REVIEW OF MICRO PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CONSUMER by IRJET Journal

REVIEW OF MICRO PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNITS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CONSUMER

Sheikh Shadir 1 , Yogini Suraj Yellewar 2

1M.Tech Scholars, EEE department, RSR Bhilai, Chhattisgarh India

2Assistant Professor, EEE department, RSR Bhilai, Chhattisgarh India

***

Abstract - The infrastructure of the power grid has seen a significant change in the last few years, moving from a model of centralized power generation to one that is characterized by distributed generation from multiple small power plants that largely use renewable energy sources. As a result, new protection strategies are required for evolving distribution systems. These strategies must make use of cutting-edge protection devices and sensors, such as digital relays, phasor measurement units(PMUs), smart reclosers,andlinesensors. In order to better understand prosumer applications, this article explores the use of PMUs in smart distribution grids.

Key Words: PMU; Prosumer; Islanding detection; Fault location.

1. INTRODUCTION

MicroPhasorMeasurementUnits(µPMUs)arenowessential partsofcontemporarypowergridsduetodevelopmentsin powersystemmonitoringandcontroltechnologyinrecent years.Byprovidinghigh-resolution,real-timemeasurements of voltage and current phasors at various grid sites, these small devices help utilities and operators improve the stability,dependability,andefficiencyofthegrid.Explaining PMUs from the consumer's point of view is crucial as scholarsandprofessionalscontinuetoexploretheusesand advantagesofthesedevices.Theincreasingpenetrationof distributedrenewablegenerationhasintroducedsignificant uncertainties and randomness to the power distribution network operation [1]. The purpose of this study is to present a thorough overview of PMUs, emphasizing their function, role,and effectsonconsumerswithin thepower gridecosystem.Stakeholderscancomprehendtheimpactof µPMUsongridperformance,resilience,andultimately,the quality of service provided to end users, by gaining an understandingofthemfromtheperspectiveoftheconsumer [2].

Thepaperbeginsbyelucidatingthefundamentalprinciples behind PMUs and their pivotal role in enhancing the observability and stability of electric grids. It then delves into the architecture, functionality, and deployment considerationsofPMUs,highlightingtheirabilitytoprovide synchronized phasor measurements in real-time. Furthermore,thepaperdiscussestheapplicationsofPMUs invariousdomains,includingwide-areamonitoring,control, andprotection,elucidatingtheirtransformativeimpacton

gridoperations.Amathematicaltoolforcharacterizingthe waveformisthephasor.Synchrophasorsaremeasurements made by a PMU of the waveform's amplitude and phase angle in relation to a GPS-synchronized signal [3]. To determinethetransmissiongrid'soperationalcondition,the synchrophasors,whichwerecomputedonthevariousgrid buses,arecorrelatedwithoneanother(figure1).

Since 1985, PMU data with a set of voltage and current measurements have been utilized in state estimation (the processofpredictingtheconditionofthegridonthebasisof available measurements). Decentralized design and distributedcomputingatthesubstationlevelwereusedto developthissystem,whichwasthendividedintomultiple sections(figure2).Basedonthestateoftheboundarynode, thesystemcoordinatesthedifferencesbetweenneighboring systems to produce a uniform outcome. Each system completes its estimate separately. GPS-synchronized measurementsenabletheproceduretobedistributed[4]. Monitoringtheconditionofasizablechunkoftheelectrical grid is one of the primary uses for PMU data. Numerous utilities have created internal technologies to track the dynamicsofthegridinrealtimeandtotriggerwarningsthat anticipate anomalous events in the system following a number of cascading failures in the eastern and western interconnectivityoftheUnitedStates.

2. The Role of the PMU in the Actual Scenario

Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs), which offer real-time synchrophasor measurements of voltage and current throughoutthegrid,havegrowntobeessentialcomponents

Figure1:Combinationofphasorsfromtwogridbus

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in contemporary power systems. Monitoring, control, and protectionofthegridhavebeencompletelytransformedby their ability to accurately measure the phase angle and magnitudeofelectricalquantities.Inthisstudy,weexplore the theory underlying PMUs and clarify their use in realworld grid scenarios, emphasizing their importance in improvingsystemefficiency,stability,anddependability.

Inmodernelectricalgrids,distributionsystemsaremanaged through specially designed Distribution Management Systems(DMS)thatapplycontrolstrategiesusingknowledge of grid states. The Distribution SystemState Estimation (DSSE)inamicrogridenvironmentmustbeverysensitiveto ensure correct communication between the different components;thereforeitisnecessarytocollectdataquickly, reliablyandsafelytoperformcorrectactionsdownstream throughtheuseofPMUs.

One such instance is the RT Dynamic Phasor Monitoring System (RTDMS) from Electric Power Group, which is a synchrophasorsoftwareprogramdesignedtogiveoperators wide-areasituationalawarenessinrealtime.Inadditionto monitoringphaseangledifferences,voltageandfrequency stability,andtinysignalstability,itmayalsosetoffwarnings foranomaloussystemsituations.

PMUs are also used in electrical systems to solve vexing issues related to the protection of transmission lines that havemulti-terminallinecompensation,FlexibleAlternating CurrentTransmissionSystem(FACTS),orseriesinstalled[1, 5]. The availability of data synchronized with the Global Positioning System (GPS) and increasingly efficient communication networks enable the creation of precise differential relays for the protection of transmission lines, therebyimprovingtheprotectionperformanceofthelineby phasor measurements from the ends of the line [6]. Traditionalsystemssimulatedifferentialsystemswithphase comparisons.

operationalconditionisknownasvoltagestability.Voltage stability indices are determined using the PMU data to determine the maximum amount of power that can be deliveredtotheloads.UsingJacobianmatrix-basedorsystem variable-based methods, this data aids in the real-time predictionofpowersysteminstabilityandimprovedcontrol actionstopreventcascadingoutages.

Inadequately damped rotor angle oscillations within a power system can result in instability and potential blackouts. These oscillations within the electrical grid are typicallycategorizedintotwotypes:forcedoscillationsand electromechanicaloscillations.Forcedoscillationscommonly stem from external events rather than inherent system properties, whereas electromechanical oscillations encompass internal plant modes, local plant mode oscillations,interareamodeoscillations,andcontrolmode actions.Ifleftunchecked,theseoscillationscanprecipitate generator failures. Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) data proves invaluable in identifying undammed electromechanical oscillations, thanks to its high sampling rate,andindiscerninglocalcontrolmodeswithinFlexibleAC TransmissionSystem(FACTS)stabilizersystems.

Lastly, the examination of angular oscillations and its evolutionismadepossiblebytheapplicationofPMUs[7].In reality,real-timedatafromPMUscanmakeitmoreaccurate to identify whether an electrical system is approaching instabilityand,ifso,toanticipatewhentodisconnectthegrid inthebestpossiblewaytominimizetheisolatedgridportion andpreventablackout.

With the use of PMUs, it is possible to examine the electrical system's frequency in addition to voltage and current. In fact, a generation loss can be connected to the magnitude of the frequency deviation [8]. Frequency is a crucial indicator of the equilibrium of the load resources. Evenintheaftermathofadisruption,itispossibletoassess theareaoftheelectricalsystemanduncoverlostgeneration thankstothedatatrackedbyPMUs.

Agreatexampleoffrequencymonitoringoverlargegrids is the Frequency monitoring NETwork (FNET), created by Virginia Tech using frequency disturbance recorder (FDR) datafromthethreeinterconnectsinNorthAmerica.Itcanbe more accurate to identify the ends of the island, assess whethergridseparationisnecessarytopreventablackout, and assess whether a power system is approaching an unstableconditionwiththeuseofreal-timedatafromPMUs.

PMUshaverecentlybeenemployedinapplicationsbased onRateofChangeofFrequency(ROCOF)forthreereasons:

The ability of the electrical power system to sustain steady voltages across all system buses in the wake of a disruptioninthepowersuppliedorabsorbedaftertheinitial

 as a result of their ability to undertake quick and highlyreactivemeasurements(signalingattensof framespersecondwithuncertaintyofahundredth ofHz/sinstationarysettingsandafewunitsofHz/s indisturbedconditions)[9].

Figure2:Blockdiagramofphasormeasurementunitin thedistributiongrid.

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 Because these PMUs make it possible to build a distributedmeasurementinfrastructurethatenables synchronous monitoring of the different nodes to estimatethestateofthenetwork.

 At last, we are able to duplicate the outcomes becauseofitssystem[10].

Basedontheresults,thePMUsareagoodsubstitutefor theloadsheddingrelaysinusetodaysincetheyprovide real-time, precise monitoring of both the fundamental frequency and its derivative. The ROC of index’s predictivecapabilityenablesamorepromptandefficient response to transient occurrences, preventing system blackoutsandpromotingloadrecovery[11].

3. Features of the PMU available on the market

The features of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) availableonthemarketcanvarydependingonthespecific manufacturer and model. However, there are several commonfeaturesthataretypicallyfoundinPMUs:

High Sampling Rate: PMUsareknownfortheirabilityto capturesynchronizedmeasurementsofvoltageandcurrent phasorsatveryhighsamplingrates,typicallyrangingfrom1 kHz to several kHz. This high sampling rate enables the accuratecaptureoffast-changinggriddynamics.

GPS Synchronization: PMUs are equipped with GPS receiversforprecisetimesynchronization.Thisensuresthat measurements from multiple PMUs across the grid are accuratelytimestampedandsynchronized,enablingcoherent system-wideanalysis.

Wide-Area Coverage: PMUs are designed to provide wide-area coverage of the power grid, allowing for the monitoringofelectricalquantitiesatvariouslocations,from transmissionsubstationstodistributionnetworks.Thiswidearea coverage enhances grid visibility and enables comprehensivesystemmonitoring.

Real-Time Data Transmission: PMUs are capable of transmitting measurement data in real time to control centers or data repositories for analysis and visualization. Real-timedatatransmissionenablesgridoperatorstomake timelydecisionsandrespondswiftlytogriddisturbances.

Accuracy and Precision: PMUs are engineered to providehighlyaccurateandprecisemeasurementsofvoltage and current phasors. This ensures reliable data for grid analysis,control,andprotectionapplications.

Compatibility and Interoperability:PMUsaredesigned to be compatible with existing grid infrastructure and communication protocols. Interoperability with other monitoring and control devices allows for seamless integrationintogridmanagementsystems.

DataProcessingandAnalysis:ManyPMUsareequipped with onboard data processing capabilities, including algorithms for phasor estimation, frequency tracking, and disturbance detection. Some PMUs also support advanced analyticsandvisualizationtoolsforin-depthgridanalysis.

CybersecurityMeasures:Giventhecriticalnatureofgrid monitoring and control, PMUs often incorporate cyber securitymeasurestoprotectagainstunauthorizedaccessand data tampering. These measures may include encryption, authentication,andsecurecommunicationprotocols.

Scalability: PMUsaredesignedtobescalable,allowing forthedeploymentofmultipleunitsacrossthegridtomeet specific monitoring and control requirements. Scalability ensures flexibility in adapting to evolving grid needs and expansionplans.

The PMU was initially developed by Power Sensors Limited(PSL)withtheUniversityofCaliforniaandLawrence BerkeleyNationalLab(LBNL)in2015.Thepurposewasto addresstheneedfortoolstobetterobserve,understandand initially used for diagnostic applications and control developedinwhichthemainfunctionofthedevicewasto calculate voltage, frequency, and phase at the household voltagelevel.Thisunitoperatesataconsumerlevelvoltage andhasthecapabilitytocaptureonlyonephase

InChina,theinstallationofPMUsontheelectricitygrid has already started since 1995 and nowadays they have installedPMUsonallsubstationsof500kVandabove,some importantsubstationsof220kVandpowerplantsof100MW andaboveforatotalofover3000PMUs.

In America since 2007 PMUs have been introduced by transmission operators, thanks to the North American Syncrophasor Initiative 420 PMUs have been installed in North-East,400PMUsinMidwest,150PMUsinSouth,120 PMUsinTexas,500PMUsinWesternElectricityCoordinating Council (WECC) and at least 300 PMUs in Mexico [2].The resultsofthisinitiativehavealreadydemonstratedthatthese componentsareessentialforcontrollingthepowergrid.

In Brazil, a project began in 2000 for the creation of a system for measuring the power grid through synchro phasorscalledSPMS.

InRussia,thepresenceofaveryextensivenetworkhas allowedtheinstallationofPMUssince2005,andcurrently45 PMUsareinstalledinthemainplantsandsubstationsofthe three models: Smart WAMS (RTSoft, Russia), Regina (ANIGER,Ukraine)andPowerlog(AENEA,Germany).

In Europe in recent years, PMUs have been developed whosemeasurementsareexchangedbetweenTransmission SystemOperators(TSO)forthecalibration ofthedynamic

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models of the system: MIGRATE project (Massive InteGRATionofpowerElectronicdevices)

The global market for syncrophasor is valued at 151.3 million US dollars in 2020 and is expected to reach 708.7 millionUSdollarsbytheendof2026,growingataCAGRof 24.4%during2021-2026.Inthenextfiveyears,theglobal consumptionvolumeofSynchrophasorwillshowafurther upwardtrend,theexpectedconsumptionvolumein2022will be4521units.Particularly,insomeemergingcountries,such asIndiaandBrazilamongothers,theinstallationcapacityof thesynchrophasorwillexhibitanupwardgrowthrateinthe future,duetothenationalpolicyandtheadvantageofPMUs overtoSCADA[12].

The main manufacturers of PMUs are ABB, GE Grid Solutions,andSiemensEnergyandtheglobalaveragesales pricewillbearound$74596/Unitin2022.Themarketisnot onlyinfluencedbythepricebutalsobyproductperformance.

OtherProminentVendorsinthemarketareBEIJINGSIFANG AUTOMATION,Comverge(partofItron),DoubleEngineering Company, Electric Power Group, ERL Phase Power Technologies, Green Mountain Power, Intel, Macro dyne, Power Sensors, Power World, Quanta Technology, and Siemens.

PMUs can be distinguished into two main models, as definedintheIEEEstandard,andnamely-classandP-class.Pclass PMUs are optimized for accuracy in a dynamic environment, while M-class PMUs remain accurate over a widerangeoffrequencies[13].

ThePMUmeasurementaccuracyestimationsystemisthe TotalVectorError(TVE)asapercentage.TVEisafunctionof bothmagnitudeerrorandphaseangleerror.Insteady-state conditions,themaximumallowedTVEis1%.Basedonthe measurementandqualificationstandards,PMUsaresubject tovarioustests,inparticular:

 Measurementbandwidthisevaluatedbyapplyingsine wave amplitude and phase modulation to a set of balancedthree-phasevoltageandcurrentwaveforms. The maximum TVE in the measurement bandwidth testrangeshouldnotexceed3%.ClassPPMUsshallbe ratedintherange0.1Hztolessthan2HzuptoFs/10 (5Hz,whereFsisthePMsignalingfrequency,inthis case50framespersecond);ClassMPMUsareratedat thelowerof5HzandFs/5(10Hz).

 Thelinearrampinthesystemfrequencyisappliedas balancedthree-phaseinputsignals.Forsynchrophasor estimation, to be compliant, a class PMU must maintain 1% TVE over a range of ±2 Hz from the nominalfrequency,andaclassMPMUmustmaintain 1%TVEovertherange±5Hz.

 Phase changes in phase angle and magnitude to determine the response time, delay time, and overshootinthemeasurement.

4. The PMU in

low voltage power systems: the Prosumers

Moderngridsareincreasinglybecomingmicrogridswith inter connected loads and distributed energy resources actingasasinglecontrollableentitywithrespecttothegrid [14]. The operating modes of these microgrids can be essentiallythree:grid-connected,islanded,ormixed-mode operation[15].Grid-connectedmodeisthemainoperating mode;itcanbedividedintotwosubcategories:

 Passive mode: energy is taken from the grid and distributedtolocalloads.Forthegrid,suchbehavior isseenasaconsumer.

 Active mode: the energy produced by Renewable EnergyResources(RES)feedsallthelocalloadsand partoftheenergyfeedsthegrid.Forthegrid,such behaviorisseenasaproducer.

Theislandmodeisaspecialconditionofsuchmicrogrids. In this situation, the internal energy generation of the microgridsfeedsthelocalloadsandthereisnoconnectionto thegrid.Thisoperationisusefulforincreasingthereliability and resilience of the system by powering thecritical loads whenthereareinterruptionsonthenetwork duetofaults [16].

Thedesign,constructionand,operationofsuchemerging distributionsystemsrequirestheintroductionintoelectrical gridsofnewdeviceswithdigitalrelayscombinedwithtimesynchronizedphasormeasurementsystemsthatrepresent boththeamplitudeandphaseangleofsinewavesandthey aretime-syncedtobeexact.PMUmeasurementsallowyouto record the electrical quantities in the various nodes of the gridallowinrealtimemanagementandofflineengineering analysistoimprovethereliabilityandefficiencyofthegrid andreduceoperatingcosts[17].

Micro PMUs with very accurate results can be created more economically, (an order of magnitude), than current commercial PMUs allowing the installation of many more PMUs and providing much higher resolution of the distribution grid. Compared to transmission systems, distribution systems have short line lengths and limited powerflows,henceverysmallphasedifferencesbetweenthe voltage phasor of different buses. PMUs can play an importantroleinthemonitoring,controlandprotectionof distributionsystemsduetothedynamicloadchangingdueto DistributedEnergyResources(DER)[18],phaseanglealso plays an important role in the analysis of distribution systems.

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A. Fault location

Fault finding in the Distribution Grid (DG) has been performedwithanalysisbasedsolelyonvoltage[15],with faultcurrentbasedmethods,impedance-basedmethods[19], traveling wave-based methods and signal injection techniques,buttheyallhavelimitationsinnetworkswiththe presenceofRES[20].PMUscanbeveryusefulforlocatingand detectingfaultsinthedistributionsystemduetotheirhigh speed and time-synchronized phasor measurements. The methodproposedin[21],forexample,correctlyidentifiesthe faultedlineregardlessoftheconnectionoftheneutral,the typeoffault,thefaultimpedance,andthepositionofthefault alongtheline.

B. Islanding detection

Two types of islands can occur within a microgrid: intentionalandunintentional.ThefirstisrequiredbytheDSO andisnecessaryforgridmaintenance.Thesecondoccursdue tofaultconditions,inthiscase,duetomanagementsafety.In microgrids it, therefore, becomes important to be able to identify the island state of the grid [22]. The methods for detectingtheislandinadistributedsystemwithREScanbe classifiedintothreecategories:activemethodswhichinclude theactivefrequencydriftmethodandthephaseshiftmethod, passive methods which include over/under voltage, over/underfrequency,andcommunicationbasedmethods suchaspowerlinesignalingbasedscheme[23].

C. Load shedding scheme

A majorconcern relatedtoDG is the impact onsystem stabilityduetotheinteractionbetweengeneratorsandload characteristics. Furthermore, load dynamics are also changing due to the increase in the number of electric vehiclesandinverter-basedloads.Therefore,accurateload modelingisrequiredforsystemanalysisandoperations.In the management of micro-grids it is important to have a generationadaptiveload,thereforeoneoftheapplicationsof PMU isfortheimplementation ofa loadsheddingscheme. This methodology allows maintaining the stability of the feedingsystem.Newloadsheddingtechniquesarebasedon frequencyandrateoffrequencychangeleadingtoabetter understandingandestimationofloadtobeshedtoimprove accuracy. Tothisend,PMUsareusedtomeasurereal-time synchronized phasor data to improve system event and disturbanceanalysis.

D. Power Quality monitoring

Although the PMU provides positive sequence voltage phasordataatarateof50/60samplespersecond,whilethe powerquality(PQ)monitorprovidesinstantaneousvoltage dataatamuchhigherrateontheorderofabouttenkHz,the errorsrelatingtovoltagedipsarecontainedintheorderof 5%. Thus, PMU provides relatively accurate results in the minimumpositive-sequencevoltagemagnitudeinformation.

The increasing penetration of solid-state powertransformingdevicessuchasinvertersandrectifiersintothe distributionsystemleadstopowerqualityproblemssuchas harmonics[24].Theseharmonicsmustbeidentifiedcorrectly to maintain power quality for residential and industrial customers. One technique for measuring harmonic synchrophasorsinadistributionsysteminvolvestheuseof high-precisionGPSreceiversandgeneralpurposeacquisition hardwareformeasurementpurposes.

6. Advantages in adopting PMU in low voltage

systems

In low voltage distribution systems, the relationships betweenvoltagequantities,angles,andpowerflowsareless approximate than in transmission lines; furthermore, in distribution systems the phase unbalance cannot be neglected, complicating the study of power flows [25]. As explained in the previous paragraphs, PMUs have been adoptedforalongtimeinthesupervisionandprotectionof transmissionsystems;inparticularonwideareamonitoring systems (WAMS), however, they do not find a great applicationindistributionsystems.Furthermore,theuseof synchrophasors in distribution grids in valves further difficultiesrelatedto:

 Smallanglesofdifferenceonthedistributionlinesof theorderoftenthsofadegree;

 The presence of noise in themeasurements of the distributioncircuits,linkedbothtotherandomness of the loads and to the presence of a greater harmonicspectrumcausedbythegreatdiffusionof electronicconverters;

 The costs of the PMUs if referred to transmission systemsarereducedthankstothesizeofthesystem, whileindistributionsystemsduetotheproximityof thenodestheyincrease;

 The adoption of a low-cost, very efficient and reliablemonitoreddatacommunicationsystem.

Indistributionsystems,therefore,differentapplications havebeendevelopedcalledD-PMUsormicroPMUs which have better performance in terms of resolution and measurementprecisionandalowerconstructioncostthan thePMUsusedintransmissionsystems[25].Furthermore, thegreaterinterestintheanalysisofthedistributionsystem with the increasing penetration of distributed production fromRESandtheopeningoftheliberalizedenergymarkets contributetothestudyandresearchofPMUs.

7. Conclusion

PMUapplicationsstillfacemanychallengesindistribution systems,suchasinadequatephasormeasurementaccuracy andthelackofacommunicationnetworkinfrastructurethat can supporta large number of sensors and actuators with

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different technologies, but also advanced and persistent cyber threats facing critical infrastructures such as the intelligentgridarealsoexponentiallyincreasingandrequire asophisticateddefensestrategy.

In addition to RES and electrical energy storage, active loadssuchasdemand-responsiveloadsandelectricvehicles willalsoincrease.Allthesefactorsintroducenewchallenges in the operation, planning, protection and control of distributiongrids.

The communication systems used and the PMU calculationalgorithmwillhavetofacethegrowingchallenges of modern networks; therefore they will have to be increasinglyrobustandreliable.

This article presents are view of the phasor unit of measurementappliedtodistributiongridsthatwillradically change in this decade. Above all attention was given to its working principle and the various applications in this context. For detailed analysis, the appropriate references havebeencited.

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