Ecology and Farming No 2/2014 by Ecology and Farming

ecology No 2 // October 2014

AND

Turkey Update Urban Agriculture

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Table of Con tents

OCTOBER 2014 // NR 2

EVENTS 8 IFOAM Organic World Congress Fulfilling the organic vision is a journey far from over

COUNTRY UPDATE 10 Organic growth in Turkey

An update on organic farming in Turkey

Country PROFILE 14 Bhutanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision of 100% organic farming

Agriculture guided by the principles of Gross National Happiness

COMPANY PROFILE 18 Chocolates from the tropics to the Dutch polders

Following the cocoa trail to Hollandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s newest organic cocoa processing plant

HEALTH 22 Affordable grasshoppers as a sustainable alternative to beef

The west eats too much meat for the planet to sustain, protein from insects are the solution

ENVIRONMENT 24 CO2 Neutral

Ecology and Farming goes carbon neutral through supporting composting schemes in Africa

AGRICULTURE 26 Urban agriculture in the urbanization era

Can urban agriculture play a role in nurturing a growing number of city dwellers?

And more.... Editorial News Calendar Contact

5 6 30 30

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introduction

Denise Godinho

Peter Brul

IFOAM Organic World Congress Istanbul 2015 Every three years, the organic movement gathers for the largest international organic event, the IFOAM Organic World Congress. This year Istanbul is the city to which international delegates from all over the world will travel to participate in the many pre-conferences or attend the different tracks of the actual congress program. But not less important is the two-day event that follows on from the OWC: The IFOAM General Assembly. It is in this decision-making forum that the political direction of this global organic umbrella organization is determined for the coming three years and opinion-makers and innovative thinkers of the organic movement actively contribute to the outcomes of this assembly.

organic needing attention or further development: advocacy for soil conservation; genetic engineering and GE contamination of organic seeds; fair and transparent marketing systems; cell fusion varieties; guidelines for new breeding techniques; antinuclear and pro-renewable energy; bee-keeping. These are but some of the hot topics that will be addressed and discussed by those present at the General Assembly. As always, we expect lively debates, exciting decisions and light being shone on areas requiring our attention – an event not to be missed. If you’re an IFOAM affiliate, this is the time to get active! And if you’re not an IFOAM affiliate yet, this could be a great opportunity to see, up close, the organic movement in action.

A new World Board is elected, the host country and organization for the next edition of the OWC/ GA is voted on, and IFOAM’s work plan approved.

We look forward to seeing you there!

Motions presented by both Members and the World Board seek to emphasize work areas within

Denise Godinho, editor

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Harvard: Research show benefits of organic WASHINGTON D.C., The Organic Center’s Board of Trustees gathered at Harvard University for their annual retreat and for scientific briefings on research on organic’s impact on the health of humans and the environment. They reported that preliminary findings of the research support the benefits of organic food and farming and show organic’s potential to solve a host of real-world concerns.

“We have preliminary evidence suggesting that organic soil has more sequestered carbon than conventional soil,” said Dr. Ghabbour. “Synthetic fertilizer can strip the soil of organic matter, so organic farming should result in healthier soil.”

Mitigating climate change Shade added that the preliminary results of the soil study suggest that organic farming may play an important role in mitigating climate change Professor Dr. Chensheng (Alex) Lu because organic soils contain higher working with The Organic Center to examine the health effects of pesticide levels of sequestered carbon. exposure and organic diet, and Drs. Geoff Davies and Elham Ghabbour at The Organic Center, has spearheaded and collaborated with several major Northeastern University who studies the impacts of organic management on universities and the U.S. Department of soil, and OC Board members expressed Agriculture on a number of significant their commitment to problem-solving research projects this year: for the entire organic value chain. • Health Effects of Dietary Pesticide Exposure: This project examines the “We wholeheartedly encourage research filling the gaps in our know- effects of exposure to synthetic chemiledge about organic, such as that being cals such as pesticides from people’s conducted by these high-caliber resear- diets. With the generous support of the UNFI Foundation, this research will be chers on these complex topics,” said completed in February 2015. Dr. Jessica Shade. Dr. Lu: “Exposure to pesticides can affect human health in ways that we don’t fully understand yet, while eating organic is one way to help reduce risks associated with environmentally induced diseases.” The Organic Center Board also visited Drs. Davies and Ghabbour, who lead the National Soil Project at Northeastern University. Their National Soil Project examines differences in soil health between organic and conventional soil. Specifically, they are looking at the level of sequestered carbon in soils to investigate potential benefits that organic farming practices might have on soil health.

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

project investigates the effect organic farming has on decreasing the serious environmental threat of nitrogen pollution and is expected to be completed in February 2015. • Decreasing Arsenic Uptake in Organic Rice Systems: This project looks at the genetic, environmental, and temporal effects on arsenic accumulation in organic rice systems. This research is expected to be completes December 2014.

• Organic Fire Blight Prevention Project: This project produced a publication detailing methods for preventing fire blight on organic apple and pear orchards without the use of antibiotics. • Soil Health on Organic Farms: This This research was completed in March project compares soil health components between organic and conventional 2014. farms. With the generous support of “The Organic Center is tackling Organic Valley’s Farmers Advocating for Organics (FAFO), this research will research that not only protects the organic industry, organic businesses, and be completed in January 2016. the future of organic, but can benefit • Organic Solutions to Citrus Greening: all of agriculture, and we will continue this important work,” said Todd Linsky, This project is seeking organic soluChairman of the Board of Trustees of tions to stop this devastating disease The Center. from decimating domestic citrus The Organic Center envisions improwithout the use of toxic chemicals or GMOs. This research is expected to be ved health for the environment and for people through the conversion of agricompleted in July 2017. culture to organic methods. • The Effects of Organic Farming Source: organicnewsroom.org Practices on Nitrogen Pollution: This

Bio-Beurs 2015 (Dutch Bio Trade Fair) On 21 and 22 janaury 2015, The IJsselhallen, Zwolle, forms the backdrop for the Dutch Bio Trade Fair. It‘s the place to be for Dutch organic farmers, producers and trading companies, retailers, chefs and restaurateurs. Meet current and new customers, get inspired, discover the latest trends, display your new products for visitors to see and sample. For those who orientate on organic production or have a trade or profession in this direction, the Bio Beurs is a fast and attractive way to promote your business.

• Professional organization to which the needs of the customer are paramount • For restaurateurs, caterers, knowledge institutions, consultants, suppliers and government agencies • Starting point for entrepreneurs who are guided by the market and opportunities for organic products • Agriculture, food and non-food • Substantive program with lectures, workshops and special events • Election of the best innova-

tive entrepreneurs in organic agriculture, trade and retail • Over 10,000 visitors in two days

News

More info: www.bio-beurs.nl

The Power of Organic Agriculture & Participatory Guarantee Systems That the conversion to Organic Agriculture is better for soil, the environment and human health is something not new to stakeholders in the organic movement. This message is also having an impact beyond our movement as we see consumer spending on organic produce increasing steadily from year to year and the numbers employed in the organic sector is also on the up. Yet what is not always seen is the impact it can have in rural communities. Participatory Guarantee Systems (PGS) are locally focused quality assurance systems. They certify producers based on active participation of stakeholders and are built on a foundation of trust, social networks and knowledge exchange (IFOAM 2008). Entrance to and participation in PGS involves either the farm conversion to Organic Agriculture or the strengthening of an existing organic farm. IFOAM conducted the ‘Global Comparative Study on Interactions Between Social Processes and Participatory Guarantee Systems’ in the framework of the project ‘Ecological and socio-economic intensification for food security in smallholder agriculture in Central Andes, Peru’. Over a two-year period, interviews were conducted with farmers to find out how involvement in PGS can improve the livelihoods of rural communities worldwide, and, particularly in the Peruvian Andes. Entrance and participation in PGS The cases demonstrate that PGS can provide farmers with access to markets thus improving their profit margins. The short value-chain and direct relations to consumers increase the likelihood of farmers being able to fetch a price for their products that enables them to make a decent livelihood for their families. The impact of PGS initiatives was observed for both cash and subsistence farming thereby improving household nutritional requirements. This means that PGS, as a development tool, has the potential to make a significant contribution to the reduction of food insecurity as well as to improved nutrition among farmers in rural areas. You can download the full study at www.ifoam.org

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Join IFOAM in Turkey for the Organic World Congress 13-15 October 2014

BY DENISE GODINHO

Every three years sector stakeholders come together at the Organic World Congress (OWC), the world’s largest and most significant organic gathering, to discuss and deliberate the burning issues of the day. At the same time the IFOAM General Assembly also convenes, a lively meeting that inspires members, board and staff to continue working towards the realization of IFOAM’s vision.

he last time IFOAM brought together

expecting about 1,000 participants from

can make the most of your trip to Turkey.

the world of organic was 2011 in

around the world to join us.

For information on registering, traveling

Korea. Since then IFOAM has been busy

In addition to a great line-up of Keynote

flying the organic flag at numerous inter-

Speakers, the congress offers three con-

to Turkey and booking accommodation please visit www.owc2014.org/.

national conferences, voicing the opinions

ference tracks: Main Track, Scientific

On the next page you’ll find short des-

of the organic movement, and raising

Track, Practitioners’ Track and a Series of

criptions of the keynote speakers at the

awareness of the need for a global para-

Workshops organized by various initiatives

Organic World Congress.

digm shift toward organic.

from around the organic world. (www. owc2014.org/)

OWC Pre-conferences with IFOAM involvement, 11-12 October 2014

Coincidentally, in the days preceding the Organic World Congress 2014, the Food

The Main Track, made up of two paral-

There will also be a number of interesting

and Agriculture Movement of the United

lel sessions titled Organic Vision Building

events taking place at the 26 Agustos

Nations (FAO) has echoed our call by

and Growing the Organic World, sees

Campus of Yeditepe University, Istanbul,

stating the need for a “paradigm shift”

panelists discuss the future direction of

the weekend prior to the OWC.

towards sustainable agriculture and family

the global organic world.

IFOAM is involved in the following events:

farming at the 4th session of the Com-

The Scientific Track is designed for

11 October 2014

mittee on Agriculture (COAG) in Rome.

researchers to present their latest findings

Organic Aquaculture - supporting eco-

However, FAO’s Director General also

on systems, plant production, animal

nomic growth of the organic aquaculture

said that the use of Genetically Modified

husbandry, socio-economics, processing,

sector, Building Food Communities

Organisms should also be explored, a

trade, and human nutrition research.

Strengthening IFOAM in the Global GMO

statement which indicates that our jour-

The Practitioners Track provides a forum

Debate

ney to fulfilling the organic vision is far

for the exchange of hands-on knowledge

12 October 2014

from over. No doubt many of the discus-

and experiences in the practical and stra-

Organic Family Farming and Fair Trade

sions and debates in Turkey will focus on

tegic as well as socio-cultural aspects of

for Rural Development, Practitioner’s

the numerous hurdles to overcome on our

organic food and agriculture.

Research Agenda, Organic Animal Hus-

way there.

The series of workshops is open to insti-

bandry Across the World: Situation, Deve-

tutes and initiatives interested in sharing

lopment Needs and Demands, Organic

their expertise with congress attendees.

Agriculture and Food Systems: New

What IFOAM has lined-up for you!

Mediterranean Challenges

This time round the OWC is taking place from 13-15 October at the Istanbul

There will also be a number of excursions

IFOAM ABM General Assembly

Congress Center in Turkey. IFOAM is

and side events on offer ensuring that you

INOFO General Assembly

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

EVENTS

Yemi Akinbamijo is the Executive Director

Lyonpe Yeshey Dorji is Bhutan’s second

Kathleen Merrigan is the former Deputy

of FARA (Forum for Agricultural Research

democratically elected Minister of Agricul-

Secretary of U.S. Department of Agricul-

in Africa). Dr. Akinbamijo, a Nigerian

ture and Forests. He has a Masters in Bio-

ture. As Deputy Secretary, Dr. Merrigan

national, has spent the past 28 years of

logy specializing in plant systematics from

created and led the “Know Your Farmer,

his career in Africa and Europe working in

University of Missouri, USA and served as

Know Your Food Initiative” to support

the International Agriculture, Food Secu-

a researcher and senior planning officer in

local food systems. Time Magazine

rity and Rural Development domain. Dr.

the Ministry of Agriculture before joining

named Dr. Merrigan among the “100 most

Akinbamijo has published extensively and

politics in 2008. Bhutan is transitioning to

influential people in the world” in 2010.

served on several international research

organic farming as part of the countrywide

She is currently the Executive Director

panels.

Gross National Happiness program.

of Sustainability at George Washington University.

Will Allen is an urban farmer who establis-

Christian Felber is a writer and a lecturer

hed and functions as the CEO of USA’s

at the University of Economics Vienna.

Raþit Pertev is the Secretary of IFAD

preeminent urban farm and NGO, Gro-

He co-founded Attac Austria and is the

(International Fund for Agricultural Deve-

wing Power. He is a former professional

initiator of the “Economy for the Common

lopment). He was formerly the Minister

basketball player, ex-corporate sales lea-

Good” and “Bank for the Common Good”

of Agriculture and Forestry in Cyprus. Mr.

der and longtime farmer, and he is recog-

in Austria. He is an internationally popular

Pertev is a graduate of the London School

nized as a leader in urban agriculture and

speaker and the author of a couple of

of Economics and Cambridge Univer-

food policy. In May 2010, Time magazine

best-sellers: 50 Suggestions for a Fairer

sity. In Paris, he worked as the Assistant

named Will one of Time 100 World’s Most

World, New Values for the Economy, Let’s

Secretary General of the World Federation

Influential People and in 2011 Allen was

Save Euro, The Economy for the Common

of Farmers. He also took part in the pro-

named one of the World’s Most Powerful

Good, Money. The new rules of the game.

jects for restructring agriculture in Turkey.

Anna Lappe is a bestselling author and an

Pat Mooney is the co-founder and execu-

advocate for organic farming and justice

tive director of ETC group. He has almost

Elisabeth Atangana is a farmer by profes-

along the food chain. Anna co-founded

half a century of experience working in

sion. Since 2005, she has been the presi-

the Small Planet Institute, an international

international civil society. He received

dent of PROPAC (Sub-regional Platform of

network for research and popular educa-

The Right Livelihood Award, the Pearson

Peasant Organizations of Central Africa).

tion. Anna directs the Real Food Media

Peace Prize and the “Giraffe Award”,

In 2012, she was appointed as Special

Project, which produces videos, online

Mooney is widely regarded as an authority

Ambassador for Cooperatives by the

movie contests, events, and educational

on issues of global governance, corporate

FAO. She has made it a priority to focus

resources to educate, inspire, and grow

concentration, and intellectual property

on women and rural youth in policies and

the movement for sustainable food and

monopoly.

strategies for sustainable development.

farming.

Foodies in Forbes Magazine World Power Issue.

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

An update on organic farming in Turkey

Organic growth in Turkey A large part of Turkish agriculture is still very traditional, low input, small-scale mixed farming. Turkey also has a long history of being one of the main producers of some products (such as dried fruits and nuts) for the world market. When the Turkish government began to subsidize chemical inputs, in an attempt to modernize production, some buyers in the European health food market reacted. Rapunzel from Germany and the Good Food Foundation, representing several European companies, began to encourage certified organic agricultural production in Turkey in the mid 1980s. Since then the number of farmers, the acreage, the range of products and (export) companies involved have all steadily increased. by Peter Brul

he main organic export products

neighbouring countries and others (e.g.

international market demand, especially

today are sultanas, apricots, dried

Argentina, South Africa, and the USA)

from Europe. The increase in production

figs, hazelnuts, fruit juices/concentrates

export similar fruits and nuts, but in dif-

and export has been a response to rising

(apple, cherry, pomegranate), tomatoes

ferent qualities and quantities. Their prices

demand from European markets. The

(paste, concentrate), herbs and texti-

are often higher and/or the harvest period

market was boosted after the implemen-

les. Turkey has been a market leader in

differs.

tation of EU organic legislation in 1992. A

exporting sultanas, apricots, dried figs

few years later, the exporter Iรงik started

and hazelnuts for 25 years, and occupies

From the beginning, the driving force for

to develop a domestic market. And while

a very strong position. Competitors from

the development of the production was

these first attempts were not successful,

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

COUNTRY REPORT

since then more companies and individual

Communication about quality problems

price fluctuations in conventional product

farmers have now emerged to supply the

has not always been adequate and it was

prices, but this is a useful rule of thumb.

domestic market.

often difficult to find the real source of the

In some cases, where the cost of produc-

residue problems. The frequency of prob-

ing organically is much higher than in

Land use and key crops

lems and the lack of transparency has

conventional production, market prices for

Of the total area of 523,627 hectares,

caused an image among importers that,

organic produce can be more than twice

76.4% consists of arable crops and

at least part of, Turkish organic production

the conventional price. The price premium

16.5% permanent crops, while another

is unreliable and lacking in credibility.

for Turkish organic products is generally

4.7% is given over to permanent gras-

Around the year 2000 the Aegean Export-

quite low: export products often achieve

sland and grazing areas. The key arable

ers Union took the initiative, together with

(far) less than 10%. This brings the sector

crops are cereals (197,877 hectares),

several exporters, of establishing a Turk-

into a situation where further growth and

green fodder from arable land (174,136

ish pavilion at BioFach. They have been

development is fully dependent on state

hectares) and crops for industrial uses

regularly attending the fair since then.

subventions. If the government changes

(14,315 hectares). The key permanent

its policy and lowers the subsidies, there

crops are 36,261 hectares olives, mainly

is no economic basis anymore for organic

in the Mediterranean, 19,320 hectares

farming.

nuts, including hazelnuts in the Black Sea region and 4,946 hectares of apricots, mainly around Malatya in the east. (figures Uygun Aksoy). Production for the export market is strongly led by the exporters. Farmers just play a role as primary producers, who get

Government support

most of their information from their buyer.

The Turkish government started support-

They are typically in a weak position and

ing organic agriculture in 2004, by provid-

receive a relatively low price premium.

ing subsidized credit. They offer a 60%

Their awaress of organic principles is

subsidy rate for operating finance for the

low and the information supply is weak.

first year and for up to 3 years for invest-

Prof dr. Uygun Aksoy: “The Organic

Although there are more than 50,000

ment capital. During 2005-2009, the pay-

Agriculture National Action Plan 2013-

ment terms were extended to 1.5 years

2016 (Organik Tarim Ulusal Eylem Plani

for operating and 5 years for investment

2013-2016) was prepared in 2013 through

and then again in 2010 to 2 years and 7

a stakeholder consultation. It will be

years respectively. In 2009, almost 5,000

financed by the Ministry of Food, Agri-

farmers received a subsidy of around 100

culture and Livestock.The action plan

euro per ha and the government spent

addresses five main areas: developing

nearly 3.5 million Euro on these subven-

and expanding organic farming, strength-

tions.

ening of services related to inspection and certification, improvement of data collec-

One of the results of this policy is that

tion infrastructure and traceability, devel-

organic farmers in Turkey do not get much

opment of training and extension ser-

(or any) extra income from a price pre-

vices, and the dvelopment of institutional

mium, but rely on the subvention. Usu-

capacities. Other policy support: Addition-

ally organic farmers can count on a price

al support is available for the purchase of

premium of around 20 %, although this

certified propagation material, biological

organic farmers in Turkey, there is no

varies widely, depending on the product

controls and organic fertilisers, for soil

organic farmers magazine nor an organic

and market situation. It also changes with

analysis and for working in environmen-

farmers association!

tally fragile areas, and for making use of

Quality problems have appeared sev-

agricultural consultants. The agricultural

eral times with organic export products,

banks allow a 50% reduction in the inter-

especially with high pesticide residues. In

est rate for loans to organic farmers. For

Germany, the biggest export-market, and

exporters, 50% of the cost of analyses is

in the Netherlands, where many organic

subsidised, if no residues are found. “

products are imported and re-exported to other EU-countries, Turkey is known as

Domestic market development

one of the countries that has problems

Although it has been in existence for

with residues in certified organic products.

almost twenty years, the domestic marECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

ket is still quite small, with retail sales

in organic marketing. The Quality Manager

egory, but would like to have as many

of approximately 12 million Euro. The

of Tesco-Kipa, Mahir Müderriszade, is

organic produce items as conventional

development of the domestic market

optimistic about the marketing of organic

ones by the end of 2011.

requires much attention and needs to be

products in their supermarkets. Kipa was

A strong and well developed organic

well structured. The knowledge and the

founded in 1992 and merged with Tesco

domestic market will also help Turkey’s

awareness of Turkish consumers of the

in 2003. Tesco is the world’s third larg-

position on export markets. It will give

impact of agricultural production systems

est food retailer and is very successful in

farmers and producers a much better

on the environment, product quality and

organics in the UK, its home base. Tesco

and much more direct feeling about the

health, is generally, not well developed.

is known for its intensive audits of sup-

market, because of direct responses

But there is already a group of consumers

pliers and Tesco Kipa follows this line by

from retailers and consumers. Farm-

in the big cities, especially in Istanbul, and

inspecting its suppliers and making analy-

ers, who only produce for export, only

the market is growing - by more than 10

ses from the beginning of the season.

get responses from consumers that are

% in 2010. Organic products are mainly

Tesco-Kipa sees the greatest demand for

conveyed through a number of links in

sold on farmers’ markets. The big retailers

organics in fresh fruit and vegetables. It

the chain. The final consumer is far away

are only just starting to become involved

now offers 30 organic items in this cat-

and out of sight. Farmers do not really

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

understand what motivates people to buy

over the last twenty years and Turkey

these products are harvested in natural

their organic products. In countries with a

remains an important player in the

areas. Due to increasing demand for

domestic market, the interaction between

market, being the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s third largest

these natural products, there is increas-

organic consumers and producers leads

producer after India and Syria. India pro-

ing concern from the government and

towards a more creative and innovative

vides over 80 % of the global supply of

NGOs about ecological damage caused

culture. Turkish farmers have not been

organic cotton. Turkey produces around

by collecting from nature. .The IUCN and

very involved in the development of the

15 %, but Istanbul has a strong position

IFOAM have organized seminars to dis-

organic sector; for example there is no

in the organic textile market.

cuss certified organic production as an

form of organic farmersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; association.

alternative. Leading companies in natural

And, although organic agriculture has

Herbs

medicinal products (including Weleda,

been on the programme of the research

Turkey is also a major producer of herbs

Vogel and VSM) are using more and more

institutes and the advisory service for

and medicinal plants, with Germany

certified organic ingredients, partly from

several years, buyers are by far the main

being the main export market. Many of

Turkey (especially roses for rose oil).

source of information for organic farmers. By definition they are not an independent source and there are large differences in the quality and quantity of information that buyers and exporters give to their

Key indicators 2012

suppliers. Organic farmers were leading in introduction of innovations like intensive

Organic agricultural area: 523,627 hectares

monitoring of pests and diseases, strong

Organic producers: 57,259

reduction of soil tillage and green manure

Organic processors: 113

in vineyards and fruit growing.

Organic importers: 32 Organic exporters: 34

Organic textiles

Retail sales: No data

Turkey was one of the first countries to produce certified organic cotton and

Area and operator data: MoFAL.

textiles. Production has increased greatly ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Agriculture guided by the principles of Gross National Happiness

Bhutanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s vision of 100% organic farming By Nick Parrott and Kesang Tshomo

Bhutan is a small landlocked kingdom in the eastern Himalayas, nestled between India and China. Almost the same size as Switzerland, it has a population of less than one million people (Switzerlandâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s population is around 8 million). Its topography ranges from sub-tropical plains in the lowlands to 7000m Himalayan peaks. This means that it can grow wide range of crops: rice, potatoes wheat, barley and buckwheat are among the staples. Fruits grown include pineapples, apples and peaches. And there is a wide range of root and leaf vegetables grown. 14

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

COUNTRIES

the 1974 at Mumbai airport when a reporter asked the 4th King of Bhutan about the size of Bhutan’s GNP. “Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product” was the King’s famous reply. Since then the concept of GNH has guided Bhutan’s development policy. One outcome of this is that the country has decided to preserve its forests as much as possible: today over 70% of Bhutan is afforested (with over 51% designated as National Parks, biological corridors or protected areas), making it one of the world’s most afforested countries and one of the world’s top ten biodiversity hot spots, home to an abundance of plant varieties and fauna. This pays dividends in attracting eco-tourists; although tourist numbers have been strictly limited since the 1970s (by imposing high tourist tariffs) in order to main-

BY Nick Parrott

tain national cultural identity. The GNH concept has provoked a movement within economics to re-evaluate the narrow way in which ‘utility’ is valued. The French and British governments have both commissioned high level reports on the feasibility of operationalising GNH while the Bhutanese government now has a systematic policy of ‘GNH-proofing’ any policy proposals. In a sense Bhutan is putting into practice Schumacher’s ’Buddhist economics’ outlined forty years ago in ‘Small is Beautiful’ These are not the only examples of Bhutan successfully resisting conventional development trajectories. In the mid 1990s Bhutan convinced the Swiss government to assist in removing 38 metric tonnes of agrochemicals, collected from the farms and stores that had passed their expiry date and shipping them back to Switzerland to be incinerated. The process was long and difficult. Today agrochemicals and fertilisers can only be imported after approval and registration through agencies of the Ministry of Agriculture. Their use in the field is closely monitored by extension agents to control abuse. The vision of becoming 100% organic was initially articulated by the Department of Agriculture in its 2008 publication ‘A National Framework for Organic Farming in Bhutan’ which provided guidelines for promoting organic farming in Bhutan. This vision was incorporated in Bhutan’s 2010 Economic Development Policy and the (then) PM announced to the world, in a speech at Rio+20, Bhutan’s intention of pursuing this goal. Bhutan’s drive towards organic defies conventional thinking about the preconditions for successful organic farming in less develo-

ped countries, which is generally either commodity and export

et Bhutan is far from self-sufficient in food. Estimates sug-

driven or requires a sufficiently large and wealthy middle class

gest that it imports some 40% of its food from India. This is

to support it. In Bhutan neither condition holds: as a landloc-

partly because less than 3% of the land area is under cultivation.

ked country it is only feasible to export (very) high added-value

Moreover much of the farming terrain is difficult to manage, with

products and the middle class is neither large, nor that wealthy.

a shortage of water available in the fields (most of the rivers run

There is currently no premium for organic food on the local mar-

in deep gorges), a very short growing season in the north and

ket which sells at the same price as conventional (and sometimes

very wet summers in the south. In addition, there is an acute

for less). This said there is a preference for local food as there

shortage of labour and some conflicts between agriculture and

is concern about imported food (mostly from India) containing

wild life. Poor infrastructure (roads, communications etc.) and a

higher levels of pesticide residues. So a national policy for pro-

nascent marketing and transportation sector compound these

moting organic food could build on these preferences rather than

problems.

an explicitly organic branding.

Bhutan is probably most renowned for having given the world the

For the last few years the Bhutanese Ministry of Agriculture and

term ‘Gross National Happiness’ (GNH). This term was coined in

Forests (MAF) has been working out how to operationalise this ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

ces, fewer knew about the benefits of organic farming and many thought it would not be affordable or easily accessible and a majority felt it was unnecessary. This shows that even when agrochemicals are not employed there still needs to be a conversion process. When shifting from farming with agrochemicals, a conversion period is needed to allow the land to recover. Here the process of conversion is more the conversion of minds, of achieving a transition from ‘organic by default’ to ‘organic by choice’. This involves farmers accepting and understanding organic systems of production and farmers in those pockets where (small generally amounts of) agro-chemicals are used switching to organic methods. The productivity of both rice and potatoes is much below the global average so there is potential for improving yields using organic approaches. Other cultural factors can also support the uptake of organic farming. Buddhist views about the sanctity of life might well play an important role: Bhutanese people do not like to kill insects and pests on religious grounds – so management systems that control pest numbers rather than spraying them are more culturally acceptable. The quality of the soil is an important factor. Many policy. It has carried out agriculture surveys which show that

plots are small (often terraces) and have to be worked by hand or

about 95% farm land is managed without the use of agroche-

using animal draft power mostly bulls (there is a lack of adequa-

micals in cereals, vegetables and root crops (with less than 2%

te and appropriate small machinery). In either case the hardening

of fruit trees managed using agrochemicals). In other words

of soil caused by use of fertilizers adds an unacceptable burden

traditional farming practices are ‘by-default’ organic. Agroche-

in terms of human labour or stress to the animals during ploug-

micals are either not affordable, or difficult to access, especially

hing and soil preparation as it get difficult to break the clods.

for farms in remote locations. With around 95% of farmland in

The ministry has chosen to guide and help the transition in a step

Bhutan being managed without agro-chemicals it is more logical

by step manner with a focus on selected crops and selected

to support what is already in place and preserve and enhance

areas over time, seeking to develop viable alternatives to the use

this, rather than introduce new and potentially harmful practices

of agrochemicals through ongoing research and through coope-

and agents. This is especially true in the almost pristine upland

ration with the global organic community. It believes that if alter-

areas where agrochemicals are rarely used. Agrochemicals are

natives (such as bio-pesticides) to the use of agrochemicals (par-

very mobile and do not necessarily stay where you want them

ticularly pesticides and herbicides can be found then the majority

too. They can easily wash away and pollute downstream water

of those who use small amounts of agrochemicals could well be

courses. So, particular care is being taken to conserve clean

persuaded to opt for them. At present the Ministry is focusing on:

‘agrochemical free’ farming areas.

raising awareness about organic systems; undertaking promotional pilot schemes to experiment with orga-

While many farmers are organic by default a large number do

nic alternatives to agrochemicals;

employ a range of ecological farming techniques. Most farms

developing selected products for export oriented production, and;

are small and traditional integrated mixed farming systems. This

encouraging local production for domestic markets.

means high levels of agrobiodiversity with the main input for

Awareness raising involves educating and stimulating (the large

farming being farmyard manure composted with forest leaf litter.

majority of) farmers to convert from ‘organic by default’ to ‘orga-

Examples of ecological farming practices include utilising traditio-

nic with intent’ and helping those who use agrochemicals to find

nal pest management methods such as wood ash, artimesia as

alternatives. Research and development is of prime importance

a mulch, green manuring, intercropping (maize with beans) and

in developing organic production technologies and methods

tether their animals in the fields during fallow season. It is the

that will improve production and find ways of managing pests

larger farms, particularly those growing the country’s two main

and diseases so the small amount of agrochemicals used can

staples (potato and rice) that are more reliant on agrochemicals.

be gradually phased out. Since most soils in Bhutan have not

They have issues with potato blight and weeds in paddy and

been exposed to high levels of fertiliser and agrochemical usage

are as yet unconvinced that they can rely on organic approa-

there is potential to significantly develop the range of cultivation

ches to solve these problems. Addressing these issues, through

systems and cultivars employed. There is much opportunity for

research (in terms of identifying resistant cultivars, appropriate

improving the yields from traditional ‘organic by default’ systems

land management and suitable bio pesticides and herbicides) and

by introducing better methods, alternative systems, good crop

through extension efforts is thus a priority.

husbandry and selecting locally adapted cultivars. In this scenario

While some farmers already practice ecological farming practi-

the switch to ‘organic by intent’ is likely to increase rather than

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

decrease yields and productivity. Pilot projects are underway cultivating organic green asparagus and buckwheat and being scaled up while organic medicinal plants, natural dyes and some spices are being developed. A few high valued, low volume, products are being developed for high end export markets: labelling and branding is required here. Foreign certification bodies will continue to be used to certify the few items that need to be certified for export. If the value and volume of export trade grows to become significant, a certification system, with suitable accreditation for international requirements, will be developed. Building a thriving domestic market for food that is identifiably organic is a major priority. Here there is no great need for a formal certification system (with the extra

both attended, and gave presentations, to the conference. The

costs that would impose). A local organic assurance system is

conference had two main aims. First, to invite organic experts

being developed within governmental channels to provide organic

from around the world (especially from Asia) to share their exper-

identity and credibility with a good traceability and monitoring

tise and, second, to build solidarity among Himalayan (and other

system.

mountainous) countries in pushing forward the organic agenda.

There are constraints in marketing and product development for

Each element was equally important. Half of the participants

exports. Equally on the domestic front the cost of producing and

at the conference were Bhutanese (from government agencies,

distributing food is higher than it is in neighbouring countries.

NGOs and farmers organisations) and this was an important

Agricultural productivity is low (but diverse) offering the potential

opportunity for them to tap into international expertise without

and basis for improvement. Transport systems and infrastruc-

incurring the significant costs of traveling abroad. Yet at the same

ture are poorly developed and likely in a sparsely populated and

time the Bhutanese government recognise that a country as small

mountainous country likely to continue to be problematic.

as Bhutan cannot achieve such paradigm shifts alone. Many of

the participants came from neighbouring Himalayan states and

It is hoped that, in the future, organic farming will be the mainstay

provinces - with very differing experiences of promoting organic

of Bhutanese agriculture and most of the food produced in Bhu-

agriculture. Survey work from Ladakh surveys estimate that 90%

tan will be organic. A branding and awareness raising campaign

of agriculture is organic (by default), whereas in Uttarkhand (an

will seek to educate consumers about the benefits of organic

Indian State directly to the west of Nepal) the loss of 5000 lives

produce and the harmful effects of residue and agrochemicals on

following flooding (largely caused by bad land management prac-

people’s health and the environment, so even if organic products

tices in the uplands) in June 2013 highlights the importance of

might not attract much of a premium in the future, there will be a

adopting ecological farming and land management practices.

market preference will be for local food with no residues. Some

In all there were two dozen presentations by national and inter-

day in the future organic food may be the norm and food grown

national experts, together with workshops on different aspects

with agrochemicals will have to be certified!

of developing a vibrant organic sector and field trips. The last

To share its experiences in promoting organic agriculture with a

sessions of the conference were devoted to building a common

broader international community and to fill key knowledge gaps

platform on which future work could be based – resulting in the

the Bhutanese government organised a conference around the

production of the Thimphu Declaration. This declaration empha-

theme of organic agriculture in mountain ecosystems in March

sises how Bhutan’s organic policy is based on the philosophy of

2014. In a demonstration of solidarity over the organic vision

GNH and is essential for ensuring the resilience and stability of

Lyonpo Yeshey Dorji, the agricultural minister and Pema Gyam-

mountain ecosystems and for safeguarding the well-being and

tsho (the opposition leader and former minister of agriculture

livelihoods of their inhabitants. Once again Bhutan seems to be

- who initiated the organic vision when his party was in power)

showing the world that there are very different ways in which human ‘progress’ can be pursued. The Thimphu Declaration http://www.ifoam.org/en/news/2014/03/11/thimphu-declaration-leading-transition-100-organic Access to all the conference papers via https://www.dropbox.com/sh/8q9jt12u33e816f/JKLvWN3J81?n=182731624 About the authors Nick Parrott, Freelance English language editor/writer on organic and sustainability issues (info@textualhealing.nl). Kesang Tshomo, Coordinator, National Organic Programme, Department of Agriculture, MOAF, Bhutan. (kesang.tshomo@gmail.com) ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Following the Cocoa trail to Holland’s newest organic cocoa processing plant

Chocolate from fro the tropics to t Dutch pol Have you ever wondered how cocoa beans are transformed into that magical substance, chocolate? Ecology and Farming reporters went along to visit the new plant of Tradin Organic in Middenmeer, North Holland, and spoke with Christina Franken, marketing Manager at Tradin Organic and the team of Crown of Holland to find out how cocoa is processed and how its quality and sustainability is guaranteed. BY TOM DEITERS AND JAAP VAN WESTERING

radin Organic Agriculture has sour-

the certification requirements.

nic and other sustainable labelling

ced cocoa from Ecuador, Peru,

The cooperatives have their own,

systems for organic cocoa (www.

Dominican Republic, Ghana, Philip-

internal control system and policies

ecologyandfarming.com/ecology-and-

pines, Congo and Uganda for the last

for encouraging their members to go

farming-22013/).

thirty years. The producers are small-

(and to stay) organic and to meet and

holder farmers who belong to local

exceed quality targets. High quality

Tradin Organic deals predominately in

cooperatives. The cooperatives buy the

beans attract an extra premium, over

organic cocoa beans, usually certified

cocoa beans from their members. They

and above that from organic (and other)

under the European, American Japane-

hold the organic (or other) certificate(s)

certifications (practically all the coo-

se and Swiss certification systems and

and it is their responsibility to ensure

peratives have multiple certifications).

can process anything from large tolling

their farmers adhere to the relevant

Coops manage the premiums disposal,

agreements to small batches of cocoa

standards.

many invest into their farmers’ com-

products, which is very appreciated by

Tradin Organic has sourced managers

munities, promoting social well-being,

small organic chocolatiers.

in the region, who visit the cooperatives

education and protection of the envi-

regularly. Inspecting the beans, storage

ronment.

Organic, Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance Certified™ and UTZ are just a few of

facilities, paperwork and visit some of the members’ farms to ensure the far-

Ecology and Farming carried an

the certifications Tradin Organic can

mers and co-operatives are adhering to

article tracing and describing orga-

offer with their cocoa products.

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

COMPANY PROFILE

m om the lders

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Monitoring the quality of processing

Tradin Organic’s certifications

Suppliers are encouraged by Tradin Orga-

where cooperatives are assisted with pre-

September 2013. As mentioned before,

nic to produce excellent quality beans

financing of beans and certifications and

most of the cocoa beans that arrive at

by being paid an additional premium for

farmers receive training in the best pre

the plant, situated on the Agriport A7, are

superior quality beans. The first payment

and post-harvest practices.

certified organic.

after the beans are loaded onto the ves-

In order to meet market expectations it

The warehouse keeper & surveyor of Tra-

sel sailing for Amsterdam. This payment

is highly desirable to be able to mix and

din Organic is responsible for immediate

is based on the estimated quality of the

blend beans from different parts of the

check of quality by means of a so called

beans. Immediate payment is very impor-

world as they have different flavors and

‘cut-test’. Samples are drawn and Tradin

tant for the producers as it avoids them

other qualities (the finest flavors come

Organic’s Quality Assurance department

having to wait 3-4 weeks until the cargo

from Ecuador, Ghana and the Dominican

decides about the best blend of beans for

reaches Amsterdam. This is particularly

Republic).

the next production run. The warehouse

to the farmers’ organizations is made

makes the blend per Tradin Organic’s

important as interest rates in cocoa producing countries are generally very high.

Amsterdam has a long history of trading

instructions and delivers the blend in bulk

On arrival in Amsterdam the beans are

cocoa beans and is the biggest cocoa

to the factory.

inspected and if the quality exceeds

import harbor in the world so building a

The most important criteria for a blend are

expectations an additional payment is

processing plant close to it was the logi-

quality, certification, origin and analyses

made to the cooperative to encourage

cal choice. Over the past few years Tradin

(described above). Some customers pre-

outstanding produce.

Organic has been planning and building

fer a single origin cocoa, specifically cho-

its own dedicated processing plant in

sen for taste and color. The most valued

Tradin Organic also has its own long term

Middenmeer, known as Crown of Holland.

beans come mainly from, again, Ecuador,

projects, for example in the Philippines,

This small state of the art plant opened in

Ghana or the Dominican Republic.

The press

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

Single origin beans are mainly used for liquor (see processing chart below). The factory’s reasonable size provides flexibility to accommodate anything between short production runs and tolling agreements for bigger tonnages of certified cocoa products. The facility was designed with growth in mind and has the option to double the capacity within the next few years. Trading Organic, whose staff has extensive experience from previous roles in the cocoa industry are proud to play such a pivotal role in the organic cocoa supply chain ensuring the highest quality and sustainability criteria now and in the

Cocoa packing machine

future.

• Roasting the whole beans

• Alkalization

• Blocking

The new plant differs from most other

Sometimes at this stage, the cocoa liquor

The butter is shipped in either liquid or or

cocoa processing plants in that the

is treated with a low percentage solution

in solid form as blocks of 25kg each.

beans are roasted whole, as opposed to

of potassium carbonate (K2CO3.) This is

nib-roasting, (which follows on from win-

called alkalization. This natural chemical

• Secondary grinding

nowing). This improves the quality of the

process enhances taste and color of the

The compressed cocoa cake, contains

end product and gives a deep and unique

cocoa powder plus it makes the cocoa

either 10-12% or 20-22% fat. It is ground

flavor to the cocoa liquor. The roasting

mass less acidic. It also improves the

into high & low fat cocoa powder. This

temperature may vary according to the

solubility of the cocoa powder, which

cocoa powder is used mainly for cocoa

wishes of the customer as the roasting

makes it easier to use when preparing

beverages, dry mixes and the confectio-

temperature affects the taste profile of the

beverages.

nery industry.

final product. • Grinding

• Packing

• Winnowing

The cocoa mass is ground and is some-

This powder is packed in paper bags

After the roasting the beans are broken

times referred to as cocoa liquor. This

of 25 kg

and the skins removed by winnowing,

term has nothing to do with an alcoholic

forcing air through the product, so sepa-

beverage.

• Quality control The factory has a state of the art labora-

rating the lighter skin particles from the • Pressing

tory, which constantly monitors the quality

This mass is pressed, which separates 2

of processing. Highly efficient equipment

• Pre-grinding

derivatives, 55% of which is fat content,

is used to determine the fat and moisture

The cleaned and roasted beans are then

liquid cocoa butter and the rest as solid

content of the beans, the pH of the cocoa

pre-ground resulting in a thick mass of

cocoa cake.

liquor and the fineness of the cocoa pow-

heavier beans.

der is strictly monitored. The traceability

cocoa. • Butter

of the qualities of the product is very pre-

• Sterilisation

This fat crystalises and can then be cal-

cise and any deviation or problem can be

After the beans are pre-ground the cocoa

led butter, when left at a temperature of

traced back to a specific batch.

mass is then sterilised and is kept at a

just under 36 degrees Celsius. One of the

temperature of over 100 Celsius which

intrinsic properties of chocolate is that it

sterilises the product. Different tasting

only melts in your mouth. This butter is

chocolate can be obtained by manipula-

the basic ingredient of chocolate produc-

ting the duration and the temperature.

tion (together with cocoa liquor).

Cocoa in Dutch polder landscape

Processing chart ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

The west eats too much meat for the planet to sustain, protein from insects are the solution.

Affordable grasshoppers as a sustainable alternative to beef

BY TOM DEITERS 22

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

In the Netherlands a new initiative has recently been started to

At the moment The Grasshopper Suppliers are importing locusts

promote eating insects: The Grasshopper Suppliers. Three young

from companies in other EU countries and Canada. These com-

entrepreneurs from Amsterdam are seeking to convince the

panies breed insects on a substantial scale, allowing The Grass-

population of the Netherlands to eat more insects and to provide

hopper Suppliers to sell insects at about one third of the current

these at affordable prices. Eating insects is better for the environ-

price. They are starting with locusts, as market research shows

ment, and for humanity.

that people have the least difficulty in eating these and they are easy to prepare. If the grasshoppers catch on, other species will

Producing one kilogram of edible beef requires around five kilos

be introduced. The young entrepreneurs are also launching a

of feed and 15,000 litres of water. But a kilo of locusts, requires

campaign to explain to people the benefits of eating insects, and

little more than a kilo of feed, and no water (as locusts extract

to get as many people as possible to taste the grasshoppers/

water from the grass they eat). The production of beef also requi-

locusts - once people have eaten an insect, they often realise

res, on average, twelve times more land than locust production.

that there is nothing wrong with it. In this way, the psychological

Producing locust-protein is much more efficient than other forms

barrier that many people experience will slowly be broken down.

of animal protein and can cost 1/10th as much. We will all eat insects soon?  Efficiency also has an effect on carbon footprints: insect protein

The question is whether eating insects will take off in the Nether-

emits only 1/12th of the greenhouse gases produced by beef. In

lands. The founders are hopeful: “in the 19th century, shrimp and

a world with growing shortages of food, water and agricultural

lobster were considered unsuitable food for people. Now lobster

land and where global warming is becoming more of a problem,

is a delicacy. That shows that our food habits can change.” The

insects offer a form of protein that can help humanity to enjoy a

company itself is still being formed and a crowd funding cam-

resilient future.

paign is in full swing.

The Grasshopper Suppliers believe that things have to be done

The first goal - € 500 for start-up costs - was achieved in the first

differently and have decided to take the lead. Their research

24 hours, encouraging The Grasshopper Suppliers to continue.

shows that there are two main reasons why people in the Nether-

In the coming month they hope to collect enough money to start

lands do not eat insects: many people find the idea off-putting

a campaign to encourage individuals to go to restaurants and try

and; insects are outrageously expensive – some online shops sell

insects - many chefs have already shown an interest in having

grasshoppers at around € 350 per kilo.

them on the menu.

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Ecology and Farming goes carbon neutral through supporting composting schemes in Africa

CO2 neutral Since 2012, Ecology and Farming has been offsetting its CO2 emissions so it can be CO2 neutral. What does this mean and how does it work? In a nutshell it means that all the greenhouse gas emissions caused through the production of the magazine were calculated. After this we developed strategies to minimise them and then, for the remainder we purchased carbon credits through a CO2 emission reduction project. By Tobias Bandal

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

ENVIRONMENT

Calculating and reducing greenhouse gas

generates 2.7173 kg of CO2e. If one

assuage feelings of guilt about having

emissions

drives 50km in car that consumes 10

a high carbon footprint. Technically and

There are various greenhouse gas emis-

litres of petrol per 100km (a poor figure

scientifically there is no difference if the

sions that the activities associated with

by todays’ standards), the petrol con-

emissions are reduced locally, on your

publishing a journal give rise to. The main

sumption over that distance driven would

‘own doorstep’ or somewhere else on the

greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4 and N2O

be 5 litres. This figure then needs to be

planet.

all of which have a different impact on

multiplied by the emission factor (2.7173

climate change. In order to simplify the

kg CO2e per litre). Similar methods can be

Ecology & Farming also decided to

emissions calculation, all these green-

applied for other activities that generate

expand its contribution to mitigating cli-

house gases are expressed as a consoli-

greenhouse gas emissions. These inclu-

mate change to purchase carbon credits

dated unit called CO2-equivalents or CO2e

ded travel, in house energy use, paper

to offset its remaining CO2e emissions.

which is a weighted expression all the

use etc.

There are various options for buying car-

relevant greenhouse gases that takes into

bon credits, including renewable energy

account the contribution that each one

projects, reforestation projects or agricul-

makes to climate change. To calculate the CO2e emissions (or footprint) of a specific activity, the different emission sources such as energy consumption, paper use, business or employee travel etc. must be identified

“All different emissions must be identified and quantified”

and quantified. In order to come up with

ture-based projects. Due to its focus on organic farming Ecology & Farming chose to buy carbon credits from Soil & More International BV, a project development and consultancy firm that (among other things) specialises in the generation of carbon credits through climate friendly

representative and comparable results,

This then allowed us to identify our emis-

farming practices, in this case compost

toolkits have been developed over the

sion, the activities that had the greatest

production. Soil & More works together

last few years that define which emissions

impacts and those where there was the

with local partners in Egypt and South

sources need to be considered and how

opportunity to make reductions (at reaso-

Africa, operating composting projects

to calculate the related emissions.

nable cost). Ecology & Farming reviews

where CO2e emissions, in particular CH4

its activities in order to cut back on its

(methane) emissions are avoided through

For example: according to latest calcu-

emissions. We focused on reducing travel

controlled microbial, mechanically aera-

lations the combustion of 1 litre of petrol

(and especially those forms of travel that

ted composting processes. The emission

generate high emissions), opting for online

reductions are independently verified

publishing and increasing our energy effi-

through TÜV-Nord Cert GmbH, a UNFC-

ciency

CC accredited emission reduction certification body. As well as mitigating against

Offsetting outstanding emissions

greenhouse gases the projects also pro-

No matter how hard a business tries it is

motes more sustainable farming such as

nearly impossible to be carbon-neutral.

natural soil fertility, the avoidance of the

But because climate change is a global

use of artificial fertilisers, the promotion of

phenomenon it doesn’t matter where the

soil and plant health, water retention and

emissions occur or where they are offset.

the prevention of erosion.

What counts is a net reduction in the net CO2e emissions globally. The global emission trading system often is accused of being a ‘greenwash’ which is used to

For more information you can visit Soil & More’s website www.soilandmore.com or contact them via info@soilandmore.com

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

Can urban agriculture play a role in nurturing a growing number of city dwellers?

Urban agriculture in the urbanization era BY Han Wiskerke

The world urbanizes at a rapid pace. Between now and 2050 the urban population will increase by approximately 200 thousand people per day. And all those people must be provided with food. An immense task. There is already talk of the enormous impact of food on our lives and our planet, how will that be over the coming decades? What challenges are we facing? And, is producing food in the city - urban agriculture - an answer to the challenges we face in this era of urbanization?

ince May 2007 there are more people

meals is to be produced, imported, sold,

for everyone’. The quantity and diversity

living in urban areas than in rural

cooked, eaten and then eliminated, and

of food products in supermarkets has

areas. It is expected that the increase

that about the same happens every day

grown impressively over this period, with

of the world population will occur, in the

in every city in the world, then it is actu-

many fresh products available year round,

coming decades exclusively in urban

ally amazing that city dwellers anyway

and the share of income that people in

areas resulting in 6.5 to 7 billion city

have food. ‘If there is already talk of the

industrialised societies spend on food has

dwellers and 2.5 to 3 million rural resi-

enormous impact of food on our lives and

never been as low: in the U.S. it is less

dents in 2050. In other words, between

our planet, how is that over the coming

than 10%, in Europe it ranges between

now and 2050, the urban population will

decades? What challenges are we facing?

10 and 20%. British Professor of Food

increase by about 200 thousand people

And is producing food in the city - urban

Policy, Tim Lang, calls it a tremendous

per day. And all those people will have

agriculture - an answer to the challenges

achievement “within these time frames”

to be provided with food, and that is,

we face in this era of urbanization?

but adds that the current frameworks for

according to Carolyn Steel in her book

the development of agricultural and food

The Hungry City “a huge challenge”.

New frameworks

systems are fundamentally different from

Feeding the city is a huge undertaking;

Since the Second World War, farmers, sci-

those that guided the post-war decades.

an undertaking that has a greater social

entists, researchers, policy makers, edu-

These new frameworks are formed by five

and physical impact on our lives and on

cators and agro-food industries in indu-

challenges: 1) changes in dietary compo-

our planet than any other human activity.

strialised societies have collaborated (not

sition, 2) the increasing scarcity of natural

If we consider that for a city like London

always harmoniously) to achieve the poli-

resources, 3) waste, 4) climate change

every day enough food for thirty million

cy goal of ‘sufficient and affordable food

and 5) diet-related health problems.

2-2014 | ECOLOGY & FARMING

Changes in dietary composition Globally,

requires resources such as energy, water

it vulnerable. This means that rising oil

there has been a gradual increase in the

and nutrients. The industrialised food

prices will result in rising food prices. This

per capita consumption of calories (SEE

system has become increasingly depen-

is a particular problem in many develo-

TABLE). There are major geographical

dent on fossil fuels. In 1950 one (1) kcal of

ping countries where 80% of people’s

differences, with the difference between

fossil fuel was needed to produce 2 to 3

income is spent on food. A second scarce

industrialised countries (including Euro-

kcal of food energy, it now takes from 7 to

resource is water. According to the Water

pe, North America, Australia) and sub-

10 kcal of fossil fuel to produce the same

Footprint Network, founded by the pro-

Saharan Africa being the most extre-

amount of food. Fertilisers and pesticides,

fessor in water-management (Hoekstra)

me.   In addition to increasing the number of calories consumed, there is also an increase in the consumption of animal protein. The global differences in the consumption of animal protein are much greater than for calorific intake. The increase in consumption of animal protein is signifi-

”We allow citizens to experience the diversity of agriculture”

at the University of Twente (the Netherlands) 92% of the global water usage goes into food production. The production of animal protein in particular requires a lot of water: for example, it takes 15,000 litres of water to produce 1 kg of beef. In certain parts of the world there is already a shor-

cant because the ecological footprint

long-distance transport of food, refrigera-

tage of water for the production of food,

of (most) animal protein is much larger

ted transport and storage, industrial pro-

and worldwide these deficits will increase.

than for vegetable protein. It is expec-

cessing and packaging: each part of the

ted that there will be continued growth

food supply chain uses fossil fuels and

Waste

in animal protein consumption in the

the amount that they use has increased

Over 35% of all food that is produced

coming decades, but this may be offset

enormously in the past 60 years. This not

is not consumed. In many developing

by the decline in meat consumption in

only makes the industrialised food system

countries there are losses due to spoilage

North America and Europe that we have

energy-inefficient, but in the light of peak

during storage and/or transportation. In

witnessed in recent years.   Scarcity of

oil (the point at which the demand for oil

many industrialised countries, a large

natural resources The production of food

production surpasses supply), also makes

portion of the purchased food is thrown

ECOLOGY & FARMING | 2-2014

away because too much was purchased

other hand there are people overweight

food (vegetables, fruits, milk, eggs, meat)

or because the expiry date has passed.

and suffer from obesity. Most estimates

and other uses (flowers, medicinal herbs,

The increase in the use of processed and

suggest that there are 350 million people

livestock feed, agri-tourism, water collec-

packaged foods also contributes to the

who are undernourished for a few months

tion, urban green) and the related provi-

growth of this mountain of waste. More

a year and 850 million people who are

sion of inputs, transportation, processing,

than a third of all municipal waste con-

chronically undernourished. This may

marketing and support services”.

sists of food and food packaging. The

relate to a lack of calories, but can also

collection and processing of this costs

be due to micro-nutrient deficiency as a

One characteristic of urban agriculture

money and fuel and pollutes the envi-

result of an imbalanced diet. In addition,

is that it is intertwined with the urban

ronment.  The recently published IPCC

the world has 1.4 billion people who

system: makes use of urban resources, is

fifth Climate Assessment Report once

are overweight or obese. In some of the

influenced by urban laws and regulations,

again emphasises that global warming

cases, obesity is also accompanied by

and focuses on providing products and

is caused by human activity, that this is

a deficiency of micronutrients, because

services to city dwellers. Globally, there is

continuing and that the consequences

cheap calories are often the unhealthiest.

a huge diversity of types of urban agricul-

will be irreversible if we do not intervene

Hunger and obesity therefore share partly

ture, which is related to location (on the

now. This new report also speaks about

the same cause, namely poverty, which

outskirts of the city, in the ground or in

dwindling water supplies, fiercer heat

hinders access to and the affordability of

or on top of buildings, in Europe or sub-

waves and heavier rains. In particular, it

healthy food.

Saharan Africa), the type of production (vegetables, fish, poultry), the scale, the

highlights the likely negative impacts of climate change on food production which,

What is urban agriculture?

degree of market orientation (hobby, self-

according to the authors of the report, the

Before turning to the question of whether,

sufficient or commercial), the technology

world is not prepared for.

and how, urban agriculture can provide

used and the degree of interweaving with

a response to these new frameworks, it

other activities, products and services

Health although, speaking in calorific

is important to define what urban agri-

(such as health care, education, water

terms, more than enough food is being

culture is. The International Network of

storage, energy or biodiversity).

produced to feed everyone in the world,

Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture

we have to contend with extensive diet-

and Food Security (The RUAF Foundation)

The (potential) importance of