodorKirchner’s ZehnLiederfüreine SingstimmemitPianoforte, whichcautionsagainsttakingmatterstoofar intheotherdirection:
Inconnectionwiththedevelopingartofpoetry,theFranzSchubertianepochhasalreadybeenfollowedbyanewone,whichhasavaileditselfparticularlyofprogressinanaccompanyinginstrumentfurtherimprovedinthe meantime.Thecomposercallshissongs“LiederwithPianoforte,”andthis mustnotbeoverlooked.Thesingingvoicealonecannotdoeverything,cannotrendereverything.Apartfromtheexpressionofthewhole,thefiner traitsofapoemshouldalsoemerge,andsoitisfittingthatmelodyshould notsufferfrom[thisburden].Theyoungcomposerhascertainlyattended tothis.Hisliederfrequentlyappeartobeindependentinstrumentalpieces, whichoftenscarcelyseemtorequirethevoiceparttoachievetheirfulleffect.Theyarefrequentlylittlemorethantranslationsofpoemsforthepiano,songswithoutwordsasitwere,butmotivatedbytext.Thevoicepart inthemthereforeoftenappearslikeaquietmurmuringofwords,andthe mainexpressionliesmostlyintheaccompaniment.Nobodywillbeableto claimthatthecomposerlacksmelodicprowess,butitstillreliestoomuch onharmony,thebehaviorofthevoicestillbearstoomuchofaninstrumentalcharacter.4
TimeandagainSchumannsoughttosteeramiddlecourseintherelationshipbetweenwordandtone,andherelayanotherslightreservation aboutSchubert.InareviewofseveralvolumesofballadsbyBernhard Klein,thecriticobserves,“Wheretheverse[in“GottunddieBajadere”] becomesmoresensuous,morepainterly,moreIndian,themusicremains brusquelyremote;onewishesmorehere:soft,plumpsounds.Tothe samedegreethatFranzSchubert,Loewe,andmanyofthemodernsoften painttoorealistically,Kleindoestoolittle,and,evenwherehewouldaffect[realism],withoutfreedomorpassion.”5 Muchdependedonthepoetry:ballads(whichcombineepic,lyric,anddramaticmodesofpoetry) requiredamorevariedanddemonstrativemelodyandaccompaniment. Folkishverse,however,madeotherdemands,aswelearninthisreview
6RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
oftheyouthfulHughPearson’ssongstotextsbyRobertBurns:“Almostallofthesesongssufferfromacertainoverabundanceoftenengenderedinyoungercomposerspartlybytechnicalinsecurity,partlyby thedesiretomakegoodimmediately.Inshort,itappearstousthattoo muchdisplayhasbeenexpendedontheseparticulartexts;therearetoo manynotesforthesimplewords.”6 Thoughwemightthink,then,that Schumann’sconstantsearchfor“progress”wouldresultinmoregrandiosemeansofexpression,thecomposer’sactualconcernrevolvedaround moresensitiveandrefinedsettingsofpoetry.
Alltheprecedingexcerptscontainanotionthatwemightexpectfrom acomposergroundedfirmlyinaliterarybackground:thatsongsproceed firstandforemostfromtheversetheyset.Thiscertainlyincludedthesimplemechanicsofaccuratedeclamation.“Goodvocalwritingistobe foundineachofthesongs,”SchumannwroteofW.H.Beit’slieder.“The accompanimenttoodoesnotmisseachsmallturn,neitheraresmallmistakesindeclamationlacking,sosmallthatwewouldoverlookthemin students,butinamoreculturedmanoftalenttheyaresufficientlylarge nottopointthemoutbenevolently.”7 Schumannassumedmuchmore thanproperdeclamation,though.Inthesamereview,hecomesasclose asheeverdoestosettingouthisvisionofthecomposer’staskinapassagelaudingapromisingtalentwhohaddiedyoung:
Idonotwantdiscussionofwhat[makes]abeautifullied.Thatisasdifficult andeasyas[whatmakes]abeautifulpoem.“It’sbutabreath,”saysGoethe. NorbertBurgmüller, ofthethreementioned[here],knewthisbest.He consideredithishighest[goal],asallshould,torecreatetheaftereffectof thepoemdowntoitssmallestfeaturesinthefinestmusicalmaterial.Rarely doesafeatureescapehim,orwherehehasgraspedit,doeshegoastray.8
Schumann’sbriefpraiseofBurgmüllerenvisionsamuchmoresubtle andcomplexinteractionbetweencomposerandpoemthanthesimple notionofsong“reflectingthemeaning”ofverse.Rather,thecomposer shouldseektorecreatetheeffectthatreadingapoemhadonhimorher. Inherentinthisthoughtlieinevitablenotionsofsubjectiveinterpretation, artisticlicense,cognitivedistance,andevendissonance,allofwhichinvolvemuchmorethanfidelitytothewords.SchumannembracedaversionofwhatWaltherDürrcalls(followingNägeli’slead)the“polyrhythmiclied,”inwhichthesoundandsenseoftheverse,ofthemelody,and oftheaccompanimentrunsometimescongruently,sometimesseparately
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder7
butinparallel,sometimesdivergently.9 Theinteractionoftheseseveralelementsinasongproducedanartworkthatamountedtomorethanthe sumofitsparts,elicitingcontinuallyintensifyinglevelsofreflectionfrom thelistener.Schumannaskedcomposerstodomorethaninterpretpoetry;theyweretointimateinmusictheirreactiontoapoem,amultilayeredpsychologicalprocess.
ThemodestmeansSchumannadvocatestoaccomplishthispsychologicallychallengingtaskmustintrigueus.Forthemostparthedisparaged the“overlyrealistic”devicesthathadbecomeassociatedlargelywith the“southern”(readViennese)GermanssuchasSchubert,whosesongs sometimespresentedminiatureoperaariasorcantataswithpianoaccompaniment.Liederremainedlargely“Hausmusik”forSchumann.By thesametoken,thepious,soberapproachofnorthernGermanssuchas ReichardtandZeltercouldbetooinexpressive(thustheobjectionto Kleinquotedearlier),thoughSchumann’scrusadeagainstemptybravura steeredhimmoreinthisdirection.Thetricklayinfashioningintellectuallycomplex,expressiveworksofartwithoutresortingontheone handtoflamboyantdisplayforeithervoiceorpianoordescendinginto artlessimpassivityontheother.Schumann’sexperiencewithconcise,piquantmusicalcharacterizationinhispianominiaturesofthe1830sfitted himperfectlytoproduceliederpossessingexquisitelysubtlebutintense poignance.
Wemustalwaysbearinmind,finally,thatSchumannconsideredthe lied,likethesymphony,tobeanationalisticenterprisedisplayingtheliteraryandmusicalartofGermanstotheirfinesteffect.Inhisfirstarticledevotedtoliederin1837,thecriticwroteofFerdinandStegmayer’s op.16:
Todriveforeignsingingfromthefieldandtoconserveourloveofthepeople—thatis,toreviveagainthemusicthatexpressesnatural,profoundand clearfeelingsartistically—requiresaboveallthecareandprotectionofour goodGermanlied.Anybodyknowshowlittleingeneralwelackbywayof lieder;onecouldpaperoverallofGermanywiththemeveryyear.Whois capable,however,ofoverlookingnothingamongthisimmensenumber,and howmanyofthemodestonesmayremainhiddenhere!Thesongsof Stegmayermaybeimaginedamongthese,whichcomefromasincereheart, asourcethatcanneverconcealitsinfluence.OnlyaGermancanfashion suchprivate,intimatesongs.Moreover,theysingthemselves,sotospeak; nothingheredetainsorseekstooccasionlearnedastonishment.Thoughts ofafortunatelover,thehappinessofakiss,asonginthenight,onein
8RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
springtime,thatofawomanspinning,finallyadeliciousserenade,allin prettywordsanimatedandadornedbythemusic.10
Intheend,thispassagemaysummarizebestSchumann’sexpectationsfor hisandothercomposers’lieder.ProceedingfromaGermanpoeticform withrootsinfolkloricpractice,artsongshouldremainadiscreetgenre thateschewedemptydisplay.ThenewstyleofGermanpoetryconducted Schumanndeeperintothisprivaterealmratherthanintotheextroverted arenaofthetheatricalorvirtuosic.Whilehewelcomedincreasingsophisticationofmeans,artisticprogresshereservedintimateendsthatcould impartthecomposer’sinnermostreactiontotheverseathand.Songsentailedaliteraryaswellasmusicalexperiencemeantprimarilyfortheprivacyofthehome,andassuchtheyhadtosuitthetechnicalabilitiesof talentedamateursingersandpianistsofdiscerningtaste.Themoderation,delicacy,subtletyofgesturethatwinpraiseinSchumann’sreviews ofliedercomposethesamequalitieshewouldseekinhisownoutput.
Schumann’sEarlySongs
Inanautobiographicalsketchdatingfromaround1840,Schumanngives anoverviewofhisearliestartisticactivity:
Ihadnoinstructionincompositionuntilmytwentiethyear.Ibegantocomposeearly,amongotherthingsinmytwelfthyearPsalm150withorchestra,afewnumbersofanopera,manypiecesforvoice,manythingsforpiano.... Manypoeticattemptsfallrightatthistime(beforemytwenties). Themostsignificantpoetsofallcountrieswerefamiliartome.InmyeighteenthyearIdevelopedanenthusiasmforJeanPaul;IalsoheardofFranz Schubertforthefirsttime....
Amidcontinuousproduction(musicalandliterary)Ibecame18years old,whenIwenttoLeipzigtostudylawpermymother’swishes,though myown,notyetclear,[were]todevotemyselfentirelytomusic.
Newlifefromthenon.Industriousstudyofthepiano.Heardgoodmusic.FranzSchubertandBeethovendawnedonme;Bachflickered.Compositions[included]alargequartetforpianowithstrings,8four-handpolonaises,abunchofsongsbyLordByron.11
Recollectedadecadeafterthefact,Schumannlapsedjustslightlyinthis lastassertion:onlyonetextbyByronappearsamongthesurvivingsongs fromhisteenageyears.Byfarhisfavoritepoetfromthisperiodwas JustiniusKerner,representedinfivesettings,followedbySchumannhim-
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder9
self(sometimesunderthepseudonym“Ekert”),representedinthreesettings,JohannGeorgJacobiintwosettings,andfinallyGoetheinjust one.12
Allofthesecompositionscomefromtheyears1827and1828,and scholarsusuallycitevariousadolescentcrushesonNanniPetsch,Liddy Hempel,IdaStölzel,andAgnesCarusastheimpetusformostofthem. ChiefamongthesewasAgnesCarus,eightyearsolderthanSchumann, thewifeofDr.ErnstAugustCarus,andanamateursinger.13 Schumann probablyencounteredherin1827atthehomeofherbrother-in-law,Karl ErdmannCarus,awell-to-domerchantandmanufacturerwholivedin Zwickau.FromNovember1827,AgnesandherhusbandlivedinLeipzig,whereSchumannencounteredthemagainin1828asalawstudent. MadameCarusdotsthepagesofthecomposer’sdiariesfromthisperiod, whereherecordssuchthingsas“Iwillgotobedanddreamofher,ofher. Goodnight,Agnes.”14 Butthereisnorecordthatshereturnedtheyoung composer’saffections,andhebroodswithadolescentpetulanceinAugust1828,“Mysongs. Theyaredevotedtothetrueimpressionofmy [very]self;butnohumanbeingcanshowwhatgeniusitselfcreated;even she sangthemostbeautifulpassagesbadlyanddidnotunderstandme.”15 Amiddreamsofotherwomenandgirls(includingClaraWieck),Schumannfinallyhadmusicalsatisfaction,atleast:“Agnesandthesongs; she learnedtounderstandthembetter;theymostlyrecountallmyfeelingsin tones.”16 Eventuallythisinfatuationdiedaway,leavingelevencomplete songsandtwofragments,fromwhichSchumannsawfittocullafair copythatheconsideredpublishingas“op.2”sometimelater,perhaps during1829or1830.17 Hedidnotexecutethisplan,however.Thesongs appearedposthumously,threeeditedbyBrahmsinthe1893supplement tothefirstSchumannedition,sixmoreina1933editionpublishedby KarlGeiringer,andoneinasupplementthatsameyeartothe Zeitschrift fürMusik, commemoratingthehundredthanniversaryofitsfounding (theeleventhsongfortheprojected“op.2”remainedunfinished).These tensongswillgivesomeinklingofSchumann’sinitialforayintothelied.
TheEarlySongs:“Hirtenknabe”(“Ekert”),“Sehnsucht”(“Ekert”),“DieWeinende” (Byron),“Erinnerung”(Jacobi),“AnAnna”(“Langeharrt’ich,”Kerner),“An Anna”(“NichtimThale,”Kerner),“KurzesErwachen”(Kerner),“Gesanges Erwachen”(Kerner),“ImHerbste”(Kerner),“DerFischer”(Goethe) WewillbedisappointedifweseekamongSchumann’searlysongsmasterpiecessuchasthosetheteenageSchubertfashionedadecadebefore.
10RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
Fromanearlyage,Schubertstudiedinamajorcityataninstitutiondedicatedtotrainingprofessionalmusicians,withSalieriashisteacherofvocalwriting.Schumanncametohisfirstsongsasanamateurfromasmall town,instructedmostlyinkeyboardbythelocalorganist(whoselimitationsherecognized).Hisearlysongsevinceunmistakabletalentandambition,andtheysettheirtextsbetterthanmanyoftheliedercirculating atthetime,buttheyremainstudentworks.Redolentofadolescentmelancholyinmanycases,thesongsintimateapotentialforharmonicdeftnessandmelodiclyricismnotyetfullyrealized.
Schumanntriedoutthemanyoptionsavailabletohiminsettingtext, themostbasicofwhichfeaturedminimalaccompaniment,limitedmelodicrange,andstrophicform.Themostobviouspoeticcandidatefor thistreatmentwashisown“Hirtenknabe,”whichfallsinthegenreof “LiederfürdieJugend,”towhichhewouldreturninthelate1840s.The iambicregularityofthepoetry,thenarrowrangeofthevoice(spanning lessthanaoctave),thelimitedharmonicpalette,andtheextremelysimpleaccompaniment(largelyblockchords)allplacethisnumberinthe realmofthefolkish.Missingherearethesubtleturnsofphrase,poetic andmusical,thatmadeSchumann’slatersongsforchildrencleverlyappealingtotheadultswhowouldplaythem.Nonetheless,wemustrecognize“Hirtenknabe”asamemberofagenreharkingbacktothefolkloric rootsoftheliedratherthanregardingitassomethingunsophisticatedby reasonofinexperience(thesongdatesfrom16August1828,towardthe endofthisearlyperiod).18
Theothercompletedsongwithatextbythecomposer,“Sehnsucht,”is slightlymoreambitiousbutequallystraightforward.Schumann’spoetry hasapredictableregularityinbothsentimentandmeter:
Sternederblauen
Starsintheblue HimmlischenAuen Heavenlypastures, Grüßtsiemir, Greetherforme, dieichgeliebt! ShewhomIloved! WeitindieFerne Tothatfarplace Möcht’ichsogerne, WouldIgogladly, Wodasgeliebte Wherethebeloved Mädchenmirweilt. Maidawaitsme.
Thecomposertranslatesthesteadyalternationofdactylswithtrochees intoacuttimethatshouldreallybecommontime(withthequarternote ratherthanthehalfnotereceivingthebeat).Asidefromthebriefinstru-
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder11
mentalprelude,SchumannprovidessextupletarpeggiationsàlaSchubert throughout,articulatingharmoniesthatgonofurtherthansecondary dominants.InhismelodySchumannexhibitsaproclivityforexpressive leapsupwardofasixth(ontheword“himmlischen,”forinstance),and healsoinsertsanumberofvocalturnsbywayofembellishment.Written inJune1827,thissongdisplaysgracefulcompetencebutlittlemore.
Schumannrespondedmorethoughtfullytotheverseofother(and franklybetter)poetsintheremainingsongsfromthisperiod.Hissetting fromByron’s“HebrewMelodies,”“DieWeinende”(“Isawtheeweep”), fromJuly1827,justamonthafter“Sehnsucht,”hasamuchmoreharmonicallydaringaccompanimentandismorevariedinitsrhythmicmotion,eventhoughSchumannreliesmostlyonblockchordsanddoubles thevoicepartintherighthand.Theyoungcomposerfoundtheverse translatedbyJuliusKörnerinoneofhisfather’spocketeditions,andthe setting’sthrough-composedmelodyandrhythmicvarietyaddressinpart thescansionoftheGermanrendition:19
Isawtheeweep—thebigbrighttearIchsahdichweinen!ach,dieZähre Cameo’erthateyeofblue;SchwammaufdesAugesblau; Andthen,methought,itdidappearUnddiesesAuge,dacht’ich,wäre Avioletdroppingdew.EinVeilchen,nassvomThau.
Schumanntendstorespectthesyntaxoftheverseratherthanitsdivisionsintolines,andthoughhereusesmotiviccellsinhisvocalline,it avoidsobviousperiodicity,affordingmoredeclamatoryfreedomthanthe twosongsdiscussedpreviously.Ofcourse,theimageryofthetextismore sophisticatedthanthatinthecomposer’sownpoetry,promptingamelodyandaccompanimentthatdivergemorefancifullyfromthestructure andmeteroftheverse.
Schumann’ssettingofJacobi’s“Erinnerung”hasthissamevarietyof accompanimentbut,unlike“DieWeinende,”avoidsinvariablydoubling thevoiceintherighthand.Thissong,composedon16August1828 alongwith“Hirtenknabe,”20 takesvariedstrophicformandgivesafleetingpremonitionofSchumann’slyricgift.Thefrequentleapsupwardofa sixth(whichcansoundlikeyodelinginsomeofhisotherearlysongs, whenrepeatedtoooften)donotintrudehere,andthecomposercarefully placesemphasizedwordsoftextonhigherpitches.Themelodyisgracefullyrestrainedinrange,easytosingyetexpressive(seeex.I.1).Thefact thatSchumannchosevariedstrophicsettingforthispoemwhiletreat-
12RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
ExampleI.1. Schumann’ssettingofGeorgJacobi’s“Erinnerung”from16 August1828.
ing“DieWeinende”tothrough-compositionshouldnotleadustoview “Erinnerung”aslesssophisticatedorprogressive.Whenacomposerselectsstrophicsetting(asmanydidthroughoutthenineteenthcentury),he orsheembarksonthedifficulttask“tocaptureasifinonefocalpoint” theoverallsenseofthepoem,accordingtoE.T.A.Hoffmann.21 Throughcompositionrequiresmorescrivening,butitallowsthecomposerthe convenienceofdeclaimingeachwordseparatelyandaddressingeach thoughtindividually.Astrophicsettingmustaccommodatethestructure ofeachstanzaanddistillmeaningintoonemelody.Avariedstrophicsettingliketheshortonefor“Erinnerung”seeksthebestofbothworlds, butitmaybemoreartisticallychallengingintheendthanthrough-composition.
Schumann’sbesteffortsatcomposingliederduringtheseearlyyears cameinresponsetoGermanpoetswhomhewouldrevisitinlateryears. Hisfavoriteasalovesickadolescent,atleastformusicaltreatment,was JustiniusKerner,aSwabianauthorofsomewhatsentimentalinclinations. ThoughKernerearnedhislivingasamedicaldoctor,hehadanextensiveliterarycareerthatincludedhistoricalmonographs,shortstories, andagooddealofverse.22 Schumannwouldlaterdevoteonesongcycle solelytoKerner(op.35)aswellaswritingtwoadditionalsettingsduring1840thatfoundtheirwayintolatermiscellanies.TheyoungcomposerselectedfivetextsinJuneandJulyof1828,writingtoGottlob Wiedebein,aBraunschweigsongcomposerwhomheadmired,“Kerner’s poems,whichattractedmethemostthroughthatmysterious,supernaturalpowerwhichoneoftenfindsintheverseofGoetheandJeanPaul,first gavemetheideaoftestingmyweakabilities,becauseineverywordof themisaworldofsoundsthatcanonlybedefinedinnotes.”23
TwooftheearlyKernertextsfeatureblankverseaspartofanepistolaryconceit,“AndreasanAnna,”providinganexcuseforfancifulsettingsinwhichSchumannoverreaches.Hesets“Langeharrt’ich”as athrough-composed,declamatoryliedmarked“Schwärmerisch,”with manysmallsegmentsinchangingtempi,suddenmodulations,andlittle motiviccoherence.ThisisSchumann’sweakesteffortfrom1828,becausehestrivestoohardforeffect.Thesecondletter“AnAnna,”“Nicht imThale,”alsocomesacrossasratheraffected,modulatingsuddenlyin itsmiddlesectionfromFmajortoD-flatmajor,butitevincesmorelyricismthanitscousinandachievesmorecoherencebyrepeatingtheopeningstrophewithvariedmusic(aformaldevicethecomposerusedoften inhismatureworks).Thepoetryhasasuitablymelancholyandsomewhatmelodramatictinge:
NichtimThaledersüßenHeimat,Notinthevalleyofthesweet homeland, BeimGemurmelderSilberquelle— Bythemurmurofthesilveryspring— BleichgetragenausdemSchlachtfeld, Carriedwanfromthebattlefield, Denk’ichdein,dusüßesLeben!Ithinkofyoursweetlife!
Thesoldierliesdying(heexpiresduringthecourseofthepoem)amid manyofhiscomrades,whichpromptsthedistantmodulationforthesecondstanza.Butatleastthevocalpartexhibitssomegracefulturns.
Schumannfaredmuchbetterwiththethreeremaining,moreconventionalKernertexts,allofthemcastinregular,cross-rhymedversethat lendsitselftostrophicsetting.Schumannadoptsthisapproachfor “KurzesErwachen”and“GesangesErwachen”withatwist:hesetsthe laststropheofeachasacoda,usingsomemotivesfromtheprevious stanzasbutrecombiningthemtocreatedifferentconclusions.Ineach poemthelastquatrainconveysthesamemoral:nomatterhowlovelynaturemightbe,adisappointedlovercannotappreciateitsbeauty.Strophicorvariedstrophicformwithacodademarkingthemessageinthe finalstanzawouldlaterbecomeoneofSchumann’sfavoritecompositionaldevicesforlieder.Whentheoriginalpoemconsistsofonlythree stanzas,DavidFerrisunderstandablyviewssuchsettingsas“barforms” (“Stollen,Stollen,Abgesang,”tocitetheoldformula),thoughSchumann doesnotfollowthetraditionalruleinwhichthe Abgesang usuallyhasthe lengthofthefirsttwostanzascombined.24
“ImHerbste”isthegemoftheKernergroup,offeringasampleof
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder13
14RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
whatSchumanncouldaccomplishinlittlespacewithlimitedmeans.The voicebeginsonthebittersweettoppitchofadiminishedtriad,movesdirectlytoanexpressivelyflattedthirdontheword“eilend,”andthenrepeatsthebeautifullyenjambed“einzigvonmir,vonmir,einzigvonmir” onarisingscale,makingaregulartwo-barphrasethatplacesthefinal “einzig”onthehighestpitch(seeex.I.2).ThislastphraseexudesaneffortlessnessthatwouldlaterconstituteahallmarkofSchumann’smature vocalstyle.Theuncertaintyofmode,theharmonicsimplicitywithwhich thecomposerachievesit,andfinallythedelicatepostludeendingina plagalcadenceallproducetheeaseofexpressionSchumannhopedto findinothercomposers’songs.Onlyafewungainlyvocalleapsandthe incessantblockchordsintheaccompanimentremindusthatthislovely miniatureisastudentwork.
Thelastcompletesongofthisgroup,“DerFischer,”setsawell-known textbyGermany’sgreatestpoet,Goethe.Herelatesawonderfullymaca-
ExampleI.2. ExcerptfromJustiniusKerner’s“ImHerbste,”inSchumann’s settingfromsummer1828.
Schumann’sCriticismandEarlyLieder15
bretaleofafishermanluredtoawaterygravebyabeautifulwomanwho risesupoutofthewaves,ametaphorthatprobablyappealedtoSchumannaroundthetimeofhismanyamorousmisadventures.Thelastlines ofGoethe’spoemmusthavespokenparticularlytotheadolescent’sfrustrationswithwomenwhoseemedinvitingyetcausedhim(ifhisdiaries areanyindication)constantunhappiness:
Siesprachzuihm,siesangzuihm;Shespoketohim,shesangtohim; Dawar’sumihngeschehn:Thenthisdidcometopass: Halbzogsieihn,halbsankerhin,Shepartlypulled,hepartlysank, Undwardnichtmehrgesehn.Andnevermorewasseen.
WedonotknowwhetherSchumann,composinginJune1828,knew Schubert’swonderfulsettingofthisballad,pennedin1815andpublishedin1821asop.5,number3,butitseemsunlikely.25 Theeighteenyear-oldViennesecomposerfashionedamasterfulstrophicrendition, whereasSchumanntookanoverlydramatized,ternaryapproachtothe text,repletewithrisingglissandiforthewavesintheouterstanzas(see ex.I.3),incessanttremolochords,vocalleapsdescendinginsequenceto depicttheocean’sdepths,andapretentiousfermataon“sanker hin” tosetoffthefinalline.Allofthis,especiallythetheatricalpauseatthe end,takesitscuequiteobviouslyfromSchubert’s“Erlkönig,”which SchumanncouldhardlyhaveavoidedduringthisperiodinGermanconcerthallsaswellasinprivatehomes.26 “DerFischer,”however,doesnot featureanextensivecastoranydialogueandthereforesupportsdramatic treatmentlessconvincingly.Schumann’ssongnotonly“paintstoorealistically”butalsopaintstooobviously,andthismaysuggestwhyhesent hisKernersettings,butnottheGoethesongcomposedatthesametime, forevaluationtoanexperiencedcomposersuchasWiedebein.
Theevidenceofthe ElfJugendlieder certainlyspeakstoSchumann’s promiseasacomposerofsongs,butnottoaconsistentlyaccomplished techniqueortodiscernmentingaugingaccuratelywhichmelodicand accompanimentaldevicesappliedinagivensituation.Theyoungamateurmakesnoovertblundersofdeclamation,thoughhissenseofappropriatevocalmotionstillleavesmuchtobedesired.Andsomeofthis musicseemsrougharoundtheedges,althoughitcanalsorevealmore polish;thesetwocontradictoryelementsoftenintermingleinoneand thesamesong.Schumannlaterminedtheseearlysongsformaterial:a variantof“AnAnne”(“NichtimThale”)founditswayintothesec-
16RobertSchumann:TheBookofSongs
ExampleI.3. BeginningofthelastsectionfromSchumann’ssettingof“Der Fischer,”summer1828.
ondmovementofthePianoSonata,op.11,aversionof“ImHerbste” becameathemeinthePianoSonata,op.22,andmaterialfrom“Hirtenknabe”beginstheIntermezzo,op.4,no.4.27 Butthesongsthemselves werehardlyreadytoplayonthenationalstagetowhichthecomposer aspired.
Schumann’smusicalinexperiencemayexplainatleastpartofthereasonhestoppedcomposingliederforthenextdecade.Hewritesinhisautobiographicalnote,“Finallyin1831IbeganregularstudyofcompositionunderHeinrichDorn,thecurrentkapellmeisterinRiga,ahighly shrewd,awe-inspiring,ingeniousman.Aroundthistimemyfirstcompositionsalsoappearedinprint;theyaretoosmallandrhapsodictomakea greatdealof.”28 Inthesameparagraphthecomposeralsorecountshisintensestudyofpiano,whichendedinphysicaldisaster.Neverthelessherequiredbothpursuits—instructionincompositionandpiano—torealize hisambitionsasacomposerofsongs.The“smallandrhapsodic”piano piecesofthe1830shelpedSchumannperfecttheprecisionofidiomand trenchantcharacterizationthatenabledhimtoaddresslyricalpoetryeffectivelyinthe1840s.Withoutgroupsofpianominiaturessuchas Papillons,DieDavidsbündlertänze, and Carnaval, cyclessuchas Dichterliebe,
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there reigned a darkness of impenetrable gloom and density. None of the children ventured to ascend alone.
Maria scrambled up. She counted the steps. Like the rushing of a thousand wings came the sound of the children’s feet behind her, in the narrow spiral. She did not know how long she had been climbing up. Innumerable hands were clutching her damp dress. She dragged her burdens upward, praying, moaning the while—praying only for strength for another hour.
“Don’t cry, little brothers!” she stammered. “My little sisters, please don’t cry.”
Children were screaming, down in the depths—and the hundred windings of the stairway gave echo’s trumpet to each cry:
“Mother—! Mother—!”
And once more:
“The water’s coming—!”
Stop and lie down, halfway up the stairs—? No!
“Little sisters! Little brothers—do come along!”
Higher—winding ever and always higher upward; then, at last, a wide landing. Greyish light from above. A walled-in room; not yet the upper world, but its fore-court. A short, straight flight of stairs upon which lay a shaft of light. The opening, a trap-door, which seemed to be pressed inwards. Between the door and the square of the wall, a cleft, as narrow as a cat’s body.
Maria saw that. She did not know what it meant. She had the uncertain feeling of something not being as it ought to be. But she did not want to think about it. With an almost violent movement she tore her hands, her gown, free from the children’s tugging fingers, and dashed, hurled forward far more by her desperate will than by her benumbed feet, through the empty room and up the steep stairway.
She stretched out her hands and tried to raise the pressed-in door. It did not budge. Once more. No result. Head, arms, shoulders pushing, hips and knees pressing, as if to burst their sinews. No result. The door did not yield by a hair’s breadth. If a child had tried to push the cathedral from its place it could not have acted more foolishly nor ineffectually.
For, upon the door, which alone led the way out of the depths, there towered, as high as houses, the corpses of the dead engines, which, when madness first broke out over Metropolis, had been the terrible playthings of the mob. Train upon train, with carriages thundering along, all lights burning and on full power, had rushed along the rails, lashed by the bawling of the mob, had fallen upon each other, had become mixed and piled up together, had burnt down and were now lying, half-melted, still smouldering, a mass of ruins. And one, single lamp, remaining undamaged, threw the shaft of its sharp, corrosive light over the chaos, from the steel breast of the hindmost engine.
But Maria knew nothing of all this. She did not need to know. Sufficient for her that the door, which was the only means of deliverance for her and the children she wanted to save, remained inexorable, immovable, and finally, with bleeding hands and shoulders, with battered head, and feet crippled with numbness, she was obliged to resign herself to the incomprehensible, to the murderous.
She raised her face to the ray of light which fell upon her. The words of a little, childish prayer, now no longer intelligible, ran through her head. She dropped her head and sat down on the stairs.
The children stood in silence, crowded closely together, under the curse of something which, though they could not understand it, was very close above them.
“Little brothers, little sisters,” said Maria’s voice, very affectionately, “can you all understand what I am saying?”
“Yes,” floated up from the children.
“The door is closed.... We must wait a little.... Someone is sure to come and open it for us. Will you be patient and not be frightened?”
“Yes,” came an answer, as a sigh.
“Sit down as well as you can....”
The children obeyed.
“I am going to tell you a story,” said Maria.
CHAPTER XVIII
“Little sister....”
“Yes?”
“I am so hungry, sister...!”
“Hungry...!” echoed out of the depths.
“Don’t you want to hear the end of my story?”
“Yes.... But sister, when you’ve finished, can’t we go out and have dinner?”
“Of course ... as soon as my story’s finished.... Just think: Foxy Fox went for a walk—went for a walk through the beautiful flowery meadows; he had his Sunday coat on, and he held his bushy red tail bolt upright, and he was smoking his little pipe and singing all the while.... Do you know what Foxy Fox sang?—
I am the cheerful Fox—Hurray! I am the cheerful Fox—Hurray!
And then he hopped for joy! And little Mr. Hedgehog was sitting on his hillock and he was so glad that his radishes were coming on so nicely, and his wife was standing by the hedge, gossiping with Mrs. Mole, who had just got a new fur for the Autumn....”
“Sister....”
“Yes?”
“Can the water from down there be coming up after us?”
“Why, little brother?”
“I can hear it gurgling....”
“Don’t listen to the water, little brother ... just listen to what Mrs. Hedgehog has to chatter about!”
“Yes, sister, but the water is chattering so loud ... I think it chatters much louder than Mrs. Mole....”
“Come away from the stupid water, little brother.... Come here to me! You can’t hear the water here!”
“I can’t come to you sister! I can’t move, sister.... Can’t you come and fetch me?”
“Me too, sister—yes, me too!—me too!”
“I can’t do that, little brothers, little sisters! Your youngest brothers and sisters are on my lap. They have gone to sleep and I mustn’t wake them!”
“Oh sister, are we sure to get out?”
“Why do you ask as if you were frightened, little brother?”
“The floor is shaking so and stones are tumbling down from the ceiling!”
“Have those silly stones hurt you?”
“No, but my little sister’s lying down and she’s not moving any more.”
“Don’t disturb her, little brother. Your sister’s asleep!”
“Yes, but she was crying just now...!”
“Don’t be sorry little brother that she had gone where she need not cry any more....”
“Where has she gone to, then, sister?”
“To heaven, I think.”
“Is heaven so near, then?”
“Oh yes, quite near. I can even see the door from here! And if I’m not wrong, Saint Peter is standing there, in front of it, with a large
golden key, waiting until he can let us in....”
“Oh, sister ... sister!! Now the water’s coming up—! Now it’s got hold of my feet! Now it’s lifting me up—!”
“Sister!! Help me, sister. The water has come—!!”
“God can help you—Almighty God!”
“Sister, I’m frightened!”
“Are you frightened of going into the lovely heaven?”
“Is it lovely in heaven?”
“Oh—glorious—glorious!”
“Is Foxy Fox in heaven, too—and little Mr. Hedgehog?”
“I don’t know! Shall I ask Saint Peter about it?”
“Yes, sister.... Are you crying?”
“No, why should I be crying?—Saint Peter—! Saint Peter—!”
“Did he hear?”
“Dear God, how cold the water is....”
“Saint Peter—! Saint Peter—!!”
“Sister.... I think he answered, just now....”
“Really, little brother?”
“Yes ... somebody was calling....”
“Yes, I heard it, too!”
“... So did I....”
“... So did I....”
“Hush, children, hush....”
“Oh, sister, sister—!”
“Hush, please—please—!”
“... Maria—!”
“Freder—!!!”
“Maria—are you there—?”
“Freder—Freder—here I am! Here I am, Freder—!!”
“On the stairs?”
“Yes!”
“Why don’t you come up?”
“I can’t raise the door!”
“Ten trains have run together.... I can’t come to you! I must go and get help!”
“Oh, Freder, the water’s already close behind us!”
“The water—?”
“Yes!—And the walls are falling in!”
“Are you hurt—?”
“No, no.... Oh, Freder, if you could only force open the door wide enough for me to push the little children’s bodies through....”
The man above her did not give her an answer.
When steeling his muscles and sinews in the “Club of the Sons,” playfully wrestling with his friends, he surely never guessed that he would need them one day to force a path through ruined cables, upright pistons and out-spread wheels of fallen machines to the woman he loved. He thrust the pistons aside like human arms, clutched into steel as into soft, yielding flesh. He worked his way nearer the door and threw himself on the ground.
“Maria—?”
“Freder?”
“Where are you? Why does your voice sound so far away?”
“I want to be the last whom you save, Freder! I am carrying the tiniest ones on my shoulders and arms....”
“Is the water still rising?”
“Yes.”
“Is it rising fast or slowly?”
“Fast.”
“My God, my God.... I can’t get the door loose! The machines are piled up on top of it like mountains! I must explode the ruins, Maria!”
“Very well.” Maria’s voice sounded as though she were smiling. “Meanwhile I can finish telling my story....”
Freder dashed away. He did not know where his feet should carry him. He thought vaguely of God.... “Thy will be done.... Deliver us from evil.... For Thine is the ... power....”
From the sooty black sky a frightful gleam, of the colour of spilt blood, fell upon the city, which appeared as a silhouette of tattered velvet in the painful scarcity of light. There was not a soul to be seen and yet the air throbbed under the unbearable knife-edge of shrieks of women from the vicinity of Yoshiwara, and, while the organ of the cathedral was shrilling and whistling, as though its mighty body were wounded unto death, the windows of the cathedral, lighted from within, began, phantom-like to glow.
Freder staggered along to the tower-house in which the heart of the great machine-city of Metropolis had lived, and which it had torn open from top to bottom, when racing itself to death, in the fever of the “12,” so that the house now looked like a ripped open, gaping gate.
A lump of humanity was crawling about the ruins, seeming, from the sounds it emitted, to be nothing but a single curse, on two legs. The horror which lay over Metropolis was Paradise compared with the
last, cruel destruction which the lump of humanity was invoking from the lowest and hottest of hells upon the city and its inhabitants.
He found something among the ruins, raised it to his face, recognised it and broke out into howls, similar to the howls of a kicked dog. He rubbed his sobbing mouth upon the little piece of steel.
“May the stinking plague gnaw you, you lice—! May you sit in muck up to your eyes—! May you swill gas instead of water and burst every day—for ten thousand years—over and over again—!”
“Grot!”
“Filth—!”
“Grot!!—Thank God.... Grot, come here!”
“Who’s that—”
“I am Joh Fredersen’s son—”
“Aaah—Hell and the devil—I wanted you—! Come here, you toad—! I must have you between my fists. I’d much rather have had your father, but you’re a bit of him and better than nothing! Come along here, if you’ve got the guts. Ah—my lad, wouldn’t I like to get hold of you! I’d like to smear you from top to toe in mustard and eat you!
D’you know what your father’s done—?”
“Grot—!”
“Let me finish—I tell you! Do you know what he did—? He made me give up ... he made me give up my machine....”
And once more the miserable howling of a kicked dog.
“My machine ... my—my machine—! That devil up there! That Goddamned devil!...”
“Grot, listen to me—”
“I won’t listen to anything!—”
“Grot, in the underground city, the water has broken in....”
Seconds of silence. Then—roars of laughter, and, on the heap of ruins, the dance of a four-legged lump, which kicked its stumps amid wild yells, clapping its hands the while.
“That’s right—! Hallelujah Amen—!”
“Grot—!” Freder laid fast hold of the dancing lump and shook it so that its teeth rattled. “The water has flooded the city! The lights lie in ruins! The water has risen up the steps! And upon the door—upon the only door, there lie tons upon tons of trains which collided with each other there!”
“Let the rats drown—!”
“The children, Grot—!!”
Grot stood as if paralysed.
“A girl,” continued Freder, clutching his hand into the man’s shoulder, “a girl,” he said sobbingly, bending his head as if to bury it in the man’s breast, “a girl has tried to save the children and is now shut in with them and can’t get out—”
Grot began to run.
“We must explode the ruins, Grot!”
Grot stumbled, turned about and went on running, Freder behind him, closer than his shadow....
“... But Foxy Fox knew very well that Mr. Hedgehog would come to help him out of the trap, and he wasn’t a bit frightened and waited quite cheerfully, although it was a good long time before Mr. Hedgehog—gallant Mr. Hedgehog! came back....”
“Maria—!”
“Oh Christ.... Freder?”
“Don’t be startled, do you hear?”
