International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
A Comprehensive Comparison of Conventional and Additive Manufacturing in Jet Turbine Blade Production and Repair
Anasuri Chanikya, Design Engineer
Venkatareddy Chimalamarri, Senior Manager
Cyient Ltd ***
Abstract - Turbine blades are vitalinjet engines, enduring extreme temperatures, stress, and rotational speeds. Traditionally,conventionalmanufacturing(CM)methodslike casting,forging,andmachininghavebeenusedforproduction and repair. However, additive manufacturing (AM) offers greater design flexibility, reduced waste, and faster repairs. This paper compares CM and AM in jet turbine blade production and repair, highlighting AM's advantages in creating complex geometries and enabling rapid, localized repairs. While CM remains dominant for large-scale production due to its reliability and cost efficiency, AM shows strong potential for low-volume, high-complexity aerospace applications. The study underscores the need for further AM materialadvancements, certificationstandards, andbroader industry adoption.
Key Words: Turbine blades, jet engines, conventional manufacturing, additive manufacturing, casting, forging, machining, design flexibility, reduced waste, rapid repair, complex geometries, aerospace applications
1.INTRODUCTION
Turbine blades are critical components in the aerospace industry, particularly in jet engines, where they operate under extreme temperatures, pressure, and mechanical stress.Theirperformancedirectlyaffectsengineefficiency, reliability,andfuelconsumption(Kollu,1).Therefore,turbine blades must be manufactured with exceptional precision, durability,andmaterialintegritytoensuresafeandefficient flightoperations(Sińczaketal.,2).Traditionally,jetturbine blades have been produced using conventional manufacturing (CM) methods such as casting, forging, and machining. While reliable, these techniques often result in high material waste, longer production times, and limited design flexibility (Sun et al., 3; Wang et al., 4). Repairing damagedbladeswithCMprocesses,includingweldingand brazing,islabour-intensiveandcostly,especiallyforlocalized repairs(Briceetal.,12).
Inrecentyears,additivemanufacturing(AM)hasemergedas a transformative technology in aerospace production and repair.AM,or3Dprinting,enablesthefabricationofcomplex geometries,reducesmaterialwaste,andacceleratesrepair processes(DebRoyetal.,6).TechniquessuchasPowderBed
Fusion (PBF) and Directed Energy Deposition (DED) are increasingly used for both blade production and repair, offering greater precision, design flexibility, and repair efficiency(Thompsonetal.,5;Gongetal.,7).
2. CONVENTIONAL MANUFACTURING OF TURBINE BLADES
Conventionalmanufacturinginvolvesestablishedtechniques likecasting,forging,andmachiningtoshapematerialsinto finishedcomponents.Thesemethodsarewidelyusedacross industries for their reliability, scalability, and ability to producehigh-performanceparts.Despiteadvancementsin additive manufacturing, conventional techniques remain essential, especially in aerospace applications. Jet engine turbinebladesoperateunderextremeconditions,requiring precise manufacturing for durability and efficiency. Conventional methods such as casting, forging, and machiningofferspecificadvantagesinmaterialproperties, geometriccomplexity,andproductionefficiency.Thissection examines these key processes in aerospace turbine blade manufacturing.
2.1 Casting
Castingisaformativemanufacturingprocesswheremolten metalispouredintopre-formedmolds,allowingittosolidify into the desired shape. This method is widely used for jet turbinebladeproductionduetoitsabilitytocreatenear-net shapesinlargevolumes.Itisparticularlyadvantageousfor producingcomplex bladegeometries with internal cooling channels that are essential for withstanding high temperaturesandmechanicalstressesinsidejetengines.
Process Steps:
Wax Model Creation: The process begins with the creation of a wax model, which represents the turbinebladeshape.Thewaxmodelisinjectedinto a master mold to form the cooling passages by surrounding ceramic cores. Pinning wires are insertedtosecuretheceramiccorethroughoutthe process(Kollu,1).
MoldPreparation:Thewaxmodelsareassembled intoclusters,andmultiplelayersofceramicslurries (alumina,silica,zirconium)areappliedtoformthe
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
investmentshell.Themodelisthenheatedtomelt awaythewax,leavingtheceramiccoreintact.
MetalPouring:Themoldispreheatedandplacedin avacuumchamber.Moltenmetal,oftenanickel-or cobalt-based superalloy, is poured into the mold cavityataround1500°Ctocreatethebladeshape.
Solidification: The cooling process is meticulously controlled to create precise microstructures. The solidification technique determines the grain structure, which significantly impacts the blade's performanceandlongevity(Kollu,1).
Post-Processing: Once solidified, the investment shellisbrokenoffandtheceramiccoreischemically dissolved. The blade undergoes heat treatment, machining, and polishing to achieve the desired surfacefinishanddimensionalaccuracy.
Key Characteristics for Jet Turbine Blades:
Material Compatibility:Casting iscompatible with high-performance superalloys such as Inconel, Hastelloy,andtitaniumalloys,whicharecommonly used for jet turbine blades due to their thermal stabilityandmechanicalstrength(Kollu,1).
Grain Structure Control: Advanced casting techniques,includingdirectionalsolidification(DS) andsingle-crystal(SC)casting,areusedtoproduce highlydurable,heat-resistantjetturbinebladeswith superiorcreepresistance.Thesetechniquesenhance the blade's resistance to thermal fatigue and operationalstress.
CoolingChannelIntegration:Theinvestmentcasting processallowsfortheformationofcomplexinternal cooling channels, which improves the thermal efficiencyoftheturbinebladesbyenablinginternal airflow for cooling. This feature is critical for enhancingengineperformanceandextendingblade lifespan(Kollu,1).
2.2 Forging
Forgingisaformativemanufacturingprocesswheremetalis heated and shaped using compressive forces, resulting in turbine blades with superior mechanical properties. This methodisfavoredinjetturbinebladeproductionduetoits abilitytocreatestrong,dense,anddefect-freecomponents withexcellentfatigueandcreepresistance.
Process Steps:
Heating the Metal: The raw material, typically a nickel-based superalloy, is heated to a high temperature(around 980°C) to make it malleable andeasiertoshape(Sińczaketal.,2).
Deformation: The heated metal is subjected to compressiveforcesusinghammers,presses,ordies. Theforgingprocessshapesthebladewhilerefining
itsinternalgrainstructureforimprovedmechanical properties(Sińczaketal.,2).
Cooling and Heat Treatment: The forged blade is cooledundercontrolledconditions.Itmayundergo further heat treatment to enhance its strength, fatigueresistance,andcreepproperties(Sińczaket al.,2).
Post-Machining: Additional CNC machining or grinding is performed to achieve the final dimensions and surface finish, ensuring precision anduniformity(Sińczaketal.,2)
Key Characteristics for Jet Turbine Blades:
EnhancedMechanicalProperties:Forgingproduces bladeswithfinergrainstructures,enhancingtheir strength,fatigueresistance,andcreepresistance qualitiescriticalforjetengineperformance(Sińczak etal.,2).
MaterialEfficiency:Comparedtomachining,forging generates less material waste. However, some materiallossoccursduetotrimmingandfinishing processes(Sińczaketal.,2).
Dimensional Limitations: While forging ensures excellent mechanical performance, it offers less designflexibility,makingitmoresuitableforsimpler jet turbine blade geometries. Complex cooling channelsandintricatefeaturesarehardertoachieve withforgingalone(Sińczaketal.,2).
2.3 Machining
CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machining is a subtractive manufacturing process that involves cutting, drilling, and shaping jet turbine blades from metal blocks. Thismethodiswidelyusedinaerospacemanufacturingfor fine-tuningandfinishingblades,ensuringprecisedimensions andsurfacequality.
Process Steps:
RawMaterialSelection:Theprocessbeginswiththe selectionofasolidblockofnickel-basedsuperalloy, suchasInconelorHastelloy,knownfortheirhightemperaturestrengthandcorrosionresistance.
CNC Programming: The machining operations are controlledbyCNCprogramming,whichensureshigh precision and repeatability by automating tool movementsandcuttingpaths.
MaterialRemoval:Usingmulti-axisCNCmachines, blades are shaped through milling, turning, and grindingoperations.Advancedmachiningstrategies, such as high-speed milling (HSM) and adaptive roughing, are employed to optimize the material removalratewhilepreservingsurfaceintegrity(Sun etal.,3).
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
Finishing and Inspection: The blade undergoes surfacefinishing,polishing,andqualityinspectionto meet aerospace standards. Post-processing steps, suchasdeburringandedgerounding,areperformed to enhance surface smoothness and reduce stress concentrationpoints.
Key Characteristics for Jet Turbine Blades:
HighPrecisionandAccuracy:CNCmachiningoffers exceptionalaccuracyandconsistency,enablingthe production of intricate geometries and tight tolerancesessentialforjetturbineblades.Advanced tool path strategies, such as trochoidal milling, improveprecisionandextendtoollifebyreducing toolwear(Sunetal.,3).
Surface Quality and Finish: Wang et al. (2021) highlight the importance of surface integrity in aerospacecomponents,notingthatCNCmachining canachievesurfaceroughnessvaluesaslowas0.4 µm, which is essential for reducing aerodynamic drag and improving blade performance (Wang et al.,4).
MaterialWaste:Unlikecastingorforging,machining is inherently wasteful, as large portions of the material are cut away. This reduces material efficiencyandincreasesproductioncosts.
Time-Consuming:CNCmachiningisarelativelyslow process,makingitlessefficientformassproduction. However,itishighlyeffectiveforcreatingcomplex, high-precisionbladecomponents.
ToolWearandThermalEffects:High-speedcutting of nickel superalloys generates significant heat, leading to tool wear and surface hardening. To mitigate this, cutting fluids and advanced cooling techniques,suchasminimumquantitylubrication (MQL),areemployedtoenhancetoollifeandsurface quality(Wangetal.,4).
CNC machining is particularly valuable for producing prototype blades or fine-tuning components that require extremedimensionalaccuracyinjetengines.Itisoftenused as a finishing step after casting or forging to achieve the desiredsurfacequalityandtolerances(Sunetal.,Wangetal., 3,4).
3.OVERVIEW OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGIES
AdditiveManufacturing(AM)isacutting-edge,layer-bylayer fabrication process that enables the production of highly complex and customized jet turbine blades with minimal materialwaste.Unlikeconventionalmanufacturingmethods, whichofteninvolveextensivematerialremovalorreshaping, AMbuildscomponentsdirectlyfromdigitalmodels,offering significant design freedom and efficiency. In aerospace
applications, AM is revolutionizing jet turbine blade productionandrepairbyenablingthefabricationofintricate geometries, integrating internal cooling channels, and reducingleadtimes.TheprimaryAMtechniquesusedinjet turbineblademanufacturingandrepairarediscussedbelow:
3.1 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF)
PowderBedFusion(PBF)isawidelyusedAMtechnologyfor manufacturing high-precision, complex blade geometries with superior mechanical properties, including jet turbine blades.Itinvolvesthelayer-by-layermeltingorsinteringof metal powders using a heat source, typically a laser or electronbeam.
Types of PBF Techniques:
SelectiveLaserMelting(SLM):Usesahigh-powered lasertofullymeltmetalpowder,creatingstrongand dense jet turbine blades. PBF-SLM offers superior materialpropertiesandfinesurfacefinishes,making it ideal for aerospace applications (Thompson et al.,5).
ElectronBeamMelting(EBM):Utilizesanelectron beam in a vacuum environment to melt and fuse metalpowder,producingpartswithlowerresidual stress and improved material properties. EBM is particularly suited for high-strength superalloys, suchasTi-6Al-4VandInconel718,commonlyused injetengines(DebRoyetal.,6).
SelectiveLaserSintering(SLS):Employsalaserto partiallyfusemetalpowderparticles,resultingina porous structure. While not as strong as SLM, it offersfasterprocessingforprototypeapplications (Gongetal.,7).
Key Characteristics for Jet Turbine Blades:
Material Options: PBF is compatible with highperformancealloyssuchasInconel718,Inconel625, and Ti-6Al-4V, which are commonly used in jet turbinesduetotheirheatandcorrosionresistance (DebRoyetal.,6).
PrecisionandComplexity:PBFenablesthecreation ofintricateinternal coolingchannelsandcomplex aerodynamicshapesthatarechallengingimpossible to achieve with conventional manufacturing methods(Zhaoetal.,8).
Post-Processing: PBF-produced jet turbine blades oftenrequireheattreatment,surfacepolishing,and machining to achieve the desired mechanical properties and surface finish. Post-processing is necessarytoimprovefatigueresistanceandreduce surface roughness, which affects the aerodynamic performanceofjetturbineblades(Levyetal.,9).
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
3.2 Directed Energy Deposition (DED)
DirectedEnergyDeposition(DED):AnAMprocessusedfor jetturbinebladeproductionandrepair,involvingtheprecise layer-by-layer deposition ofmetal powder or wire using a concentratedenergysource(laser,electronbeam,orplasma arc).Itoffershighdepositionrates,precision,andscalability forbothmanufacturingandlocalizedrepairs.
Types of DED Techniques:
Laser-Based DED: Uses a laser as the heat source, offering high precision and minimal heat-affected zones. This is ideal for localized jet turbine blade repairs, such as fixing edge cracks or worn areas. Laser-based DED enables near-net-shape repairs withreducedthermaldistortion(Wuetal.,10).
ElectronBeamDED:Utilizesanelectronbeamina vacuumtomeltmetalpowderorwire,resultingin partswithimprovedmaterialdensityandreduced residualstress.Thistechniqueissuitableforlargescaleturbinebladerepairduetoitshighdeposition rate(Tammas-Williamsetal.,11).
PlasmaArcDED:Employsaplasmaarcastheheat source,suitableforlarger-scaledepositionbutwith lower precision compared to laser-based DED. PlasmaarcDEDoffersahighdepositionrate,making it effective for rapid repairs of large jet turbine blades(Gongetal.,7).
Key Characteristics for Jet Turbine Blades:
LocalizedRepairCapabilities:DEDiswidelyusedfor repairingdamagedjetturbineblades,asitenables precise material deposition in worn or cracked areas, reducing the need for complete part replacement. This enhances cost-efficiency and extendsbladelifespan(Tammas-Williamsetal.,11).
Material Options: DED supports a variety of highperformancealloysandoffersflexibilityinmaterial selection,allowingformulti-materialdepositionto enhance specific blade properties. For example, differentalloyscanbedepositedinhigh-wearand low-wear regions to optimize durability and performance(DebRoyetal.,6).
DepositionRateandScalability:DEDoffersafaster build rate than PBF, making it suitable for largerscalebladerepairsorpartreinforcement.Thehigher depositionratemakesDEDmorecost-effectivefor restoring worn turbine blades in aerospace maintenanceapplications(Wuetal.,10).
4. COMPARATIVE STUDY
The production and repair of turbine blades are crucial processes in the aviation industries, requiring precision, durability,andefficiency.Thissectionpresentsacomparative analysis between conventional manufacturing (CM) and additivemanufacturing(AM)basedonthefollowingfactors:
Table -1: ComparisonTable
Factor
Conventional Manufacturing (CM)
1. Production Speed and Efficiency
Production Time
LeadTime
BatchEfficiency
Additive Manufacturing (AM)
Time-consuming, multi-step processes(casting, forging,machining) [1,2].
Longerduetomold prep, forging dies, and machining [1, 3].
More efficient for large-scale, reusablemolds[2].
2. Design Flexibility and Complexity
Process Automation
Geometric Complexity
Design Modifications
Internal Features
Partially automated; needs manual postprocessing[2,4].
Limited by tooling/mold constraints[1,3].
Faster cycles, reduced setuptime[5,6].
Shorter(days/weeks)via direct digital fabrication [6].
Better for small-batch, customproduction[5,7].
Highly automated, minimalmanualsteps[5].
Enables complex geometries (e.g., cooling channels)[6,7].
Costlyretoolingfor changes[2]. EasyCADupdatesenable rapidmodifications[6].
Difficult, costly internal channels [3].
Easilyproducescomplex internal features in one step[7,10].
3. Material Properties and Performance
Customization
MaterialDensity
Mechanical Strength
Thermal Stability
Limited,expensive foruniquedesigns [1].
High density and consistency[2,4].
Superior tensile and fatigue strength[3,4].
Excellent, especially singlecrystalcastings[3].
Highly customizable; ideal for small-batch production[5,7].
Slightly lower density; mayneedpost-processing [8,10].
Anisotropic properties; weaker along some directions[7,8].
Improving, but still lags castings[8,11].
International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology (IRJET) e-ISSN: 2395-0056
Volume: 12 Issue: 04 | Apr 2025 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072
4. Cost and Economic Viability
SurfaceFinish
Initial Investment
MaterialCosts
LaborCosts
Smoother, less post-processing required[3,4].
Lower, uses standard equipment[2].
Higher waste, raising expenses [1,3].
Requires skilled labor[2].
Rougher; needs polishing/machining [5, 6].
Higher due to AM machine and software costs[6,9].
Less waste, reducing costs[7,9].
Lowerduetoautomation [6,7].
5. Repair Capabilities and Turnaround Time
Overall Cost Efficiency
Repair Techniques
RepairQuality
Turnaround Time
Better for mass production[2].
Welding, brazing; material removal required[3].
Less precise; reduces blade lifespan[2,3].
Longer due to complex removal processes[3,4].
Better for smallbatch/customproduction [6].
Localized AM repairs restoregeometrydirectly [7,10].
Restores geometry with minimalmaterialloss[5, 7].
Faster, reducing engine downtime[6,9].
6. Environmental Impact and Sustainability
CostofRepair
MaterialWaste
Energy Consumption
Emissions
Higher due to complexprocesses [3,4].
High waste from machining[1,2].
Higher for largescale operations [3].
Higher due to material processing[1,2].
Lower with direct material restoration [7, 10].
Minimal waste, better efficiency[6,7].
Lowerforsmall-batchAM [5,9].
Lower due to reduced waste[7,9].
Additivemanufacturing(AM)offersfasterproductioncycles andshorterleadtimes,makingitidealforsmall-batchand complexproduction,whileconventionalmanufacturing(CM) remainssuperiorforlarge-scalebatchproductionduetoits efficiencyandcost-effectiveness.AMenablesgreaterdesign flexibility,creatingcomplexgeometriesandinternalcooling channels, which CM struggles to achieve due to mold and toolingconstraints.CMprovidesbettermaterialconsistency, density, and strength, making it more reliable for highperformanceapplications.However,AMisimproving,though itstilllagsinmaterialstrengthandsurfacefinish.Forrepairs, AM offers precise, localized fixes with faster turnaround times, reducing engine downtime. In contrast, CM repair methodslikeweldingareslower,lessprecise,andcostlier.AM
isalsomoresustainable,generatinglessmaterialwasteand consuminglessenergy,whileCMremainslesseco-friendly duetoitsresource-intensiveprocesses.
5. CASE STUDIES
To reinforce the theoretical comparison, this section presentsreal-worldcasestudiesdemonstratingthepractical application of Conventional Manufacturing (CM) and Additive Manufacturing (AM) in turbine blade production and repair. Each case study highlights the techniques, outcomes,andindustryimplications.
Case Study 1: Additive Manufacturing for Rapid Turbine Blade Repair – General Electric (GE)
Company:GeneralElectric(GE)Aviation,Cincinnati, USA
Objective: GE aimed to reduce the repair time for damagedturbinebladesinjetenginesbyusingAM for localized repairs. The goal was to extend the lifespan of worn blades and minimize engine downtime.
Process Details: GE employed directed energy deposition (DED) with laser melting to restore worn-outturbinebladesbyapplyinganickel-based superalloy powder in precise layers, effectively reconstructing the original geometry. Following deposition, the blades underwent heat treatment and surface machining to ensure they met dimensionalandperformancestandards
Outcomes: AM significantly reduced repair time from several weeks to a few days, minimizing enginedowntime,whilealsoloweringrepaircosts by 40% compared to conventional welding and machining. The restored blades maintained mechanicalpropertiescomparabletotheoriginals. However, surface roughness required additional finishing, and the process may not be suitable for severelydamagedblade
Industry Implications: AM provides localized and cost-effective repairs, offering a faster and more economicalsolution,particularlyforsmall-scaleand customized restorations. The success of this applicationhascontributedtothegrowingadoption of AM in aerospace maintenance and repair operations.(GeneralElectric,16)
Case Study 2: Additive Manufacturing for Blade Production – MTU Aero Engines
Company: MTU Aero Engines, Munich, Germany
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Objective:MTUAeroEnginesaimedtoproduce fully functional turbine blades with reduced lead times, minimal material waste, and improved performance through complex geometricdesigns.
ProcessDetails:Powderbedfusion(PBF)using selective laser melting (SLM) was used to fabricate turbine blades from nickel-based superalloypowder,enablingprecise,layer-bylayer construction. The design incorporated complexinternal coolingchannels,improving thermal efficiency and performance. After fabrication, the blades underwent heat treatment, surface finishing, and nondestructive testing (NDT) to ensure they met dimensionalandperformancestandards.
Outcomes: Additive manufacturing reduced lead time by up to 90% compared to conventional methods. The ability to create intricate cooling channel designs improved thermalmanagementandbladeefficiency.Cost efficiencywasachievedthroughlowermaterial waste and faster production cycles, although high initial setup costs remained a challenge. Limitationsincludedthesignificantinvestment requiredforAMmachinesandinfrastructure, as well as the need for extensive postprocessing to achieve the desired surface quality.
Industry Implications: AM enables the production of complex, high-performance jet turbineblades,enhancingdesignflexibilityand driving its adoption in aerospace manufacturing.Thesuccessofthisapplication hasencouragedabroadershifttowardAMfor both prototyping and functional blade production.(MTUAeroEngines,17).
Case Study 3: Hybrid Manufacturing for Turbine Blade Repair – Rolls-Royce
Company: Rolls -Royce, Derby, UK. TechniqueUsed:Hybridmanufacturing(CM+ AM)–Machining+directedenergydeposition (DED)
Objective: Rolls-Royce aimed to combine CM and AM techniques to achieve efficient, highquality turbine blade repairs with reduced costsandturnaroundtime.
Process Details: The hybrid technique combined conventional machining to remove damaged sections with directed energy deposition(DED)usinglasermeltingtorestore
worn areas with new material. Nickel-based superalloys, commonly used in aerospace turbine blades, were employed for repairs. Post-processing included heat treatment, grinding,andpolishingtomeetOEMstandards.
Outcomes:Thehybridprocessreducedrepair time by 50% compared to conventional methods, while the combination of CM for materialremovalandAMformaterialaddition led to 30% lower repair costs. The repaired bladesmetoriginal specificationsinstrength, durability,andthermalperformance.However, the process required significant postprocessingandhadlimitedscalabilityforlargescalerepairapplications.
Industry Implications: Emerging hybrid solutions that combine conventional manufacturingandadditivemanufacturingare proving to be practical and cost-effective alternatives for turbine blade repairs. These methodsenhancerepairqualitywhilereducing costsandturnaroundtimes.(Rolls-Royce,18).
6. CONCLUSIONS
ThecomparisonbetweenConventionalManufacturing(CM) and Additive Manufacturing (AM) in turbine blade productionandrepairhighlightstheirdistinctstrengths.CM remainsthepreferredmethodforlarge-scaleproductiondue toitsreliability,materialconsistency,andcost-effectiveness. Meanwhile, AM is transforming the industry with greater design flexibility, faster repair cycles, and sustainability benefits. The future of turbine blade manufacturing is graduallyshiftingtowardsAM,especiallyforcustom,lowvolume production and on-demand repairs. However, CM will remain essential for large-scale, high-strength production.AsAMtechnologiesadvance,theyareexpected to rival CM in material properties and scalability. Moving forward,hybridapproachescombiningCMandAMarelikely tobecomeindustrystandards,offeringanoptimalbalanceof efficiency,quality,andcost-effectiveness.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetoVenkatareddy Chimalamarri, Senior Manager – Division, Aero & Defense DeliveryatCyient,forhisinvaluablesupportandguidance throughout the course of this research. I also extend my appreciation to Cyient for their assistance and resources, whichwereinstrumentalinthesuccessfulcompletionand publicationofthispaper.
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