Wire technology second edition process engineering and metallurgy roger n wright

Roger N. Wright

Visit to download the full and correct content document: https://textbookfull.com/product/wire-technology-second-edition-process-engineeringand-metallurgy-roger-n-wright/

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant download maybe you interests ...

Food Process Engineering and Technology Third Edition

Berk

https://textbookfull.com/product/food-process-engineering-andtechnology-third-edition-berk/

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

https://textbookfull.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cookloucas/

Biofuels engineering process technology 2nd Edition

Caye M. Drapcho

https://textbookfull.com/product/biofuels-engineering-processtechnology-2nd-edition-caye-m-drapcho/

Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Fourth Edition: Volume 3A: Chemical and Biochemical Reactors and Reaction Engineering R. Ravi

https://textbookfull.com/product/coulson-and-richardsonschemical-engineering-fourth-edition-volume-3a-chemical-andbiochemical-reactors-and-reaction-engineering-r-ravi/

Paul A Biography 1st Edition N. T. Wright

https://textbookfull.com/product/paul-a-biography-1st-edition-nt-wright/

Biscuit baking technology : processing and engineering manual Second Edition Davidson

https://textbookfull.com/product/biscuit-baking-technologyprocessing-and-engineering-manual-second-edition-davidson/

Applied Computing and Information Technology Roger Lee

https://textbookfull.com/product/applied-computing-andinformation-technology-roger-lee/

Handbook of Food Science and Technology 2 Food Process Engineering and Packaging 1st Edition Romain Jeantet

https://textbookfull.com/product/handbook-of-food-science-andtechnology-2-food-process-engineering-and-packaging-1st-editionromain-jeantet/

Chemical Reaction Engineering and Reactor Technology, Second Edition Tapio O. Salmi (Author)

https://textbookfull.com/product/chemical-reaction-engineeringand-reactor-technology-second-edition-tapio-o-salmi-author/

WIRE TECHNOLOGY

WIRE TECHNOLOGY ProcessEngineeringand Metallurgy

SecondEdition

By ROGERN.WRIGHT

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON

NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO

SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

ButterworthHeinemannisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK 50HampshireStreet,5th Floor,Cambridge,MA02139,USA

Copyright © 2016,2011ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.

Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyany means,electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformation storageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailson howtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspolicies andourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterand theCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/ permissions

Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyright bythePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).

Notices

Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchand experiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.

Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledge inevaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.

Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors, oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorproperty asamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperation ofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData

AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress

BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData

AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary

ISBN:978-0-12-802650-2

ForinformationonallButterworthHeinemannpublications visitourwebsiteat http://store.elsevier.com/

DEDICATION

Tomywife,Patricia,whohaslearnedthateveryroomisanoffice,andevery tableadesk.

Preface xiii AbouttheAuthorxv

1.TheGeneralIdea1

1.1 Concepts1

1.2 HowDoesDrawingWork?2 1.3 QuestionsandProblems6

2.ABriefHistoryofTechnology7

2.1 AncientandEarlyTechnology7

2.2 TheNineteenthCentury9

2.3 TheTwentiethCentury10

2.4 FurtherReading11

2.5 QuestionsandProblems11

3.TwentiethCenturyEquipmentConcepts13

3.1 Overview13

3.2 Benches13

3.3 Blocks14

3.4 Multiple-DieMachines15

3.5 OtherIn-LineProcesses17

3.6 Post-TwentiethCenturyDevelopments17

3.7 QuestionsandProblems18

4.BasicEngineeringVariablesPertinenttoDrawing19

4.1 GeneralQuantities19

4.2 QuantitiesDescribingtheWorkpieceandDieDuringDrawing23

4.3 QuestionsandProblems27

5.BasicDrawingMechanics29

5.1 ASimpleDrawingStressModel29

5.2 DrawingLimits34

5.3 AnIllustrativeCalculation34

5.4 TheIssueofOptimumDieAnglesand △ Values34

5.5 DiePressure35

5.6 CenterlineTension37

5.7 PlasticFlowOutsidetheDrawingCone39

5.8 EffectsofBackTension40

5.9 SystemsofAnalysis41

5.10 QuestionsandProblems41

6.DrawingTemperature45

6.1 ContributionstotheDrawingTemperature45

6.2 TemperatureMeasurement50

6.3 InterpassCooling52

6.4 PracticalExamplesofDrawingTemperatureEffects52

6.5 QuestionsandProblems58

7.DrawingSpeed59

7.1 DefinitionandBasicFormulas59

7.2 TheRoleofDrawingSpeedinAnalysis60

7.3 TheEffectofDrawingSpeedonLubrication62

7.4 SomePracticalIssues63

7.5 QuestionsandProblems64

8.Friction,Lubrication,andSurfaceQuality67

8.1 ModesofLubricationandRelatedFrictionResponse67

8.2 PhysicalConditionsintheLubricantLayer73

8.3 QuantifyingtheFrictionStress76

8.4 DrawingwithHighFriction77

8.5 RedrawStockSurfaceConditioningIssues78

8.6 CharacterizationwithMicroscopy79

8.7 IllustrationsofMicroscopicCharacterizationandAnalysis80

8.8 TheDevelopmentofChevrons(Crow'sFeet)84

8.9 QuestionsandProblems89

9.DrawingDieandPassScheduleDesign91

9.1 GeneralAspectsandtheRoleof Δ 92

9.2 CommonDieMaterials96

9.3 OtherElementsofDieDesign100

9.4 PressureDies103

9.5 DieWearandDieLife105

9.6 PassScheduleConcepts107

9.7 DrawingPracticeandCastandPitchControl111

9.8 QuestionsandProblems113

10.ShapedDiesandRollerDies115

10.1 DrawingShapeswithOne-PieceDies115

10.2 DrawingwithUnpoweredRollerDieSystems120

10.3 “Drawing” withPoweredRollerDieSystems123

10.4 RollGapIssues125

10.5 QuestionsandProblems126

11.MechanicalPropertiesofWireandRelatedTesting129

11.1 TheFlowStressoftheWire130

11.2 TheTensileTest132

11.3 TheCrystalPlasticityBasisfortheFlowCurve140

11.4 OtherMechanicalTests146

11.5 HardnessTests146

11.6 CompressionTests148

11.7 BendingTests150

11.8 TorsionTests152

11.9 CreepTesting153

11.10 FatigueTesting154

11.11 SpringbackTesting155

11.12 EvaluatingResidualStress156

11.13 QuestionsandProblems157

12.DrawabilityandBreaks159

12.1 PracticalDefinitions159

12.2 MeasuringandEstimatingDrawability160

12.3 CategorizingDrawingBreaks166

12.4 MechanicsofDrawingBreaks168

12.5 TheGenerationof “Fines” 173

12.6 QuestionsandProblems175

13.RelevantAspectsofCopperandCopperAlloyMetallurgy177

13.1 ImportantPropertiesofCopper178

13.2 PrimaryProcessing178

13.3 CrystalStructure,Grains,Texture,Anisotropy,andSpringback181

13.4 FlowStress,ColdWorking,andAnnealing184

13.5 SolidSolutionsandPhases188

13.6 FactorsAffectingConductivity/Resistivity190

13.7 DiluteCopperAlloys192

13.8 High-AlloySystems194

13.9 BerylliumCopper,aPrecipitationStrengthening(Hardening)Alloy198

13.10 QuestionsandProblems199

14.RelevantAspectsofCarbonandLow-AlloySteelMetallurgy201

14.1 ImportantPropertiesofSteel202

14.2 PrimaryProcessing202

14.3 TheIron-IronCarbidePhaseDiagram205

14.4 AusteniteDecomposition209

14.5 Structure-MechanicalPropertyRelations212

14.6 TransformationDiagrams212

14.7 FlowStress,ColdWorking,andAnnealing217

14.8 AginginSteel220

14.9 CarbonSteelCompositions227

14.10 Low-AlloySteelCompositions228

14.11 RecentTechnologyandLiterature229

14.12 QuestionsandProblems232

15.OtherMetallurgicalSystemsforWireTechnology235

15.1 AluminumanditsAlloys235

15.2 AusteniticStainlessSteels240

15.3 ToolSteels243

15.4 NickelandNickelAlloys246

15.5 QuestionsandProblems249

16.WireCoatings251

16.1 ReasonsforCoatingWire251

16.2 CoatingTypesandCoatingProcesses252

16.3 EnamelsandEnameling252

16.4 Extrusion253

16.5 HotDipping255

16.6 Electrocoating256

16.7 OtherCoatingTechnologies257

16.8 ZincAlloyCoatingofSteel ADetailedIllustrationandAnalysis257

16.9 CompositeMechanicalPropertiesofCoatedWire259

16.10 QuestionsandProblems262

17.RedrawRodProduction263

17.1 TheRodRollingProcess263

17.2 TheOval/RoundSequence265

17.3 OtherGeometricalSequences269

18.WireForming273

19.PhysicalProperties285

20.CurrentandNear-TermDevelopments289

PREFACE

Beinginafamilywithseveralgenerationsofprofessionalpractitionersin metalsprocessingandtheteachingthereof,Isupposemywritingofthis bookwasinevitable.Evenso,Imustclearlyacknowledgetwostronginfluencesoutsideofthefamilysphere.ThefirstwasthelateWalterA.(Al)Backofen,professorofmetallurgyandmaterialsscienceatMITahalfcenturyor soago.WhileIreceivedthebenefitofsomeofhislectures,hismajorimpact wasbythewayofhisbook DeformationProcessing,Addison-Wesley,1972. ThisbookwasthefirstthatIamawareoftoteachdeformationprocessing withmajoremphasison Δ,theshapeofthedeformationzone.Tobesure, Δ oritsequivalentwasutilizedinsomeofthemoreenlightenedmid-twentieth centurywiredrawingresearch(mostnotablythatofJ.G.Wistreich)andcitationsoftheimportanceofdeformationzonegeometrycanbefoundinthe literatureofthe1920s.However,Backofenpowerfullyemployeditasa teachingtool,bringingtogetheraconsiderablearrayofmechanicalanalyses, processdesigns,andmechanicalmetallurgicalphenomenology.Asayoung metallurgist,Iassumedthatjustabouteverybodyused Δ,onlytofindout thatitswork-a-dayindustrialapplicationshadbeenminimal.Inthiscontext, Iappliedit(arguablyevenoverappliedit)everychancethatIhad,andinthe wireindustryIbelieveithasbeenofsignificantvalue.Inanycase,itiscentral tomuchofthisbook,andIhaveProfessorBackofentothank.

TheotherinfluencethatIwouldliketocitewasDr.AlanT.Male,my managerduringtheyearsthatIspentatWestinghouseResearchLaboratories.Alanwas,ofcourse,renownforhisdevelopmentoftheringcompressiontestthatquantifiesfrictioninforging(abrilliantapplicationof deformationzonegeometry,incidentally).Moreover,hehadbeenafaculty memberatTheUniversityofBirminghamandhadaninstinctiveandsynergisticapproachtoapplyingrigorousresearchtechniqueandperspectiveto industrialprocessingsystems.He,earlyon,directedmyinvolvementina widevarietyofsophisticatedwireprocessingstudies,aswellasinthesupervisionofindustrialsocietyseminarsandshortcourses.WhenIleftWestinghousetojointhefacultyatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitutein1974,Ihad beengivenathorougheducationinwireprocessing,togowithmybroader backgroundsinmetallurgyandmetalsprocessing.

Addressingthesubjectathand,Ihavewrittenthisbookinthestyleofan upper-levelundergraduate,orpossiblygraduate-leveltext,acknowledging

thatoneisnotlikelytofindsuchacourseonwireprocessing,exceptperhaps inEasternEurope.Thisapproachhasallowedmetousedirectlymuchofmy experienceintechnology-focusedshortcourses,aswellasmyexperiencein teachingundergraduatesandgraduatestudentsatRensselaer.Ihavewritten itwiththehopethatitwillbeusefulforself-studyandcontinuingeducation offerings,aswellasservingasadeskreference.Atthispointintime,Ibelieve thatitoccupiesauniquepositionintheengineeringliterature.

Thissecondeditiondiffersfromitspredecessorprimarilyinitssummary andcitationofrelevantresearchofthe2009-2015timeframe.

Finally,IwouldliketothankthemosthelpfulstaffatElsevierInc.,particularlyJeffreyFreeland,fortheirpatienthandlingofthissecondeditionof mybook.

ABOUTTHEAUTHOR

RogerN.Wright,professoremeritus,School ofEngineering,RensselaerPolytechnic Institute,hascontributedbroadlytotheliteratureintheareasofmetallurgyandmetals processingandisactiveasashort-course lecturerandconsultant.Priortojoining Rensselaer,hewasaseniorstaffmemberat WestinghouseResearchLaboratoriesandat AlleghenyLudlumSteelCorporation.He holdsB.S.andSc.D.degreesinmetallurgy fromMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology. Heisaregisteredprofessionalengineeranda fellowofASMInternationalandoftheSocietyofManufacturingEngineers.

CHAPTER1

TheGeneralIdea

1.1CONCEPTS

1.1.1Drawing

Theconceptofdrawingaddressedinthisbookinvolvespullingwire,rod,or barthroughadieorconvergingchanneltodecreasecross-sectionalareaand increaselength.Inthemajorityofcases,thecrosssectioniscircular,although noncircularcrosssectionsmaybedrawnand/orcreatedbydrawing.In comparisontorolling,drawingoffersmuchbetterdimensionalcontrol, lowercapitalequipmentcost,andextensiontosmallcrosssections.Incomparisontoextrusion,drawingofferscontinuousprocessing,lowercapital equipmentcost,andextensiontosmallcrosssections.

1.1.2Wire,Rod,andBar

Ingeneral,theanalysesofwire,rod,andbardrawingaresimilar,andwemay usetheterm workpiece,orsimplytheterm“wire,”whenthereisnodistinctiontobedrawn.However,therearemajorpracticalandcommercial issuestobeaddressedamongtheseterms. Bar drawingusuallyinvolvesstock thatistoolargeincrosssectiontobecoiledandhencemustbedrawn straight.Roundbarstockmaybe1-10cmindiameterorevenlarger.Prior 1

Copyright © 2016ElsevierInc. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802650-2.00001-7 Allrightsreserved.

todrawing,barstockmayhavebeencast,rolled,extruded,orswaged(rotary coldforged). Rod drawinginvolvesstockthatmaybecoiled,andhence maybedeliveredtothediefromacoil,andtakenupasacoil,onablock orcapstan.Roundrodstockwilloftenhavea0.3-1-cmdiameterandwill oftenhavebeencastand/orrolledpriortodrawing. Wire drawinginvolves stockthatcanbeeasilycoiledandsubjectedtosequentialortandemdrawing operationswithasmanyasadozenormoredrawsoccurringwithagiven drawingmachine.Eachdrawingoperationor“pass”willinvolvedelivery ofthewiretothediefromacoilonacapstan,passagethroughthedie, andtake-uponacapstanthatpullsthewirethroughthedie. Finewire drawingtypicallyreferstoroundwirewithadiameteroflessthan 0.1mm,and ultra-finewire drawingtypicallyreferstoroundwireasfine as0.01mmindiameter.

1.1.3Materials

Essentiallyanyreasonablydeformablematerialcanbedrawn,andthegeneral analysisisthesameregardlessofthewire,rod,orbarmaterial.Theindividual technologiesforthemajorcommercialmaterials,however,involvemany nuances.Thedrawingtechnologiesareoftendividedinto ferrous (steel) and nonferrous and electrical (usuallycopperandaluminum),although thereisspecialtyproductionandresearchanddevelopmentinterestinsuch high-value-addedproductsasthermocouplewire,preciousmetalwire,biomedicalwire,wireforhightemperatureservice,superconductingwire,and soon.

Apartfromthematerialdrawn,drawingtechnologydependssubstantiallyonthematerialsusedfor dies (“carbide,”diamond,toolsteel)and onthematerialsorformulationsusedfor lubricants andcoatings.

1.2HOWDOESDRAWINGWORK?

1.2.1WhyNotSimplyStretchtheWire,Rod,orBar?

Itcanbeargued,atleastinprinciple,thatsomeoftheobjectivesofdrawing couldbeachievedbysimplystretchingthewirewitha pullingforce.The crosssectioncouldbereducedandelongationaccomplished,butdieswould notbeneededandthefrictionandmetalflowissuespresentedbythedie couldbeavoided.

Theprincipalproblemwithjuststretchingthewirewithapullingforceis theneckingphenomenon.Basically,afteracertainamountofuniform

stretching,allfurtherelongationwillbeconcentratedatasinglelocation (aneck),whichwillrapidlythinandbreak.Thisoccursbecausethedecrease incross-sectionalareaeventuallyweakensthewiremorethananystrengtheningthatoccursbyworkhardening.Heavilydrawnwirewillhavelittleor nowork-hardeningcapabilityandwillneckalmostatonceifsubjectedto simplestretching.Althoughsomecomplex“dieless”drawingsystemshave beeninvented,simplestretchinghasonlylimitedapplicationbecauseofits vulnerabilitytonecking.

1.2.2ASimpleExplanationoftheDrawingProcess

Inthedrawingprocess,a pullingforce anda pressureforce,fromthedie, combine tocausethewiretoextendandreduceincross-sectionalarea, whilepassingthroughthedie,asschematicallyillustratedin Figure1.1. Becauseofthiscombinedeffect,thepullingforceor drawingforce can belessthantheforcethatwouldcausethewiretostretch,neck,andbreak downstreamfromthedie.Ontheotherhand,ifareductiontoolargein cross-sectionalareaisattemptedatthedie,thedrawingforcemaybreak thewire.Incommercialpractice,engineeredpullingloadsarerarelyabove 60%oftheas-drawnstrength,andtheareareductioninasingledrawingpass israrelyabove30%or35%andisoftenmuchlower.Aparticularlycommon reductioninnonferrousdrawingisthe AmericanWireGage(AWG) numberorabout20.7%.Manydrawingpassesareneededtoachievelarge overallreductions.

Figure1.1 Schematicillustrationofforcesindrawing.

1.2.3ComparisontoOtherProcesses

Theuseofpullingorpushingforces,togetherwithdiesorrolls,iscommon tomanydeformationprocesses,1,2 asshownin Figure1.2 Figure1.2a illustratesthebasicsofasimpleforgingorupsettingoperation,and Figures1.2b andc illustrateextrusionandrollingoperations,respectively.Manyother variationsexist.Forexample,rodorstripcanbereducedbypullingthrough undrivenrollsandsoon.

Theterm“drawing”isusedtodescribeanumberofmetallurgical processingoperations,andwhensearchingtitlesinthemetalworkingor intellectualpropertyliterature,becarefulnottoconfusereferencesto deep drawingofsheetmetal,drawingaspectsofforging,orsteeltemperingoperationsreferredtoasdrawingandsoonwiththepullingoperationsoutlined inthisbook.

Figure1.2 Schematicillustrationof(a)forcesinforgingorupsetting,(b)someofthe forcesinextrusion,and(c)rollmotionandrollforceinrolling. (FromDieterGE. Mechanicalmetallurgy,3rded.Boston,MA:McGraw-Hill;1986.p.504.Copyrightheld byMcGraw-HillEducation,NewYork,USA.)

1.2.4OverallProcessHardware

Inadditiontothedie,heldina dieblock,abasicdrawingoperation involvesa payoff anda take-up,asillustratedin Figure1.3.Alsonecessary isasystemforapplyinglubricanttothewirebeforeitentersthedie.

Figure1.3 schematicallyillustratesa soapbox,whichcontainsasolid powdered-soaplubricant,inwhichthewireispulledthroughpriorto dieentry.Withliquidlubrication,thelubricantmaybedirectedinastream atthedieentry,andthedrawingsystemmayevenbesubmergedinlubricant. Figure1.3 showsthecaseofasinglediesystem.Asdiscussedin Sections 3.3 and 3.4,drawingsystemsoftenemploysuccessiveortandemdiesand pullingoperations.

Adrawingoperationmusthaveamethodfor pointing thewire.Pointinginvolvesreducingthe“front”enddiameterofthewiresufficientlyto allowittobeinitiallypassedthroughthedieandgrippedenroutetoinitial windingontothetake-up.

Figure1.3 Illustrationofasinglediewiredrawingsystemwithalubricationapplication box,adie(inadieholder),andarotatingdrumtoapplytensionandtakeupthewire. (FromAvitzurB. Handbookofmetal-formingprocesses.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons; 1985.p.195.CopyrightheldbyB.Avitzur,Allentown,PA,USA.)

Die holder

Drum

Soap box

1.3QUESTIONSANDPROBLEMS

1.3.1. Oneoftheprocessesschematicallyillustratedin Figure1.2 isparticularlywellsuitedtoverylongworkpiecelengths,asisdrawing.Whichprocessisthis?Whyaretheothertwoillustratedprocessesnotaswellsuited?

Answer:Rollingisparticularlywellsuitedtoverylongworkpiece lengths,suchascoils,becauseitisacontinuousprocess.Forginginvolves alimitedworkpiece,whichisconstantlychangingshape.Extrusionusually involvesalimitedworkpiece,aswell,althoughsome“continuous”extrusiontechnologieshavebeendevelopedinvolvingbillet-to-billetjuxtapositionsorfrictionalbilletpressurizationwithbeltorchainsystems.

1.3.2. Listsomewaysbywhichwire,rod,andbarcanbepointed.Donotbe afraidtouseyourimagination.

Answer:Thesewaysincluderotaryswaging(see Section18.6.3), rolling,machining,stretching,andchemicalattack.

1.3.3. Whyiscross-sectionaldimensionalcontrolmuchbetterindrawing thaninrolling?

Answer:Thedieisonepieceindrawing,withweartheonlycommon sourceofcross-sectionaldimensionchange.Rollingforcescausechangesin therollgap,andbarrollinginvolvescomplexshapechanges.

1.3.4. Wirebreakageduringdrawingcansignificantlyimpacttheprofitabilityofaproductionfacility.Citeatleasttwocostlyaspectsofawirebreak.

Answer:Productiontimeislostrestringingthemachine;wirelengths tooshortforcontinueddrawingmayhavetobescrapped;andwirebreakage mayindicatethatlargenumbersofflawsaregenerated,implyingpossible rejectionofthedrawn-wireproduct,andmandatingincreasedquality controlandprocesstroubleshooting.

CHAPTER2

ABriefHistoryofTechnology

2.1ANCIENTANDEARLYTECHNOLOGY

Rodandwiretechnologiesareofancientorigin,althoughsomedistinctionmust bemadebetweenwiremakingandwiredrawing.Goldwirewasincorporated intotheadornmentsofthepharaohsbyEgyptiansasearlyas3000BC,andtechniquedevelopmentprobablypredatesthisera.Itislikelythattheancientscut stripsfromhammeredfoilandthendrewfoldedstripsthroughstonediesas theinitialstepinwiremaking.Cross-sectionalconsistenciesindicatethatdrawingdieswereavailabletosuchcraftsmen.Itisthoughtthatholeswereboredin naturalstonewiththeaidofpointedsticksandsand/tallowabrasivemedia.

Thereareinterestingreferencestowireinveryearlyliterature,particularly inHomer’s Odyssey (TheSongsoftheHarper)andinthe OldTestament (Exodus 28:14and39:3).ByfifthcenturyBC,thePersiansweredrawing0.55-mm bronzewirewithirondrawplates,implyingthattheymusthaveunderstood theconceptsofmultiplepassesandinterpassannealing.Interestingreferences todrawingtechnologyweremadebytheRomantribuneClaudiusClaudianus towardtheendoftheRomanEmpirecirca400AD.

MovingaheadtotheMiddleAges,themonkTheophilusPresbyterwrote aboutdrawingtechnologyaround1125,anditisclearthatcommercialpracticeswereemerging.AdocumentwritteninParisaround1270notesthat:

1. Thewiredrawermustthoroughlyunderstandhistradeandhavesufficientcapitalathiscommand.

2. Thewiredrawermayhaveasmanyapprenticesandservantsashewishes andmayworknightsasmuchashepleases.

WireTechnology Copyright © 2016ElsevierInc. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802650-2.00002-9 Allrightsreserved.

3. Thewiredrawerneedpaynotaxesonanythingrelatingtohistrade whichhebuysorsellsinParis.

4. Apprenticestowiredrawerswillservetenyearswithoutpayandthenbe paidapremiumof20sous.

NurembergwasapparentlyamajorcenterforMiddleAgesandRenaissance wiretechnology,withdocumentationfromthefourteenth-to-middlesixteenthcenturiesfoundinthe HausbuchderMendelschenZw€ olfbruderstiftung zuNurnberg.MajordevelopmentsareattributedtoRudolphvonNuremberg.Intheearlyfourteenthcentury,heutilizedwaterpowerand camshaft-drivendrawbenches.Previoustothis,theonlypracticalsources ofpowerweremanual,whichinvolvedsuchexpedientsashand-lever devicescalled“brakes”andswingingbodymotionutilizedbyharnessed “girdlemen.”Therathereffectivediespreparedfromhardstonebythe Egyptianswerefollowedinlatermillenniabyeasilyworkedbutrapidly wearingironandsteelplates.Anillustrationofaswing-assistedmedieval roddrawerwithtongsanddrawingplateisshownin Figure2.1.

Illustrationofmedievalwiredrawing,aspresentedinthe Hausbuchder MendelschenZwolfbruderstiftungzuNürnberg.

Figure2.1

Thedevelopmentoflubricantshasbeenavital,ifsubtle,aspectofthe historyofdrawing.Theearliestdrawingisthoughttohavedependedon animalfatortallow.Thiswasaugmentedbyparticulatematterintheform oflime,carbonblack,tars,powderedcoal,andgraphite.Reactivelubricant additionsthatmaintainedlubricantintegrityatelevatedtemperatureswere laterintroduced.Softmetalcoatingswereimplementedinsomecases. AparticularlyintriguingdevelopmentwasJohanGerdes’discoveryofthe “sullcoat”(actuallythinironoxide)around1632.Heallegedlyutilized thesuperiorlubricationresponseofwireexposedtohumanurine.Aspects ofGerdes’discoverywereemployedforthenexttwocenturies.

TheGermanartistAlbrechtDurerpainted TheWireDrawingMill in1489 withanapparentwaterpowersource,asshownin Figure2.2.Bythe fifteenthcenturynoneotherthanLeonardodaVinciwassketching drawingblocksandnotingthat“Withoutexperienceyoucannevertell therealstrengthwithwhichthedrawnironresiststhedrawingplate.”

2.2THENINETEENTHCENTURY

The“industrialrevolution”startedattheendoftheeighteenthcentury,and thenineteenthcenturyinvolvedrapidimprovementsinwiretechnology, particularlyinregardtoproductivity.BeginninginPortsmouth,England,

in1783withHenryCort’simplementationofgroovedrollsthroughthe evolutionofBelgianloopingmillsin1860andGeorgeBedson’scontinuous rodrollingmillinstalledin1862attheBradfordIronworksinEngland,rod rollingdevelopmentsallowedandnecessitatedtheprocessingofverylong lengthsofrodandwire.Inthiscontext,thefirstcontinuousdrawing machinesappearedinGermanyandEnglandaround1871.

Priortothenineteenthcentury,wireproductionwasmotivatedbythe demandsofthedecorativearts,themilitary,andthetextileindustry(card wire).Muchofnineteenthcenturyprogresswasinterrelatedwiththerapid growthofnewproductmarkets.Thefollowingproductsandthedatesof theirinceptionarenoteworthy:wirerope(1820),telegraphwire(18441854),wirenails(1851-1875),baletiesandbarbedwire(1868),telephone wire(1876),screwstock(1879),coiledwiresprings(1879),andwovenwire fence(1884).Alsoimportantwerelarge,butunstable,marketsforwomen’s apparelitemssuchashoopskirts(crinolinewire),corsets,andhairpins.

Developmentofcastironandtoolsteeldieswasundertakeninconjunctionwiththeincreasedproductivityofthenineteenthcentury,andnatural diamondswereemployedforsizesbelowonemillimeter.

2.3THETWENTIETHCENTURY

Twentiethcenturywireprocessingadvancesincludedsuchitemsasin-line annealingandheattreatment,sophisticatedwire-handlingsystemsthat allowedhighdrawingspeeds,multiplestranddrawingsystems,andavariety ofprocessautomationandcontrolinnovations.Theengineeringofdrawing systemswashelpedgreatlybyanumberofpracticalresultsfromresearchand theoreticalanalysis.Particularlynoteworthywerethepublishedeffortsof K € orberandEichinger,3 Siebel,4,5 Sachs,6,7 Pomp,8 Wistreich,9 and Avitzur.10,11

However,themostsignificanttwentiethcenturyadvanceshavebeenin theareaofdiematerials.Vastlyimproveddieperformance/costratioswere enabledbythedevelopmentofcementedcarbideandsyntheticdiamonds. ThecementedcarbidedevelopmentisgenerallycreditedtotwoindependentGermaninvestigators,BaumhauerandSchr € oter,whoincorporated cobaltandtungstencarbidepowdersintoasinterablecompactin1923. TheproductwasdevelopedcommerciallybythefirmofFriedrichKrupp underthetradenameofWidia.Thiseconomicalandhighlywear-resistant materialquicklysupplantedmostdiematerials,eventhreateningtodisplace diamonddies.

Theuseofnaturaldiamonddiesforfinegagespersisted,however,and naturaldiamonddiesandmoderncarbideswerejoinedin1974bysynthetic diamonddies,firstintroducedbytheGeneralElectricCompanyunderthe nameCompax.Thisproduct,andsubsequentvariationsandcompeting products,utilizedsyntheticdiamondpowderfirstdevelopedbyGeneral Electricin1954.

Twentiethcenturylubricationdevelopmentsinvolvedtheuseofanumberofchemicallyengineeredsoaps,gels,andemulsions,includingsynthetic aswellasnaturalproducts.Majorattentionwasdevotedtolubricantremoval anddisposal,aswellastoenvironmentalimpact.

2.4FURTHERREADING

Theremarksintheprevioussectionareashortsummaryabstractedfroma numberofmoreextensivepublications.Formoreinformation,theinterestedreaderisdirectedtoanumberofreviews,which,inturn,reference historicalsources.12–15

2.5QUESTIONSANDPROBLEMS

2.5.1. ReadthetechnologyreferencesinExodus28:14and39:3,preferably inmorethanonetranslationoftheBible.Whatsortsofequipmentormanualskillsareimplied?

Answers:TheNewRevisedStandardVersion(NRSV)oftheHoly Biblerefersto“twochainsofpuregold,twistedlikecord”inExodus 28:14,whereastheKingJamesVersion(KJV)refersto“twochains of pure goldattheends; of wreathenwork.”InExodus39:3,itisnotedintheNRSV that“goldleafwashammeredoutandcutintothreads,”whereastheKJV says“Andtheydidbeatthegoldintothinplates,andcut itinto wires.”Itseems thatdrawingisnotdescribed,butratherthecuttingofstripsfrom hammeredfoil.Cuttingtoolswouldhavebeenrequired.Onewondersif thechainsreferredtowerecutwholefromplateorinvolvedwirejoined intoloops.

2.5.2. CompareoneormoreoftheParisregulationscreatedaround1270 withpracticesintoday’swireindustry.

Answers:Theneedforcapitalremainsanissue,tosaytheleast(regulation1).ClearlythecityofPariswasofferingincentivesforaresidentwire industry,asregionsseekingtoattractindustrystilldo(regulation3).The practicesofregulations2and4arenotascommontoday.

2.5.3. Examine Figure2.1 carefully.Whatdrawingspeedandproduction ratedoyouthinkthecraftsmaniscapableof?

Answers:Routinehandlaborisgenerallyatspeedsof1m/s,andthis wouldbeagoodguessfortheworkerin Figure2.1.Therodappearstohave adiameterofroughly2cm.Thusthevolumedrawnin1swouldbenear 300cm3,andthevolumeforanhourofactualdrawingwouldbesomewhat over1m3.Iftheproductwereironbase,themassforanhourofactualdrawingwouldbeunder10,000kgorarateofroughlytentonsperhour.This doesnotfactorinthedowntimebetweenpullsandtimeforrest.Thedrawer wouldprobablybedoingwelltodrawatonortwoperhour.

2.5.4. ThedevelopmentoftheAmerican“heartland”involvednumerous expandedmarketsforwire,andthereisevenapertinentcitationatthe AlamoinSanAntonio,Texas.Similarobservationscanbemadeforcentral Europe.Citedin Section2.2 areexamplesofwireproductsandapplications suchastelegraphandtelephonewire,baletiesandbarbedwire,andwoven fencewire.Moreover,theubiquitousavailabilityofwireledtomany secondaryproductsoftenmadeathomeorbytraveling“tinkers.”Think ofsomepossiblehomeimplementsthatcouldhavebeenmadeofwire.

Answers:Theinterestedreaderisdirectedto EverydayThingsWire by Slesinetal.16 Examplesofcages,traps,baskets,winecaddies,condimentsets, grills,toasters,bottlecarriers,eggholders,andplattersareshown,aswellas illustrationsofwhisks,beaters,whips,griddles,forks,mashers,strainers, hangers,lightandlampprotectors,weeders,pickers,andendlesstoysand “gifts.”