समकालीन विश्व राजनीति (Contemporary World Politics) कक्षा - 12 (Class 12) #NCERT #notes

CubanMissileCrisis

TheColdWarEra

Cuba wasanallyofthe SovietUnionand receiveddiplomaticandfinancialaidfromit.In April1961,leadersoftheUSSR wereworried thattheUnitedStatesofAmericawouldinvade communist-ruledCubaandoverthrowits PresidentFidelCastro.

In1962,theleaderoftheSovietUnion, NikitaKhrushchev,placednuclearmissilesin CubaforconvertingitintoaRussianbase. 

Threeweekslater,Americansbecame awareofit.TheUSPresidentJohnF.Kennedy andhisadviserstriedtofindasolutiontoavoid full-scalenuclearwar.Buttheyweredetermined togetKhrushchevtoremove themissilesand nuclearweaponsfromCuba. 

KennedyorderedAmericanwarshipstointerceptanySovietshipsheadingto Cubaas awayof warningtheUSSR.ThisclashbetweentheUSAandthe USSRcametobe knownastheCubanMissileCrisis.Itmadethe wholeworldnervous.

TheCubanMissileCrisiswasahighpointwhichcametobeknownastheColdWar. Itreferstothecompetition,thetensionsandaseriesofconfrontationsbetweenthe UnitedStatesandSovietUnion.

ColdWar

TheColdWarwasthewarofideologies.The USfollowedtheideologyofliberal democracyandcapitalism whilethe USSR backedtheideologyofsocialismand communism. 

TheSecondWorldWar(1939-1945)cametoanendwiththedefeatoftheAxis powersledbyGermany,ItalyandJapanbytheAlliedforcesledbytheUS,Soviet Union,BritainandFrance. 

ItmarkedthebeginningoftheColdWar.TheSecondWorldWarendedwhenthe UnitedStatesdroppedtwoatomicbombsonthe JapanesecitiesofHiroshimaand NagasakiinAugust 1945,causingJapantosurrender. 

This decisionof the USwasbothcriticisedandsupported.Buttheconsequenceofthe endoftheSecondWorldWarwastheriseoftwonewpowersontheglobalstage. 

TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbecamethegreatestpowersintheworldwith theabilitytoinfluenceeventsanywhere onEarth.

ButtheColdWarinspiteofbeinganintenseformofrivalrybetweengreatpowers, remaineda‘cold’andnot hotorshootingwar. Itwasduetothe‘logicofdeterrence’.

The‘logic ofdeterrence’meanswhenbothsideshave thecapacitytorespondagainst anattackandtocausesomuchdestructionthatneithercanaffordtoinitiatewar.

Thetwosuperpowersandtheirallieswereexpectedtobehaveasrationaland responsibleactors.

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TheEmergenceofTwoPowerBlocs

Thetwosuperpowersi.e.theUSandUSSR wantedtoexpandtheirspheresof influence indifferentparts oftheworld. Hence,theydecidedtotakehelpofthe smallercountries. 

Thesesmallerstatesgotthepromiseof protection,weaponsandeconomicaidagainst theirlocalrivals,mostlyregional neighbours. 

ThefirstdivisiontookplaceinEurope. MostcountriesofWesternEurope sidedwith theUSandthus,cametobeknownas‘Westernalliance.

ThecountriesoftheEasternEuropejoinedtheSovietcampandcametobeknownas ‘Easternalliance.’ 

TheWesternallianceformeditselfintoanorganisation,theNorthAtlanticTreaty Organisation(NATO).ItcameintoexistenceinApril, 1949withtwelvestates.

TheNATOdeclaredthatarmedattackonanyoneoftheminEuropeorNorth Americawouldberegardedasanattackonallofthem. 

TheEasternalliance, also knownastheWarsawPact,wasledbythe SovietUnion.It wasestablishedin1955.ItsprinciplefunctionwastocounterNATO’sforcesin Europe. 

InEastandSouthEastAsiaandinWestAsia(MiddleEast),theUnitedStatesbuilt analliancesystemcalledtheSouth-EastAsianTreatyOrganisation(SEATO)andthe CentralTreatyOrganisation(CENTO).

Manynewlyindependentcountrieswereworriedoflosingtheirfreedom.Cracksand splitswithintheallianceswerequicktoappear.

CommunistChinaquarrelledwiththeUSSRtowardsthe late1950s.Theother importantdevelopmentwastheNon-AlignedMovement(NAM).

Thesmallercountrieswereof morehelptothesuperpowersbecausetheywerethe meanstogain vital resourcessuchasoilandminerals;locationstospyeachotherandtolaunch weapons.

Arenasofthe ColdWar

Thearenasofthe ColdWarrefertoareaswherecrisisand waroccurredorthreatened to occurbetweenthealliancesystemsbutdidnotcrosscertainlimits.

TheColdWarwasalsoresponsibleforseveralshootingwars.

Thetwosuperpowerswere poisedfordirectencounterinKorea(1950-53),Berlin (1958-62),the Congo (theearly1960s)andinseveralotherplaces. 

JawaharlalNehru, oneofthekeyleaderofNAMplayedakeyroleinmediating betweenthetwoKoreas.IntheCongocrisis,theUNSecretaryGeneralplayedakey mediatoryrole. 

TheUSandUSSRdecidedtocollaborateinlimitingoreliminatingcertainkindsof nuclearandnon-nuclearweapons. 

Thetwosidessignedthreesignificantagreementswithinadecade. Thesewere:

o LimitedTestBanTreaty(LTBT).

o NuclearNon-ProliferationTreaty(NPT)

o Anti-BallisticMissileTreaty(ABMT)

Challenge toBipolarity

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Non-AlignedMovement(NAM)offeredthe newlydecolonisedcountriesofAsia, Africa andLatinAmericaathirdoptioni.e.nottojoinanyofthealliances.

NAMwasfoundedbythreeleaders-Yugoslavia’sJosipBrozTito,India’sJawaharlal NehruandEgypt’sleaderGamalAbdelNasser.Indonesia’sSukarnoandGhana’s Kwame Nkrumahstronglysupportedthem.ThefirstNAMsummitwasheld in1961 atBelgrade.

Non-Alignmentneithermeansisolationismnorneutrality.Itplayedarolein mediatingbetweenthetworivalalliances.

NewInternational Economic Order

Thechallengeforthenewlydecolonisedcountrieswastobecomemoredeveloped economicallyandtolifttheirpeopleoutof poverty. Theidea ofa NewInternationalEconomicOrder (NIEO)originatedwiththisrealisation.

TheUnitedNationsConferenceonTradeandDevelopment(UNCTAD)broughtouta reportin1972entitled‘TowardsaNewTradePolicyforDevelopment’.  ThenatureofNon-Alignmentchangedtogive greaterimportancetoeconomic issues. Asaresult, NAMbecameaneconomicpressuregroup.

India andthe ColdWar

India followeda twowaypolicyregardingtheColdWar.Itdidnotjoinanyof the alliancesandraised voiceagainstthenewlydecolonisedcountriesbecomingpartof thesealliances.

ThepolicyofIndiawasnot‘fleeingaway’butwasinfavourofactivelyintervening in worldaffairstosoftenColdWarrivalries. 

TheNon-AlignmentgaveIndiathe powertotakeinternationaldecisionsandto balanceonesuperpoweragainstthe other.  India’spolicyofNon-Alignmentwascriticisedonanumberofcounts.Butstillithas becomebothasaninternationalmovementandacoreof India’sforeign policy.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. ColdWar:Coldwarreferredtocompetitions,tensionsanda seriesofconfrontations betweentheUSandUSSR.

2. CubanMissileCrisis:ItcreatedtensionsbetweentheUSandUSSR whenSoviet Union(USSR)installedmissilesinCubatomakeita Russianbase.

3. AlliedForces:Alliedforceswereoneofthetwocampsduringsecondworldwar includingtheUS,SovietUnion,BritainandFrance.

4. AxisPower:ItwasanothercampagainstalliedforcesledbyGerman”Italyand Japan.

5. AllianceSystem: Alliancesystemwascreatedbythetwosuperpowerstoexpand theirsphereofinfluenceallovertheworld.

6. Deterrence:Itwasalogicfollowedbyboththe superpowerstoavoidlargescale destruction i.e.nottotakeplacehotwarbetweenthembecausebothofthemhadthecapacityto retaliate.

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7. Neutrality:Neutralityisaconditionnottoparticipateinworldaffairsormake oneselfalooffromworld.

8. Decolonisation: Tomakecolonisedstatesfree fromtheruleofmothercountry.

Chapter 2

TheEndofBipolarity

SovietSystem

TheUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics (USSR) cameintobeingaftertheSocialist RevolutioninRussiain1917.Therevolution was inspiredbytheidealsofsocialismandtheneed foranegalitariansocietyasopposedto capitalism. 

Afterthe SecondWorldWar,theEast EuropeancountriesthattheSovietarmyhad liberatedfromthefascistforcescameunderthe controloftheUSSR.

Therewaschange intheeconomicandpoliticalsystemoftheUSSR. Then theSoviet economybecamemoredevelopedthanthe restoftheworldexcepttheUS.

However,the Sovietsystembecameverybureaucraticandauthoritarian.Itmadelife verydifficultforitscitizens.

Inthearmsrace,theSovietUnionmanagedtomatchthe USfromtimetotime,butat greatcost.

Gorbachevandthe DisintegrationoftheUSSR

MikhailGorbachev,whohadbecome GeneralSecretaryof theCommunistPartyof theSovietUnionin1985,soughttoreformthesystem.Heintroducedeconomicand politicalreformpoliciesofperestroika(restructuring)andglasnost(openness).But laterhispolicieswerecriticised. 

Acouptookplacein1991thatwasencouragedbyCommunistPartyhardliners.The peopledidnotwanttheold-style ruleoftheCommunistPartyandwantedfreedom.

Russia,UkraineandBelarus,thethreemajor republicsofthe USSR, declaredin December1991thattheSovietUnionwasdisintegrated.;  CapitalismanddemocracywereadoptedasthebasisforthepostSovietrepublics.

Reasonsfor theSovietUnionDisintegration

ThereareseveralreasonswhichledtothecollapseoftheSovietUnion.Thesewere 

InternalweaknessesofSovietpoliticalandeconomicinstitutionsfailedtomeetthe aspirationsofthe people.

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TheeconomyoftheSovietUnionbecamestagnant.TheSovieteconomyusedmuch ofitsresourcesinmaintaininganuclearandmilitaryarsenal.

TheSovietUniontoobecamestagnantduetorampantcorruption,the unwillingness toallowmoreopennessingovernment,andthecentralisationof authorityina vast land.

Asection ofthesocietywasnothappywiththereformsofGorbachev.Itwasbelieved thatthereformsintroducedbyGorbachevwereataveryslowpace.

Anotherreasonforthecollapse ofUSSRwastheriseofnationalismandthedesirefor sovereigntywithinvariousrepublicsincludingRussiaandtheBalticrepublics.

ConsequencesofDisintegration

Therearemanyconsequencesof thedisintegration ofUSSR.Theyareasfollows: 

ItledtotheendofColdWarconfrontations.Therewasnodispute ofSocialist ideologyandCapitalistideology. 

Powerrelationsinworldpoliticschangedandthusitledtochange intherelative influence ofideasandinstitutions.

TheUSbecamethesolesuperpowerwhichalsobackedthe capitalisteconomy makingitthedominanteconomicsysteminternationally.

TheendoftheSoviet blocpavedwayfortheemergenceofmanynewcountries.All thesecountrieshadtheirownindependentaspirationsandchoices.

Theinternationalsystemsawmanynewplayers’emerge,eachwithitsown identity, interestsandeconomicandpoliticaldifficulties.

ShockTherapyinPost-CommunistRegimes

ThemodeloftransitioninRussia,CentralAsiaandEastEuropefromanauthoritarian socialistsystemtoademocraticcapitalistsystemwhichwasinfluencedbytheWorld BankandtheIMFcametobeknownas‘ShockTherapy’. 

This processoftransitionwasduetotheCollapseofCommunism. 

Therewasaneedtomakeatotalshifttoacapitalisteconomywhichmeantrooting outcompletelyanystructuresevolvedduringtheSovietperiod. 

Shocktherapyalsoinvolvedadrasticchangeinthe externalorientationofthese economics. 

Italsoinvolvedabreakup oftheexisting. tradealliancesamongthecountriesoftheSovietbloc.

ConsequencesofShockTherapy

Theshocktherapybroughtruintotheeconomiesanddisasteruponthepeopleofthe entireregion. 

ThevalueoftheRussiancurrency‘Ruble’declineddramatically.Peoplelostalltheir savings duetohighrateofinflation. 

Thegovernmentwithdrewsubsidieswhichpushedlarge sectionsofthepeopleinto poverty. Themiddleclasseswerepushedtotheperipheryofsociety. 

Theconstructionofdemocraticinstitutionswasnotgiventhesameattentionand priorityasthedemandsofeconomictransformation. 

Mostof theseeconomies,especiallyRussia,startedrevivingin2000, 10yearsafter theirindependence.Thereasonforthe revivalwastheexportofnaturalresourceslike oil,naturalgasandminerals.

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Tensionsand Conflictsin FormerSovietRepublics

ThereweretensionsandconflictsinmostoftheformerSovietrepublicsand many have hadcivilwarsandinsurgencies. 

InRussia,tworepublics,ChechnyaandDagestanhave hadviolentsecessionist movements. 

Tajikistanwitnessedacivilwarforalmost10yearstill2001.Theregionhadmany sectarianconflicts. 

CentralAsiatoobecomeazone ofcompetitionbetweenoutside powersandoil companies. 

Czechoslovakiawasdividedintotwo,theCzechsandtheSlovaksthusforming independentcountries. 

Yugoslavia broke apartwithseveralprovinceslikeCroatia,SloveniaandBosniaand Herzegovina declaringindependence.

India andPost-CommunistCountries

India maintainedacordialrelationshipwithallthepost-communistcountries. The strongest relationofIndiaisstillwithRussia. 

Indo-RussianrelationisanimportantaspectofIndia’sforeignpolicy.Boththe countriessharea visionof amultipolarworldorder. 

India gotbenefitsfromRussiaoverissueslikeKashmir,energysupplies,accessto CentralAsia,balancingits relationswithChina. 

Russiastandstobenefitfromthisrelationshipbecause Indiaisthesecondlargestarms marketforRussia.Boththecountrieshave collaboratedovermanyscientificprojects.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. SovietSystem:Sovietsystemwasintroducedafter RussianRevolutionin1917based ontheprinciplesofegalitariansocietyandplannedeconomycontrolledbythestate.

2. SocialistBloc:TheeastEuropeancountrieswereknown asSocialistBlocbecause thesecountrieswereliberatedfromthefascistforcesandtheirpoliticalandeconomic systemswerebasedonthisbloconly.

3. CapitalistEconomy:Inthiseconomy,landandproductive assetsareownedand controlledbytheCapitalists.

4. UnipolarSystem: Affairsatinternationallevelaredominatedbyonlyone superpower.

5. MultipolarSystem: Affairsatinternationallevelcannotbedominatedbyone superpoweronly,insteadgroup ofcountriesplayanimportantrole.

6. EgalitarianSociety:Itbelievesthatallpeopleareequallyimportantandshouldhave thesamerightsandopportunitiesinlife.

7. Largest GarageSale:ItwasresultedduetoShockTherapytoundervaluethe valuableindustriesofUSSRtosellthematthrowawayprices.

8. ShockTherapy:Themodeloftransitionfromauthoritariansocialistsystem toa democraticcapitalistsysteminRussia,CentralAsiaandEastEuropeunderthe influence oftheWorldBankandIMF.

USHegemonyinWorldPolitics

Beginningofthe‘NewWorldOrder’bythe US

ThedisintegrationofUSSR ledtothebeginningof the UShegemonyin1991.It remainedwithallitspowersenhancedandintact. 

Kuwait wasinvadedbyIraqinAugust1990andwassubsequentlyannexed.Aftera seriesofdiplomaticattemptsfailedatconvincingIraqtoquititsaggression,the UnitedNationsmandatedtheliberationofKuwaitbyforce.ThisdecisionofUNwas hailedbytheUSPresidentGeorge HWBushastheemergence ofa‘NewWorld Order.’ 

TheFirst GulfWartookplace inwhichIraqwasdefeatedbyacoalitionforceof 6,60,000troopsfrom34countries.Itwasknownas‘OperationDesertStorm’or‘First GulfWar’. 

ThewarwasoverwhelminglyAmerican.Itrevealedthevasttechnologicalgapthat hadopenedupbetweentheUSmilitarycapabilityandothercountries.

TheClintonYears

George HWBushlosttheUSPresidentialelectionsof1992toWilliamJefferson (Bill)ClintonoftheDemocraticparty. 

Duringthisera,itwasbelievedthatthe UShadwithdrawnintoitsinternalaffairsand wasnotfullyengagedinworldpolitics. 

ThegovernmentledbyClintonfocusedon‘softissues’like democracypromotion, climatechangeandworld traderatherthan‘hardpolitics’. 

Still,theUSshoweditsmilitarypowers.Firstly,in1999inresponsetoYugoslavian actionsagainstthe pre-dominantlyAlbanianpopulationintheprovinceofKosovo.

Secondly,inresponsetothebombingof theUSembassiesinNairobi, Kenya and Dar-es-Salaam. 

‘OperationInfiniteReach’,launchedbytheUS,wasa seriesofcruisemissilestrikes onAl-QaedaterroristtargetsinSudanandAfghanistan.

9/11 andthe‘GlobalWar onTerror

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On11thSeptember2001,fourAmericancommercialaircraftswerehijackedandflew intoimportantbuildingsintheUS. 

Thefirstandsecondairlinecrashedintothe NorthandSouthTowersoftheWorld TradeCentre(NewYork),the thirdcrashedintothePentagonbuilding(Arlington, Virginia) andthefourthaircraftcamedowninafieldinPennsylvania.Theseattacks cametobeknownas‘9/11’. 

TheUSresponseto9/11wasswiftandferocious.George WBushhadsucceeded ClintonintheUSPresidency. 

TheUSlaunched‘OperationEnduringFreedom’asapartof its‘GlobalWaron Terror’. 

Theoperationwasagainstallthosesuspectedtobebehindthe9/11attack,mainlyAlQaedaandthe Talibanregime inAfghanistan.

ArrestsweremadeallovertheworldbytheUSforcesoftenwithouttheknowledgeof thegovernmentofthepersonsbeingarrested.

Thesepersonsweretransportedacrosscountriesand detainedinsecretprisons.

TheIraqInvasion

OperationIraqiFreedom’waslaunchedbytheUSon 19thMarch,2003andwas joinedbymorethanfortyothercountries. 

ThepurposeoftheinvasionwastopreventIraqfromdevelopingWeaponsofMass Destruction(WMD). 

AstherewasnoevidenceofWMD, itisspeculatedthattheinvasionwasmotivated byotherobjectivessuchascontrollingIraqioilfields,etc. 

TheUSinvasionof Iraqwas bothamilitaryandpoliticalfailureasaround3000US militarypersonnelwerelostandIraqicasualitiesweremuchhigher.

Constraints onAmericanPower

Therearethree constraintsonAmericanpower.The institutionalarchitecture of the Americaisthefirstconstraint. 

Thesecondconstraintisdomesticinnatureandstemsfromtheopennatureof Americansociety.Thereisadeepscepticismregardingthepurposesandmethodsof governmentinAmericanpoliticalculture. 

ThethirdconstraintonAmericanpoweristheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganisation (NATO) whichisonlyorganisationintheinternationalsystemthatcouldpossibly moderate theexercise ofAmericanpower.

India’s Relationshipwiththe US

Duringthe ColdWar, IndiaclosestfriendshipwaswiththeSovietUnion. 

Overtheyears,India decidedtoliberaliseitseconomyandintegrateitwiththeglobal economy. ThismadeIndiaanattractive economicpartnerforanumberofcountries includingtheUS. 

TwonewfactorsemergedinIndo-USrelationsinrecentyears.Theyinclude:

o Technologicaldimension

o TheroleoftheIndian-Americandiaspora. 

Therearethree differentstrategiestodecidewhatkindofrelationshipIndia should have withUSA.Theyareasfollows:

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o ThoseIndiananalystswhoseeinternationalpoliticsintermsofmilitary power,preferthatIndiashouldmaintainitsdistancefromUSandshouldfocus uponincreasingitsownnationalpower.

o Otheranalysts seethegrowingconvergenceofinterestsbetweenUSandIndia asahistoricopportunityforIndia.

o AthirdgroupofanalystsadvocatethatIndiashould taketheleadin establishingthecoalitionofcountriesfromdevelopingworld. 

Indo-USrelationsaretoodifficulttomanagebyasolestrategy. Thereshould be mixingofforeignpolicystrategiesofdealwiththeUS.

MeaningofHegemony

Theword‘hegemony’meanstheleadershiporpredominanceof onestateoverothers byvirtue ofitsmilitary,economic, politicalpowerandculturalsuperiority. 

Politicsisallaboutgainingpower.Inworldpolitics,countriesandgroupsofcountries areengagedinconstantlytryingtogainandretainpower. 

Itisimportanttounderstandthedistributionofpoweramongthecountriesofthe worldinordertounderstandworld politics. 

Duringthe ColdWarEra,thereweretwosuperpowers,theUSandtheUSSR.But afterthedisintegrationofUSSR,onlyasinglepowerwaslefti.e.the US. 

Theinternationalsystemdominatedbyasolesuperpowerorhyper-poweris sometimescalleda‘unipolarsystem’.

HegemonyasHardPower

Hegemonyrelatestotherelations,patternsandbalancesofmilitarycapability betweenstates. 

Thebaseof USpowerliesinthe overwhelmingsuperiorityofitsmilitarypower.Itis bothabsoluteandrelative. 

ThemilitarydominanceoftheUSisnotjustbasedonhighermilitaryspendingbut on aqualitative gap. 

Butstill,theUSinvasionof IraqrevealsweaknessofAmericanpowerasitwasnot abletoforcetheIraqipeopleintosubmittingtotheoccupationforcesof the US-led coalition.

HegemonyasStructuralPower

Theideabehindthistypeofhegemonyisthatanopenworldeconomyrequiresa hegemonordominantpowertosupportitscreationandexistence. 

Inthissense,hegemonyisreflectedintheroleplayedbytheUSinprovidingglobal publicgoods.ThebestexamplesofglobalpublicgoodsareSea-Lanesof Communication(SLOCs),Internet,roads,etc. 

TheeconomicpreponderanceoftheUSisinseparablefromitsstructuralpower, whichisthepowertoshapetheglobaleconomyinaparticularway. 

AnotherexampleofthestructuralpoweroftheUSistheacademic degreecalledthe MastersinBusinessAdministration(MBA).The ideaofteachingskillsforbusinessis uniquelyAmerican.

HegemonyasSoftPower

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Inthistypeofhegemony,itimpliesclassascendancyinthesocial, politicaland particularlyideologicalspheres. 

Itsuggeststhatadominantpowernotonlypossessmilitarypowerbutalsoideological resourcestoshapethebehaviourofcompetingandlesserpowers. 

TheUSpredominanceintheworldisbasednotonlyonitsmilitarypowerand economic powersbutonitsculturalpresence. 

Duringthe ColdWar, theUSscorednotablevictoriesintheareaofstructuralpower andsoftpowerratherthanhardpower.

Overcoming theHegemony



ItisimportanttounderstandthatthereisnosinglepowertobalancetheUSmilitary. Therearevariousstrategieswhichcanbehelpfulto overcomethehegemony. 

AccordingtotheBandwagonStrategy, itissuggestedthatinsteadofengagingin activitiesopposedtothehegemonicpower,itisadvisable toextractbenefits by operatingwithinthe hegemonicsystem. 

HideStrategyimpliesstayingasfarremovedfromthe dominantpoweraspossible. China,RussiaandtheEuropeanUnionaremanyexamplesofthisbehaviour. 

AnotherbeliefisthatresistancetoAmericanhegemonymaycomefromnon-state actorsratherthanotherstates.ItisbelievedthatchallengestoUShegemonywill comefromacombinationofNon-GovernmentOrganisations(NGOs),social movementsandpublicopinion.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. America:ItcoverstwocontinentsofNorthandSouth AmericaandtheUSisonly oneofthecountriesofAmericancontinentthatsymbolisesUShegemony.

2. 9/11: TodenoteaseriesofattacksontheUSbyhijackersfromArabcountrieson11 Sep,2001.ItwasthemostdisastrousattackontheUS.

3. Guantanamo Bay:AnavalbaseinCubasetupbytheUSwhereprisonersare forbiddenoftheprotectionofinternationallaworlawoftheirowncountryorthatof theUS.

4. Hegemony:Aninternationalsystemtodominateworld byonlyonesuperpower.

5. Qualitative Gap:ItsignifiesUSsuperiorityintechnologyandnootherpowercould daretochallengetheUS.

6. BandwagonStrategy: Toextractbenefitsbyoperatingwithinhegemonicsystemin placeofopposingit.

7. GlobalVillage:ItreferstotheUSasthevillage headmanandallthenationsasits membersareneighbours.

8. ManufacturingConsent: Itreferstowinthe consentofcountriestothe dominating powerina mannerfavourabletoascendancyofthedominantclass.

9. BrettonWoodsSystem: AbasiceconomicstructureofworldsetupbytheUSafter SecondWorldWar.

10.SeaLanesofCommunication(SLOCs): Itisthenavalpowerofhegemonythat underwritesthelawoftheseaandensuresfreedomofnavigationininternational waters.Thesesearoutescommonlywadedbymerchantships

EuropeanUnion

AlternativeCentersofPower

Aftertheendof the SecondWorldWar,therewasa dilemmaamongmanyEuropean leadersoverthestatusofEurope.TheSecondWorldWarshatteredthestructureon whichthe Europeanstateshadbasedtheirrelations.

TheColdWaraidedtheintegrationofEuropeafter1945.TheEuropeaneconomywas revivedbytheextensive financialsupportbyUSAunderthe ‘MarshallPlan’.

TheOrganisationforEuropeanEconomicCooperation(OEEC)wasestablishedin 1948tochannelaidtotheWestEuropeanstates.Anotherstepforwardinpolitical cooperationwastheestablishmentofthecouncilofEuropein1949. 

ThedisintegrationofUSSR ledtotheformationofEuropeanUnionin1992which laidthefoundationforacommonforeignandsecuritypolicy,cooperationonjustice andcreationofasinglecurrency. 

TheEuropeanUnionhasevolvedovertimefromaneconomicuniontoan increasinglypoliticalone. 

TheEuropeanUnionhaseconomic,political,diplomaticandmilitaryinfluence.  Economically,theEuropeanUnionistheworld’sbiggesteconomy.IthadaGDPof morethan$12trillionin2005.ItscurrencyEuro,canposeathreattothedominance oftheUSdollar. 

Onthepoliticalanddiplomaticground,BritainandFrance,thetwomembersof EU arepermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncil. 

Inthedefencefield,theEuropeanUnion’scombinedarmedforcesarethesecond largestintheworld.

BeforeandduringtheSecondWorldWar,theSouthEastAsiasufferedalotfrom repeatedcolonialismi.e.both EuropeanandJapanese.

Therewereproblemsofnation-building, ravagesofpovertyandeconomic backwardnessandapressuretoalignwithanyofthetwosuperblocs. 

TheSouth EastAsianCountriesestablishedtheAssociationofSouth EastAsian Nations(ASEAN)in1967asanalternative toBandungconferenceandtheNonAlignedMovement.

OntheASEANlogo,thetenstalksofpaddy(Rice)representthetenSouthEastAsian countriesboundtogetherinfriendshipandsolidarity. The circle symbolisestheunity ofASEAN. 

Therewerefivefoundingcountries-Indonesia,Malaysia,Philippines, Singaporeand Thailand. 

TheobjectivesofASEANwastoaccelerateeconomicgrowth,socialprogress, promoteregionalpeace,stabilityandculturaldevelopment. 

ThemembersoftheassociationpromotedASEANway,aformofinteractionthatis informal,non-confrontationistandcooperative. 

In2003,anASEANcommunitywasestablishedcomprisingthreepillars,namely,the ASEANsecuritycommunity,theASEANeconomiccommunityandtheASEAN socio-culturalcommunity. 

Thememberstatespromisedtoupholdpeace,neutrality,cooperation,noninterferenceandrespectfornationaldifferencesand sovereignrights. 

TheASEANeconomiccommunityaimsforacommonmarketandtoaidsocialand economic developmentintheregion. 

ASEANhasavision2020whichhasdefinedanoutwardlookingroleforASEANin theinternationalcommunity.

AssociationofSouthEastAsianNationsASEAN

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Riseof theChineseEconomy

China hasbeengrowingasaneconomicpowersince1978.Itisprojectedtoovertake theUSastheworld’slargesteconomyby2040.In 1949,theeconomyoftheChina wasbasedontheSovietmodel.Itnowreliedonitsownresources.

During1970’s, ChinaestablishedrelationswiththeUSAendingitspoliticaland economic isolation. 

An‘OpenDoorPolicy’wasannouncedbyDengXiaopingin1978,whichaimedat generatinghighproductivitybyinvestmentsincapitalandtechnologyfromabroad.

Specialeconomic zonesweresetup.State hadacentralisedroleinsettingupof China’seconomy. 

StilltheChineseeconomydidnotbenefiteveryoneinChina.The rateof unemploymenthasrisen,workingconditionsandfemaleemploymentisbad.

However, regionallyandglobally,Chinahasbeeninlimelighteconomicpower.

India-ChinaRelations

India andChina hadacordialrelationssincetimeimmemorial.Bothhavepolitical, economicandculturalrelations. 

AfterIndia gainedindependence,boththecountriessharedapeacefulrelation.During thisperiodthesloganof‘Hindi-Chini-BhaiBhai’waspopular. 

Verysoonboththecountriesinvolvedinborderdispute.Thedifferencearousedfrom theChinesetakeoverofTibetin1950.  India sufferedmilitaryreversesintheconflictof1962. Diplomaticrelationsbetween thetwocountriesweredowngradeduntil1976.  Itwasduringthe visitpaidbyIndianPrime MinisterRajivGandhitoChinain1988 December,therelation betweenthetwocountriesstartedimproving.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. EuropeanUnion: Agroup ofEuropeanCapitalistcountriesestablishedin1992 foundedforcommongoalsofforeignandsecuritypolicy,cooperationandhome affairs.

2. OEEC:OrganisationforEuropeanEconomicCooperationestablishedin1948to channelaidtoWestEuropeanstatestocooperateontradeandeconomicissues.

3. MarshallPlan: ItwasintroducedbyAmerica toprovide financialhelpforrevivalof Europeaneconomy.

4. ASEAN:AssociationofSouthEastAsianNationstoaccelerateeconomicgrowth throughsocialprogressandculturaldevelopment.

5. ASEANWAY:Aninteractionthatisinformal, non-confrontationistsandcooperative to promotesupernationalstructures.

6. ASEANRegionalForum(ARF): Anorganisationestablishedin1994topromote coordinationofsecurityandforeignpolicy.

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7. SpecialEconomicZones(SEZs):Foreigninvestorscouldsetuptheirown enterprisesinthesezones.

8. OpenDoorPolicy:Toinvite investmentofcapitalandtechnologyfromabroad.

9. Three PillarsofASEANCommunity: ASEAN SecurityCommunity, ASEAN EconomicCommunity,ASEANSocio-CulturalCommunity.

ContemporarySouthAsia Pakistan

ThefirstmilitaryruleinPakistantook placeunderGeneralYahya Khan.Thereasonfor thiswasthepopulardissatisfactionagainstthe ruleofGeneralAyub Khan. 

Afterthis,agovernmentwasformed undertheleadershipofZulfikarAliBhuttofrom 1971to1977. 

BhuttoGovernmentwasremoved by GeneralZia-ul-Haq buthadtofaceprodemocracymovementfrom1982onwards. 

Againin1988anelecteddemocratic governmentwasestablishedunderBenazirBhutto buthadtofacecompetitionfrom thePakistanPeople’sPartyandthe MuslimLeague. 

ArmysteppedinagainandGeneralPervezMusharrafremovedPrimeMinister NawazSharif.GeneralMusharrafgothimselfelectedasthePresidentin2001.

Therewereseveralfactorswhichledtothe failureofPakistaninbuildingastable democracy.

At present,againademocraticformofgovernmentisrulingthecountryunderPrime MinisterNawazSharif.

India-PakistanConflicts

Afterindependence,bothIndiaandPakistangotinvolvedinissuerelatedtoKashmir. Itledtowarsin1947-48and1965whichfailedtosettle the matter. 

Boththecountriesfaceconflictoverstrategicissueslikethecontrolof theSiachen glacierandoveracquisitionofarms. 

Boththecountriescontinuetobesuspiciousofeachotheroversecurityissue. 

Anotherissueofconflictamongthetwocountriesisoverthesharingofriverwaters ofIndusriversystem. 

Thetwocountriesarenotinagreementoverthedemarcationjine inSirCreekinthe RannofKutch.

Bangladesh



BangladeshwasapartofPakistanfrom1947to1971.Butitstartedprotestingagainst thedominationofWesternPakistanandtheimpositionofUrduLanguage. 

Apopularstruggle againstWestPakistanidominancewasledbySheikhMujibur Rahman. 

In1970election,the AwanileagueunderSheikhMujibur Rahmanwonallseatsbut thegovernmentdominatedbytheWestPakistanileadershiprefusedtoconvenethe assembly. 

ThePakistaniarmytriedtosuppressthe movementwhichledtoalargenumberof migrationtoIndia.

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TheIndianGovernmentsupportedthedemandsofpeople ofEastPakistanandhelped them. ThisledtoawarwithPakistanin1971. Bangladeshwasformedasan independentcountryafter the endofwar. 

AConstitutionwasadoptedbyBangladeshdeclaringfaithinsecularism,democracy andsocialism.ButgovernmentunderSheikhMujiburamendedtheConstitutionand formedPresidentialformofgovernment. 

SheikhMujibur wasassassinatedandamilitaryrulewasestablishedunderZiaur Rahman.HewasalsoassassinatedandtheruleofLt GenH.M.Ershadstartedthis continuingthemilitaryrule. 

Apro-democraticmovementwasagainstartedwhichledtoelectionin1991.Since thenrepresentative democracybasedonmulti-partyelectionshasbeenworkingin Bangladesh.

Nepal

NepalwasaHinduKingdominthepastbutlaterchangedintoaconstitutional monarchyformanyyears. 

Inthewakeofastrongpro-democracymovementthekingacceptedthedemandfora newdemocraticConstitutionin1990. 

Therewasaconflictamongthe democrats,maoistsandmonarchistforceswhichled to theabolitionofparliamentanddismissalofgovernmentin2002bytheking. 

Againin2006,afterapro-democraticmovement,thekingwasforcedtorestorethe House ofRepresentatives.

SriLanka

Thedemocratic setupofSriLanka wasdisturbedbytheEthnicconflictamongthe SinhaleseandTamilorigin people. 

AccordingtotheSinhalese,theregionofCeylonbelongedtoSinhala peopleonlyand not totheTamilswhomigratedfromIndia. 

This ledtotheformationofLiberationTigerofTamilEelam(LTTE),amilitant organisation,whodemandeda separate country. 

TheGovernmentofIndiawaspressurisedbytheTamilpeopleinIndiaforthe protectionof theTamilsinSriLanka. 

India signedanaccordwithSriLankaandsenttroopstostabiliserelationsbetween theSriLankanGovernmentandtheTamils. 

Eventually,the IndianArmygot intoafightwiththeLTTE. LaterontheIndianPeace KeepingForce (IPKF)waspulledoutofSriLankain1989withoutachievingits aims. 

Presently,theLTTEhasbeendestroyedbythe SriLankanGovernmentandthearea underLTTE hasbeenrecovered. 

Inspiteof theEthnicconflict, theeconomyof SriLankahasalwaysbeenhigh.

India anditsOtherNeighbours

NeighbouringcountriesofIndiaareBangladesh,Nepal,SriLanka,Bhutan,Maldives andPakistan. 

TherearecertainissuesofconflictsbetweenIndiaandBangladesh. Theseinclude sharingofGanga andBrahmaputrariverwaters,illegalimmigrationtoIndia etc.

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Still,bothIndiaandBangladeshshareacordialrelationwitheachother.Economic relationsbetweenthetwohave improvedconsiderably. 

NepalandIndiasharesafriendlyrelationwitheach otherbutcertainissueslikewarm relationofNepalwithChina,MaoistmovementinNepaletchavedisturbedthe relation. 

Despitedifferences,trade,scientificco-operation,electricitygenerationandinter lockingwatermanagementgridsholdthetwocountriestogether. 

India enjoysaveryspecialrelationshipwithBhutantooanddoesnothaveanymajor conflictwiththeBhutanesegovernment.

PeaceandCooperation

EventhoughtherearecertainissuesofconflictsamongtheSouthAsiancountries, theyrecognisetheimportanceofcooperationandfriendlyrelationshipamong themselves. 

TheSouth Asiancountriesinitiatedtheestablishmentof theSouthAsianAssociation forRegionalCooperation(SAARC)in1985toevolvecooperationamongeachother.  TheSAFTAwassigned in2004bytheSouthAsiancountriestoallowfreetrade acrosstheborders. 

SAFTA aimsatloweringtradetariffsby20percentby2007. 

Although therehasbeenissuesbetweenIndiaandPakistan,measureswerebeing takentobringcordialchangesbetweenthecountries.  Thereisalsoanoutsidepowerwhichinfluencetheregion.ChinaandtheUnited StatesremainkeyplayersinSouthAsianpolitics.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. Geo-Politics:Geo-politicsreferstotheAssociationofcountrieswhoareboundwith each othergeographicallyandtheirinterestsarealsointerlinkedwitheachotherpolitically andeconomically.

2. BilateralTalks:Talksinvolvingthetwocountrieswithoutanyothermediation.

3. IndianPeaceKeepingForce(IPKF): ItwassentbyIndia inSriLankatosupport thedemandofTamilstoberecognised.

4. SevenPartyAlliance(SPA):AnallianceofsevenpartiesinNepalwhichalso demandedanendtomonarch.

5. SAARC:ItstandsforSouthAsianAssociationforRegionalCooperationhaving sevenmembersandaimsatmutualtrustandunderstanding.

6. SAFTA: ItisSouthAsia FreeTradeArea Agreementtotradefreefromcustom restrictionsanddutiesbyitsmemberstates.

7. LTTE:TheLiberationTigersof TamilElaminSriLankawhichdemandeda separate stateforTamils.

InternationalOrganisations

TheUnitedNationUN

TheUnitedNationswasestablishedin1945immediatelyaftertheSecondWorld War.ItwasasuccessortotheleagueofnationswhichwasformedaftertheFirst WorldWar. 

TheobjectiveofUnitedNationsistopreventinternationalconflictandtofacilitate cooperationamongstates.

IntheUNSecurityCouncil,therearefivepermanentmembers(UnitedKingdom, UnitedStateofAmerica,Russia,FranceandChina)andothernon-permanent memberswhoareelectedaftereverytwoyears.Themostimportantpublicfigure of theUNistheSecretaryGeneral. 

TherearedifferentstructuresandagenciesofUN.Theseinclude WorldHealth Organisation(WHO),theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme (UNDP),the UnitedNationsHumanRights Commission(UNHRC),theUnitedNationsHigh CommissionforRefugees(UNHCR)etc.

ReformoftheUnitedNationsaftertheColdWar

Reformsandimprovementarenecessaryforanyorganisationtoperformbetter.The UNisalsonotanexception.

TherehavebeendemandstobringreformsintheUN.Twodemandshavebeenraised i.e.reformoftheorganisation’sstructuresandprocessesand,a reviewoftheissues thatfallwithinthejurisdictionofthe organisation. 

Onthereformofstructuresandprocesses,therehasbeenthedemandtoincreasethe membershipofpermanentandnon-permanentinUNSecurityCouncil.

OntheissueswithinthejurisdictionoftheUN,somecountrieswanttheorganisation to playagreaterroleinpeaceandsecuritymissions. 

WhilesomeothercountrieswanttheroleofUNtobeconfinedtodevelopmentand humanitarianwork.

ReformofStructuresandProcessesoftheUN

AresolutionwasadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyin1992overthe reformsin thesecuritycouncil.Theresolutionreflectedthreemaincomplaints. 

TolookintothecomplaintsovertherestructuringoftheUN,on1stJanuary, 1997, theUNSecretaryGeneralKofiArmaninitiatedaninquiryintohowtheUNshouldbe reformed. 

Criteria forinclusionofanewmemberwasdecided.Someof themwerethatanew membermustbeamajoreconomicandmilitarypower,asubstantialcontributortothe UNbudgetetc. 

Differentgovernmentssawadvantagesinsomecriteriaanddisadvantagesinothers dependingontheirinterestsandaspirations.Ademandtoabolishthevetopower altogetherwasalsoraised. Manyperceivedthe vetotobeinconflictwiththeconcept ofdemocracyandsovereign equalityintheUN.

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Permanentmembershavetwoprivilegesi.e.vetopowerandpermanencyin the securitycouncil. 

Byvetopowermeansthatifapermanentmembercastavetoinanegativemanner thenitmaystatethe decision. 

Withoutvetopower,thereisthedangerthatthe greatpowerswouldloseinterestin theworld bodyandwithout theirsupportthebodywouldbeineffective.

JurisdictionoftheUN

AmeetingwasheldinSeptember2005tocelebratethe60thanniversaryoftheUnited Nationandtoreviewthesituation. 

Theleadersinthismeetingdecidedsome stepsthatshouldbetakentomaketheUN morerelevantinthechangingcontent.. 

Stepsincludeestablishmentofa HumanRightsCouncil,creationofademocracy fund,anagreementtowindupthetrusteeshipcounciletc.

India andthe UNReforms

India hasalwayssupportedtherestructuringoftheUnitedNations.Itbelievesthata strengthenedandrevitalisedUNisdesirableinachangingworld. 

ThemostimportantdemandofIndiaisregardingtherestructuringofthesecurity council.Itsupportsanincreaseinthenumberof bothpermanentandnon-permanent members. 

Italsoarguesthatanexpandedcouncil,withmorerepresentative,willenjoygreater supportintheworldcommunity. 

India itselfwishestobeapermanentmemberinarestructuredUN.Indiaisthe world’slargestdemocracyandthesecondmostpopulouscountryinthe world.

Thecountry’seconomicemergenceontheworldstageisanotherfactorthatperhaps justifiesIndia’sclaimtoa permanentseatintheSecurityCouncil. 

DespiteIndia’swishtobeapermanentvetoholdingmemberoftheUN,some countriesquestionitsinclusion.TheyareconcernedaboutIndo-Pakrelations,India’s nuclearcapabilitiesetc.

TheUNinaUnipolarWorld

Itisbelievedbymanycountriesthatthereformandrestructuringof theUNcould helptheUNcopebetterwithaunipolarworld inwhichtheUSwasthemost powerful country. 

TheUSstandsasthe onlysuperpowerafter thedisintegrationofUSSR henceUS powercannotbeeasilychecked. 

Withinthe UN,theinfluenceoftheUSisconsiderable.Asthesinglelargest contributortotheUN,theUShasunmatchedfinancialpower. 

TheUNisnotthereforeagreatbalancetotheUS.Nevertheless,inaunipolarworld in whichtheUSisdominant,theUNcanandhasserved tobringtheUSandtherest oftheworldintodiscussionsovervariousissues. 

TheUNisanimperfectbody, butwithoutittheworld wouldbe worseoff. 

Itisimportantforpeopletouseandsupportthe UNandotherinternational organisationsinwaysthatareconsistentwiththeirowninterests.

OtherInternational Organisations

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TheInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)isaninternationalorganisationthatlooks upon internationalfinancialinstitutionsandregulations. Ithas188membercountries. TheG-8members(theUS, Japan,Germany,France,UK,Italy, Canada,Russia), ChinaandSaudiArabiahave morethan52percentvotesinIMF. 

WorldBankisanimportantinternationalorganisationcreatedduringSecondWorld Warin1944.Itprovidesloansandgrantstothemembercountries;especially developingcountries. 

WorldTradeOrganisation(WTO)isaninternationalorganisationsetupin1995as thesuccessortotheGeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs(GATT). Itsetstherules forglobaltrade. Ithas157 membercountries. 

InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)isaninternationalorganisation establishedin1957.Itseekstopromotethepeacefuluseofnuclearenergyandto preventitsuseformilitarypurpose. 

AmnestyInternationalisaninternationalNon-GovernmentalOrganisation(NGO) whichcampaignsfortheprotectionofhumanrightsallovertheworld. 

HumanRightsWatchisaninternationalNGOwhichisinvolvedinresearchand advocacyonhumanrights.

UN’SSIGNIFICANTAGENCIES

1.InternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)

(a)Attheinternationallevel,overseasfinancialinstitutionsandregulations.

(b)Itconsistsof180members.Outofthem,G-8membersenjoymorepowersi.e.the US, Japan,Germany,France,theUK, Italy,CanadaandRussiaexceptChinaand SaudiArabia.

(c)TheUSaloneenjoys16.75%votingrights.

2.WorldBank

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(a)Itwascreatedin1944.

(b)Itworksforhumandevelopment,agricultureandruraldevelopment,environmental protection,infrastructureandgovernanceandprovidesloansandgrantstodeveloping countries.

(c)Itiscriticisedforsettingtheeconomicagendaofpoorernations,attachingstringent conditionstoitsloansandforcingfree marketreforms.

3.WTO-WorldTradeOrganisation

(a)Aninternationalorganisationtosettherulesforglobaltradewhichwassetupin1995as asuccessortoGeneralAgreementonTradeandTariffs(GATT)andhas157members,(ason 1September2012)

(b)MajoreconomicpowerssuchastheUS,EUandJapanhave managedtousetheWTOto framerulesoftradetoadvancetheirowninterests.

(c)Thedevelopingcountriesoftencomplainofnon-transparentprocedureandbeingpushed aroundbybigpowers.

4.IAEA-InternationalAtomicEnergyAgency

(a)Itwasestablishedin1957toimplementUSpresidentDwightEisenhower’s“Atomsfor Peace”proposal.

(b)Itseekstopromotethepeacefuluseofnuclearenergyandtopreventitsuse formilitary purpose.

(c)IAEAteamsregularlyinspectnuclearfacilitiesallovertheworldtoensurethatcivilian reactorsarenotbeingusedformilitarypurposes.

5.Amnesty International

(a)AnNGOtocampaignfortheprotectionofhumanrightsallovertheworld.

(b)Itpreparesandpublishesreportsonhumanrightstoresearchandadvocatehumanrights.

(c)GovernmentsarenotalwayshappywiththesereportssinceamajorfocusofAmnestyis themisconductofgovernmentauthorities.

6.HumanRightsWatch

(a)AnotherinternationalNGOinvolvedinresearchandadvocacyofhumanrights.

(b)ThelargestinternationalhumanrightsorganisationintheUS.

(c)Itdrawstheglobalmedia’sattentiontohumanrightsabuses.

(d)Ithelpedinbuildinginternationalcoalitionslike thecampaignstobanlandmines, tostop theuseofchild-soldierandtoestablishtheinternationalcriminalcourt.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. UNCharter:AconstitutionoftheUNtodealwithobjectivesoftheUN.

2. Veto:Itisanegativevotetobeenjoyedbyfive permanentmembersofSecurity Counciltostopadecision.

3. SecretaryGeneral: ArepresentativeheadoftheUNtoprepareanannualrecordof theUNactivities.

4. WHO:WorldHealthOrganisationtodealwithmattersrelatedtohealth.

5. UNICEF: UnitedNation’sChildrenFundtodealwithchildwelfare.

6. UNESCO: UnitedNation’s Educational, ScientificandCulturalOrganisation todeal with promotionofeducation,scienceandculture.

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7. PeaceKeepingOperation: Amechanismforrestoringpeaceandsecuritybysending UNcontrolledtroopsintheaffectedarea.

UNSECRETARIES-GENERAL

1.TrygveLie(1946-1952)Norway: Lawyerandforeignminister,

2.DagHammarskjold(1953-1961)Sweden: Economistandlawyer,

3.UThant(1961-1971)Burma(Myanmar): Teacheranddiplomatworkedforresolving theCubanMissilecrisisandendingtheCongoCrisis;

4.KurtWaldheim(1972-1981)Austria: Diplomatandforeignminister;

5.JavierPerezde Cuellar(1982-1991)Peru: Lawyeranddiplomat,

6.BoutrosBoutros-Ghali (1992-1996)Egypt: Diplomat,jurist,foreignminister;

7.KofiA.Annan(1997-2006)Ghana: UNofficial,createdtheGlobalFund toFightAIDS, TuberculosisandMalaria;awardedthe2001NobelPeacePrize

SecurityintheContemporaryWorld

TraditionalNotionsofExternalSecurity

Thegreatestdangertoacountryisfrommilitarythreats.Therootofthisdangeristhe othercountrywhichbythreateningmilitaryactionendangersthecorevaluesof sovereigntyandindependence. 

Therearethree choiceswiththegovernmentinresponsetothethreatofwar.These choicesaretosurrender,topreventtheothersidefromattackandtodefenditself duringthewarandfourcomponentsoftraditionalsecurityi.e.deterrence,defence, balanceofpowerandalliancebuilding. 

Deterrencemeanspreventionof war;defencemeans limitingorendingwar; balance ofpowermeansthereshouldbebalancebetweenbiggerandsmallercountriesand alliancebuildingmeanscoalitionofstates. 

Agoodpartofmaintainingabalanceof poweristobuildupone’smilitarypowerthat coordinatetheiractionstodeterordefendagainstmilitaryattack. 

Accordingtothetraditionalviewofsecurity,mostthreatstoacountry’ssecurity comefromoutsideitsborders.

Withinacountry,thethreatofviolenceisregulatedbyanacknowledgedcentral authorityi.e. the government. 

Butinworldpolitics,eachcountryhastoberesponsibleforitsownsecurity.

TraditionalNotionsofInternalSecurity

Traditionalsecuritymustconcernitselfwithinternalsecuritywhichhasnot been givensomuchimportanceduetovariousreasons. 

Afterthe SecondWorldWar,internalsecuritywasmoreorlessassuredtothe powerfulcountriesonthe Earth. 

Mostof theEuropeancountriesfacednoseriousthreatsfromgroupsorcommunities livingwithin thoseborders.Hencethesecountriesgave importancetoexternal security. 

ThemainconcernfortheexternalsecuritywastheeraofColdWar.Boththe superpowerswereafraidofattacksfromeachother. 

ThecolonieswhichbecameindependentwereunderfearofconversionofColdWar intoa HotWar. 

ThenewlyindependentAfricanandAsiancountriesweremoreworriedaboutthe prospectofmilitaryconflictwithneighbouringcountries. 

Theywereworriedaboutinternalthreatsfromseparatistmovementswhichwantedto formindependentcountries.

TraditionalSecurityandCooperation

Itisuniversallyacceptedthatwarcantakesplacefortheright reasons,primarilyselfdefenceortoprotectotherpeoplefromgenocide. 

Traditionalviewsof securityalsogivesimportancetootherformsofcooperationlike disarmament,armscontrolandconfidencebuilding.

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Disarmamentrequiresallstatestogive upcertainkindsof weapons. 

Armscontrolregulatestheacquisitionordevelopmentofweapons, e.g. UnitedStates andSovietUnionsignedanumberofotherarmscontroltreaties.

Confidencebuildingmeansaprocessinwhichcountriesshareideasandinformation with theirrivals.

Forceisboththeprinciplethreattosecurityandtheprinciplemeansofachieving securityintraditionalsecurity.

Non-TraditionalNotions

Thenon-traditionalnotionsofsecuritygobeyondmilitarythreatstoincludeawide range of threatsanddangersaffectingtheconditionofhumanexistence. 

Non-traditionalviewsofsecurityhavebeencalled‘humansecurity’or‘global security’. 

Byhumansecuritywemeantheprotectionofpeoplemorethanthe protectionof states. 

Proponents(supporters)of the‘narrowconcept’ofhumansecurityfocusonviolent threatstoindividuals. 

Ontheotherhand,proponentsofthe‘broadconcept’ofhumansecurityarguethatthe threatagendashouldincludehunger,diseaseandnaturaldisaster. 

Theideaofglobalsecurityemergedinthe1990sinresponsetotheglobalnatureof threatssuchasglobalwarming, AIDSandsoon.

NewSourcesofThreats

Some newsourcesofthreatshaveemergedaboutwhichtheworldisconcernedtoa large extent.Theseincludesterrorism,humanrights,globalpoverty, migrationand healthepidemics. 

Terrorismreferstopoliticalviolence thattargetsciviliansdeliberatelyand indiscriminately. 

Therearethree typesofhumanrights.Thefirstispoliticalrights,secondiseconomic andsocialrightsandthethirdtypeistherightsofcolonisedpeople. 

Anothertype ofinsecurityisglobalpoverty. Richstatesarebecomingricher whereas poorstatesaregettingpoorer. 

PovertyintheSouthhasalsoledtolarge scalemigrationtoseekabetterlife, especiallybettereconomicopportunities,intheNorth. 

HealthepidemicssuchasH1V-AIDS, birdfluandSevereAcuteRespiratory Syndrome (SARS)have beenincreasingacrosscountriesthroughmigration. 

Itisimportanttounderstandthattheexpansionof the conceptofsecuritydoesnot meantoincludeeverything. 

Toqualifyasasecurityproblem,anissuemustsharea minimumcommoncriterion.

CooperativeSecurity

Dealingwithcertainissuesofsecurityrequirecooperationratherthanmilitary confrontation.Militaryhelpcanbetakentodealwithterrorismbutitwillbeofnouse in dealingwithissueslikepoverty, migrationandsoon. 

Itbecomesimportanttodevisestrategiesthatinvolveinternationalcooperationwhich canbe bilateral, regional,continentalorglobal.

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Cooperative securitymayalsoinvolvea varietyofotherplayers,bothinternational andnational. 

Butcooperativesecuritymayalsoinvolvetheuseofforceasalastresort.The internationalcommunitymayhavetosanctiontheuseofforcetodealwith dictatorship.

India’s SecurityStrategy

Indian’ssecuritystrategy dependsuponfourbroadcomponents 

Strengtheningthe militarycapabilitiesisthefirstcomponentofIndia’ssecurity strategybecauseIndiahasbeeninvolvedinconflictswithitsneighbours. 

ThesecondcomponentofIndia’ssecuritystrategyhasbeentostrengthen internationalnormsandinternationalinstitutionstoprotectitssecurityinterests. 

Thethirdimportantcomponentof India’ssecuritystrategyisgearedtowardsmeeting securitychallengeswithinthecountry. 

Thefourthcomponentistodevelopitseconomyinawaythatthevastmassof citizensareliftedoutofpovertyandmisery.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. Security:Anessenceforexistenceofhumanlifetoprotectfromthreatseither externalorinternal.

2. ArmsControl: Itregulatesacquisitionofweapon.

3. Disarmament: Itboundsstatestogive upcertainkindsofweaponstoavoid mass destruction.

4. Confidencebuilding: Aprocessinwhichdifferentcountriesshareideasand informationwithrivalcountriesbyintimatingeachotherabouttheirmilitaryplans.

5. GlobalPoverty:Itreferstoa countrytobesufferedfromlowincomesandless economic growthtobecategorisedasleastdevelopedordevelopingcountries.

6. Migration:Itisthemovementofhumanresourcesfromonestatetoanotherdue to someparticularreasons.

IMPORTANT

ABBREVIATIONS 1. BWC:BiologicalWeaponsConvention 2. CWC:ChemicalWeaponsConvention 3. ABM: Anti-BallisticMissile 4. START: StrategicArmsReductionTreaty 5. NPT:NuclearNon-ProliferationTreaty 6. SALT: StrategicArmsLimitationTreaty 7. SARS:SevereAcuteRespiratorySyndrome 8. CBMS: Confidence BuildingMeasures 9. NIEO:NewInternational EconomicOrder 10.IMF: InternationalMonetaryFund

EnvironmentandNaturalResources

EnvironmentalConcernsinGlobalPolitics

Therehavebeenmanyenvironmentalissuesthatareconcernsoftheglobalpolitics. 

Thereisadecline intheavailabilityofcultivablelandandasubstantialportion of existingagriculturallandislosingfertility. 

Around1.2billionpeopleindevelopingcountrieshave noaccesstosafewaterand 2.6billionhavenoaccesstosanitationaccordingtotheHumanDevelopmentReport, 2006. 

Thelossofbiodiversitycontinuesduetodestructionofhabitatinareaswhicharerich in species.Theactof deforestationtakesplaceforpersonalgains,removingthe naturalinhabitants. 

Anotherdangertoecosystemsandhumanhealthisasteadydeclineinthetotal amountofozone intheEarth’sstratosphere.Eventhecoastalwatersarebecoming increasinglypollutedduetoland-basedactivities. 

Theenvironmentalconsequencesofeconomic growthacquiredanincreasingly politicalcharacterfromthe1960sonwards. 

Internationalagencieslikethe UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme (UNEP), startedholdinginternationalconferencestodealwithenvironmentissues. 

EarthsummitorRiosummitwasheldinRiodeJaneiro,BrazilinJune1992which producedconventionsdealingwithclimatechange,biodiversity,forestryand recommendedalistofdevelopmentpracticescalled ‘Agenda21’.

TheProtectionofGlobal‘Commons’

Commons’arethe resourcessharedbythecommunityasawholenotindividually. 

Intheworld,therearesomeareaswhicharelocatedoutsidethesovereignjurisdiction ofanyonestateandhencerequirecommongovernancebytheinternational community.ThisisknownasGlobalCommons.TheyincludeEarth’satmosphere, Antarctica,the oceanfloor,andouterspace. 

Anumberofagreementsweresignedwhichincludesthe AntarcticTreaty(1959),the MontrealProtocol(1987)andtheAntarcticEnvironmentalProtocol(1991). 

Thehistoryofouterspaceasaglobalcommonsshowsthatthemanagement ofthese areasisthoroughlyinfluencedbyNorth-Southinequalities.

CommonbutDifferentiatedResponsibilities

ThereweredifferencesbetweenthecountriesoftheNorthandtheSouthover environmentissues. 

TheNortherncountrieswanteveryone tobeequaliyresponsibleforecological conservation. 

Thedevelopingcountriesofthe South believesthat theecologicaldegradationisthe productof industrialdevelopmentundertakenbythedevelopedcountries.

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IntheRiosummit,1992,itwasacceptedthatspecialneedsofthedeveloping countriesmustbe takenintoaccountinthedevelopmentandinterpretationof rulesof internationalenvironmentallaw. 

The1992 UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC) alsoprovidesthatthe partiesshouldactonthebasisofequity.

Itwasacceptedthatalargeamountofgreenhousegasemissionhasoriginatedin developedcountriesandpercapita emissionsindevelopingcountriesarerelatively low. 

DevelopingcountrieslikeIndiaandChinawereexemptedfromtherequirementsof theKyoto Protocol. 

TheKyotoProtocolisaninternationalagreementsettingtargetsforindustrialised countriestocuttheirgreenhouse gasemissions.

Commons PropertyResources

Itrepresentscommonpropertyforthegroupbutwitharulethatmembersofthe grouphave bothrightsanddutieswithrespecttothenature,levelsofuseof agiven resource. 

Butissueslikeprivatisation,agriculturalintensification,populationgrowthand ecosystemdegradationhavecausedcommonpropertytodwindleinsize.

India’s StandonEnvironmental Issues

India hassignedandratifiedKyotoProtocol (1997) inAugust 2002.Developing countrieslike IndiaandChinawereexemptfromtherequirementsoftheKyoto Protocol. 

AttheG-8 meetinginJune2005,Indiapointedout thatthepercapitaemission rates ofthedevelopingcountriesarea tinyfractionofthoseinthedevelopedworld. 

TheIndianGovernmentisalreadyparticipatinginglobaleffortsthroughanumberof programmeslikeEnergyConservationAct(2011),ElectricityActof2003and soon.

In1997,a reviewofthe implementationoftheagreementsattheEarth summitinRio wasundertakenbyIndia. 

India suggestedthatthedevelopingcountriesmustgetfinancialresourcesandclean technologiesfromthedevelopedcountriesinordertomeetUNFCCCcommitments.

EnvironmentalMovements

Some ofthemostsignificantresponsestothechallenge ofenvironmentaldegradation hascomefromgroupsofenvironmentallyconsciousvolunteersworkingindifferent partsoftheworld. 

TheforestmovementsoftheSouth,inMexico,Chile,Brazil,Malaysia,Indonesia, ContinentalAfricaandIndiaarefacedwithenormouspressuresregardingforest clearing. 

Anotherexampleisofthe groupwhichisworkingagainstmineralextraction companyasitleadstodisplacementofcommunitiesetc. 

Anothergroupsofmovementsarethoseinvolvedin strugglesagainstmega-dams. In India,NarmadaBachaoAandolanisone ofthebestknownofthesemovements.

ResourceGeopolitics

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Resourcegeopoliticsmeanswho getswhat,when,whereandhow.

Throughout thecoldwartheindustrialisedcountriesoftheNorthadoptedanumberof methodstoensureasteadyflowofresources.

Oilcountriestobethe mostimportantresourceinglobalstrategy. Theimmense wealthassociatedwithoilgeneratespoliticalstrugglestocontrolit. 



WestAsia,specificallytheGulf region,accountsforabout30percentofglobaloil production. 

Anotherimportantresourcerelevanttoglobalpoliticsiswater.Regionalvariations andscarcityoffreshwaterinsome partsoftheworldisaleadingsourceofconflictsin the21stcentury.

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Anumberofstudiesshowthatcountriesthatshareriversandmanycountriesdoshare riversareinvolvedinmilitaryconflictswitheachother.

TheIndigenousPeopleandtheir Rights

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AspertheUnitedNations,indigenouspopulationcomprisesthedescendantsof peopleswhoinhabitedthepresentterritoryofacountryatthetime whenpersonsofadifferentculturearrivedtherefrom otherpartsofthe world. 

Indigenouspeoplevoicesinworldpoliticstotreatthemequallywithother communities.

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TheareasoccupiedbyindigenouspeopleincludeCentralandSouthAmerica,Africa, India andSouth-EastAsia.

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Theindigenouspeopleappealtogovernmentstocometotermswiththecontinuing existence ofindigenousnationsasenduringcommunitieswithanidentityoftheir own.

InIndia,indigenouspeopleappliestothescheduledtribeswhoconstitutenearly8per centofthepopulationofthecountry. 

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Issuesrelatedtothe rightsoftheindigenouscommunitieshavebeenneglectedin domesticandinternationalpoliticsforverylong.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. EarthSummit: AconferenceheldinRiodeJaneiro(Brazil)inJune1992on EnvironmentandDevelopmenttodealwithvariousenvironmentalproblems.

2. Agenda21:TheEarthSummitrecommendedalistofpracticesinreferenceof developmenttoattainsustainability,calledAgenda21.

3. KyotoProtocol:Aninternationalagreementsettingtargetsforindustrialised countriestocuttheirgreenhouse gasemissionswasagreedtoin1997inKyoto in Japan,basedonprinciplessetoutinUNFCCC.

4. UNFCCC:The 1992UnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange providedthatpartiesshouldacttoprotecttheclimatesystemwithcommonbut differentiatedresponsibilities.

5. IndigenousPeople:Indigenous peoplecomprisethedescendantsof peopleswho inhabitedthepresentterritoryofacountryatthetimewhenpersonsofdifferent culturearrivedtherefromdifferentpartsofthe world.

Globalisation

ConceptofGlobalisation

Globalisationmeanstheflowsofideas,capital,commoditiesandpeopleacross differentpartsoftheworld.Itisamultidimensionalconcept. Ithaspolitical, economicandculturalmanifestationsandthesemust beadequatelydistinguished.

Globalisationneednotalwaysbepositive.Itcanhave negative consequencesforthe people.

Asaconcept,globalisationfundamentallydealswithflows.Theseflowscanbeideas movingfromonepartoftheworldtoanother,commoditiesbeingtradedacross bordersandsoon.

Thecrucialelementistheworldwideinterconnectednesswhichiscreatedand sustainedasaconsequenceof theseconstantflows.

CausesofGlobalisation

Oneimportantaspectofglobalisationisthateventhoughitisnotcausedbyany single factor, technologyremainsacriticalelement.

Theabilityofideas,capital,commoditiesandpeopletomovemoreeasilyfrom one partoftheworldtoanotherhasbeenmadepossiblebytechnologicaladvances.

Interconnectionsisalsoanimportantaspectof globalisation.Anyeventtakingplace in onepartoftheworldcouldhaveanimpactonanotherpartofthe world.

ConsequencesofGlobalisation PoliticalConsequences

Globalisationresultsinanerosionofstatecapacityi.e.byreducingtheabilityof governmenttodowhattheywanttodo.

Itgiveswaytoamoreminimaliststatethatperformscertaincorefunctionssuchas themaintenanceoflawandorder,andthesecurityofitscitizens.

Inplaceofthestatethemarketbecomestheprimedeterminantofeconomicand socialpriorities.

Globalisationdoesnotalwaysreducestatecapacity. Theprimacyofthe state continuestobe unchallenged basisofpoliticalcommunity.

Statecapacityhasreceivedboostasaconsequenceofglobalisation,withenhanced technologiesavailable atthedisnosalofthestate tocollectinformationaboutits citizens.

Economic Consequences

Inordertounderstandeconomicconsequencesofglobalisationitisimportanttoknow thatineconomicglobalisationinvolvesmanyactorsotherthanIMF,WTO.

Itinvolvesgreatereconomicflowsamongdifferentcountriesoftheworld. Someof thisisvoluntaryandsomeforcedbyinternationalinstitutionsandpowerfulcountries.

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Globalisationhasinvolvedgreatertradeincommoditiesacrosstheglobeasithas reducedtheimposingofrestrictionsontheimportsofonecountryonanother.

Economicglobalisationhascreatedanintensedivision ofopinionalloverthe world.

Accordingtosome,economicglobalisationislikelytobenefitonlyasmallsectionof thepopulation.

Ontheotherhandadvocatesofeconomicgloblisationarguethatitgeneratesgreater economic growthandwell-beingforlargersections ofthepopulation.

CulturalConsequences

Theconsequencesofglobalisationcanalsobeseenonourculturetooandthusitis notconfirmedonlytothesphereofpoliticsandeconomy.

Theprocessculturalglobalisationposesathreatbecauseitleadstotheriseofa uniformcultureorwhatiscalledculturalhomogenisation.

Culturalglobalisationhasbothpositiveaswellasnegativeeffectonthe world.

Whileculturalhomogenisationisanaspectofglobalisation,thesameprocessalso generatespreciselytheoppositeeffect.

India andGlobalisation

Flowspertainingtothemovementof capital,commodities,ideasandpeoplego back severalcenturiesinIndianHistory. 

Duringthe Britishrule,Indiabecameanexporterofprimarygoodsandrawmaterials andaconsumer(importer) offinishedgoods. 

Afterindependence,Indiadecidedtobeaself-sufficientcountryratherthanbeing dependentonothers. 

In1991,Indiaembarkedonaprogrammeofeconomicreformsthathassought increasinglytode-regulatevarioussectorsincludingtradeandforeign investment.

ResistancetoGlobalisation

Globlalisationhasinvitedstrongcriticismallovertheglobe.Forsomeglobalisation representsa particularphaseofglobalcapitalismthatmakesthe richricherandthe poorpoorer. 

Culturally,theyareworriedthattraditionalculturewillbeharmedandpeoplewill losetheirage-oldvaluesandways. 

Itisimportanttonoteherethatanti-globalisationmovementstooparticipateinglobal networks,allyingwiththosewhofeelliketheminothercountries. 

TheWorldSocialForum(WSF)isaglobalplatformbringingtogetherhumanrights activists,environmentalists,labour,youthandwomenactivistsopposedtoneo-liberal globalistion.

India andResistancetoGlobalisation

ResistancetoglobalisationinIndia hascomefrom differentquarters. 

Therehavebeenleftwingproteststoeconomicliberalisationvoicedthroughpolitical partiesaswellasthrough someforums. 

Resistancetoglobalisationhasalsocomeformthe politicalright.Thishastakenthe forumofobjectingparticularlytovariousculturalinfluences.

WORDSTHATMATTER

1. Globalisation:Itsignifiesintegrationofaneconomywiththeeconomiesof other countriesundertheprocessoffreeflowoftradeandcapital.

2. WorldSocialForum: Aglobalplatformtobringtogetherawidecoalitionofhuman rightsactivists,environmentalistsandwomenactivists.

3. Privatisation: Itallowsprivate sectorcompaniestoproduce goodsandservicesina country.

4. Liberalization:Itsignifiesrelaxationofgovernmentrulesandregulationsrelatingto activitiesinsendeeandindustrialsector.

5. Cultural hetrogenisation: Itsignifiesculturaldifferencesanddistinctivenatureof culturestobegeneratedbyglobalization.