IRJET- Impact of the Introduction and Domestication of Alien Fishes

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Impact of the Introduction and Domestication of Alien Fishes Dawit Adisu Tadese1,2, Alemayehu Wubie1 1Ethiopian

Institute of Agricultural Research, National Fishery, and other Aquatic Life Research Centre, P. O. Box 64, Sebeta, Ethiopia.

2Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, PR China ---------------------------------------------------------------------***----------------------------------------------------------------------

Abstract - Aquaculture is one of the fast-growing industries which largely relies on the introduction and use of non-native species. This form a paradox: on one hand, some species were significantly contributed to the fast expansion of aquaculture, while others were negatively affected due to unregulated and irresponsible use of non-native species. Although, lessons have been taken from reported disasters, risks raised have been highly overlooked. Sound management needs to be performed based on the characteristics of each aquaculture activity or related events. Aquaculture activities or related events, including (I) transfers of non-native species; (ii) fellow travelers, accidental introductions; (iii) artificial hybridization; and (IV) mass release of non-native species for ranching were popularly employed in the past decades almost all over the world. Each aquaculture activity or related events, had been transferred to more than 148 countries for aquaculture purposes, recreational fishing, improving wild stocks, ornamental purpose and biological control of unwanted organisms. For several species, movement was also accidental, mostly through a transport in sea vessel ballast.

Introductions causes mostly fish interactions, environmental, and habitat alterations, genetic deterioration of wild and introduced stocks, pathologic agents co-transfer or socioeconomic impacts. When appropriately managed, species transfers can lead to great success. In this review provide general background and impacts of introduction has provided., Status of this activity, risks raised and recommendations for sound management has discussed.

Key Words: Aquaculture, Native species, Non-native species, Introducing, Impacts

1.INTRODUCTION Aquaculture is the fast-growing section of world primary industry in the past decades (Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. In 2010, global aquaculture production reached more than 83 million tons and a value of US$ 136 million, which are six and ten times more than those 25 years ago.[1] With stagnating global capture fishery production and an increasing population, aquaculture is perceived as having the greatest potential to produce more fish in the future to meet the growing demand for safe and quality aquatic food. In 2012, FAO, was estimated more than 50percent of global food fish consumption was originated from aquaculture [2]. Fisheries and aquaculture remained important sources of food, nutrition, income and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of

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people around the world. In 2014, a new world per capita fish supply was recorded, and reached as high of 20 kg.

Thanks to the integration of the vigorous growth in aquaculture, and improved fisheries management, which now provides half of all types of fish for human consumption, and shown a slight improvement in the state of certain fish stocks. Moreover, fish continues to be one of the most-traded food commodities worldwide with more than half of fish exports by value originating in developing countries. China has played a major role in this growth as it represents more than 60 percent of world aquaculture production. However, the rest of the world has also benefited with its share of aquaculture in the overall supply of fish for human consumption more than doubling since1995. [3] Over 250 aquatic species are cultured globally [4]. Up to now, development of the aquaculture industry has been based chiefly on the farming of a few major species (mostly cyprinids, tilapias, catfishes and salmonids) that were often introduced into new geographic areas. Consequently, 85% of the world’s production of finfish has come from only 15 species, which are farmed in numerous countries [5].

Although, accelerating introduction and/or use of non-native species have formed a paradox, the introduction and use of non-native species plays one of the most crucial and responsible roles for the fast expansion of aquaculture, there is no doubt that, the introduction of aquatic species is a valid means to improve aquaculture production, as of introduced crops and live-stock for agriculture. Some countries rely on farming of non-native aquatic species, for example, 60% of the freshwater harvest in Philippines and 50% of the production in Brazil is derived from non-native species [1].

However, Experiences throughout the world have shown that a number of problems may arise following the introduction of a new species, including; disruption of the receiving environment; predation and interspecific competition; overcrowding and stunting; genetic degradation; introduction of parasites and disease; and extinction of many native species [6]. The overview of world capture fisheries production and utilization is displayed in Figure 1. Within the above Motions in mind, this review was focused and centred on the following two pillar objectives, (i) Reviewing the introduction and domestication of fish alien, (ii) Identifying impact of introducing fish alien

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challenge is to identify when these alien or non-indigenous species are bringing about changes that are un favourable to ecosystems, biodiversity, health, economics or other aspects of human welfare [8].

Therefore, the increasing rate and the scale of these movements is rapidly becoming a major focus of ecologists, conservation biologists and resource managers around the world in part due to the fact that the introduction of alien fish or exotic species are causing and may cause further threats to native biodiversity. The globalization and growth in the volume of trade and tourism, coupled with the emphasis on free trade, provide more opportunities for fish species to be spread both deliberately and accidentally [6].

1.2 Reasons for introduction and domestication of alien fish The purposes for which species have been introduced are various. and the motives for which exotic fish species have been moved from country to country changed with time [10].

Mostly, introduction plans list the following five reasons: (1) information and education, (2) establishing a genetic reserve or for artificial propagation, (3) use as a biological control agent, (4) supplement for existing populations, and (5) establish new populations. Concerns and procedures for conducting an introduction varied greatly with its intended purpose.[11]

1.1 Trend in Introduction Until 1989, a total of 1673 introductions concerning 291 species in 148 countries were reported. For the 1990s, there is no accurate information available, however, the following major changes were undoubtedly observed. Easier access to efficient live fish means of transportation (such as liquid oxygen and plastic bags) that led to significant increment of on the number of introductions or re-introductions of commercial new strains [7]. Global trade has enabled modern societies to benefit from the unprecedented movement and establishment of species around the world. Agriculture, forestry, fisheries, the pet trade, the horticultural industry, and many industrial consumers of raw materials today are derived from the species that are native to distant parts of the world. The lives of people everywhere have been greatly enriched by their access to a greater share of the world's biological diversity, and expanding global trade is providing additional opportunities for further such enrichment. But these movements of species by humans was not without negative impacts on ecosystems, and the species of which they are composed, as well as on local economies. One major

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Aquaculture

1.2.2

Recreational Fishing

Exotic species have played an important role in the development of aquaculture. As a result of this trend, nine species accounted for 78% of the total world freshwater fishculture in 1996. These major species for fish-culture have been introduced into countries throughout the world [7].

Increase in aquaculture has brought global consequences, both as a food source and in terms of environmental implications. The development of aquaculture is bound to replace fisheries as animal husbandry replaced hunting on land. This has been released pressure on increasingly scarce freshwater resources used to produce food on land, and stimulate technological developments. These changes modified employment and livelihood patterns of those involved in this industry. The growth in the domestication of marine biodiversity thus represents a fundamental change in the way humans relate to the oceans [9]. Fish are introduced for commercial, Recreational Fishing or sport fishing or for contained use in aquaculture and Mari-culture facilities.

Without proper management procedures and containment facilities, the risk of escape and/or spread may be particularly high in aquatic environments [12].

Source: FAO, 2016 Figure: 1 world capture fisheries production and utilization

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1.2.1

Recreational fishing is defined as fishing of aquatic animals (mainly fish) that do not constitute the individual’s primary resource to meet basic nutritional needs and are not generally sold or otherwise traded on export, domestic or black markets. Recreational fishing constitutes the dominant

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use of wild fish stocks in all freshwaters of industrialized countries, and it is prominent in many coastal ecosystems.

The importance of recreational fisheries is increasing rapidly in many transitional economies [14]. Nevertheless, several factors may explain the lack of attention to recreational fisheries in the consideration of global fishery crises.

Collapses induced by recreational fishing may be difficult to detect [15]

Source: Global Trade in Ornamental Fish, 2016 Figure: 3 Global exports of ornamental fish, 2000 – 2014 (in US$ million)

1.2.4

Source: FAO, 2017 Figure: 2 Number of aliens introduced by the countries

1.2.3

Ornamental

Ornamental fishes really are nature's wonderful creation.

Ornamental fish keeping is the second most preferred hobby in the world and the number of hobbyists for ornamental fish keeping is rising day by day because it provides a great opportunity for entrepreneurship development and income generation [18]. Over 2500 species are involved in the global ornamental fish industry, of which over 60% are of freshwater origin. Although relying largely on captive-bred freshwater fishes, the trade also includes significant numbers of fish and invertebrates collected from the wild. It has been estimated that about 30 freshwater fish species dominate the global market, such as live bearers, neon tetra, angel fish, gold fish, zebra danio and discus. The guppy and neon tetra species alone represent more than 25% of the market by volume and more than 14% by value. Most of them are sourced from developing countries in the tropical and sub-tropical regions [19]

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Biological control

The major aim of biological control is to reduce the rate and the level of eutrophication in an aquatic ecosystem that delivers water for human consumption. In fact, biological control affects the proportion between various aquatic organisms, reducing organisms that prosper in water bodies, and contributes to increase levels of nutrients in water and the fertility of bottom sediments [20]. Grass carp is a practical and economical way to control certain types of pond weeds. Grass carp effectively control submerge weeds with tender, succulent vegetation, such as coon tail and water milfoil. They are, however, ineffective in controlling weeds that have tough, woody vegetation, e.g., water lily and cattail [21].

1.2.5

Accident

Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. For example, numerous marine organisms are transported in ballast water, one being the zebra mussel. Over 200 species have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world. Increasing rates of human travel are providing accelerating opportunities for species to be accidentally transported into areas in which they are not considered native. Damming of the Chu River in Kyrgyzstan provided new habitat for reservoir fish and resulted in higher fish production than in the wild river. On the other hand, diversion of water for irrigation reduced the river's flow downstream where it fed a series of lakes in the desert. As a result, these lakes, formerly rich in fish, are now largely desiccated. The profit from the reservoirs just makes up for losses from the lakes.

Damming of the Himalayan Rivers in India has flooded many spawning grounds of schizothoracines and mahseers (Tor spp) in Pakistan and India, or made it impossible for them to reach spawning grounds [22].

1.3 Example of Asia Tilapias are not native to Asia but have been a significant component of inland fisheries and aquaculture in the region

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for over half a century. They have been introduced into over 90 countries worldwide, with a global distribution second only to common carp. The contribution of tilapias to global aquaculture production has increased over the past three decades with production in 2002 exceeding 1.5 million tonnes with an estimated value of US$1.8 billion. The average annual growth rate in aquaculture and capture fisheries production of tilapias from 1970 to 2002 has been 13.2 percent and 3.5 percent, respectively. In the present context of development, success of a species is determined not only by its contribution to production t, but also by its social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts.

Although tilapia has been associated with adverse environmental impacts, detailed analysis of the literature suggested that other factors, such as overfishing, environmental degradation from land-based activities, and changes in hydrological regime have probably been also more responsible for adverse impacts. It is clear that numerous factors working together can impact biodiversity.

It is also clear that tilapias, as a group of alien species, have made a significant contribution to food production, poverty alleviation and livelihoods support in Asia and the Pacific. In spite of the wide-scale introduction into Asian waters, there is scant explicit evidence to indicate that tilapias have been overly destructive for environment [16].

1.4 Example of Africa Another example of a purposeful introduction gone wrong is the extensive stocking programme that introduced African tilapia (Oreochromis) into Lake Nicaragua in the 1980s. The tilapia found in Lake Nicaragua to be a congenial habitat; the fish were able to grow rapidly, feed on a wide range of plants, fish and other organisms, and form large schools that can migrate long distances. Furthermore, they are maternal mouth brooders, so a single female can colonize a new environment by carrying her young in her mouth. They are also larger than the native species and replace them in territorial conflicts. Even worse, these fish have also proven adaptable to salt water habitats, and may invade Nicaragua's coastal zone as well, adversely affecting otherwise productive marine fisheries and valuable estuarine nursery grounds. The alteration of Lake Nicaragua's ecosystem is likely to have effects on the planktonic community and primary productivity of the entire lake, destroying native fish populations and perhaps leading to unanticipated consequences [12] 1.5 Example of America The mosquito fish is a small, harmless-looking fish native to the fresh waters of the eastern and southern United States. It has become a pest in many waterways around the world following initial introductions early last century as a biological control of mosquito. In general, it is considered to be no more effective than native predators of mosquitoes.

The highly predatory mosquito fish eats the eggs of economically desirable fish and preys on and endangers rare indigenous fish and mosquitofish; male and female pair invertebrate species. Mosquito fish are difficult to eliminate once established, so the best way to reduce their effects is to

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control their further spread. One of the main avenues of spread is continued, intentional release by mosquito-control agencies.[17]

Figure: 4 Mosquitofish; male and female pair

2

Impact of Introducing

Alien species provide a valuable food source and an economic opportunity in both the fisheries and aquaculture sectors globally. However, there are environmental risks associated with the uncontrolled introduction and use of alien species [23] 2.1 Fish Interactions Considering the direct interactions between the introduced and native species, introduced organisms can alter trophic relationships in at least three different ways: First, their presence may significantly increase the amount of prey available to native predators. It is the case in Lake Kootenay (Canada) where introduction of shrimp Mysis relicta entailed a change in the feeding regime of Oncorhynchus nerka, which, as a consequence of its shrimp consumption, proliferated more quickly than Oncorhynchus mykiss, which did not benefit of this introduction [10].

Second, the feeding habits of introduced fish can reduce the amount of natural feed available to native species through a dietary overlap (competition). Competition is not limited to trophic interactions, but includes also such other ecological limiting factors as breeding space. For example, in Russia, a number of fishes, which were accidentally introduced together with Ctenopharyngodon idella, resulted in declines in local species with same feeding regime through superior growth and fecundity. Similar mechanisms have been recorded with native species unable to compete with introduced tilapiines in some Southern States in the USA; with Parachromis managuensis which displaced local predators in El Salvador; with Poecilia reticulata, which induced the decline in numbers of local cyprinodonts in Uganda and in Southwestern USA; and Lepomis auritus, which has supplanted Alburnus in some Italian oligotrophic lakes [7].

The third type of fish interaction is predation, as introduced carnivorous fishes can deeply affect the population dynamics of indigenous prey species. The best-known example is the introduction and spread of Lates niloticus in Lake Victoria.

This predatory fish has possibly led to the extinction of over

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300 species of haplochromine cichlids and is considered by many as a major ecological disaster [1].

2.2 Environment Alterations Compared with direct effects of predation and competition, the effects on environment by naturalized introduced fishes may be subtler. Their consequences can have repercussions on several trophic levels. Aquatic food webs are very complex, particularly in tropical areas, and some attempts were made to modernize their functioning, in order to be able to predict consequences of an exotic fish introduction.

The best known is the cascading trophic interactions model (and subsequent work), which postulates that the biomass of a population is the result of equilibrium between available trophic resources (bottom-up control) and predation exerted (top-down control). So, considering a classical food chain, a rise in piscivore biomass results in decreased fish zooplankter biomass, which in turn allows an increase in large herbivore zooplankton biomass, and decreased phytoplankton biomass [10].

2.3 Habitat Alteration The degradation of natural habitats, ecosystems and agricultural lands (e.g., loss of cover and soil, pollution of land and waterways) that has occurred throughout the world has made it easier for alien species to establish and become invasive. Many aliens invasive are “colonizing” species that benefit from the reduced competition that follows habitat degradation. Global climate change is also a significant factor assisting the spread and establishment of alien invasive species.[24] 2.4 Genetic Deterioration Release of fish into the wild have direct and indirect genetic impacts l. Direct impacts are those initiating changes in gene flow, through hybridization and introgression, and Indirect effects are due to inadequate number of spawns’, either through release of a small number of individuals, or in the indigenous species through ecological processes such as competition, predation, new diseases or parasites. Such genetic effects may lead to a loss of locally adapted populations and genetic diversity [25]. Moreover, the effect of drift on genetic diversity is inversely proportional to effective population size, whereas through domestication, genetic diversity is lost in relation to the genetic nature of the trait and selection intensity. For that reason, if domestication allows improvement in culture, it can also entail a decrease in performances in the wild, as domesticated fish frequently show weaker results than wild ones, in regard to the survival of fingerlings and adults, concealment behavior, swimming stamina, straying and return rates, and susceptibility to diseases [4].

2.5 Introduction of Parasites, Pathogens, and Diseases Non-native species can carry non-native parasites that can infect native populations. One of the most well-known and dangerous fish parasites is the Asian tapeworm (Bothriocephalus opsarichthydis), a pseudophyllaeid cestode that is native to China and the Amur River basin. It is first discovered in the intestines of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). Following the introduction of grass carp from China

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to control aquatic vegetation in the 1970s, this species was found in several native North American fishes and since then has become widespread through infestation of the common carp (Cyprinuscarpio) and its transplantation along with bait fishes and Gambusia spp. used for mosquito control. After infection, Asian tapeworms are potentially fatal to multiple age-classes of fishes either through direct mortality or creating diseases and weakened individuals. In the case of endangered desert fishes of the United States, it is believed that bait introductions of infected non-native red shiners (Notropislutrensis) contributed to the infestation of many native populations [25]. The rapid life cycle and non-host specificity of this parasite allow it to spread very quickly, making it difficult to control. Another non-host specific fish parasite, the rosette agent (Sphaerothecum destruens), can cause high mortalities of European sun bleak (Leucaspius delineatus). This intracellular eukaryotic parasite has a broad temperature tolerance [26]. In Europe, the deliberate introduction of new species can have unexpected negative consequences and shows how recently introduced fish, the invasive Asian cyprinid (Pseudorasbora parva), is causing increased mortality and totally inhibiting spawning in an already endangered native fish, the European cyprinid (Leucaspius delineatus). This threat is caused by an infectious pathogen, a rosette-like intracellular eukaryotic parasite that is a deadly, nonspecific agent. It is probably carried by healthy Asian fish, and could decrease fish biodiversity in Europe, as well as having implications for commercial aquaculture [27].

2.6 Socio-economic Impact Impacts of introduction do not only concern biological and ecological parameters, but might also have direct or indirect socio-economic influence. This could occur when an undesirable introduced species replaces a highly valuable native fish. Where local economies are dependent on the rearing of fish in captivity for human consumption, their financial vulnerability is highly substantial [15]. Introduction of exotic species could have catastrophic socio-economic consequences, particularly the occurrence of new disease or the genetic deterioration of cultured brood stocks. Since aqua culturists are largely dependent on exchanging genetic material of their stock by means of introductions, care needs to be taken to minimize the inherent risks. In this regard, the fishery sector cannot forget the devastating effect of white spot disease which has shown heavy mortality in P. mondon and P. indicus, the two native species of India. As a result of which, huge financial losses accounted to the farmers along with the social impact making many farmers to struggle for food and employment at that time [28]. The Great Lakes Commission estimates that invasive species cost the region $5.7 billion, to remove from the intake pipes of water treatment plants, Zebra mussels alone cost over $1 billion and Sea lamprey can cause up to $20 million in losses due to the large trout they consume, annually [29].

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3. Management of Introduced Fisheries

aquaculture production is also very significant. Economic benefits of introducing an exotic species in aquaculture may outweigh ecological risks. examples are many, such as salmon not being native to Chile has become the most important aquaculture industry with an expected rate of growth of 20% a year, tilapia a native of Africa is doing exceedingly well in China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia, and white leg shrimp from USA has been most successfully cultured in Asian countries almost replacing black tiger shrimp. Similarly, American largemouth black bass and crayfish have become important cultured species in China. Crayfish has become the third most important crustacean grown in China. It is also producing half of the total global production of Giant freshwater prawn a native of South and Southeast Asia, and also of Atlantic Bay scallop than its native country USA (Sinha, personal communication). Finally, maps of conservation hot spots should be drawn based on a combination of predictors of future introductions (e.g., human population density, aquaculture activity) and risk level of incurring losses to local global biodiversity (e.g., number of critically endangered species). This would accelerate prioritization of the areas at national and global levels where risks of future introductions should be minimized, such as those where endemic species are at risk and the intensity of introductions of non-native species has been limited. Consequently, species transfers can also promote some extremely negative environmental impact, some of which are even qualified of ecological disasters, socio-economic and biodiversity issues are important considerations for authorities to check and regulate importation of any alien fishes in the world. Studies on these aspects and particularly on their potential invasiveness are needed.

Most of introductions have been made regardless of the consequences for the ecosystems, as the effect on ecological interactions between species, hybridization with native species, loss of biodiversity, and introduction of new pathogens and diseases among others. However, to avoid or minimize the introducing of disease with fish alien, routine quarantine inspections and exams have been the major method for the prevention of introduction of fellow travellers. Besides these, recommendations has made to reduce/eliminate risks caused by fellow travellers: (i) introduction of fertilized eggs, instead of adults, should be encouraged to reduce the number of potential fellow travellers’; (ii) it is essential to develop high-throughput and effective inspection tools, especially genetic tools based on newly emerged technologies, such as gene probe, microarray, and highly sensitive tools such as pyrosequencing to effectively detect small organisms and low-density populations[30]. Although on genetic deterioration, empirical studies have shown that some aquaculture-mediated hybrids are threatening local environments and biodiversity. There is still a lack of comprehensive programs/systems for risk assessment and sound management of farmed hybrids. The following recommendations should be considered before hybrids are practically adopted and widely farmed. Risk assessment, especially probabilities to breed with parental species and relatives in local surrounding environments, must be carried out, and the results are used to develop species-specific (e.g., based on unique biological, genetic, physiological characteristics of each hybrid and parental species) and case-specific (e.g., intra- or inter-specific hybridization) performance standards [31]. The intentional introduction of exotic species is an extraordinarily complex issue that requires taking into account a broad number of variables.

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Priority may be given to those invasive species that have already been established in the wild on preventing new infestations. Finally, maps of conservation hot spots should be drawn based on a combination of predictors of future introductions (e.g., human population density, aquaculture activity) and risk level of incurring losses to local– global biodiversity (e.g., number of critically endangered species).

This would accelerate prioritization of the areas at national and global levels where risks of future introductions should be minimized, such as those where endemic species are at risk and the intensity of introductions of non-native species has been limited [32].

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4. Conclusion and Recommendation Considering movements of aquatic living organisms in general and of fish species particularly, in terms of both time and space scales, it can be assumed that international species transfers and introductions have resulted in much more beneficial impacts than negative ones. These movements can definitively be considered as efficient tools for increasing protein production, improving human nutrition and generating income and employment. The contribution of introduced and transferred species to global

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